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State Board of Agriculture
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Bisten
PREPARING FOR PUBLICATION
THE BOOK OF FARM-BUILDINGS
THEIR ARRANGEMENT AND CONSTRUCTION
BY
HENRY STEPHENS, F.R. S. E.
"
AUTHOR OF THE BOOK OF THE FARM
"
AND
ROBERT SCOTT BURN
ENGINEER
In One Volume, Royal Octavo, uniform with the "Book of the Farm," and
the "Book of Farm Implements and Machines"
ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS PLATES & WOOD ENGRAVINGS
THE
HE object of this Work is to indicate, in the most distinct
manner, that arrangement of the Apartments in Farm-
Steadings best adapted for each of the methods of Farming prac-
tised in the kingdom. It may surprise those unacquainted with
Agriculture to learn that there are various modes of Farming.
There are not fewer than Five distinct systems of Farming pursued
in this country. In view, then, of this variety in modes of prac-
tice, it will be obvious that no single arrangement, however
apparently complete and well conceived, can meet the require-
ments of all circumstances of practice, or be calculated to secure
the strictest economy of labour. As the manufactures of wool,
cotton, silk, or flax, require arrangements of premises suited to
the peculiarities of the material to be operated upon, so in like
2
rospectus.
Pro
manner do the peculiarities of "dairy," "pastoral," or of "mixed"
husbandry, demand arrangements calculated to aid their practice.
A very slight consideration indeed of this subject will suffice to
show that the accommodation required on a farm solely devoted
to the rearing of live-stock, should not be the same as that required
for one which is cultivated entirely for the raising of corn.
But although the arrangement of the Apartments of Steadings
should vary in accordance with the kind of Farming, yet every
arrangement suited to the various modes of Farming may be
founded upon such a General Principle as shall insure the greatest
convenience and economy in the use of each arrangement.
The Authors are quite aware of the difficult task they have
undertaken in order to attain the important object they have thus
enunciated; but, nevertheless, they flatter themselves that the
object has been attained in this Work, and that for the first time by
any writer who has hitherto attempted to illustrate Farm-Buildings.
Without pledging themselves to any specific amount of matter,
the Authors may be permitted the statement that, in addition to
Plans expressly prepared to working scale, to elucidate the “Prin-
ciple" of arrangement of Steadings suited to all varieties of Farm-
ing, and to ample working details of construction and fittings of
apartments, it is proposed to give such Plans of Farm-Houses,
and of Bailiffs' and Labourers' Cottages, as shall exhibit details
of convenient arrangements and fittings. The construction of
Bridges, Embankments, Culverts, Dams, &c. those " outlying
buildings" of the Farm-will also receive due attention. It is
thus the aim of the Authors to make the work a trustworthy and
practically useful authority in all matters connected with the
Buildings of the Farm.
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
THE BOOK
OF
FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES
Maks. St. Bil of Aquiulture
THE BOOKState House
Besten
OF
FARM IMPLEMENTS & MACHINES
BY
JAMES SLIGHT AND R. SCOTT BURN
ENGINEERS
EDITED BY
F.R.S.E.
HENRY STEPHENS, F.R. S. E.
AUTHOR OF THE “BOOK OF THE FARM," ETC.
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS
EDINBURGH AND LONDON
MDCCCLVIII
The Right of Translation is reserved.
نیا انکه بهان
Library
Massachusetts Elate niseje
=
PREFACE.
By the time a Second Edition of the Book of the Farm was demanded,
a great prospective advance in theoretical agriculture was propounded
by chemists, at the head of whom stood the eminent Liebig. The
proposition was to explain the rationale of agricultural practice on
scientific principles, and to establish it for the future upon a foun-
dation of true philosophy, instead of the empiricism by which it had
hitherto been upheld. Like every new and unexpected proposal,
the aid of chemistry to agriculture, promising such great results,
excited ardent expectations, and was hailed with particular favour by
agriculturists at a period when their interests were likely to be injured
by foreign competition; and although, after some experience, the
results have, unfortunately, not been so decidedly beneficial as was at
first anticipated, enough has been demonstrated by the returns of the
field to convince the agricultural community that their art, in order to
reach its utmost importance, must, for the time to come, be based upon
the suggestions of chemistry. At once many of the practical results
of farming were satisfactorily explained by the action of chemical
laws, while the composition of vegetable and animal products was
soon made known to the farmer, as were also the direct effects of
special substances upon growing crops and fattening animals, so that
a large number of valuable facts were speedily collected as data for
future guidance in practice. In any work on systematic agriculture,
those accumulated facts could not be overlooked without culpable neglect.
This being the state of matters when the Second Edition of the Book
of the Farm was in hands, it was found necessary to rewrite the
theoretical portion of that work; and as the adoption of new
vi
PREFACE.
C
matter would have much enlarged its bulk, which was large enough
already, it was determined rather to diminish it by excising the parts
which described minutely the construction of agricultural machines.
In following out this plan, it was the intention of the late Mr Slight,
by whom the descriptions referred to had been written, to have de-
scribed the mechanical construction of every important machine and
implement in use, and to have published his descriptions in a separate
work, as a companion to the Second Edition of the Book of the Farm;
but death put an end to the scheme, and deprived, at the same time,
agricultural mechanics of one of its most clear-headed and successful
expositors. Years passed by without the prospect of the completion
of the contemplated work, until the Editor became acquainted with
Mr Robert Scott Burn, a young and enthusiastic practical engineer,
who had devoted a considerable portion of his attention to agricultural
mechanics. With his assistance, this work has been at length completed.
Seeing that many of our agricultural machinists displayed in their
works deficiency in mechanical science, and, in consequence, mechanical
construction, it was deemed expedient, in order to render this work
specially useful to them, to dwell somewhat fully on those branches of
mechanical science which bear most obviously on their particular art,
and to illustrate the principles upon which it is founded, by the selec-
tion of the most useful machines and implements that exhibit greatest
talent in mechanical construction. For this purpose much of the
matter contributed by Mr Slight has been made use of, while many
machines which have been brought into practice since his day are
now described by Mr Burn with due mechanical minuteness for the first
time. It is evidently impossible to figure and describe every agricul-
tural machine in use in these Islands, nor is such a task necessary to be
undertaken. It suffices, on taking a general survey of the vast number
of agricultural machines which have been presented to the notice of
agriculturists, to select only those which are really of use. The whole
stock of agricultural machines may be divided into two categories,—
namely, those which are not now in general use, and those which are
in use.
It is needless to describe machines which have become
obsolete, only those which are in use really deserving our attention ;
and even every one of these should not be described, because some
PREFACE.
vii
cannot be commended, and others are inaccessible on account of the
indifference or jealousy of their inventors. It is painful to advert to
this last circumstance, but it is incumbent on us so to do, in order
to the explanation of our apparent neglect in overlooking what may by
many machinists be deemed good and useful machines, and which
would most probably have been figured and described had their inventors
and makers willed that it should be so. We, however, avail ourselves
with pleasure of this opportunity to acknowledge our special obliga-
tions to the following firms and gentlemen, for affording us information
in connection with the several machines and implements, for the inven-
tion and manufacture of which they are celebrated: Messrs Garrett, of
Saxmundham, Suffolk; Messrs Clayton and Shuttleworth of Lincoln ;
Messrs Ransome and Sims, Ipswich; Messrs Hornsby, Grantham ;
Messrs Richmond and Chandler, Manchester; Messrs Barrett, Exall,
and Andrewes, Reading; Messrs Rankin, Liverpool; Messrs Dray
and Co., London; Messrs Tuxford, Boston; Messrs Smith and Ashby,
Stamford; Messrs Reeves, Westbury; Messrs Williamson, Kendal ;
Messrs Turner, Ipswich; Messrs Gwynne, London; Messrs Griffith, Bir-
mingham; Mr Fowler, London; Mr B. Samuelson, Banbury; Mr Bentall,
Heybridge, Maldon; Mr Thompson, Lewes ; Mr Coleman, Chelmsford.
Confining our consideration to machines and implements actually in
use in agriculture, we have divided them according to the two great
purposes for which they were invented-namely, into those used directly
in the cultivation of the soil, and those used only in connection with its
products. In treating of their mechanical construction, it was necessary
to test the applicability of each machine to the purpose for which it had
been invented; for unless this can be established by proper criteria, no
progress can be claimed, for agricultural machinery, towards such per-
fection as is to be found in machines in the other arts to which the
industry of the nation is directed. To attain this desirable end, it is
a prominent feature of this work, in the first place, to elucidate the
scientific principles which regulate the choice of materials in the
construction of machines and implements; and, in the next place, to
illustrate the practical construction and properties of those machines
and implements, and their adaptation to the particular purpose for
which they are employed in agriculture.
viii
PREFACE.
per-
Although, as we have already said, it is impossible to notice every
machine in use, yet we are not unaware of the advance towards
fection which is being made in every department of agricultural
mechanics. Of the modifications and peculiarities of numerous recent
inventions in agricultural mechanism, and of the practical results
of the working of many of them, we have had full information; but the
limits of this work, in addition to the reason above referred to, have
precluded their being noticed. Of these inventions and their inventors
we may here mention-
•
In Steam Cultivation. Mr William Smith of Woolstone, Bucks;
Mr John Allin Williams of Balyden, Wilts; and Mr P. A. Halkett of
Merton Road, Wandsworth, London. These gentlemen, by a large
expenditure of time and money, have done much towards the solu-
tion of the question of economical steam-cultivation. The inven-
tions of Mr Smith and Mr Williams depend for their action on a
system of traction by ropes, pulleys, and windlasses, after the man-
ner, more or less modified, employed by Mr Fowler, whose plan
we have fully described. Mr Halkett's plan involves arrangements
of decided novelty, inasmuch as he prepares the land to be cultivated
for the operation of the implements employed, by laying down tram
or guide ways, by which he proposes to insure a precision of opera-
tion otherwise unattainable. Of machines or implements adapted to
steam-cultivation, to be dragged over the land either by the direct
power of a portable steam-engine fitted with Boydell's Endless Railway,
or by the windlass-and-pulley system of Fowler, and cognate plans, we
may here notice the Cultivator, with revolving tines, of Mr Bernard
Samuelson of Banbury, and the Eleven-tined Cultivator of Mr Richard
Coleman of Chelmsford. Of recent patents connected with steam-
cultivation now attracting attention, mention may be made of those
of Mr A. Dacre Lacy, of Hall House, Knayton, near Thirsk, York-
shire; of Mr Thomas Keddy, of Handsforth, Stafford; of Mr T.
Ricketts, of Castle Foundry, Buckingham; and of Messrs Howard and
Baker, Bedford.
In Hay-making and Corn-reaping Machines.-The Self-acting
Horse-rake of Messrs Marychurch and Son, Haverfordwest; and the
American Eagle Mowing-Machine, of Nourse, Mason, and Co., of
PREFACE.
ix
Boston, U.S. (European Agent, H. S. Olcott, 31 Essex Street, Strand);
the Improved Reaping-Machine of Mr George Bell of Inchmichael,
Errol, by Perth; and the Union Reaping-Machine of Mr John Palmer
of Stockton-on-Tees.
In Thrashing and Corn-dressing Machines.-The Thrashing-
Machine of Messrs Barrett, Exall, and Andrewes, with wrought-iron
beater; the Adjustable Corn-dressing Screen of Mr Roby; the Patent
Hummeller of Messrs Barnard and Bishop, Norwich; and we have
very recently had an opportunity of seeing in operation the simple Corn-
cleaning Apparatus, attached to the Thrashing-Machine, invented by
Mr Robert Hislop, junior, Prestonpans, near Edinburgh.
In Miscellaneous Inventions, the Draw-share Hoe of "Sigma," and
the Straw-Rope Spinner of Mr Thomas Simpson of Petersham, Surrey.
To those desirous of studying minutely the peculiarities of the dif-
ferent varieties of English agricultural machines and implements, we
would recommend a visit to be paid to the "Department of Agri-
cultural Machinery" in the Crystal Palace at Sydenham. The collection
comprises specimens of the manufactures of the most eminent makers,
and requires only a few additional examples, and a system of classifica-
tion, to make it complete. As it is, the comparatively good arrangement,
and the facilities offered by the Company for a quiet inspection of its
contents, render a visit to the collection a much more likely method
of obtaining sound information, as to details of construction and pecu-
liarities of arrangement, than a hurried inspection of the machines and
implements which a crowded agricultural show affords. It is to be
regretted that the agricultural-implement-makers of Scotland do not
avail themselves of the favourable opportunity of exhibiting their
handiworks alongside those of their English brethren they need not
fear competition, either in workmanship or cost.
In the preparation of many of the drawings, we have to express our
obligations to Mr G. H. Slight, well known as an able draughtsman;
to Mr C. E. Johnson, a rising artist; and to Mr J. Hunt.
In the elucidation of the principles of construction, we have neces-
sarily been confined to a mere outline or abstract. The reader desirous
of extending his knowledge, may consult with advantage the following
works:-
X
PREFACE.
(6
((
((
"The
Moseley's Engineering and Architecture," 2d ed.: Longmans, 24s.
"On
the Application of Cast and Wrought Iron to Building Purposes," by William
Fairbairn; 2d ed.: Weale, 12s. "Useful Information for Engineers," by William
Fairbairn, 10s. 6d. "Water Wheels and Buckets," by William Fairbairn,
7s. 6d. Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Applica-
tion of Iron to Railway Structures," 30s. "Report on the Fall of a Cotton
Mill at Oldham" (Mr Fairbairn and Mr Hodgkinson's evidence particularly),
3s. 6d. Articles Iron and Carpentry, in the "Encyclopædia Britannica."
Encyclopædia of Civil Engineering," by Edward Cresy: Longmans, new
edition, 63s. "Tredgold's Carpentry," 42s. "The Builder's Practical Direc-
tory:" Ainsworth, Manchester, 47s. "The Practical Draughtsman's Book of
Industrial Design, being a complete Course of Mechanical Engineering and
Architectural Drawing," by Wm. Johnson: Longmans, 26s. "Weale's Engi-
neer's Pocket-Book," 6s. "Adcock's Engineer's Pocket-Book:" Simpkin, Mar-
shall, & Co., 6s. "Templeton's Millwright's and Engineer's Companion.” “Tem-
pleton's Workshop Companion." "Bourne on the Steam-engine:" Longmans,
27s. "Bourne's Catechism on the Steam-engine:" Longmans, 6s.
Working of the Steam-engine explained by the Indicator," by J. Hopkinson,
7s. 6d. "The Steam-engine," 2s., and "Practical Mechanics," 1s. 6d., by J.
Imray both of these form part of the "Circle of the Sciences," published by
Houlston & Wright. Eight volumes of the Rudimentary Series, published by
Weale of London: 1."Steam Boilers," by G. Armstrong, 1s. ; 2. "The Power of
Water," by T. Glynn, F.R.S., 1s. ; 3. "Steam-engine," by Dr Lardner, 1s.; 4.“ Art
of Constructing Cranes," by T. Glynn, F.R.S., 1s. ; 5. "Tubular and Girder
Bridges," 1s.; 6. "Mechanics, and Practical Construction of Machines," by J.
Baker, 2s.; 7." Foundations and Concrete Works," by E. Dobson, 1s.; 8." Limes,
Cements, and Mortars," 1s. "The Modern Practice of Boiler Engineering," by
Robert Armstrong, C.E., revised by John Bourne, C.E.: London, Spon & Co.,
Bucklersbury, 2s. "Three Reports on the Use of Steam-Coals of the Hartley
District, Northumberland," by W. G. Armstrong, C.E., J. A. Longridge, C.E.,
and Dr Richardson: London, Weale; Newcastle, A. Reid, 1s. The last of these
works contains, in small space, a variety of practically useful hints and sugges-
tions on the management of boiler-furnaces, and the consumption or preven-
tion of smoke therein. An analysis also will be found in it of the Government
Report on Fuel by Dr Playfair, to which we have referred in the text.
•
To the reader desirous of following out to a fuller extent the eluci-
dation of the principles of the subjects of which they treat, we have
every confidence in recommending the above works, as abounding in
matter of high value, both theoretical and practical. To several of
these, in the preparation of the text, the Authors have been under
special obligations.
HENRY STEPHENS.
REDBRAE COTtage, Edinburgh,
15th July 1858.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
BOOK FIRST.-PRINCIPLES.
DISSERTATIONS ELUCIDATING THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES WHICH REGU-
LATE THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE
MACHINES AND IMPLEMENTS, AND THE STRUCTURES CONNECTED
WITH THEM, ON THE FARM.
DIVISION FIRST.-MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.
SECTION FIRST
STONES-BRICK-TILES,
SECTION SECOND
TIMBER,
SECTION THIRD
METALS,
PAGE
9
12
•
18
DIVISION SECOND.-PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
SECTION FIRST STRENGTH OF MATERIALS,
24
SECTION SECOND Framing and Carpentry,
34
DIVISION THIRD.-PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
SECTION FIRST
FOUNDATIONS,
SECTION SECOND
MASONRY-BRICKWORK,
SECTION THIRD
CONSTRUCTION OF TIMBER FRAMING,
SECTION FOURTH IRON FRAMING,
SECTION FIFTH
MACHINE CONSTRUCTION,
41
45
53
70
•
88
་
DIVISION FOURTH.-FRICTION AND FORCE.
SECTION FIRST
FRICTION,
SECTION SECOND FORCE,
114
123
BOOK SECOND.-PRACTICE.
ON THE PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION, PROPERTIES, AND USES OF
FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES.
DIVISION FIRST.-IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES CONNECTED
WITH THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
SECTION FIRST
PLOUGHS, INCLUDING STEAM - PLOUGHS, TRENCH AND
SUBSOIL PLOUGHS,
147 *
xii
CONTENTS.
SECTION SECOND
SECTION THIRD
GRUBBERS, SCARIFIERS, CULTIVAtors,
PAGE
239
HARROWS, LAND-ROLLERS, CLOD-CRUSHERS, PRESS-WHEELS, 248
HORSE-HOES,
SOWING-MACHINES AND MANURE-Distributors,
SECTION FOURTH
266
SECTION FIFTH
270
SECTION SIXTH
MANUAL IMPLEMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE CULTIVATION
OF THE SOIL,
313
DIVISION SECOND.-IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES CONNECTED
WITH THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
SECTION FIRST
SECTION SECOND
SECTION THIRD
SECTION FOURTH
SECTION FIFTH
SECTION SIXTH
SECTION SEVENTH
SECTION EIGHTH
SECTION NINTH
HAY-MAKING MACHINES,
CORN-REAPING MACHINES,
331
342
BARN MACHINES, INCLUDING THRASHING-MACHINES, FIXED
AND PORTABLE; WINNOWING-MACHINES, HUMMELLERS,
CORN-CLEANING MACHINES, AND WEIGHING-MACHINES, 360
Carts Waggons-Cart STEELYARDS,
STRAW-CUTTERS,
TURNIP-SLICERS, ROOT-GRATERS, AND ROOT-WASHERS,
CORN-BRUISERS-BEAN-MILLS-OIL-CAKE BREAKER,
399
428
432
445
Boiling and Steaming Apparatus,
455
DAIRY APPARATUS,
463
SECTION TENTH
MANUAL IMPLEMENTS CONNECTED WITH THE PRODUCTS OF
THE SOIL, AS SCYTHES, FORKS, Barn Implements, and
DAIRY UTENSILS,
477
SECTION ELEVENTH MACHINES NOT DIRECTLY CONNECTED WITH ANY OF THE
ABOVE TEN SECTIONS, BUT USEFUL ON THE FARM,
513
DIVISION THIRD.-MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
SECTION FIRST
HORSE-POWER,
SECTION SECOND
WATER-POWER,
SECTION THIRD
STEAM-POWER,
SECTION FOURTH WIND-POWER,
DIVISION FOURTH.-ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINES IN
THE STEADING.
544
554
564
624
SECTION FIRST
ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINES IN THE GROUND-FLOOR OF
THE STEADING,
627
SECTION SECOND
ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINES IN THE UPPER FLOOR OF THE
STEADING,
628
SECTION THIRD
ARRANGEMENT OF SMALL MACHINES WITH THE MOVING
POWER IN THE Steading,
629
SECTION FOURTH THE PRESERVATION OF IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES IN THE
STEADING,
629
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
ENGRAVINGS ON STEEL.
PLATE
I. THE EAST-LOTHIAN PLOUGH.
II. ANALYTICAL SECTIONS OF MOULD-
BOARDS.
III. HOWARD'S P. P. PLOUGH.
IV. THE TWEEDDALE PLOUGH.
V. THE TWEEDDALE SUBSOIL - TRENCH-
PLOUGH.
VI. THE DRAUGHT OF THE PLOUGH.
VII. THE TWEEDDALE STEAM-PLOUGH.
VIII. FOWLER'S STEAM-PLOUGH.
IX. FOWLER'S PORTABLE STEAM-ENGINE
AND WINDLASS.
X. FOWLER'S ANCHOR OF HIS STEAM-
PLOUGH.
XI. KIRKWOOD'S GRUBBER.
XII. GARRETT'S HORSE-HOE.
XIII. BROADCAST SOWING-MACHINE.
XIV. DRILL SOWING-MACHINES.
XV. GARRETT'S LEVER CORN-DRILL.
XVI. TURNIP AND BONE-DUST MACHINE.
XVII. GARRETT'S SEED AND MANURE DRILL.
XVIII. LIQUID - MANURE AND SEED - DROP
DRILL.
XIX. CHAMBERS'S BROADCAST MANURE-DIS-
TRIBUTOR.
XX. BELL'S AND M'CORMICK'S REAPING-
MACHINES.
PLATE
XXI. SCOTCH THRASHING-MACHINE.
XXII. SCOTCH THRASHING-MACHINE.
XXIII. DRAY'S TWO- HORSE PORTABLE
THRASHING-MACHINE.
XXIV. GARRETT'S PORTABLE THRASHING-
MACHINE.
XXV. HORNSBY'S PORTABLE THRASHING
MACHINE.
XXVI. CLAYTON AND SHUTTLEWORTH'S
FIXED THRASHING-MACHINE.
XXVII. DRAY'S CORN-DRESSING-MACHINE.
XXVIII. PALMER'S ROTATORY CORN - SEPA-
RATOR.
XXIX. THE HORSE-WHEEL.
XXX. TURBINES.
XXXI. STEAM-ENGINE BOILER.
XXXII. MULTITUBULAR STEAM-BOILER.
XXXIII. CRANK STEAM-ENGINE.
XXXIV. BEAM STEAM-ENGINE.
XXXV. CONDENSING STEAM-ENGINE.
XXXVI. HORIZONTAL STEAM-ENGINE.
XXXVII. OVER-HEAD CRANK ENGINE.
XXXVIII. TUXFORD'S PORTABLE ENGINE.
XXXIX. DETAILS OF CRANK STEAM-ENGINE.
XL. ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINES IN
THE STEADING.
Fig.
ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
BOOK FIRST-PRINCIPLES.
1. Right and Wrong Form of Beams,
2. Right and Wrong Form of Flails,
3. Strength of Beams as their Depth,
4. Strongest and Weakest Beams,
5. Strongest and Weakest Position of
Cast-Iron Beams,
6. Form of Rigid Strength,
7. Faulty and Correct Methods of Con-
necting the Handle and Head of
a Hay-Rake,
8. False and True Ornamented Diago-
nals,
9. Strains to which Materials are ex-
posed,
Page Fig.
10. Cross or Transverse Strains,
2 11. Deflection of Beams,
•
14. Pressure on Beams at Different
Page
24
24
3
2 12. Distribution of the Load on Beams,
3 13. Strength of Beams as their Inclina-
tion,
30
•
30
3
Points,
31
4
15. Theoretical Form of Beams,
31
16.
Ditto
17. "I"-shaped Cast-Iron Beam,
ditto,
32
32
Iron Beam,
33
5 19. Plan of ditto,
33
•
20. Elevation of ditto,
33
24 21. Pressure on a Vertical Beam,
35
4 18. Section of Strongest Form of Cast-
xiv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
Page
Fig.
Page
22. Pressure upon Inclined Beams,
23. Parallelogram of Forces,
35
35
74-75. Joining Timbers in the Direc-
tion of their Length,
61
24. Method to Ascertain the Pressure
on Inclined Beams,
76-77. The Half-lap Joint,
61
36
78. Scarf-joint,
61
•
25. Pressure as Inclination of the Beams,
26. Unequal Pressure with Unequal In-
clination of two Beams,
36
79-80. Scarf-joint,
62
81-82. Joints to Resist Vertical Com-
36
pression, .
27. Direction and Amount of One Force
to Sustain Two,
83-85. Trussed Beams,
37
28. Outward or Lateral Thrust on Walls
exerted by Inclined Beams,
86-87. Method of Increasing Depth of
Beams,
37
88. Mortise-and-Tenon Joint,
29. The Pressure on Beams Uniformly
Loaded,
89. Dovetail Joint,
*** *3
62
63
63
64
64
37
90. Methods of Notching" Wall-plates"
30. Distinction between Struts and Ties,
31. Pressure on the parts of Sheers,
32. Theoretical Truss,
38
together,
64
38
91. Joining of "Tie-beam" with Wall-
39
plate,
65
33. Skeleton of Trussed Roof 30 feet
span,
40
92-93. Joining of an Inclined Beam
with a Horizontal Beam,
34. Trussed Roof 35 feet Span,
40
94. Centre for Window Arch,
6888
65
65
35. Stone-Footings,
45
95. Centres for Arches,
66
•
36. Plan of Stone-Footings,
45
96. Joints for Flooring Timbers,
66
37. Header and Stretcher (Bricks),
46
97. Joints at Right Angles,
66
38. Footings for a 14-inch Brick Wall,
46
98. Various Forms of Joints,
66
39. Plan of Lower Footings of 14-inch
Wall,
46
99. Method of Obtaining the Strongest
Section of Beam out of a Tree,
66
40. Plan of Second Course of Footings,
41. Plan of Third ditto,
•
42. Plan of First Course of 14-inch Wall,
43. Inverted Arches for Foundations,
44. Defective Ashlar-Work,
45. Mode of Building Ashlar Walls,
with "Rubble" Filling-in,
46. "Lewis" for Raising Blocks of Stone,
47. Dowels, Joggles, and Cramps, for
joining Blocks of Stone,
48. Old English Brick-bond,
49. Flemish Bond,
46
46
100. Right and Wrong Methods of
Cutting Timber,
67
46 101. Plan and Elevation of Cast-iron
47
•
Girder for Span of 18 or 20 feet,
47 102. Section of ditto,
48
103. Connection of Binding-joists with
Cast-iron Girders,
20
70
70
71
48 104. Cast-iron Girders with "Shoes" for
Joists,
71
48 105. Connection of Cross Beams with
49
Girders,
71
49
50. Plan of First Course of 9-inch Wall
in Old English Bond,
106. Suspension of Cross Beams from
Girders,
50
51. Plan of Second ditto,.
52. Plan of First Course of 9-inch Wall
in Flemish Bond,
53. Plan of Second ditto,
54. Mode of Carrying up Brick Courses,
55. Good and Bad Methods of Setting
Flooring-Joists,
56. Mode of Fixing Beams of Upper
Floors,
57. Flat Arch and Lintel,
58. Disposition of the Parts of an Arch,
59. Segmental and Semicircular Arches,
60. Setting-out of Elliptical Arches,
61. Single Flooring,
62. Trussing of Flooring-Beams,
50
107. Cast-iron Girders, Pillars, and Brick
Arches for Fire-proof Flooring,
22 223
72
72
108. Section of Wrought-iron Beam,
74
50
109. Fire-proof Flooring,
74
50
51
•
110. An Iron Field-gate with Iron Posts
and Stay,
75
111. An Iron Field-gate on the Tension
51
Principle,
76
112. A Field-gate with Angle-iron Frame-
51
work,
76
•
52 113. The Elements of the Bracing of a
52
Wire Field-gate,
78
52 114. A Wire Field-gate with Rayed
53
Upfillings,
53 115. Wrought-iron Side-gate,
78
79
•
53 116. Fixing of Cast-iron Pillar,
79
63. Trimming Joists,
64. Double Flooring,
65. Double-Framed Flooring,
Pillar,
54 117. Foundation - Plate for Cast-iron
54
80
80
80
80
88 8 8
80
66. The Elements of a Truss in a Wooden
Field-gate,
67-68. Examples of the Application of a
•
69. A Common Field-gate,
54 118. Upper End of Pillars to receive
Cast-Iron Beam,
•
56 119. Joining of Girders on the Caps of
Columns,
56 120. Junction of Two Girders with Cir-
cular Neck to Column,
Junction of Four Girders on Cap
of Column,
·
Cast-Iron Shoe for receiving End
of Girder,
Diagonal,
57
70. The Kilmory Wooden Trussed
121.
Field-gate,
57
71. Mill's Wooden Field-gate with Iron
Heel-post, .
122.
58
72. Wooden Gate, suited for the Ap-
123. Cast-Iron Shoes for "Joists"-
proach to a Villa,
59
((
•
Wall-Plates,"
73. Secure Mode of Fastening the Hang-
ing Post of a Field-gate,
124. Cast-Iron Shoe for the Reception
60
of Wooden Struts,
80
81
81
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
XV
Fig.
Page
Fig.
Page
125. Shoes for King-Bolt Heads,
126-127. Shoes for Queen Bolt and
Strut,
81
·
173. Form of Cogs and Section of Arm
of Wheels,
98
82
128. Shoe for Foot of Rafter and Pole-
Plate,
174. Ratchet-Wheel and Pawl or Click,
175. Bevel or Mitre Wheels,
98
99
82
129. Shoe for Purlins,
130. Scale for Figs. 131 to 144 inclu-
sive,
131. Joining of Feet of Struts and
King-Bolt,
132. Joining of Upper End of Strut
with Rafter,
133. Joining of Foot of Queen-Bolt with
Strut,
134. Plan of Tie-Bolt,
135. Joint of Queen-Bolt,
82 178. Different Views of Steam-Engine
Crank and Crank-Pin,
83 179. Termination or "Butt" of Simple
Form of Connecting-Rod,
83 180. Connecting-Rod,
181. Various Parts of Connecting-Rod-
Butt," "Strap," and " Bushes,"
82
176. Mode of Setting Out Form of
Mitre-Wheels,
177. Double Crank,
68
99
99
100
100
•
100
•
83
101
83
182. Eye of Connecting-Rod,
101
•
84
183. Eccentric, and Eccentric-Strap,
102
136. Junction of Rafters with King-
Bolt Head,
84
184. Mode of Setting out a Cam for Uni-
form Motion,
102
•
137. End Elevation of King-Bolt Head,
138. Plan of King-Bolt Head,
84 185. Fast-and-Loose Pulley,
102
84
142. Side Elevation of Strut,
144. Side Elevation of Fig. 143,
145. Cast-Iron Shaft,
139. Skeleton of Iron Truss for Span
of 25 feet,
140. Upper End of Cast-Iron Strut,
141. Lower Termination of Strut,
143. Junction of Rafters, Ridge-Pole,
Bracket, and Ties,
84 187. Clutch for ditto,
186. Sliding-Clutch for engaging and dis-
engaging Shafts,
103
103
85 188. Clutch or Gland for ditto,
103
85 189. Friction-Brake,
103
85 190. Ditto,
104
191. Lever for Shifting Sliding-Clutch,
104
•
85
192. Plan of ditto,
104
85
193. Bolt and Nut,
104
•
148. Cast-Iron Gudgeons for Timber
Shafts,
146. Wrought-Iron Spindle or Shaft,
147. Lower Termination of Vertical
Shaft,
88 194. Hexagonal Nut,
88
195. Proportions of Bolts and Nuts,
196. Mode of Riveting Pieces of Iron,
88 197. Joining of Leather Driving-Belts,
198. Elevation and Plan of Piston-Rod
Cross-Head,
104
•
105
105
•
106
89
•
107
149. Gudgeon for Hollow Cast-Iron
199.
Shafts,
89
Fixing of Pulleys, &c., on Shafts
by Pinching-Screws,
107
150. “Half-Lap" and "Round" Coupling
for Shafts,
200.
89
Elevation and Section of Vertical
Spindle and Handle,
107
•
151. Square Coupling for Shafts,
90 201. Pins and Keys,
•
107
152. Swing-Joint for Small Shafts,
90 202. Gibs and Cottar, or Key,
107
153. Universal Joint,
154. Plan of "Cross" for Universal Joint,
155. Another Form of Universal Joint,
156. Plan of "Cross,"
157. Bearing for Small Spindle,
90 203. Junction of Rods or Levers,
91 204. Joined End of Lever,
107
107
•
91
205. Fixing of Wooden Handle of Iron
91
Lever,
108
91 206. Fixing of Wooden Handle to Iron
158. Plan of Bearing for Small Spindle,
159. "Brasses" or "Bushes" for Bear-
91
Rods,
108
207. Fixing of Iron Handles or Levers
ing for Small Spindle,
91
to Rods,
108
160. Front Elevation and Transverse
Section of Pedestal,
208. Fixing of Lever or Hand-Wheel to
92
Rods,
108
161. Horizontal Section of
Pedestal,
209. Lubricator for Shafts,
121
showing Section and Plan of Cap,
92
162. Bushes or Brasses for Pedestal,
163. Mode of Fixing Pedestal on En-
92
210. Tidmarsh's Self-Acting Lubricator, 122
211. Tidmarsh's Hand-Lubricator,
•
122
•
tablature,
93
•
212. The Effects of, on Motion of the
Simple Roller,
125
164. "Step" or Bearing for a Vertical
Spindle,
93
165. Step for Vertical Shaft,
94
a Mill-Shaft,
94
166. Adjustment for Bush or Step for
-
167. "Hangers" or "Gallows" for Sup-
porting Shafts under Ceilings,
168. Brackets for Supporting Shafts
along Walls,
169. Spindle Guide,
170. Pulleys, Section and Elevation,
171. Mode of Setting Out Teeth of
Wheels,
172. Ditto,
•
•
213. The Curves generated by a Point
respectively in the Circumfe-
rence of a Wheel and its Nave,
during one Revolution of the
Wheel,
214. The Friction of Carriage-Wheels,
94 215. The Effect of Resistance from
Obstacles on the Surface of the
Road,
95
129
95
95 216. The Principles that determine the
Angle of Draught, .
134
.
217. Slight's Dynamometer,
139
·
96 218. Danish Self-Registering Dynamo-
97
meter,
140
•
127
128
•
xvi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
Page
Fig.
Page
219. Friction-Brake,
141
281-282. Details of the Plough-Graip,
203
220. Dynamometer for testing Power of
283. Hanson's Potato-Digger,
203
•
Steam-Engines,
142
284. The Paring-Sock,
204
•
221. Amos's Dynamometer,
142
285. The Leicester Paring-Plough,
204
BOOK SECOND-PRACTICE.
286. The Levelling-Box or Scoop,
205
222. The Caschrom,
148
223. A View of the Land-Side of å
Plough,
287. Hepburn's Mountain Turn - Wrist
Snow-Plough,
206
·
150
224-225. The details of the Body-Frame
of the East-Lothian Plough,
226. A Vertical Section of the Frame,
227-231. The Details of the Share,
232. A Sock-Plate,
233-235. The Sole-Shoe,
•
288. The Swing-Trees for Two Horses, 207
289. Trussed Iron Swing-Tree,
209
•
•
Whipple-Trees,
155 290. Ransome & Sim's Trussed Iron
155
210
•
156 291. The Compensation - Lever Swing-
157
Trees for Three Horses,
211
•
236-237. The Coulter,
Horses,
157 292. The Cross-Balance Yoke for Four
158
213
·
238-239. The Bridle,
240-241. The Details of the Land-Side,
242. The Rectangular Furrow-Slice,
243. The Crested Furrow-Slice,
158 293. The Running-Balance Yoke for
159
Four Horses,
214
166
165 294. The Theory of the Draught of
Wheel-Ploughs,
218
244. The Transmission of the Furrow-
295. Mechanism of Usher's
Usher's Steam-
Slice,
167
Plough,
224
245. A View of the Movement of the
Furrow-Slice,
168
296. Detail of Digging-Cylinder of Ro-
maine's Cultivator,
226
246. Proportional Areas of the Furrow-
Slice in different positions,
247. The Comparison of the Rectangular
and Crested Furrow-Slices,
297. Cutting-Knife of ditto,
226
•
168
298. Distribution of Apparatus of Fow-
ler's Steam-Plough,
235
169
248. The Effects of a Rectangular Fur-
row-Slice,
299. Fowler's Steam-Plough Carriage in
Perspective,
236
171
249. The Effects of a Crested Furrow-
Slice,
300. Self-Adjusting Anchor of Fowler's
Steam-Plough in Perspective,
237
•
171
•
301. Tennant's Grubber,
243
•
250. The Parallel Ruler,
251. Theoretical Prism for the Genera-
tion of the Mould-Board,
252. Diagram to determine the Radius
of Curvature of the Mould-Board,
253. The Twisted Wedge of the Mould-
Board cut out of the Prism,
254. Transverse Section of the Theo-
retical Mould-Board,
173 302. Tine of ditto,
303. Swan-Neck Tine of ditto,
178 304. Coleman's Cultivator,
305. Frame of ditto,
244
244
245
245
178
306. Barrel-Spindle of ditto,
307. Prongs of ditto,
245
•
246
•
179 308. Various Forms of Tines of ditto,
309. Suspension - Rack for Wheels of
246
179
ditto,
246
•
•
255. Elevation of ditto,
181
256. Section of ditto,
181
310. Bentall's Broad-Share Plough,
311. Centre Tine of ditto,
246
•
247
257. The Building of the Block for the
312. Side Tine of ditto,
247
Mould-Board Pattern,
182
313. Centre-Tine Point of ditto,
247
•
•
258-259. Plan and Elevation of Body of
314. Tine-Point of ditto,
247
Howard's Plough,
185
•
315. Broad-Share of ditto,
247
260-261. Details of Sock of ditto,
187
316. The Common Drill-Grubber,
247
262-264. Details of Coulter of ditto,
187
273. The Small Plough,
265. Read's Subsoil Plough, as im-
proved by Mr Slight,
266-267. Details of the Body of the
Tweeddale Plough,
268. Land-Side of the Body of ditto,
269-271. Details of the Sock of the Tweed-
dale Subsoil-Trench-Plough,
272. The Tweeddale Subsoil - Trench-
Plough and the Tweeddale Plough
in Conjoint Operation,
•
274. The Double Mould-Board Plough,
275. The Double Mould-Board Plough
320. Iron Disc or Web-Harrow,
196 321. The Potato-Harrows,
317. Rhomboidal Wooden Harrows, with
their Yoke of Swing-Trees,
249
•
•
190
318. Iron Rhomboidal Harrows, with
ditto,
253
191
193
319. Grass-Seed Harrows, with Wings and
Swing-Trees,
254
•
254
256
322. Cross-Section of ditto,
256
323. Ross's Moss-Extirpating Harrow,
258
197
•
324. The Bush-Harrows,
259
•
•
198
•
325. The Mountain Snow-Harrow,
259
•
198
326. The Land-Roller,
260
•
327. The Presser-Roller,
261
for making Drills,
•
199
328. Edge View of the Pressing Wheels of
276. The Ribbing Coulters,
200
ditto,
262
277. Wilkie's Turn-Wrist Plough,
200
329. Crosskill's Clod-Crusher,
263
278. Lawson's Brander for Lifting Po-
tatoes,
201
330. Side View of one Wheel of ditto,
331. Cambridge's Press-Wheel Roller,
263
264
279. Plough with Lawson's Brander at-
tached,
332. Section of the Rim of ditto,
264
202
333. Perspective View of the Norwegian
280. Plough-Graip for Lifting Potatoes, 202
•
Harrow,
264
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
xvii
Fig.
Page
Fig.
Page
334. A Longitudinal Section of the Nor-
387. The Jumper,
318
•
wegian Harrow,
265
388. The Quarry-Hammer,
318
•
335. Smith's Steerage Horse-Hoe,
336. Long and Short Shares for Smith's
Horse-Hoe,
267
389. The Hand-Barrow,
318
390. The Spirit-Level,
319
267
391. Thompson's Drainage-Level,
319
•
337. Perspective View of Garrett's Horse-
Hoe,
269
392. The Levelling-Staff, for Testing the
Uniform Fall in Drains,
320
•
338. Section of the Common Drill-Sow-
ing Machine,
393. The Drainer's Plumb-Level,
320
278
339. Section of the New Lever-Drill Sow-
ing-Machine,
394. Thompson's Workman's Bevel,
395. The Narrow Drain-Spade,
320
321
•
280
396. Draw-Earth Drain-Scoop,
321
340. Garrett's Suffolk Lever Corn-Drili
in Perspective,
282
397. The Narrow Draw-Hoe for Drains,
398. The Trowel for Drains,
321
•
321
341. Suffolk Lever Corn-Drill Fore-Steer-
age,
399. The Narrowest Drain-Spade,
321
283
400. The Pushing Drain-Scoop,
322
342. The East-Lothian Turnip-Drill,
343. The Longitudinal Section of ditto,
344. The Seed Barrel of ditto,
345. Geddes's Turnip-Sowing Drill,
346. The Vertical Section of the Seed-
Distributor of ditto,
287
•
288
285 401. The Positions of Planks and Wedges
to Prevent the Sides of Drains
falling in,
322
289
402. The Instruments for Boring the Sub-
strata of Deep Drains,
323
290
403. Hammer for Breaking Stones for
347. The Turnip-Seed-Sowing Barrow,
348. The Longitudinal Section of the Tur-
nip and Bone-Dust Sowing-Drill,
349. The Plan of ditto,
291
Drains,
323
404. The Drain-Gauge,
323
•
293
295
350. The Pressing-Roller and Coulter-
Frame of ditto,
295
405. The Drain-Stone Harp or Screen,
406. The Frying Pan or Lime Shovel,
407. The Tail-Board Trough for receiving
the Drain-Stones in their Fall,
324
•
324
325
351. Garrett's Seed and Manure Drill in
408. The Drain-Stone Rake,
325
Perspective,
296
409. The Drain-Stone Beater,
325
352. The Bean-Sowing Barrow,
•
297
410. The Edging-Iron,
325
•
353. The Longitudinal Section of the
Hopper of ditto,
411. The Broad-Mouthed Shovel,
325
298
412. The Horizontal Spade,
326
354. Kemp, Murray, and Nicholson's
413. The Calderwood Peat-Tile Spade-
Three-Row Bean-Sowing Drill in
Perspective,
Tool,
326
300
414. The Peat Tile for Drains,
326
355-356. Transverse and Longitudinal
415. The Drain-Water Metre,
327
Section of ditto,
300
416. The Flauchter-Spade at Work,
327
357. Side Elevation of Chambers's Water
417. The Hedge-Spade,
327
Drop-Drill,
303
418. The Carriage for Conveying Har-
358. Plan of ditto,
304
rows,
328
359. Front View of "Sigma's Dibble,"
360. Transverse Vertical Section of ditto,
361. Perspective View of Chandler's Li-
quid-Manure Drill,
362. Section of Seed and Manure Cham-
ber of ditto,
363. The Liquid-Manure Cart,
304 419. The Weed-Hook,
328
304
420. The Hand Draw-Hoe,
328
421. The Dutch-Hoe,
328
•
306
422. The Turnip-Fly Catcher,
329
•
423. Pickling Apparatus for Wheat,
329
306
424. The Seed-Corn Rusky,
330
308
364. The Apparatus for Regulating the
Discharge from ditto,
425. Seed-Sowing from the Sowing-Sheet,
426. The English Sowing-Basket,
330
330
•
309
365. James's Liquid-Manure Cart,
366. Main's Soot-Sowing Machine,
367. Transverse Section of ditto,
368. Chambers's Broadcast Manure-Dis-
tributor in Perspective,
369. The Plough-Staff,
370. The Iron Hammer Nut-Key,
309
427. The Scoop for Filling the Water-
Barrel,
331
311 428. The Hay and Stubble Horse-Rake,
311 429. Section and Scale of ditto,
430. Smith's
332
•
332
•
Counterbalance
Horse -
312
Rake,
333
314 431. Plan of ditto,
334
•
371. The Plough-Slide,
372. Feering-Pole,
373. The Common Spade,
374. Parkes' Patent Spade,
375. A Ditcher's Shovel,
•
314 432. The End Elevation of ditto,
314 433. Section of ditto,
334
•
334
•
315
314 434-435. Details of Tine of ditto,
315 436. Smith and Ashby's Hay-Tedding
Machine in Perspective,
315 437. Tine of ditto,
334
337
•
337
376-378. Parkes' Digging-Forks,
379-380. The Trenching Forks with Three
and Two Prongs,
•
316 438. Part Section of ditto,
338
439. Thompson's Hay-Tedding Machine,
316
Side Elevation,
339
•
381. The Hand-Pick,
382. The Foot-Pick,
317 440. Section of Gearing of ditto,
339
383. The Mattock,
384. Iron Crow-Bar,
385-386. Stone-Slide,
317 441. Side Elevation of Gear-Box of ditto, 340
317 442. Tines of ditto,
340
317 443. Section of Gearing-Box of Nichol-
318
son's Hay-Tedding Machine,
341
b
xviii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
444. The Mode of Erecting a Rick-Cloth
over the Site of a Hay-Stack when
it is Building,
445. Dray's Hussey's Reaping-Machine
in Perspective,
Page
Fig.
494. Barn Balance Weighing-Machine,
495. Portable Lever ditto,
342 496. Section of Inclined Cylindrical
Page
397
398
Cart-Wheel,
401
352
497. Spokes of a Wheel,
402
446. Driving-Wheel and Gear of ditto,
447. Driving-Pinion and Shaft of ditto,
448. Crank Shaft for Driving Cutter-Blade
of ditto,
353
498. Felloe of ditto,
403
•
353
499. Cart-Axle,
404
500. Mail-Coach Axle,
406
•
353
449. Connecting-Rod of Cutter-Blade
501. The Principle of the Bent Axle,
502. The Single-Horse Tilt-Cart,.
410
•
413
of ditto,
•
353
503. The Body-Frame of ditto,
414
450. Cutter-Blade of ditto,
353
504. The Joining of Slots and Bearer of
451. Pole-Plate of ditto,
353
ditto,
414
·
452. Guide for Adjusting Wheel of ditto,
453. Guide for Stem of Adjusting-Wheel
of ditto,
354
505. A Hook-Bolt of ditto,
414
506. Side Elevation of ditto,
415
354
507. Iron Ends of Top-Rails of ditto,
416
454. Plan of Knife of ditto,
355
508. The Iron Stay of ditto,
416
•
455. Plan of Finger of ditto,
355 509. The Bottom Plan of ditto,
416
•
456. Side Elevation of Finger of ditto,
457. Side Elevation of Shoe of ditto,
458. View of Delivery Finger of ditto,
459. Shield of Delivery-Finger of ditto,
460. Plan of Carriage of ditto,
•
461. Plan of Gearing of M'Cormick's
Reaper,
462. Plan of Finger-Beam of ditto,
463. Plan of Knife of ditto,
355 510. Front View of ditto,
417
•
356
•
356 511. The Lock and Section of Contiguous
Parts of ditto,
418
•
•
356
356
512. The Yoking-Gear of the Shafts of
ditto,
419
513. Back View and Door of ditto,
419
•
357
514. The Dormant-Bodied Cart,
420
•
•
358
358
515. The Corn and Hay Frame, or
"Tops,"
421
464. Side Elevation of Framing of ditto,
465. A Side of Platform of ditto,
466. Ditto of ditto,
359
358 516. The Transverse Section of ditto,
517. Corn and Hay Cart,
421
422
•
359 518. Transverse Section of ditto,
422
467. Plan of Delivery-Screws and Frame
of ditto,
359
519. Robertson's Improved Corn and Hay
Cart,
423
468. The Feeding - Gear of the Scotch
Thrashing-Machine,
363
520. Crosskill's English Farm -Waggon
in Perspective,
424
•
469. Transverse Section of the Feeding-
Rollers of ditto,
521. Plan of the Cart-Steelyard,
426
•
367
470. The Brackets of the Feeding-Rollers
of ditto,
522. Longitudinal Section of ditto,
523. Transverse Section of ditto,
426
427
368
524. The Disc Straw-Cutter, with Convex
471-472. Transverse Sections of the
Knives,
429
Scotch Drum,
•
473. The Buckle Pitch-Chain,
375
369 525. Richmond and Chandler's Straw-
Cutter in Perspective,
430
474. The Ladder Pitch-Chain,
376
526. Plan of ditto,
430
475. Garrett's Portable Combined Thrash-
ing-Machine in Perspective,
527. Roller Teeth of ditto,
431
378
528. Richmond and Chandler's Compact
476. Transverse Section of Hornsby's
Thrashing-Machine,
Straw-Cutter,
431
380
529. Side Elevation of ditto,
432
•
477. Front Elevation of ditto,
381
478. Part Elevation of Shaker End of
Clayton and Shuttleworth's Thrash-
ing-Machine,
530. The Lever Turnip-Slicer for Sheep,
531-534. Front and Side-Views of the
Cutting-Knives of ditto,
433
434
383
479. Section of American Thrashing-
535. The Wheelbarrow Turnip - Slicer
for Sheep,
437
Machine,
384
536. Section of the Disc and Hopper of
480. Elevation of Dressing-Fanners,
385
•
ditto,
437
481. Longitudinal Section of ditto,
482. Transverse Section of ditto,
483. Elevation of the Finishing-Fanners,
484. Longitudinal Section of ditto,
386 537. Cross-Cutter of the Disc of ditto,
387 538. End Elevation of Gardner's Cylin-
388
rical Turnip-Cutter,
389 539. Side Elevation of ditto,
438
439
•
439
485. Transverse Section of ditto,
389
540. End View of ditto,
440
•
486-487. Elevation and Section of Cylin-
541. Samuelson's Turnip-Cutter in Per-
der Hummeller,
392
spective,
440
488. Plan of ditto,
393
542. Bushe and Barter's Root-Grater in
489. Section of Clayton and Shuttle-
worth's Hummeller,
Perspective,
441
393
•
543. Front Elevation of ditto,
442
•
490. Ransome and Sims' Barley Hum-
544. Side Elevation of ditto,
442
meller in Perspective,
394
545. Plan of Bentall's Root-Pulper,
443
491. Vertical Section of ditto,
394
546. Perspective of ditto, with Hopper
492. Plan of ditto,
395
removed,
443
493. Ranken's Corn - Cleaner and Smut
547. Bentall's Root-Pulper in Perspec-
Machine,
395
tive,
444
•
मे
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
xix
Fig.
Page
Fig.
Page
548. Robinson's Root-Washer in Perspec-
tive,
601. The Hand Stubble-Rake,
484
•
444
549. The Hand Corn-Bruiser in Perspec-
tive,
602. A Wooden Stathel for Stacks,
603. Cast-Iron Rick-Stand Pillar,
485
•
485
446
604. Cast-Iron Rick-Stand,
486
550. Transverse Section, showing the
Relation of the Principal Parts of
ditto,
605. Elevation of Clip for ditto,
486
606. Plan of ditto,
486
446
607. Stack-Trimmer,
486
551. Elevation of the Power Corn-Bruiser,
448
608. A Pyramidal Boss and Tressle,
487
552. Plan of ditto,
448
609. A Prismatic Boss,
487
•
553. Section of ditto,
449
610. The Common Throw-Crook,
488
•
554. Turner's Roller-Mill in Perspective,.
449
611-612. Straw-Rope Twisters,
488
•
555. Side Elevation of ditto,
450
613. The Straw-Rope Spinner,
489
•
556. End Elevation of ditto,
450
614. Coiled Straw-Rope,
489
•
•
557. The Oilcake Breaker,
451
615. The Ladder,
490
•
558. Transverse Section of the Rollers
of ditto,
616. Coiled Cart-Rope,
490
452
617. The Flail,
491
559. Plan of Part of the Rollers of ditto,
560. Plan of Top-Rail with Plummer-
Block of ditto,
•
452
618. The Hand-Hummeller,
491
619. The Corn-Barrow,
492
452
561. Side Elevation of Ransome and Sims'
620. The Wooden Wheat-Riddle,
621. The Wooden Barley-Riddle,
492
492
Oilcake Breaker,
453
622. The Wooden Oat-Riddle,
493
562. Plan of ditto,
453
•
563. Perspective of ditto,
564. Vertical Section of ditto,
623. The Wooden Bean-Riddle,
454 624. The Wooden Riddle for the Roughs
454
of Wheat and Oats,
493
493
565. Section of one of the Cutters of ditto,
566. The Linseed-Bruiser,
454
567. The Closed-Boiler Steaming Appa-
454 | 625. The Iron-Wire Wheat-Riddle,
626. The Iron-Wire Barley-Riddle,
627. The Iron-Wire Oat-Riddle,
493
493
494
•
ratus,
•
456
568. Richmond and Chandler's Steaming
Apparatus in Perspective, .
628. The Iron-Wire Riddle for Roughs,
629. The Wooden Sieve,
494
•
494
•
460
630. The Iron-Wire Sieve,
494
569. Smith and Co.'s Steaming Appara-
ratus in Elevation,
631. Triangular Meshed Iron-Wire Sieve, 494
461
632. Wecht or Maund,
495
570. Boiler and Furnace,
462
571. Portable Combined Furnace and
633. Corn-Basket of Wicker-Work,
634. The Barn Stool,
495
495
Caldron,
•
462 635. The Barn Wooden Hoe,
495
•
572. The Box Hand-Churn,
466
636. The Barn-Scoop,
495
573. Agitator of ditto,
574. Anthony's American Churn in Per-
spective,
575. Plunger-Churn,
576. Side Elevation of ditto with Hand-
Power Machine,
466
637. Long-Shanked Stable Broom,
496
467
•
638. The Imperial Bushel of a Conve-
nient Form,
496
468
639. The Flat and Cylindrical Corn-
Strikes,
496
469 640. Filled Sacks
as they should be
577. Back View of ditto with ditto,
578. Plunger-Churn with Horse-Power
Machine,
469
placed on the Barn Floor, .
497
641. The Sack-Barrow,
498
471 642. Sack-Lifter,
499
579. Perspective View of Keevil's Cheese-
Making Apparatus,
643. Gilbert's Sack Filler and Lifter in
472
•
Perspective,
499
580. Pressing-Plate of ditto,
473
644. Potato-Graip,
500
581. Pressing-Screw of ditto,
473
645. Potato-Basket,
500
582. Cross-Arms for Pressing-Plate of
646. Scotch mode of Yoking a Double
ditto,
473
Cart,
500
583. Filter-Plate and Plug of ditto,
584. The Stone Cheese-Press in Per-
473
647. English mode of ditto,
500
648. Hay-Knife,
501
•
spective,
474
649. Hand Straw or Hay Cutter in Per-
585. The Combined Lever Cheese-Press,
475
spective,
501
586. The Cheese-Turner,.
587. Patent Scythe with Bent Sned,
588. Scythe-Stones,
589. A Scythe-Strickle,
476 650. Feed-Mouth of ditto,
502
477 651. Pedal of ditto,
502
•
479
•
478 652. Hand-Lever Turnip - Slicer
Cattle, in Perspective,
for
503
590. The Straw-Fork,
•
479 653. Section of Cradle of ditto,
503
591. The Lincolnshire Steel-Fork,
592. Foreign Wooden Hay-Fork,
479
479 654. Samuelson's Hand-Lever Turnip-
Slicer in Perspective,
504
•
593-594. Hand Hay-Rakes,
480
595. Sharman's Tubular-Iron Hand-Rake,
596. The Toothed Sickle,
480
655. Best Form of Turnip-Picker in Use,
656. Objectionable Form of ditto,
504
•
504
481
597. The Smooth-Edged Sickle,
598. The Common Reaping-Scythe,
599. The Cradle-Scythe for Reaping,
600. The Sheaf-Gauge,
481
•
•
657-658. Implements for Topping and
Tailing Turnips,
504
•
482 659. Turnip-Trimming Knife,
505
483 660. The Cross Turnip-Chopper,
505
•
484 661. Turnip-Slicer with Parallel Blades,
506
XX
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
Fig.
Page Fig.
Page
663. Willow Scull or Basket,
665. Milk-Pail,
666. Milking-Stool,
662. Wheel-Barrow,
664. Cooler for a Byre,
667. Wedgewood-Ware Milk-Dish,
506 722. Kirkwood's Wire Sheep - Fodder
506
Rack,
528
•
506 723. The Sheep Straw or Hay Rack,
528
•
507 724. The Ewe-House,
507 725. Bathing-Stool for Sheep,
529
•
529
•
508 726. Bath-Jug,
529
•
668. Green Glass ditto,
508 727. Wool-Shears,
529
•
669. Wooden ditto,
•
508
728. Punching-Nippers,
530
670. Zinc ditto,
508
729-730. Buisting and Branding Irons,
530
671. A fixed Milk - Cooler of Marble or
731. Trochar for Hydatids,
530
672. Milk-Sieve,
of Wood, lined with Metal,
·
673. Cream-Skimmer,
674. Cream-Jar,
675. Butter Print-Mould and Hands,
676. Butter-Spade,
677. Lactometer in Perspective,
678. Curd-Cutter,
509
732. Corn-Chest,
531
•
509 733. Whin-Bruiser,
531
510
509 734. Curry-Comb, Brush, Foot-Picker,
and Mane-Comb,
531
510 735. Water-Brush,
532
510 736. Docking-Iron,
532
•
511 737. Fleam and Blooding-Stick,
532
•
•
511 738. Balling-Iron,
532
•
679. Cheese-Vat,
680. Curd-Breaker,
681. Section of ditto,
682. Dung-Spade,
511 739. Ball-Syringe,
533
•
•
512 740. Clyster-Funnel,
533
•
512 741. Round Pig's-Trough to stand in a
512
Court,
533
•
•
683. The Graip,
684. The Three-Pronged Dung-Graip,
685. The Dung-Hawk or Drag,
686. The Mud-Harle or Hoe,
687. A Safe Lantern for Steadings,
688. The Oil-Can,
689. Turnip-Trough for Courts,
690. Water-Troughs for Cattle,
691. Wooden Straw-Rack for Courts,
692. Iron ditto,
693. Straw-Rack for Sheds,
694. The Bullock-Holder,
695. American Cattle-Holder,
696. Swivelled Spring-Hook,
697. The Bull's Ring in a state to be in-
serted into the Bull's Nose,
698. The Bull's Ring as Fastened in the
Bull's Nose,
513 742. Pig's Troughs, with Subdivisions,
to stand in an Opening of the
Outer Wall of the Sty,
513
513
513 743. Dead-Hedge,
514 745. Common Wooden Paling,
515 748. Hedge-Bills and Axe,
515 749. Mole-Trap,
•
515 750. Rook-Battery,
516 751. Section of Suction-Pump,
516 752. Pump Plunger or Piston,
516 753. Front Elevation of Perreaux's
India-Rubber Pump-Valve,
534
•
535
•
513 744. Stake-and-Rice Fence,
535
•
535
•
514 746. Common Wooden Field-Gate,
536
514 747. Iron Field-Gate,
536
•
536
537
537
538
539
540
516 754. Section of Perreaux's Bracket-
Valve,
540
516
755. Section of Force-Pump,
541
•
699. The Cattle Probang,
517
•
700. The Mouth - Piece for the Cattle
Probang,
•
756. Force-Pump Piston or Plunger,
757. Air-Vessels for Force-Pump,
517 758, Gwynne's Farm Hand-Pump,
541
•
542
542
701. The Trochar,
518 759. Section of Gwynne's Centrifugal
702. Read's Stomach-Pump,
519
Pump,
542
•
703. Hurdles or Flakes Set for Confin-
ing Sheep on Turnips,
760. End Elevation of ditto,
543
•
519
761. Section of Hydraulic Ram,
543
•
704. The Shepherd's Knot,
705. Sheep-Net for Confining Sheep on
Turnips,
706. The Shepherd's Wooden Mallet,
707. The Driver,
708. The English Willow-Hurdle,
709. The Fold - Pitcher, or Dibber for
Setting Hurdles,
710. Wrought-Iron Hurdle,
711. Wire-Netting and Stake,
712. Mixed Gauze Wire-Netting,
713. Wire-Netting,
714. Spiral Wire-Work,
715-716. Macpherson's Portable Sheep
Hurdle,
717. The Shepherd's Crook,
718. The Turnip Trough for Sheep-
521
762. Grindstone,
544
522
763. The Lever for Equalising Draught
in the Horse-Wheel,
548
•
•
523
523
523 764. Mode of insuring Steadiness in
the Collar-Beam of
Wheels,
Horse-
549
765. Side Elevation of Dray's Horse-
524
Work,
549
•
524 766. Plan of ditto,
550
525 767. Part Plan of ditto,
550
525 768. Side Elevation of Safety Horse-
525
Gear,
550
•
•
•
525 769. Section of ditto,
551
770. Plan.of Top of ditto,
551
•
526 771. Horizontal Section of ditto,
551
526 772. Side Elevation of Hartas's Horse-
Works,
552
Feeding,
527 773. The Section and Elevation of
719. The Oilcake or Corn Trough for
Bucket Water-Wheel,
557
•
ditto,
527
774. The Plan of ditto,
558
•
720. The Corn-Box for ditto,
527
775-776. Ventilating Buckets,
559,560
721. The Vertical Section of the Interior
777. End Elevation of Gwynne's Tur-
of the Corn-Box,
527
bine,
564
•
Fig.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
778. Vertical Section of ditto,
779. Flued Cylindrical Boiler,
780. Multitubular or Fire-Box Boiler,
781. Transverse Section of ditto,
782. End Elevation of ditto,
783. Duplicate Retort Steam-Boiler,
784. Check-Bridges for Boiler Furnaces, .
785. Argand or Smoke-Preventing Fur-
nace,
786. Lee Stevens' Smokeless Furnace,
787. Regulating Air-door for Furnaces,
788. Double Furnace-Boiler,
789. Plan of Double-Ended Furnace-
Boiler,
790. End-Elevation of Double-Ended
Furnace-Boiler,
791. Smith's Water-Gauge,
792. Haley's Safety Signal for Boilers,
•
572 810. Circular Joint,
572 812. Expansion Roller for Steam-Pipes,
575 813. Cistern for Condensed Water in
Steam-Pipes,
577
814. Steam-Cock or Safety-Valve,
580 815. Long D Valve,
xxi
Page | Fig.
Page
•
564 808. Flange-Joint,
593
•
571 809. Faucet or Socket Joint,
594
•
594
·
572 811. Ring Joint,
594
595
595
595
•
597
580 816. Plan of ditto,
597
581
581 817. End Elevation (at Smoke-Box End)
of Tuxford's Portable Engine, in
Perspective,
608
582 818. Side Elevation of Haywood's Por-
table Engine,
609
582 819. Boydell's Endless Railway,
584 820. Detail of Rail of ditto,
610
•
610
610
612
613
614
614
616
•
617
•
618
618
•
619
620
625
626
•
834. Stirrup or Turn-Joint for ditto,
591 835. The Arrangement of the Ground-
592
Floor of the Barn, .
626
627
593 836. The Arrangement of the Upper ditto, 628
•
793. Water-Heating Apparatus for Boilers,
794. Section of Differential Feed-Appa-
ratus,
795. Plan of ditto,
796. Section of Hand-Feed Apparatus,
797. Plan of ditto,
798. End View of Feed-Apparatus,
799. Side View of ditto,
800. Chimney-Damper Arrangement,
801. Section of Safety-Valve,
802. Lever Safety-Valve,
803. Fairbairn's Lock-Up Safety-Valve,
804. Nasmyth's Absolute Safety-Valve,
805. Mercurial Gauge for High-Pressure
Engines,
806. Bourdon's Pressure-Gauge,
•
807. Apparatus for Preventing Priming,
•
585 821. Double Guide for ditto,
585 822. Hicks' Oscillating Engine,
823. Details of Cylinder Cover,
586 824. Contraction of Flow of Steam caused
586
by the Throttle-Valve,
586 825. Disc Throttle-Valve,
587 826. Reversing-Gear or Link Motion,
587 827. Piston-Lubricator,
587 828. Expansion-Valve,
588 829. Expansion Cut-Off,
588 830. Lap and Lead of Valve,
588 831. Steam-Engine Indicator,
590 832. Auxiliary Wind-Power,
590 833. Section of Cap of ditto,
ERRATA.
In par. 304, p. 69, for "we deduced," read "are deduced."
In title of cut, fig. 3, p. 3, for "strength of beams in their depth," read "strength of beams
as their depth."
Par. 872, p. 246, omit.
After par. 1119, p. 327, read par. 872, p. 246.
In title to fig. 161, p. 92, for "horizontal," read "longitudinal vertical.”
In par. 1592, for "washer-churn," read "dasher-churn."
In title to fig. 712, p. 525, for "Gauze," read "Gauge."
At p. 572, par. 1973, for "by Messrs Gordon," &c., read "by Messrs Emerson, late
Messrs Gordon and Co., Engineers, of Stockport."
THE BOOK
OF
FARM IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES.
BOOK FIRST. PRINCIPLES.
DISSERTATIONS ELUCIDATING THE SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES WHICH REGULATE
THE CHOICE OF MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE MACHINES AND
IMPLEMENTS, AND THE STRUCTURES CONNECTED WITH THEM, ON THE FARM.
1. To the farmer who is to use, and to the mechanic who is to construct,
the varied machines, implements, and structures required in the processes of
modern husbandry, the importance of a knowledge of the principles which
regulate the construction and arrangement of their component parts cannot be
over-estimated. We are not forgetful of the fact, that many who pride them-
selves on being practical men, view with considerable distrust the advances of
theory, and hold that greater progress has been made by practice in the field
or the workshop than by all the indications of theory.
2. That this knowledge, however, of mechanical principles has a high pecu-
niary value to the farmer and mechanic, we hope will be made clear by the
following considerations.
3. In many instances, cumbrous strength is given to parts which a know-
ledge of the strains to which they were subjected, and the pressure which they
were calculated to bear, would have at once shown to have been unnecessary.
Take, for instance, the arrangement of a piece of framework-as a roof, or a gate,
or the framing of a machine. A workman ignorant of the strains or pressures
to which the materials he employs is subject, and of the methods by which the
direction and amount of these strains or pressures are ascertained, uses a heavy
part to perform an office which a much lighter one would have effected.
4. Again, a mechanic desirous to make a beam or shaft to do double the
work, or to sustain twice the pressure, of a given pattern or model, would
naturally double the dimensions, unaware of the fact that he would thus ob-
tain a much greater strength than he anticipated. A knowledge of the law
that the transverse strength of square beams of equal length is as the cube of
A
2
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.
their depth; of rectangular beams, as the square of their depth, multiplied by their
breadth, and divided by their length; and of round beams, as the cube of their
diameter, would have enabled him to have avoided this mistake.
5. Again, a workman ignorant of the increase of area with increase of dia-
meter, in desiring to make a pipe to convey twice as much water as another
given pipe, would be apt to make the new pipe twice the diameter of the given.
one, finding, as a somewhat unexpected result, that the area of the pipe would
be four times that of the model, instead of twice, as anticipated.
6. We see exemplifications of this ignorance of mechanical principles every
day around us, and this in connection with even the simplest parts of imple-
ments. Thus, the handles of a hay-fork and of a turnip-hoe will be made
exactly of the same form, although the strain to which the two implements are
subjected is differently situated. Again, we find that instruments of the same
class have differently formed handles-one specimen tapering from the working
part outwards, another with its taper the reverse of this. Both cannot be right;
and a brief consideration of the strain to which the instrument is subjected,
would at once show the part which required to be made strongest, and that
which had to be made lightest.
Fig. 1.
C
α
7. The same remark applies to beams or parts of implements which have
to sustain cross-pressures.
A mechanic uninitiated in
the principles which denote the best form of beams
under such circumstances, would naturally make a beam
of the same size throughout, as a, fig. 1; while a know-
ledge of them would enable him to obtain a much
lighter, and, at the same time, an equally strong beam,
by giving it a certain amount of taper-proceeding
from the centre to the extremities, as in the case of
the rungs or rounds of ladders b, and of swing-trees or whipple-trees c, or as
in the teeth of hay-rakes.
b
RIGHT AND WRONG FORM OF
BEAMS
8. Even in the construction of so simple an instrument as the flail, the im-
portance of a knowledge of mechanical principles, and of the habit of investigating
the effect of any proposed form or arrangement of parts, is exemplified. In
α
Fig. 2.
b
RIGHT AND WRONG FORM OF
FLAILS.
forming this instrument, a very general practice prevails,
which is to have the beater club-shaped, or thickest at
the extremity, as at a in fig. 2, intended, no doubt, to
give better effect to the blows. If we trace, however, the
effects of this arrangement, we see that the additional
weight is not only unnecessary, but lessens the general
effect of the instrument. When every point in the length
of the beater strikes the floor with an equal amount of momentum or force,
the greatest amount of useful effect will be obtained. In a beater of uni-
form shape, there will be a constant tendency to a larger amount of momen-
tum at the outer point or extremity-arising from its greater velocity during
the gyration of the instrument as compared with the other parts of its length.
Now if the extremity be made heavier, this tendency will be augmented, the
greater velocity being increased by the greater weight-an undue preponder-
ance will therefore be given to the end of the beater, thereby lessening the
general effect upon the work under performance. These considerations point
to the flail with the outer extremity of its beater thinner than the other parts
of it, as being the form more consonant with the laws of dynamics, as b, fig. 2.
9. Again, an ignorance of the effects induced by the mere change of position
in a beam or piece of timber, leads often to unexpected results, and to a great
STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
Ъ
a
Fig. 3.
STRENGTH OF BEAMS IN THEIR
DEPTH
Fig. 4.
3
waste of material. Thus a knowledge of the law that, in fixed beams of equal
length and same material, the strength increases directly as their breadth or
thickness, a b, fig. 3, and as the square of their width or
depth, a c, fig. 4, will at once show to the mechanic that
a beam is much stronger if laid on its edge than if flat.
Thus, if a beam of any given length, and 4 inches square,
will carry 10 cwt., another beam of the same materials
and length, 4 inches broad, a b, fig. 4, and 8 inches, a c,
deep, will have an increase of strength in the propor-
tion of 42 to 82, or 16 to 64, being four times stronger
than the first, or capable of bearing 40 cwt. But suppos-
ing the thickness or breadth, a b, fig. 4, of the beam to have
been doubled to a d, while its width or depth, de, remained
the same, the strength would only be doubled. From
this will be seen the utility of making beams to support
a cross resistance narrow and deep, as in the case of a
joist, and also the reason for applying the strain to a
whipple or swing-tree in the direction of its breadth, or
edge-on; and moreover, how great a waste of material STRONGEST AND WEAKEST BEAMS
would be incurred, without corresponding advantages, by increasing all the
dimensions of those parts.
d
e
с
C
I
α
Fig. 5.
a
•P
10. Take again the use of cast-iron beams with flanges as used in buildings
and in the framing of machines. Few comparatively of
our mechanics are acquainted with the fact, that if the
broad flange, a, fig. 5, is placed upwards, it will break
with a weight a little more than one-third of that which
it will sustain when placed with the flange downwards,
as d. Still fewer are acquainted with the fact, that the
strength of a beam, as c d, is nearly a proportional of one
section of the bottom rib or flange, d—that is, that a flange of double the size
will give nearly double the strength.
d
STRONGEST AND WEAKEST POSI-
TION OF CAST-IRON BEAMS
11. It will be of some utility to extend such considerations as those, afford-
ing, as we trust they will, suggestions of practical utility. "Of all simple
geometrical figures," says Dr Moseley, "the triangle is the only one which
cannot alter its form without at the same time altering the dimensions
of its sides, and which cannot therefore yield, except by separating at
its angles, or tearing its sides asunder. Hence, therefore, a triangle whose
joints cannot separate, and whose sides are of sufficient strength, is perfectly
rigid. And this can be asserted of no other plane figure whatever. Thus a
parallelogram may have sides of infinite strength, and no force may be sufficient
to tear its joints asunder, and yet it may be made to alter its form by the action
of the slightest force impressed upon it. And this is true, in greater or less
degree, of all other four-sided figures and polygons." But the practical utility
of these deductions may yet be obscure to the thoroughly practical man.
is for these reasons," continues the author we have quoted, "that, in all framing,
care is taken to combine all the parts as far as possible in triangles, which, being
once done, we know that the rigidity of the system may be insured by giving
the requisite strength to the timbers and joints.
11
"It
12. This practical deduction from the mathematical enunciation just given is of
the highest importance in mechanical construction. Let us exemplify it in
connection with field-gates-a part of our agricultural economy-than which
* MOSELEY'S Mechanics applied to the Arts, p. 132.
4
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.
a
d
Fig. 6.
e
e
с
FORM OF RIGID STRENGTH
none points out so broadly the ignorance of our artisans in those important
branches of their education-the elementary truths of geo-
metry and mechanics. A field-gate may be described as a
rectangular frame, a b c d, fig. 6. No matter what may be the
strength of its parts or the extent of its upfillings, e e, e e,
if they are placed at right angles to each other; it is, as
we have shown, a very weak form, and liable to change
e with comparatively slight pressure; but a gate in the form
of a triangle would, if the joints and the materials were
strong enough, be perfectly immutable. This, however, would be an unservice-
able shape; how, then, can the principle of the triangle be applied? Simply thus
-if we take a rectangular frame, a b c d, fig. 6, so essential to a field-gate, and
apply a bar in the position of the diagonal of the parallelogram b d, we imme-
diately convert the original rectangular figure into two triangles, applied to
each other by their hypotheneuse, and which give us the true elements of a
properly constructed gate, all the other parts being subordinate to these, and
adapted solely to the practical purposes of the gate as a defence, or for orna-
ment.
13. Nor is the proposition of less importance in the minor constructions of the
farm; even in such a simple matter as forming a firm connection between the head
and the handle of a hay-rake, for its great utility is observable. As many are
aware, the simplest method adopted for this purpose is to insert the extremity of
a
Fig. 7.
l l l d
FAULTY METHODS OF CONNECTING THE HANDLE AND HEAD
OF A HAY KAKE
CORRECT METHOD
the shaft or helve in
the centre of the head
by a simple tenon,
as at a, fig 7. Little
consideration is re-
quired to show the
weakness of this plan.
To overcome its de-
fects, the extremity of
the shaft is sometimes split up for a considerable distance, and the two
parts extended, and tenoned into mortices on each side of the central point
of the head, as c. This is a better arrangement than the first named, but
still defective from the concave curve assumed by the forked extremities of
the helve. Some mechanics adopt the converse of this plan, and pass a
convex or semicircular bow of wood through a slot made near the extremity
of the helve, and fasten the extremities of the bow in the head of the rake,
as at b. This arrangement is even worse than the last one described, inasmuch as
the curved bow-weak from its very form-passing through a hole in the shaft.
weakens this part considerably. The arrangement is slightly modified by other
mechanics, who make the bow of iron and nail it to the outside of the shaft.
This is better in degree, but still defective in principle. A mechanic, however,
acquainted with the principle of stability we have already pointed out, would
know at once that the best method to secure a firm connection between the
helve and the head of a hay-rake would be by fixing two pieces of perfectly
straight light iron' rod at one end to the sides of the helve by screw-nails, and
at the other by the same means to the head of the rake, at a point equidistant
from its centre, as at d. This part is called the stay or brace, and in the last-
described form is as perfect as the case will admit of.
14. To have said so much of two such simple matters as the construction of a
field-gate and a hay-rake may appear trifling, but we have done so in order to
•
TRUE AND FALSE DIAGONALS.
5
point out the importance of the principle on which depends the strengthening
and supporting of the parts of any form of framework, whether of wood or iron,
by the aid of diagonal stays or braces. This single member in all construc-
tions is of such importance, that no opportunity should be lost in impressing the
principle on the mind of all whose business or interest lies in those departments
of mechanics where its application is required. It is no exaggeration to affirm
that the knowledge of this principle alone would have effected a large saving of
material in many extensive farms. It is somewhat curious to trace in many of
the works of agricultural mechanics the incipient knowledge of the usefulness
of this principle of stability in the attempts to avail themselves of the diagonal
bar. In these we see it applied-with that uncertainty of purpose marking a
doubtful and hesitating knowledge of the subject-in all possible positions save
the true one, namely-extending from an angle to its opposite.
Fig. 8.
15. While on this subject it may be useful to point out a common error in the
application of stays, as exemplified in the curved bow in the hay-rake b, fig. 7,
just described. All deviations from the straight line weaken the part so applied,
and all extra material necessitated by the use of curves,
does not, as supposed by some, strengthen the parts,
so used, by adding to the weight, but, on the contrary,
weakens it. If ornament is used, it should be added
to the diagonal brace or stay, which should always be in
a straight line, as in the right of fig. 8.
FALSE AND TRUE ORNAMENTED
DIAGONALS.
16. We have already adverted to the importance of a knowledge of the strains
to which different constructive materials are subjected, and the pressures which
they are calculated to bear. One wedded to the practical notion would be apt
to conceive that little utility would arise from the elaborate and minutely tabu-
lated experiments which theorists and purely scientific men have instituted, in
order to ascertain these strains and pressures. But irrespective of other advan-
tages, which we shall notice hereafter, the axiom of universal application in
mechanical construction, "tie with iron and strut with wood," which has been
deduced from them, would have given these experiments a high pecuniary value
to the practical man. An ignorance on his part of this axiom has frequently
resulted, as we have already said, in a great waste of material, by using heavy
and costly parts, which lighter and cheaper would have effected.
17. Let us here investigate this matter briefly, as exemplified in the construc-
tion of a gate. In field-gates constructed entirely of wood, the diagonal should
invariably be applied as a strut; that is to say, it should rise from the foot of
the heel-post, and terminate at the top of the head-post. Placed in this posi-
tion, the diagonal supports the head or swinging end of the gate, by its resist-
ance to compression-a duty which, from the area of its cross section being con-
siderable, and hence capable of resisting lateral flexure, it is well adapted to
perform; while, at the same time, the above sectional property gives it a broad
terminal resistance, where it abuts upon the angles of the external frame. The
same diagonal bar, if applied in the opposite position, and performing the duty
of a tie or stay, its great sectional area would avail but little; for, though woody
fibre is capable of resisting very considerable tension-larch-wood having, with
equal sectional areas, a power of resistance to tension to about that of malle-
able iron of medium quality-and though this wooden tie might be found to
possess, in its aggregate section, a cohesive force greatly beyond that of an iron
bar applied in the same position-for the wooden bar would have a sectional
area at least twelve times greater than could be requisite for an iron tie, thus
yielding an aggregate force double of the iron-yet as the wooden tie must
4
6
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.
depend for its connection in the structure upon nails or bolts only, its ultimate
power of resistance to tension depends not on its own sectional area, but
on that of the nails or bolts by which it is fastened, and these, again, may
be very greatly reduced by the rending of the extremities of the wooden tie.
18. The advantages of iron as a tie, and its disadvantages as a strut, are just
the converse of the foregoing. From the smallness of sectional area requisite
in an iron bar applied in this construction, as compared with its length, it is
not capable of withstanding compression even to the smallest extent without
suffering lateral flexure, and this defect unfits it entirely for the purpose of a
strut. Applied as a tie, the iron bar is perfect; the cohesion is such, that
a very small sectional area is sufficient for the purpose under consideration:
thus, a rod of 1-inch square, even of inferior iron, will bear a tension with
safety, of two or three tons, while the best quality will bear six tons; a rod of
half this sectional area may, therefore, be held as sufficient for the diagonal tie
of a gate, and as it can be fixed by bolts without risk of fracturing its ends, as
in the case of wood, its application in principle becomes as perfect as it is pos-
sible to approach. But though this construction is in principle completely
supported by the tie from any force tending to depress the head-post of the gate,
there is yet a defect in practice; for a gate is liable, from various causes, to be
forced upward at the head-post. We have seen that a slender and flexible iron
rod cannot resist compression without flexure, and, therefore, a gate with only
one iron diagonal tie will still be practically imperfect, and it becomes necessary
to apply an antagonist, placed in the position of a strut, but virtually performing
the duties of a tie, arising from the antagonistic effects of the two, the tendency
of the one being to hold the head of the gate up, while the other exerts an
equal force to keep it down, whereby a perfect equilibrium is preserved within
the structure.
19. It is clear, however, that valuable as this mechanical maxim is—“ tie with
iron and strut with wood"-something more must be known by the practical man
before he can avail himself of it. For however obvious in some constructions
the parts are which act as ties, and those which act as struts, on the other hand
there are some constructions in which an inexperienced mechanic would have
some difficulty to distinguish the one from the other.
20. Hence arises the utility of a knowledge of the mechanical principles of
Carpentry or Framework, and which further enables the direction and amount of
pressure exercised upon the various parts of a framework to be ascertained.
The direction of the pressure pointing out to him the parts which will have to
sustain the pressure, and the amount giving him an idea as to the size of the
part required to sustain the weight or pressure laid upon it.
21. Useful as are the principles of the Mechanics of Statics, or those which
regulate the construction of parts requiring stability, no less useful are those of
the Mechanics of Dynamics, which regulate the construction and operation of
those parts of machines and implements which have motion.
22. Take, for example, the construction of shafts or axles with journals. To
a workman ignorant of the laws of friction—or at least of the results of well-
arranged experiments in connection with them—for of friction, its real nature, we
know but little-it would seem a light matter whether the rubbing surfaces
were smooth or rough, or whether the journals revolved in metal or material of
the same nature-that is, iron upon iron, wrought-iron upon wrought-iron, or
cast-iron upon cast-iron. On the other hand, the workman acquainted with
these experiments would know that the most refined mode of finishing the
surface of the bearings, the most accurate circular form which can be obtained
UNION OF THEORY WITH PRACTICE.
by turning, and the use of bearings of a different material from that of the shaft,
were the best adapted to destroy friction.
7
23. Again, although the fact is very widely known that the interposition of
a lubricating substance between rubbing surfaces tends to reduce the friction,
little may be known of the different effects of different substances, and how
friction is increased by one unguent, while it is lessened by another.
24. By attention to these points, and to the proper construction of the bushes
or bearings, not only may a saving of lubricating substance be effected in a
short time, sufficient to repay the additional cost of the improved fittings, but
the working capability of a machine may be considerably increased.
25. In the construction and arrangement of other parts of machines—as in the
use of fly-wheels; the determination of the best form to give to the teeth of
wheels to insure freedom and uniformity of motion and to avoid all unnecessary
shocks and strains; to determine the dimensions of the various parts-avoiding
undue strength, which will only add to the power expended on the one hand, and
give undue weakness on the other, so as the strength of all the parts may be
in a proper ratio to the strains to which they are subjected—the utility of correct
indications of theory will be as obvious, as we trust we have already shown them.
to be, in connection with the other departments of mechanics noticed.
26. It would be an easy matter here to extend our remarks illustrative of the
loss of material and consequent loss of labour incurred by a neglect or ignorance.
of correct mechanical principles, but such extension we do not deem necessary.
It must be obvious, we think, that want of attention to these mechanical prin-
ciples must add to the original cost of a machine or implement, by unneces-
sarily increasing its weight, or the number of its component parts, and, in
addition, be a source of perpetual loss so long as it is employed, by the extra
labour incurred in using it. The propriety of preceding our chapters de-
scriptive of the Implements and Machines of the Farm with Dissertations
elucidating the mechanical principles of construction, and deducing from them
rules and practical information, will, we trust, be now deemed obvious.
27. To the mechanic the utility of such knowledge cannot for a moment be
doubted; but in some minds there may be some hesitancy as to their utility to
the farmer. A brief consideration will, we think, suffice to show, however, that
a combination of the knowledge of the operation or duty required of a machine,
with that of the mechanical principles involved in its arrangement, and of the
best method to be followed in the construction of its parts, will be well calculated
to aid even the farmer.
28. First, in leading him to see the pecuniary advantages attendant upon secur-
ing the services of mechanics whose education qualifies them to perform those
duties in accordance with the laws of mechanical science; second, in superin-
tending those workmen in the construction of new, or the repairing of old, imple-
ments and machines; third, in impressing him with the importance of keeping
his machines clean and in good repair; fourth, in avoiding all unnecessary
shocks and strains arising from defective parts, and the loss of power consequent
upon the presence of extraneous matters in the moving parts; and, lastly, to
enable him, in purchasing, to distinguish the machine or implement false in
mechanical principle, or defective in construction, from the true and the efficient,
so as to convince him that complex arrangements do not necessarily give more
accurate work than those of a simpler kind, or that heavy cumbrous materials
do not always insure strength.
29. On the importance of a union of theory and practice, a gifted author
remarks: "It is a great but a prevalent mistake to suppose, that the inventions.
8
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS.
∞-
which have of late so greatly augmented our physical happiness, have resulted
either from chance or the speculations of men untaught in science. The very
reverse has been the case. There is scarcely a valuable mechanical discovery
of modern date, which is not in its nature essentially scientific, and dependent
upon principles either not generally known, or not to be acquired without con-
siderable research.
If it be urged that men, eminent for their
inventions, have at any rate advanced but little beyond mere principle,
it may be answered, that it was because those applications of science
to the arts, which constitute their inventions, were to be found even in
its principles and on its threshold, not because there were not other
and even more valuable applications beyond it.
Science in
all its departments is rich in knowledge applicable to the wants of society.
It is when practical men add to their experience sound views in theory that it
is made to contribute its resources to the public welfare. This is, however, an
exceedingly rare union. The arts in consequence are vastly behind philosophy.
The practical, man imagines unreal difficulties in the attainment of scientific
knowledge, and consoles himself by underrating the advantages which science
has to offer him. The man of science, wrapt up in the pride of abstract reason-
ing, will not trouble himself to encounter practical difficulties. His vocation is
to discover; to smooth the paths, and to extend the domains, of knowledge; it
belongs to the other to follow in his steps, and apply it."
30. To these remarks may be added the equally suggestive ones of Mr William
Fairbairn of Manchester, one of the most gifted of our mechanicians: "It is
absurd to talk against theory, as if a knowledge of the exact sciences was a
dangerous and a useless attainment; nothing can be more erroneous than this
impression, as, on close inspection, there is no practice without theory, any
more than there is no effect without a cause. In the useful arts, theory can
only be considered dangerous when it is not reducible to practice; and the real
meaning of the term theory, which creates so much alarm in the minds of prac-
tical men, is neither more nor less than a series of definite rules by which prac-
tice is governed, and through which we derive, from fixed and definite laws,
those sound and healthy results which, of all others, it is the primary object of
practice to accomplish. In the mechanical arts, how difficult, precarious, and
unsatisfactory are the thoughts of men unacquainted with first principles; and
how very often does that deficiency lead them into mal-construction, and those
errors which a knowledge of science would teach them to avoid.
A
knowledge of the exact sciences must be valuable under every circumstance of
life, and this knowledge alone united to sound judgment, is irrevocably the fore-
runner of a sound and perfect construction. I could multiply examples where
ignorance as a pretender to knowledge-has been productive of the most unto-
ward results, not only in abortive attempts at construction, but in those on which
the lives and property of individuals depend. It is not an uncommon occurrence
to witness in works of this kind, the most glaring imperfections, a waste of mate-
rial, and a total want of proportion, arising from the absence of this knowledge;
and in order to lessen the number of these discrepancies, our practical men
should be educated, and that education should be accompanied with the convic-
tion, that sound practice can never be attained without some definite rule for its
guidance."
31. To aid the country mechanic, as well as other mechanicians and the
farmer somewhat in applying sound principles to the practice of construction,
and to point out to them the direction of their studies, should they aim at higher
* MOSELEY'S Mechanics applied to the Arts.
Useful Information for Engineers, p. 4.
PROPOSED ARRANGEMENT OF THIS WORK.
9
excellence in their calling, we shall now give the Dissertations to which we
have already alluded, containing established laws and facts, and which we have
arranged in the following order, as one affording a succinct and lucid view of
their contents,-
32. DIVISION FIRST.-MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.
33. Section First.-Stones-Granite, trap, sandstones, limestones, and brick.
34. Section Second.-Timber-Oak, ash, pines-their toughness or resistance
to transverse fracture-their cohesive strength-their compressile strength-
their treatment.
35. Section Third.-Metals-Iron, cast-iron-its properties, and different quali-
ties of cast-iron; wrought-iron-its properties; copper, brass, lead, and zinc
—their properties and use in construction.
36. DIVISION SECOND.-PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
37. Section First.—Strength of Materials—Strains to which materials are sub-
jected; how to estimate them; form of strongest section of beams.
38. Section Second.-Framing and Carpentry-Rules to ascertain the direction
and amount of the pressure exercised upon the parts of framework.
39. DIVISION THIRD.-PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
40. Section First.-Foundations.
41. Section Second.-Masonry-Brickwork-Footings, tooling, stone-and-brick
setting; arches.
42. Section Third.—Timber-framing-Gates; working and joining of timbers;
rules to calculate the dimensions of parts of timber-framing.
43. Section Fourth.-Iron-framing-Gates; methods of securing and con-
necting the different parts of iron-framing; rules to calculate dimensions of
different parts of iron-framing.
44. Section Fifth.-Machine Construction-Shafts, bearings, pulleys, teeth of
wheels, eccentrics, connecting-rods; fittings; rules to calculate the various
parts of machines.
45 DIVISION FOURTH.-FRICTION AND FORCE.
46. Section First.-Friction.
47. Section Second.-Force-Useful effects of machines; measure of moving
power; application of labour; friction-brake; dynamometer.
DIVISION FIRST.-MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.
48. SECTION FIRST-Stones, Brick, Tiles.-Stones useful for the building pur-
poses of the farm may be divided into three great classes—namely, the Silicious,
the Calcareous, and the Argillaceous. The silicious are represented by the
granites, traps, and sandstones; the calcareous are comprised in the lime-
stones; the argillaceous, being peculiarly liable to atmospheric influences, are
by no means durable enough for building purposes, but, being slaty in their
structure, they are employed in the construction of roofs.
49. Granite. This, in its several varieties, is the most durable of all the
building-stones. Its constituents are-quartz, which is nearly pure silica, and
forms the greater part of the rock; felspar, which imparts to granite its peculi-
arities of character; and mica, which occurs in shining plates of greater or less
size. The best granites are obtained in Scotland; they are known as the red
and the grey varieties. They are more durable than the granites of thé coun-
ties of Devon and Cornwall in England.
10
MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.
50. The granular arrangement of felspar, hornblende, and quartz, known
as sienite or syenite, forms a species of granite, the hornblende appearing
instead of the mica, and is one of the most durable of the building-stones known.
The two substances, hornblende and mica, resemble each other closely in com-
position-hornblende having, however, a much greater proportion of the black
oxide of iron-syenite is as capable of being worked in large blocks as granite,
although, from its hardness, like common granite, it is not easily tooled. The
durability of this class of building-stones (the granites), in which felspar is
present, depends much on the composition of this ingredient. From the potash
contained in it, it is more or less obnoxious to atmospheric influences. Care,
therefore, should be taken to ascertain the composition of the stones of this
class, where large and important works are to be carried on.
51. Trap or Greenstone is a very hard and durable stone; it is composed
of hornblende and felspar. Although a valuable building-stone, its uses are
restricted, from the small size and irregular form of the concretions in which it is
frequently found. It is also found in some localities in amorphous masses, when
it may be raised in large masses. For cottages and rural structures, when
used in conjunction with white stone-facings or dressings to the windows,
doors, and corners, and with white mortar, it is well adapted, and presents a
pleasing appearance. Basalt, of the same composition as greenstone, but with
a large proportion of iron, is also a durable material as a building-stone; but it
occurs in columnar masses and in still smaller concretions than greenstone, and,
being harder, is more difficult of being tooled.
52. Sandstones, belonging to the silicious class, are composed of grains derived
from the wearing down of the silicious rocks, and bound or cemented together
by natural cement of an argillaceous, silicious, or calcareous character. Sand-
stones present a wide range of character, from a state almost as durable as
granite, to that but little better than hardened clay. Where the silicious par-
ticles are held together chiefly by an argillaceous cement, they rapidly disinte-
grate under the influence of the weather.
66
53. Sandstones are easily worked, and divide readily into convenient blocks.
From the ease with which it is worked, indeed, some workmen term it free-
stone." The best sandstone is that obtained from Craigleith quarry, near Edin-
burgh; it is in high repute. The grey-coloured sandstones of Forfarshire are
very durable. The Yorkshire sandstones are much esteemed for flagging, being
hard, and durable, and easily worked. A greenish sandstone, known as Kentish
rag, is very durable.
54. In choosing sandstone, preference should be given to that purely silicious;
when argillaceous matter is present, the atmosphere will affect its durability.
Although generally esteemed from its variegated appearance, sandstone with
coloured stripes should be avoided. These coloured parts, arising from the pre-
sence of iron, are speedily affected by water, and decay of the stone is
thereby hastened. When mica is present in minute quantity, it determines
more specifically the stratified character of sandstone, and the stone is then
easily worked in blocks.
55. Limestones.-This, the last class of stones suitable for the buildings
of the farm we have here to notice, is an important one, and presents a large
variety of kinds, characterised by as great diversities of composition as the sand-
stones. The principal constituent of stones of this class is lime. Limestones
are impure carbonates, the impurities present giving that diversity of appearance
which characterises many varieties, as marble. Any limestone susceptible of
a high polish is termed marble, and of this there are many varieties. The
QUALITIES OF CERTAIN STONES.
11
oolite limestones, a new formation, afford the limestones chiefly used for
building purposes. Magnesian limestones afford some superior building mate-
rial. The mountain limestone forms a beautiful and durable building material.
56. In determining the qualities of building-stone, its cohesiveness, or resist-
ance to a crushing power, and its absorbent power, or that which represents its
capability to resist atmospheric influences, are the two points principally consi-
dered. In the report of the Royal Commissioners appointed to investigate the
qualities of the stone to be used for the Houses of Parliament, a valuable table
is given, which we here append. This affords information on the above two
points in connection with the most celebrated of the building-stones of the king-
dom. In another column the number of grains, disintegrated from each speci-
men, is given. The amount of disintegration was ascertained by subjecting all
the specimens simultaneously for eight days to Brard's process, which closely
resembles the action of the usual atmospheric influences on stone. The
absorbent column exhibits the bulk of water absorbed by specimens one cubic
inch in size, while the cohesive column exhibits the weight necessary to
crush two-inch cubes, or blocks of eight cubic inches. Of the two columns of
specific gravities, the first exhibits the ordinary specific gravity, the second
shows the specific gravity of the solid particles of which each specimen is com-
posed, on the supposition that the water will take the place of the air which
occupied the pores before the atmospheric pressure was removed.
Classes and Names of
Stones.
Specific Gravities.
SANDSTONES.
Absorbing
Power.
Disintegra-
tion.
Cohesive
Power.
Craigleith
2.232
2.646
0.143
0.6
28.083
Darley Dale.
2.628
2.993
0.121
0.121
25.300
•
Heddon
2.229
2.643
0.156
10.1
14.168
Kenton
Mansfield
2.247
2.625
0.143
7.9
17.710
2.338
2.756
0.151
7.1
18.216
Park Spring
2.321
2.615
0.112
5.0
27.071
Morley Moor
2.053
2.687
0.221
0.9
10.879
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONES.
Bolsover
2.316
2.833
0.182
1.5
29.601
Huddlestone
2.147
2.867
0.239
1.9
15.433
Roche Abbey
2.134
2.840
0.248
0.6
13.915
Park Nook
2.138
2.847
0.249
1.8
15.433
Cadeby
1.951
2.846
0.310
6.4
15.180
Jackdaw Crag
2.070
2.634
0.209
3.1
16.951
Bramham Moor
OOLITES.
Ancaster
Bath Box
2.008
2.659
0.244
0.7
22.011
2.182
2.687
0.180
7.1
8.349
•
1.839
2.675
0.312
10.0
5.313
Portland
2.145
2.702
0.206
2.7
7.590
Ketton
2.045
2.706
0.244
3.3
9.108
LIMESTONES.
Barnack
2.090
2.627
0.204
16.6
6.325
Chilmark
2.481
2.621
0.053
9.8
25.553
Ham Hill
2.260
2.695
0.147
9.5
14.421
•
57. Brick.-If properly made, bricks are little inferior in strength, hardness,
and durability, to the building-stones in ordinary use. When broken across,
their fracture should present a fine, compact, and uniform texture, of a brownish
colour. A whole brick, when struck, should give a clear ringing sound. In
Scotland considerable prejudice exists against the use of bricks, more especially
for domestic structures.
12
MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.
58. SECTION SECOND-Timber.—All the varieties of Fir timber imported into
the country are employed in the construction of farm-buildings, and those kinds
are most used in localities which are obtained from the nearest seaports. For
example, along the east coast of this country, Memel logs and Baltic battens
are used for all such purposes, while on the west coast no timber is to be
seen in the construction of farm-buildings but what is brought from America.
(1.) Norway and St Petersburg battens, being cut to proper lengths and
breadths, form cheap and very durable timber for all farm purposes. The price
is, for red from 3d. to 31d., for white from 2ğd. to 3d. the lineal foot. The
Norway battens are a shade cheaper. The red or white-wood battens make
excellent floors, and plain deal doors for inside use. Such flooring is beauti-
fully dressed by planing machinery at Mr Burstall's mills at Leith. (2.) Memel
logs are admirably fitted for joisting, windows, outside doors, and all outside
work, it being composed of strong and durable fibre, surrounded with resinous
matter. It sells for from 2s. 4d. to 2s. 6d. the cubic foot. The greatest objec-
tion to its use for small purposes is its knottiness, on which account the Norway
battens make handier small scantlings and cleaner door-work. (3.) The Ame-
rican red-pine is excellent timber, being clean, reedy, and resinous. It is
seldom or never of so large dimensions as Memel log. It fetches from 2s. to
2s. 2d. the cubic foot. It is fitted for beams, joists, scantlings, windows, and
outside doors. (4.) American yellow-pine is well suited to all inside work,
and especially that which requires the highest finish, such as bound-doors,
window-fittings, and mantelpieces. There is no wood that receives paint so
well. The logs are generally of immense sizes, affording great economy of
timber in cutting them up. Its price is, for small sizes 1s. 8d., and for large
2s. 3d., the cubic foot. (5.) Swedish 11-inch plank is good and useful timber,
but its scantlings are not very suitable for farm-buildings. Stout joists for
granaries are made of it, with a draught taken off the side for sarking. It
forms excellent planking for wheeling upon, and for gangways. It sells, the
white wood for from 5d. to 6d., and the red from 6d. to 7d., the lineal foot.
59. In the interior of the country, at a distance from seaports, home timber is
much used in farm-buildings. Larch forms good scantlings and joists, and is
a durable timber for rough work, and so does well-grown Scots fir of good age,
and cut down in the proper season; but in its ordinary state its durability is
not equal to larch or generally any good foreign timber for rough purposes.*
60. All the timber referred to is derived from the trees belonging to the
natural order of Coniferæ, or cone-bearing trees. (1.) The Scots fir, Pinus
sylvestris, is a well-known tree in the forests of this country, and few new plan-
tations are made without its aid, as a nurse for hardwood trees. In favourable
situations it grows to a large size, as is evidenced in the Memel log, which
is just the produce of the Scots fir from the forests of Lithuania. Aged Scots
fir cut down at Ardovie, in Forfarshire, was of as good quality and useful sizes
as the best Memel. (2.) The Swedish plank is of the spruce, Abies excelsa
or communis, a tree which, as it is treated in this country, comes to little value,
being rough and full of knots. Inspection of a cargo from Sweden, which
arrived at Hull in 1808, convinced Mr Pontey that the white deal, which fetched
at that time from £14 to £15, 10s. the load of 50 cubic feet, was of common
spruce, the planks having been recently sawn, and a small branch left attached
* In vol. ix. p. 165, of the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, will be
found a long account of the larch plantations of Atholl, drawn up from the papers of the
late Duke of Atholl; and in vol. xii. p. 122, of the same work, is an account of the native pine
forests of the north of Scotland, by Mr John Grigor, Forres.
1
OAK-ASH.
13
to one of them.* (3.) Whether the Norway pine is the same species as
the pine found in some of the forests of the north of Scotland, we do not
know. Some writers speak of the Norway batten as of the Norway spruce,
called by them Pinus Abies. It may be that the white-wood battens are derived
from that tree; but the red-wood kind has very probably the same origin as
the red-wood of the north of Scotland, which is from a variety of the Pinus
sylvestris, or horizontalis of Don.† (4.) The red pine of Canada is the Pinus
resinosa. (5.) And the yellow pine is the Pinus variabilis or Pinus mitis of
Michaux, which towers in lofty height far above its compeers. It grows to the
gigantic height of 150 feet, and must require great labour to square it to
the sizes found in the British market, large as these sizes unquestionably
6. The larch, Larix Europæa, is a native of the ravines of the Alps of the
Tyrol and Switzerland, where it shoots up, as straight as a rush, to a great
height.
are.
61. For agricultural implements two kinds of wood are principally used-oak
and ash; oak chiefly in England, ash in Scotland, possibly from ash being
cheaper in Scotland than oak. Experiments go to prove the superiority of
ash for purposes where sudden shocks and severe strains are given to the
implements.
62. Oak.—The common English oak, Quercus robur, is deemed the best for
construction. The grain is straight and fine, and well adapted for purposes
where stiffness is required. It splits easily into laths. The Sessile oak is
considered, from its elasticity and toughness, best for ship-building purposes,
but it is somewhat liable to warp and split. It is not so fine-grained as the
Robur oak, and is darker in colour. These English oaks take a long period
to come to maturity-nearly 100 years. The American oak is of more rapid
growth than the English, but is not so durable. The red Canadian oak is
deemed of little constructive value.
63. Oak is adapted to a vast variety of purposes, and when kept in a dry
situation it may be termed practically imperishable. Even in situations of
alternate wetness and dryness, it is more durable than other wood used for
construction. The colour of the best quality is a light brown; when it
approaches to red, the quality is not so valuable. The heaviest wood is
always the strongest, and that grown on heavy soil more valuable than that
on light.
64. Ash.-A hard wood, of compact texture and brownish colour, easily
worked when young, but tough and hard when seasoned. Its durability is
great when kept dry, but alternations of wetness and dryness cause it to decay.
Notwithstanding this defect, it is greatly used for purposes where it is sub-
jected to severe strains and shocks, from its superiority in toughness and
elasticity.
65. If we examine the transverse section of the trunk of a full-grown
tree, we will find it divided into three parts-the heart, which is the centre
part; the sap-wood, which surrounds the heart; and the bark, which forms the
outer covering. Of these the heart is the valuable part for constructive pur-
poses, the sap-wood having little strength, and being very liable to decay from
the amount of fermenting matter contained in it.
66. The tree should not be felled till it has attained its maturity; if cut
* PONTEY'S Profitable Planter, p. 41, 4th edition, 1814; and at p. 56 he relates an anecdote of
a person who, though long accustomed to attend on sawyers, was deceived by some Scots fir,
which he considered excellent foreign plank.
+ See Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. p. 530.
14
MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.
before, the timber will not be so strong; if cut after decay has set in, it will
be less durable and strong than when cut as above mentioned. The commence-
ment of the decline of a tree is indicated by the decay of the top and the
topmost branches. There are differences of opinion as to the period of the year
when timber should be felled-this having reference to the time when the
sap is not in circulation. If the tree should be felled while this circulates, the
decay of the tree will be hastened from the highly fermentable nature of the
sap. The winter months, and the month of July, are considered the best for
felling, as the sap is then believed to be dormant. The researches, however,
of M. Boucherie, a gentleman who has devoted much time to investigating the
properties of timber, point to midsummer and autumn as the time when the sap
is least active.
67. Seasoning of Timber.-It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of
this part of the duties of the machine and implement maker. Unseasoned tim-
ber, from shrinking and warping, may cause material injury to important struc-
tures and implements. There are a variety of methods now introduced to effect
this important purpose. We shall notice three of these: (1.) Natural season-
ing; (2.) Water seasoning; (3.) Hot-air desiccation.
68. Natural Seasoning.-On felling, the bark and small branches are to be
removed, and the timber as soon as possible cut into balks of convenient size of
scantling. These are to be removed at once, and piled under drying sheds,
where they are subjected to the free circulation of the air, yet protected from the
direct action of the sun, wind, and rain. The great object to be attained is
uniform drying of the whole timber; all partial and unequal drying only causes.
warping and shrinking. No timber should be used for constructive purposes
until it has been subjected at least two years to this seasoning process. For the
usual purposes of the carpenter, timber is considered sufficiently seasoned when
it loses about one-fifth of its weight when green.
69. Water Seasoning.-This consists in placing the timber in water, with a
view to use the latter as a medium to carry off the soluble matter, which is the
principal cause of decay. Although much recommended by some, it is consi-
dered by good authorities of doubtful utility.
70. Hot-air Desiccation.—The best process, and one which has proved itself
thoroughly successful, is that introduced by Messrs Davison and Symington.
The following is a brief description of it: The timber to be dried is placed in
proper positions in a close chamber, into which is forced, by means of fanners,
a powerful current of highly heated air. This air is heated by passing through
a series of pipes, which are arched over, and form the upper part of the furnace.
Some idea may be formed of the complete nature of the process, when we men-
tion that a violin, which had been in use for many years, and was considered
thoroughly dry, lost a considerable per-centage of its weight when subjected to
the action of the currents of heated air. The same result was obtained in sub-
jecting a piece of wood, which had lain for a great number of years exactly over
a smith's forge, which had been in constant use.
71. In regard to the composition of wood, and its chemical properties, "It is
considered by chemists that dry timber consists, on an average, of 96 parts of
fibrous and 4 of soluble matter in 100, but that their proportions vary somewhat
with the seasons, the soils, and the plant. All kinds of wood sink in water when
placed in a basin of it under the exhausted receiver of an air-pump, showing
their specific gravity to be greater than 1.000,” and varying from 1.46 (pine) to
1.53 (oak).
"Wood becomes snow-white when exposed to the action
of chlorine; digested with sulphuric acid it is transformed first into gum, and,
TEXTURE OF WOOD.
by ebullition with water, afterwards into grape sugar.
15
Authenreith
stated, some years ago, that he found that fine sawdust, mixed with a sufficient
quantity of wheat flour, made a cohesive dough with water, which formed an ex-
cellent food for pigs; apparently showing that the digestive organs of this ani-
mal could operate the same sort of change upon wood as sulphuric acid does.
The composition of wood has been examined by Messrs Gay-Lussac
and Thenard, and Dr Prout. According to Dr Prout, the oxygen and hydrogen
are in the exact proportions to form pure water; according to the others, the
hydrogen is in excess.” *
72. "When minutely divided fragments of a trunk or branch of a tree," as
M. Raspail observes, "have been treated by cold or boiling water, alcohol, ether,
diluted acids and alkalies, there remains a spongy substance, of a snow-white
colour when pure, which none of these reagents have acted on, while they have
removed the soluble substances that were associated with it. It is this that has
been called woody matter, a substance which possesses all the physical and che-
mical properties of cotton, of the fibre of flax, or of hemp."
73. "On observing this vegetable caput mortuum with the microscope, it is
perceived to be altogether composed of the cells or vessels which formed the
basis or skeleton of the living organs of the vegetable. They are either cells
which, by pressing against each other, give rise to a network with pentagonal
or hexagonal meshes; or cells with square surfaces; or else tubes of greater or
less length, more or less flattened or contracted by drying; sometimes free and
isolated, at other times agglomerated, and connected to each other by a tissue of
elongated, flattened, and equilateral cells; or, lastly, tubes of indefinite length,
each containing within it another tube formed of a single filament spirally rolled
up against its sides, and capable of being unrolled under the eye of the observer
simply by tearing the tube which serves to support it. We find the first in all
young organs, in annual and tender stems, in the pith of those vegetables that
have a pith, and always in that of the monocotyledons. It is in similar cells
that the fecula is contained in the potato. The second is met with in all the
trunks and woody branches of trees. The tubes and the spirals (trachea) are
found in all the phanerogamous plants. These are the organs which constitute
the fibre of hemp, of flax," &c.
74. "Experiment, in accordance with the testimony of history, proves that,
if excluded from the contact of moist air, woody matter, like most of the other
organised substances, may be preserved for an indefinite period." The plants
found in coal-mines, the wood, linen cloths, bandages, and herbs and seeds
found in the coffins of Egyptian mummies, have all their characters undecayed,
and yet these tombs are in many cases nearly 3000 years old. "But if the
woody matter be not protected against the action of air and moisture, the case is
very different. By degrees its hydrogen and oxygen are disengaged, and the
carbon predominates more and more. Thus the particles of the texture are dis-
integrated gradually, their white colour fades, and passes through all the shades.
till it becomes jet-black; and if this altered woody matter be exposed to heat, it
is carbonised without flame, because it does not contain a sufficient quantity of
hydrogen. Observe, also, that the cells of woody matter contain different sorts
of substances tending to organise, and that these are mixed and modified in many
different ways."
"Woody matter, such as I have defined it, being
formed of 1 atom of carbon and 1 atom of water, as soon as it is submitted to the
action of a somewhat elevated temperature, without the contact of air, experiences
URE's Dictionary of the Arts-art. "Wood."
16
MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.
an internal reaction, which tends to separate the atom of water from the atom of
carbon. The water is vaporised, and the carbon remains in the form of a black
and granular residue." *
75. Now, if any means could be devised by which the substances in the cells
of woody matter could be deprived of their tendency to organise when in con-
tact with common air, wood might be rendered as permanently durable as the
grains of wheat which have been found undecayed in Egyptian mummies, and
even more so. This discovery seems to have been made by Mr Kyan. In
contemplating the probability of the use of home timber being much extended
in the construction of steadings, when the young woods at present growing shall
have attained their full growth, it may be proper that the growers of wood, and
the farmers on the estates on which wood is grown, be made aware of this mode
of preventing timber being affected by the dry-rot. What the true cause of dry-
rot is, has never yet been determined, but it frequently shows itself by a species
of mildew which covers the timber, and the action of which apparently causes
the wood to decay, and crumble down into powder. The mildew, however, is
neither the dry-rot nor its cause, but its effect. It is distinctly seen by the
microscope to be a fungus; and as the fungus itself is so minute as to require the
aid of the microscope to be distinctly seen, its seeds or spores may be supposed
to be so very minute as to be taken up by the spongioles of trees.
76. The principle upon which the chemical action of the corrosive sublimate-
the substance used by Mr Kyan-upon vegetable matter preserves the timber, is
easily explained. All plants are composed of cellular tissues, whether in the
bark, alburnum, or wood. The tissue consists, as you have seen, of various-
shaped cells; and although they may not pass uninterruptedly along the whole
length of the plant, as M. de Candolle maintains, yet air, water, or a solution of
anything, may be made to pass through the cells in their longitudinal direction.
Experiments with the air-pump have proved this beyond dispute. Those cells,
and particularly those of the alburnum, contain the sap of the trees which, in its
circulation, reaches the leaves, where its watery particles fly off, and the enlarg-
ing matter of the tree, called the albumen, remains. Albumen is the nearest
approach in vegetables to animal matter, and is therefore, when by any natural
means deprived of vitality, very liable to decomposition, particularly that which
is connected with the alburnum or sap-wood. Now, corrosive sublimate has long
been known to preserve animal matter from decay, being used to preserve anato-
mical preparations; and even the delicate texture of the brain is preserved by it
in a firm state. The analogy between animal and vegetable albumen being esta-
blished, there seems no reason to doubt the possibility of corrosive sublimate pre-
serving both substances from decay; and, accordingly, the experiments of Mr
Kyan with it on albuminous and saccharine solutions have confirmed the correct-
ness of this conjecture. The prior experiments of Fourcroy, and especially those
of Berzelius, in 1813, had established the same conclusions, though neither of these
eminent chemists had thought of their practical application to the preservation
of timber. Berzelius found that the addition of the bichloride (corrosive subli-
mate) to an albuminous solution, produced a protochloride of mercury (calomel),
which readily combined with albumen, and produced an insoluble precipitate.
This precipitate fills up all the cellular interstices of the wood, and becomes as
hard as the fibres.
77. Even after timber has been subjected to this process, it is requisite to
give the air free access to it by means of ventilation, and for that purpose, where
timber is covered up, which it is not likely to be in a steading, small openings,
RASPAIL'S Organic Chemistry, translated by Henderson, pp. 141-164.
PROCESSES FOR PRESERVING WOOD.
17
covered and protected by cast-iron gratings in frames, should be made through
the outside walls.
78. With regard to the expense of this process, which is a material consider-
ation to those who have large quantities of timber to undergo the treatment, it
costs for steeping 10s. the load of 50 cubic feet. A tank, fitted up to steep large
scantlings and logs, costs about £50, and the process may cost 3d. or less the
cubic foot to those who construct a tank for themselves.
79. The patent, we believe, has now expired, so that parties may use the
process without fees. The solution is prepared in the proportion of about 1
pound of the corrosive sublimate to 5 gallons of water. The expense per load,
as above stated, is divided equally between the solution and the labour in
applying it. As regards the efficiency of the system, considerable discrepancy
of opinion exists. On the Great Western Railway, after six years' trial, some
samples of the wood subjected to the process were found" as sound as on the day
on which they were first put down.' On the London and North-western Rail-
way the process was found, on the contrary, so unsatisfactory as to be given up.
80. Other plans for preserving timber have been introduced, of which the
three most important are known as Burnett's, Bethell's, and Payne's: of these
we offer a short description.
81. The process patented in 1842 by Sir William Burnett consists in im-
pregnating the timber with a solution of the chloride of zinc. From recorded
experiments, the process seems to be efficient. The preparation of a load of
timber by this method is about 16s. The solution is prepared in the proportion
of 1 pound of chloride of zinc to 10 gallons of water.
82. In Bethell's process, oil of tar and other bituminous matters containing
creosote are used to impregnate the wood. The wood is not only immersed in
the solution, but it is forced into the fibres by pressure. The wood to be
impregnated is placed in close tanks filled with the solution; the tanks are
then closed up, and the air exhausted from their interior; more solution is
then pumped in for a period of six or seven hours. The wood is finally taken
out thoroughly saturated with the solution, and weighing considerably heavier.
The process is said to perfectly coagulate "the albumen in the sap, thus
preventing its putrefaction." A load of timber is treated at a cost of from
10s. to 15s. In using the oil of tar it is necessary to deprive it of its am-
monia, otherwise the wood becomes brown and soon decays. Timber for farm
purposes may be simply Bethellised by painting the surface over with the
hot oil of tar, or by immersing it in a tank of the hot solution. This will not
give such beneficial results as when impregnated under pressure, but will
nevertheless tend to preserve the timber for a considerable time from atmos-
pheric influences. The cost of the oil, as sold by the patentee, is stated at 4d.
per gallon, this including the right or licence to use the process. On the whole,
judging from the almost unanimous evidence in favour of the process, and the
ease with which it can be adopted, we incline to think that it is the best adapted
for farm constructions.
83. In Payne's process (patented 1841) the wood is impregnated by pressure
with a solution of earthy or metallic substances; and these substances, by
chemical decomposition, preserved within the material in an insoluble state.
Thus, if a solution of sulphate of iron is forced into the wood, a second solution
is forced in of any of the carbonate alkalies, which "decomposes the salt, and
renders the iron insoluble.
* See Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for 1857, p. 12-art. "The Preser-
vation of Timber."
B
18
MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.
84. SECTION THIRD-Metals.—The metals used in construction are iron,
copper, brass, zinc, and lead.
85. Iron.-The two varieties of this material are cast-iron and wrought-
iron.
86. Cast-iron is generally divided into two classes, grey and white, between
which there exist very marked differences. When of good quality, grey cast-
iron is slightly malleable, and files easily when the skin or outer crust is
removed. The fracture presents a granular appearance-grey in colour and
metallic in lustre, as if grains of lead were on the surface. Grey is smoother
and tougher than white cast-iron.
87. White cast-iron, when broken, presents a fracture of a distinctly marked
crystalline character, the colour white, and instead of a metallic it possesses
a vitreous lustre, or a light somewhat similar to that reflected from a series of
small crystals. This quality of iron is hard and brittle.
88. The colour and lustre of iron is usually taken as a test of its strength.
Where the colour is dark grey, with a high metallic lustre, the iron is of a valu-
able quality. Where the lustre is less decided, the softness and weakness are
increased. Where the colour is a light grey, with a high metallic lustre, the
metal is hard and tenacious. The hardness and brittleness of cast-iron become
more marked as the colour becomes whiter, and the lustre changes from metallic
to vitreous. The extreme of the grey variety is where the colour is dark and
mottled-this gives the softest and weakest iron of this class; and of the white
variety, where the colour is of a dull greyish-white, with a high vitreous lustre
—this giving the hardest and most brittle of this class.
89. But while colour and lustre are taken as tests of strength, a good autho-
rity does not think them admissible as tests of the chemical constituents
of iron; for though dark-coloured iron is usually weak, grey strong, and white
brittle, yet black iron, when chilled, becomes white, although it must be sup-
posed to contain the same quantity of carbon. We therefore conclude that the
colour of iron indicates the treatment to which it has been subjected, and in
some cases only the quantity of carbon.
90. As a general rule, the grey cast-iron is most suitable where strength is
requisite, the white where hardness is required. The best test of the quality
is to strike the edge of a casting with a hammer. If the blow produces fracture,
the iron is brittle and comparatively weak; if the blow indents without breaking,
the iron is of good quality.
91. The strength of cast-iron depends upon the quantity of carbon which
it contains, and its freedom from impurities. In addition to carbon, cast-iron in
this country contains silica, lime, magnesia, alumina, and occasionally some of the
phosphates and other admixtures. The iron made from the magnetic ores is the best.
92. When cast-iron contains three per cent of carbon, it is considered to be
of the strongest quality; if it contains more than this amount, it is soft and
weak; if less, it is hard and brittle.
93. The quality of iron produced at the iron-works throughout the country
varies considerably, although, taking an average of the whole, some approach to
a uniform standard is obtained. As a mixture of the various irons is understood
to produce the best cast-iron, it is of some practical importance to know the
"mixtures" recommended by experienced engineers. The object in mixing the
different varieties is to obtain the proportion of carbon which gives the greatest
strength with the requisite degree of fluidity; and this proportion is regulated
by the appearance of the fracture of the several varieties proposed to be used
for the mixture.
da
MIXTURES OF IRON.
19:
94. Mr Fairbairn of Manchester, one of our highest practical authorities,
gives the following as the best mixture, independently of price :-
Lowmoor, No. 3,
Blaina or Yorkshire, No. 2,
Shropshire or Derbyshire, No. 3,
Good old scrap-iron,
30 per cent.
25
""
25
""
20
""
100
For large and small castings Mr M. Stirling gives the following mixtures:
For a heavy casting, several inches in thickness and several hundredweight, a
mixture of twọ proportions of No. 3 to one of No. 1 may be used. When the
casting is thin and light (say 2 or 3 cwt.), a larger proportion of No. 1 and a
smaller proportion of No. 3 may be used. It is difficult to estimate exactly the
quantity of the various irons from their numbers, as these are very arbitrary,
the No. 1 of one district differing considerably from the No. 1 of another.
Attention should therefore be paid to the appearance of fracture of each quality;
and where great nicety is required, it would be advisable to test the strength of each
by direct experiment. The London mixture, which by the metropolitan founders
is considered to be stronger than country mixtures, is equal proportions, or nearly
so, of No. 3 old scrap and No. 1 Scotch hot-blast. Another mixture recommended
is, equal proportions of hot-blast iron, old iron, and Blaenavon Welsh iron.
95. Mr M. Stirling's patented mixture of wrought-iron and cast-iron gives
"considerably increased powers of resistance to every description of strain, when
compared with the unmixed irons." This process of toughening cast-iron consists
in fusing simultaneously wrought-iron and cast-iron in a cupola or air-furnace.
The result of a series of experiments made in connection with this toughened iron,
showed that the relative value, as regards strength, of the unprepared iron and
the prepared, was 1 : 1.36-the mean breaking-weight of the unprepared being
38.3, and of the prepared 52.3. Other experiments showed a higher value,
however, than this. Mr Fairbairn reports very favourably upon this mixture,
and says that, when "judiciously managed and duly proportioned," it "increases
the strength about one-third above that of the ordinary cast-iron." With regard
to the proportions, Mr Stirling says that "the place from whence the iron comes
regulates, to a certain extent, the quality, as a general rule. Scotch iron, generally
speaking, requires more, Staffordshire less, and Welsh least of all. The pro-
portions which I should recommend for No. 1 Scotch hot-blast, vary from 24 lb.
(of wrought-iron) contained in the cwt., to 40 lb., according to the richness of
the iron. No. 2 requires a smaller proportion, say from 20 lb. to 30 lb., also
according to its quality. No. 3, generally, I do not recommend for mixture, as
it is very often uncertain in itself, and its mixtures are not so certain as the
toughened mixtures Nos. 1 and 2. No. 3, Scotch hot-blast, makes an excellent
mixture with from 15 to 20 per cent of malleable iron for large castings. The
Staffordshire No. 1 will not bear so much as the Scotch, and in the same pro-
portion with Nos. 2 and 3; 20 lb. to 30 lb. would be a high proportion for Welsh
No. 1. With Staffordshire No. 2, a small proportion in the same falling ratio as in
the Scotch; and with Welsh No. 2, 10 lb. to 15 lb. per cwt. would be sufficient."
96. From the commercial results obtained in the manufacture of cast-iron by
the use of the hot-blast, the process is now very generally adopted. The ques-
tion, therefore, is possessed of considerable interest to the mechanic, Is the
strength of cast-iron prepared by the hot blast less than that prepared by the cold?
On this point considerable diversity of opinion exists. An interesting series of
experiments was carried out by Messrs Fairbairn and Hodgkinson, to determine
20
MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.
the relative strength of hot and cold blast. "From these it was found that the
hot-blast irons, when taken collectively from a number of works in England, Scot-
land, and Wales, gave results rather in favour of the hot-blast; whereas the cold-
blast iron, when taken separately, and compared with others, indicated a superior
quality of iron to those obtained from the hot-blast." Taking the mean of four
kinds of iron experimented upon to ascertain the number of pounds required
to tear asunder a bar 1 inch square, it was found that, while the cold took
16,801 lb., the hot-blast took 15,342 lb.; and that, taking the strength of cold-
blast as represented by 1000, the ratio of the strength of the hot-blast to it was
928. Again, in ascertaining the force in pounds required to crush a prism an inch
square on its base, and 14 inches high, it was found (taking the mean of four)
that while the cold-blast took 99,238 lb., the hot-blast iron took 102,777 lb.,
the ratio of strength being (cold-blast 1000) as 1000 to 1028. And in the ex-
periments made to ascertain the transverse strength of rectangular bars 1 inch
square, laid on supports 4 feet wide, and broken by a weight in the middle, it
was found (taking a mean of eight), that while the cold-blast took 456 lb., the
hot-blast took 453 lb., the ratio of strength being as 1000 to 996.
"On the
whole," says Mr Fairbairn with reference to the point now under consideration,
"I am of opinion that the hot-blast does not improve the quality of the Welsh
and English irons, but, judging from the experiments, and other indications since
these experiments were made, that its application to the Scotch furnaces in the
reduction of the blackband ores is an improvement. I am the more confirmed
in this opinion from the fact, that although the Scotch irons are not injured by
the hot-blast, both the English and the Welsh suffer considerably, as may be
seen in the case of the Elsicar, Milton, and Buffery irons."-(See Table in par.
124). As to the effect produced by the hot-blast in the manufacture of
iron, the same authority remarks, that "it varies considerably with the quality
of the ore and the fuel, and I believe much depends upon the quantity of sul-
phur present in the coal or coke used. The chemical constituents of the fuel
and foreign mixtures in the mine, are considerations of importance in the use
and application of the hot-blast; but, generally speaking, I should infer that it
has a tendency rather to weaken the iron than otherwise." A large number of
experiments were made by the well-known engineer, Mr Robert Stephenson, at
the High-level Bridge, Newcastle, to test the merits of the various qualities of hot
and cold blast iron. The conclusions to which he considers these experiments
point are as follows: (1.) That hot-blast is less certain in its results than cold-
blast; (2.) Mixtures of cold-blast are more uniform than those of hot-blast; (3.)
Mixtures of hot and cold blast give the best results; (4.) Simple samples do not
run so solid as mixtures; (5.) Simple samples sometimes run too hard, and
sometimes too soft, for practical purposes."
97. The strength of cast-iron objects depends also much upon their size, and
in the way in which they are cast. When the object is very large, the iron
softens with slow cooling. When the thicknesses of which it is composed are un-
equal, the unequal cooling of the parts renders some more crystallised and
weaker than others. Hence the endeavour of mechanics to have a uniform
thickness in the different parts of castings; and hence, also, the rule which should
be strictly attended to—namely, never to take the castings out of the sand while
red hot, but to allow them to gradually cool, and to become, in fact, annealed in
the sand. We are aware that this, in small foundries, cannot under all circum-
stances be done, from want of space, and also from economical reasons, inas-
much as the portion of the sand in immediate contact with the metal is burnt,
and rendered useless; but where sound work to be depended upon is required,
WROUGHT-IRON.
21
it is essential that the castings should be allowed to remain in the sand till
cooled, and a "perfect and compact mass of crystallisation" is obtained. Mr
Fairbairn says that fireproof beams should be allowed to remain in the sand never
less than 10 hours, heavy castings 30 or 40 hours. Articles, when cast in the
direction of their greatest length, are more dense, and are freer from impurity, than
when in the direction of their shortest length. Mr Glynn thinks that castings
are strongest when the iron is obtained from an air-furnace in dry sand, and that
castings in loam are stronger than castings in open sand. The air-furnace is
preferred by high authorities before the blast cupola. Mr Fairbairn states that,
in one series of experiments, the iron produced in the air-furnace was 2 per cent
stronger than that obtained from the cupola.
98. As regards the relative values of Scotch and English iron, the same high
authority states, that he "thinks the Scotch weaker, and that it runs more fluid
than the English irons. It is, however, equal in strength and superior in qua-
lity to some of the Staffordshire irons, but certainly inferior, as respects strength,
to the Yorkshire and Welsh cold-blast iron." The Scotch is generally preferred
for the purposes of machinery, as it runs well into the mould, and gives clearly-
defined edges. When treating on the Strength of Materials, we shall give a
table of the qualities of the best-known irons of the United Kingdom, par. 124.
99. Wrought-iron.-The fracture of wrought-iron presents a clear grey colour,
with a metallic lustre and granular texture. The appearance of the fracture
gives a strong indication of force having been required to tear the fibres
asunder. A decided fibrous appearance will be given to the granular fracture,
if the fractured bar is drawn out into small bars by means of the hammer.
When the fracture presents a crystalline or laminated appearance, the iron is
defective. Of defective irons, burnt iron is hard and brittle, of a clear grey
colour, and of laminated texture. Cold short iron-so called from its breaking
under the hammer when cold-is similar in appearance to burnt iron, the colour,
however, being whiter. Hot short iron—so called from its breaking under the
hammer while hot-is dark in colour, and has no lustre. This latter defect is
indicated by cracks on the edges.
100. Wrought-iron of the best quality is divided into two classes, the hard
and the soft. The soft is weaker than the hard, gives easily to the hammer, and
presents the fibrous texture in bars of considerable section. The hard is strong
and ductile, and only presents the fibrous texture when drawn out into small
rods. In testing wrought-iron, bars of not less than 1 inch square or round, and
flat bars of not less than half-inch thick, should be used. If of less section, the
distinctive features of the fracture will not be sufficiently observable.
101. With respect to iron cast and wrought, a question of some importance
has arisen as to whether its internal structure is changed by vibration,
or by shocks to which the parts may be subjected. On this point a variety
of opinions was elicited before the Royal Commission, somewhat contra-
dictory, however, in their nature. Mr Glynn, in his evidence, states that he
considers the structure both of wrought and cast iron is altered by a succession
of blows-the wrought to a crystalline structure, the cast to larger crystals ;
and that he has observed this appearance particularly in axles, mill-shafts,
tooth-wheels, crowbars, and crane chains. The latter, even when made of
strong fibrous iron, require to be annealed every three years. Mr Fox con-
sidered that an internal change is produced in wrought-iron by vibration,
and points to an instance where the thread of a screw is cut in wrought-
iron, and the part broken across at the tapped part, and at another point
distant from this; the tapped part will present the most crystallised appearance.
22
MATERIALS EMPLOYED IN CONSTRUCTION.
Al-
Mr Fairbairn points out a fact of some importance, that repeatedly making
a wrought-iron bar hot, and plunging it into cold water, renders it crystal-
line, and that annealing is required to restore the fibrous texture.
though percussion renders the fibres more liable to break off short, he thinks
that unless it is sufficient to cause a considerable rise in temperature, it does
not cause change in the internal structure. Mr Stephenson, the eminent
engineer, considers any change in the internal structure to be highly impro-
bable; and cites one instance of a connecting-rod which vibrated 25,000,000
of times, and yet remained fibrous. He also points to the fact that the iron
of an axle may not be in the first instance fibrous; for although the drawing
out of bars from one to some twenty feet long necessarily renders the texture
fibrous, it does not follow that it will become so when the bars are drawn out
only from 1 to 6 feet. Mr Brunel takes a still more novel and suggestive
view of the matter; and while doubting the change of internal structure, he
thinks that the various appearances of different fractures result as much from
the mode in which the iron has been broken as from any change of structure.
Further, that change of temperature will also produce a variation in the fracture;
that iron in a cold state presents a more crystallised fracture than the same
iron warmed a little; that wrought-iron does not actually become crystalline
and fibrous, but breaks either crystalline or fibrous according to the combina-
tion of circumstances under which it is broken. The whole subject, although
of great importance to the practical mechanic, is surrounded with difficulties,
and all evidence given in connection with it has been more or less conjectural.
It is right, however, to state that it is a very general opinion amongst
mechanics and philosophers, that iron repeatedly hammered-and by inference
subject to repeated vibrations and shocks-becomes completely changed in its
internal structure. Numerous instances could be brought forward in proof of
this, a most notable one being that of the "monster wrought-iron gun" of
Mr Nasmyth, which was fabricated by the agency of the steam hammer, and
which burst at the first or second trial, presenting, we believe, all the appear-
ances of cast-iron. Parts of machinery are sometimes cold hammered in order
that they may take a higher polish; but if this generally received opinion is
correct, the practice is a dangerous one, as they may be much weakened. The
same may be said of the practice of repeatedly heating, and plunging in cold
water, forged parts of machines. (See above, at the top of the page.)
102. As regards the durability of iron, and the influence of the atmosphere
and water upon it, Mr Mallet, in his Report to the British Association, gives
some valuable remarks. From his close investigation into the nature and
properties of iron he deduced a variety of hints, of which the following are
the most useful for our purposes.
103. That iron placed in clear fresh river-water corrodes less than under any
other immersion, from the absence of highly-corrosive matters, and from the coat
of oxide which is formed, and which is not so easily washed off as in sea water;
that castings made in dry sand and loam are more durable when immersed in
water than those made in green sand; that cast-iron is more durable when
the hard crust is allowed to remain, than when it is removed by chipping and
filing; that the greater the bulk of bars the less is the corrosion; that to
prevent unequal cooling in castings, the ribs should be made of equal thickness.
104. The methods in general use to prevent corrosion and decay of iron-
work, consist in the application of paints. These afford, however, little pro-
tection; and a better medium, boiled coal-tar laid on while the iron is hot, is
highly recommended. It leaves on the surface a bright varnish, capable of
COPPER-LEAD-ZINC.
23
resisting for a considerable time corrosive agencies. Painting the surface with
the hot solution of the oil of tar-Bethellising-is said to be an efficient preser-
vative of iron surfaces.
105. Copper.-For constructive purposes this metal is principally used in
form of thin sheets. It is very durable, and is little affected by atmospheric
influences. Brass is an alloy of this metal and zinc, and is composed—
when that kind of it known as British brass of a full yellow colour is wished
to be made of 66.18 parts of copper, and 33.82 of zinc. Its specific gravity is
8.299. For purposes where copper is too soft, and a metal less corrosive than
iron is required, gun-metal may be used. This is an alloy of copper and tin in
the proportion of 84.29 of copper to 15.71 of tin. To render these alloys easily
worked in the various processes of the mechanic, a little lead should be added
to the brass, and a little zinc to the gun-metal alloy.
106. The lead of commerce is derived from the ore galena, which is a sul-
phuret yielding about 87 per cent of lead and 13 of sulphur. Galena is found
in greatest quantity in transition rocks, and of these the blackish transition
limestone contains the largest. The ore is more frequent in irregular beds and
masses than in veins. The galena lead-mines of Derbyshire, Durham, Cumber-
land, and Yorkshire, are situate in limestone, while those of the Leadhills, in
Scotland, are in greywacke. Great Britain produces the largest quantity of
lead of any country in the world, the annual produce being about 32,000 tons, of
which the English mines supply 20,000. The rest of Europe does not supply
50,000 tons. The export of lead has fallen off considerably, and its price has
experienced a corresponding depression for some years past, on account of
the greatly increased production of the lead mines of Adra in Granada, in
Spain.
107. Zinc is an ore which occurs in considerable quantity in England. It is
found in two geological localities-in the mountain limestone and in the magne-
sian limestone. It occurs in veins, and almost always associated with galena
or lead-glance. It is of the greatest abundance in the shape of a sulphuret or
blende, or black-jack, as the miners call it. There is also a silicious oxide of
zinc, and a carbonate, both called calamine. In North America, the red oxide.
of zinc is found in abundance in the iron mines of New Jersey. The zinc of
commerce is derived, in this country, from the blende and calamine. It is
naturally brittle, but a process has been discovered by which it is rendered
malleable, and it retains its ductility ever after. It is this assumed ductility
which renders the metal useful for domestic purposes. "It is extensively em-
ployed for making water-cisterns, baths, spouts, pipes, plates for the zinco-
grapher, for voltaic batteries, filings for fireworks, covering roofs, and a variety
of architectural purposes, especially in Berlin; because this metal, after it gets
covered with a thin film of oxide or carbonate, suffers no further change from
long exposure to the weather. One capital objection to zinc as a roofing
material is its combustibility."
108. The most malleable zinc is derived from Upper Silesia, under the name
of spelter, which is sent by inland traffic to Hamburg and Belgium, where it is
shipped for this country. The zinc of the Veille Montaigne Company enjoys a
high reputation; it is considered the purest spelter. Zinc is much lighter than
lead, the density being 7.190, while that of lead is 11.352. The tenacity is
also greater; thus, while lead has a tenacity of 27.7, zinc has a tenacity of
109.8.
24
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
DIVISION SECOND.-PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
109. SECTION FIRST-Strength of Materials.-To enable us to calculate with
certainty the size of the materials we use for constructive purposes, it is neces-
sary to be acquainted with the varieties of strains to which they are subject,
or the manner in which external forces act upon them, and the extent to which
different constructive materials are capable of supporting or resisting them.
110. In following out this design, we have taken roofs chiefly as affording
the most obvious and palpable demonstration of principles. The demonstration,
however, is alike applicable to all species of framing and joinings, whether of
machines or otherwise.
111. When a piece of timber, stone, or iron, a, fig. 9, is pressed in the
Fig. 9.
h
i
k
b
g
d
f
α
STRAINS TO WHICH MATERIALS ARE
EXPOSED.
direction of its length, its strength to resist the
action of the force represented by the arrow is called
its compressile strength, or its resistance to compres-
sion-meaning the power which the material has
to resist being crushed. In fig. 9, the pieces c and d,
pressed upon by the weight b, are subjected to a
compressile strain or crushing power.
112. The strength which any material has to
resist being pulled asunder in the direction of its
length, is termed its cohesive power; and any force
acting in this way is termed a tensile strain-the
strength which the material has to resist this being
called its resistance to tension. The part g, fig. 9, suspended from the two pieces
c and d, is in a state of tension; the beam ef, acted upon at its extremities by
the pieces c and d, is also in a state of tension, the effect of the pieces c and d
being to pull it asunder in the direction of its length, as shown by the arrows.
с
a
Fig. 10.
g
d
CROSS OR TRANSVERSE STRAINS.
The weight of the beam e f, supported by two walls
e and f, has a tendency to pull asunder the piece g in the
direction of its length. The iron rod h i, acted upon
by two pieces, l and k, in the direction of the arrows, is
also in a state of tension.
113. Where a beam c d, fig. 10, is supported at its ex-
tremities on two walls a and b, and pressed upon by a
weight acting at its centre as g, or by a weight suspended as ƒ, it has a tendency
to break in two, the weight exerting upon it what is termed a transverse strain ;
Fig. 11.
g
C
d
e
h
and the strength of the material to resist this is
called its resistance to transverse or cross strains.
114. When a beam or bar a, fig. 11, is supported
at both ends on walls c and d, a force, represented
by the arrow, acts so as to bend the beam, as
shown by the exaggerated lines b. The resistance
of the material to this is termed its elasticity, or
resiliancy; and the effect produced by the force is
called the deflection of the beam.
115. All solid bodies subjected to deflection
have, within certain limits, a power to resume
their original position after the removal of the
force which causes the deflection. These limits
are termed the limits of elasticity. Little is known as to the extent to which
DEFLECTION OF BEAMS.
STRAINS-STONE.
25
solid bodies possess this power, or elastic force; the usual assumption is, that a
solid body does not take permanently that set or curve which the force gives to
it, unless the force exceeds one-third of that necessary to break the body. The
experiments of Mr Hodgkinson, however, would seem to point to the fact, that
strains, however slight, give a permanent set to all materials on which they act.
116. This strain, causing "deflection," is made up of the two strains tensile
and compressile. This may be proved by supposing that we make, in the centre
of the beam, a saw-draft or cut on its upper and under side, as at e and ƒ fig. 11,
which represent an enlarged part of the beam ɑ. In each of these saw-cuts
place a piece of wood or metal just tight enough to be held without dropping
out, and then set the beam a on the two walls c and d. As the beam bends,
the fibres of the concave or under-side ƒ of the beam will be extended, and
the saw-cut will open, allowing the piece of metal or wood to drop out the
contrary will have taken place, however, on the upper side e; the fibres there
will have been compressed, tightening up firmly the piece of wood or metal
lying in the saw-cut e. The arrows show the direction of the compressile strains.
acting on e, and also the tensile acting on f; the fibres, represented by the wavy
lines, being contracted on each side of the cut e, and elongated or drawn out
from the cut f. On inspection of the diagram ef, fig. 11, it will be seen that
there is a portion of the beam in which the fibres have undergone no strain,
either compressile or tensile : this part of the beam i is called the neutral axis.
The experiments of Mr Hodgkinson and Mr Barlow have shown that in iron the
neutral axis lies nearer to the concave than to the convex side or surface of the
deflected beam; and, in timber, that the neutral axis lies nearest the convex
side. In beams of a rectangular section, Mr Barlow calculates the neutral axis
in iron to be between one-third and one-fifth of the depth; in timber at three-
eighths of the depth.
117. To recapitulate: (1.) A beam is subjected to a tensile strain when the
force tends to draw it or tear it asunder in the direction of its length; (2.) A
beam is subjected to a compressile strain when the force has a tendency to crush
or compress its fibres or particles; (3.) A beam is subjected to a transverse or
cross strain when the force has a tendency to break it across the direction of its
length; and lastly, (4.) When a beam is subjected to a force tending to bend
it, its capability to resist this is called its elastic force, its elasticity, or resiliancy;
and the effect of the force is called the deflection of the beam.
118. A vast number of experiments have been made by various authorities,
in order to test the capabilities of the different constructive materials to resist
the strains which we have described above. These have resulted in affording
data from which formulæ have been constructed, aiding the mechanic in estimat-
ing the strength of various parts of structures. These are applicable to a wide
diversity of practice; but in cases where work of the first order of completeness
is desirable, it will be satisfactory to institute direct experiments on the mate-
rials intended to be employed. As above stated, the experiments which have
been made are applicable to the general qualities of materials; we therefore
now give the most important of their results.
119. Stone. In par. 56 we have given a table of the leading qualities of
the different classes of stone used for building purposes in this country. We now
give a table of the peculiarities of the same classes of stones, showing the weight
in tons when the specimens began to fracture; and, in another column, the
weight in tons required to crush them. Practically, the first column is the
useful one, and may be taken as showing the crushing weight of each spe-
cimen.
26
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
DESCRIPTION OF STONE.
Weight
producing
Weight
Fracture.
Crushing
Weight.
Crushing
Description of Stone.
producing
Weight.
Fracture.
SANDSTONES.
OOLITES.
Craigleith
1.89
3.5
Ancaster
Barley Dale
2.75
3.1
Bath Box
Heddon.
0.82
1.75
Portland
Kenton
1.51
2.21
Ketton
0.75
1.04
0.56
0.66
0.95
1.75
0.69
1.18
•
Mansfield
0.88
1.64
MAGNESIAN LIME-
LIMESTONES.
STONES.
Bolsover
2.21
3.75
Barnack
0.50
0.79
Huddlestone
1.03
1.92
Chilmark
1.32
3.19
Roche Abbey
0.75
1.73
Ham Hill
0.69
1.80
Park Nook
0.32
1.92
120. Stones are chiefly subjected to a compressile, rarely to a tensile strain.
Stone is not at all calculated to bear much of a tensile strain; thus, to tear
asunder a square inch of sandstone of the qualities as in the above table, only
772 lb. are required; and for oolite, 857 lb. The tenacity of Welsh slate, however,
is such that it requires 11,500 lb. to tear asunder a square inch of it. Stones
are frequently subjected to transverse or cross strains, as in the case of lintels.
From the experiments by Colonel Pasley, it appears that an average breaking-
weight in pounds, of prisms 4 inches long, with a cross section of 2 inches on a
side, and with a distance of 3 inches between the supports of various stones,
was as follows: Craigleith, 1896 lb.; Cornish granite, 2808 lb.; Kentish rag,
4581 lb.; Bath, 666 lb.; Yorkshire, 2887 lb.
121. Timber.—In structures composed of timber, the parts subjected to com-
pressile strains are posts or pillars, struts or braces; those subjected to tensile
strains, tie-beams and straining pieces; and those to transverse strains, beams
thrown across openings, supported at the ends, and sustaining weights.
DESCRIPTION OF WOOD.
Specific Gravity.
Cohesive strength
in lb. per square
inch.
Resistance to
compression in
lb. per square in.
Oak (English)
.934
12.000
6.484
""
(Canadian)
.872
12.000
4.231
Ash
.760
14.130
8.683
Beech
.700
12.225
7.733
Elm
.540
9.720
1.033
Pine (White)
.660
12.340
2.028
Pine (Yellow)
.660
11.830
5.375
Pine (Red).
11.800
5.395
99
122. In calculating the dimensions of beams to resist transverse strains, the
experiments of Professor Barlow (Report to the Commissioners of the Navy) are
particularly useful. The table below shows the breaking weight and elastic
Ultimate Stress or
Breaking Weight
in lb.
Elastic Strength.
DESCRIPTION OF WOOD,
""
Oak (English)
(Canadian)
Ash
1672
1766
104.
155.7
2000
113.3
Beech
Elm
Red Pine
1550
97.15
1000
50.
{
< 1340
133.1
Riga Fir
1100
96.2
CAST-IRON.
27
strength in pounds of beams of timber of various kinds, 2 inches in the edge,
and 7 feet or 84 inches between the supports.
123. Cast-Iron.-Cast-iron for constructive purposes is subjected chiefly to
compressile and transverse, rarely to tensile strains. Experiments have there-
fore been directed principally to ascertain its capabilities to resist compression
and cross strains.
124. The table below shows the results of experiments instituted by Mr
Hodgkinson and Mr Fairbairn to ascertain the properties and strength of
[ABBREVIATIONS.-C. B., Cold Blast; II. B., Hot Blast.
in the
Number of Iron
Scale of Strength.
NAMES OF IRONS.
Specific Gravity.
Modulus of
elasticity in
lb. per square
inch, or stiff-
ness.
Mean breaking
weight in lb.
Ultimate deflection
of feet 6-inch bars
in inches and de-
cimal parts.
Power of the 4-feet
6-inch bars to re-
sist impact.
Colour.
Quality.
1834
2
Pinkey,
Devon,
•
No. 3, C. B. |
•
6
Cleator,
Oldberry,
5 Carron,
Beaufort,
•
3, H. B.
3, C. B.
3, H. B.
•
7
Butterley,
8
Bute,
9
Windmill End,
10
Old Park,
11
Beaufort,
2, H. B.
|
12
Lowmoor,
13
Buffery,
2, C. B.
1, C. B.
14
Brymbo,
2, C. B.
15
Apedale,
2, H. B.
7.122 | 17,211,000
1.747
7.251 22,673,650 537 1,009 589
7.296 | 21,359,400 537 1.001 537
7.300 22,733,400 530 1.005 549
7.056 17,873,100 527 1.365 710
7.069 16,802,000 517 1.599 807
H. B. 7.038 | 15,379,500 502 1.815 889
1, C. B. 7.066 15,163,000 491 1.764 872
2, C. B. | 7.071 16,400,000 489 1.581 765
2, C. B. 7.049 | 14,607,000 485 1,621 718
7.108 | 16,301,000 474 1.512 729
14,509,500 472 1.852
15,381,200 463 1.055 721
14,911,666 459 1.748 815
14,852,000 456 1.731 791
581
992
Whitish grey.
White.
Ilard.
""
99
""
""
Whitish grey.
Dullish
Darkish
Bluish ""
Dark
Grey.
Soft.
">
Hard.
Soft.
Dull grey.
Hard.
16
Oldberry,
2, C. B.
17
Pentwyn,
2.
18
Maesteg,
2.
19
Muirkirk,
1, C. B.
20
Adelphi,
2, C. B.
21
Blaina,
•
3, C. B.
22
Devon,
•
23
Gartsherrie,
24
Frood,
25
Lave End,
26
Carron,
•
27
Dundyvan,
28
Maesteg (marked red)
29
Corbyn's Hall,
30
Pontypool,
2.
31
Walbrook,
3.
32
Milton,
33
Buffery,
1.
•
34
Level,
35
Pant,
2.
36
Level,
2, H. B.
7.055
7.079
7.017
7.017
7.059 | 14,307,500 455 1.811 822
7.038 15,193,000 455 1.484 650
7.038 13,959,500 454 1.957 886
7.113 14,003,550 453 1.714 770
7.080 13,815,500 449
7.159 | 14,281,466 448 1.726
7.285| 22,907,700 448 .790
H. B. 7.017 13,894,000 447
2, C. B. 7.031 13,112,666 447 1.825 841
2.
7.028 15,787,666 444 1.414 629
3, C. B. 7.094 16,246,966 443 1.336 593
7.087 16,534,000 443 1.469 674
7.038 13,971,500 442 1.887 830
2, C. B. 7.007 | 13,845,866 442 1.687 727
7.080 13,136,500 440 1.857 816
6.979 15,394,766 440 1.443 625
3, H. B. 7.051 18,852,500 438 1.368 585
6.998 13,730,500 436 1.064 821
7.080 15,452,500 432 1.516 699
6.975 15,280,900 431 1.251 511
7.031 | 15,241,000 429 1.358
855
Dark grey.
Soft.
Grey.
Light grey.
Rather hard.
>>
Stiff.
Dark
Bluish
Dark
""
Rather soft.
Hard.
Rather soft.
""
Bright,,
1.759 777
Light,,
747
Bright,,
353
Light,,
Fluid.
Soft.
Hard.
""
1.557 998
Light,,
Soft.
Open.
Dark
Soft.
Grey.
Dull grey.
Bluish
""
Grey.
Dull blue.
Light grey.
Grey.
Dull grey.
Light,,
Rather soft.
Fluid.
Soft.
Rather soft.
Rather hard.
Soft.
""
Rather hard.
""
37
W. S. S.,
2.
38
Eagle Foundry,
2, H. B.
39
Elsicar,
40
Varteg,
41
Colsham,
2, C. B.
H. B.
1, H. B.
42
Carroll,
2, C. B.
43
Muirkirk,
1, H. B.*
44
Brierley,
2.
45
Cod-Talon,
46
Brak Barrow,
47
Coed-Talon,
48
Samakoff,
49
Monkland,
50
51
Leys Works,
Milton,
52
53
7.041 14,953,333 429 1.339
7.038 14,211,000 427
6.928 12,586,500 427 2.224 992
7.007❘ 15,012,000 426 1,450 621
7.128 15,510,066 424 1.532 716
7.069 | 17,036,000 419 1,231 530
6.953| 13,294,400 418 1.570 656
7.185 16,156,133 418 1.222 494
2, H. B. | 6.969 14,322,500 416 1.882 771
C. B.* 7.172 13,413,000 416 1.736 724
2, C. B.* 6.955 14,304,000 413 1.470 600
C. B. 7.216 14,909,000 372 1.160 418
2, II. B. | 6.916| 12,259,500 403 1.762 709
1, H. B. | 6.957 | 11,539,333 392 1.890 742
1, H. B. | 6.976 | 11,974,500 369 1.525 538
2, H. B. 6.916| 13,341,633 357 1.366 517
21,494,400 235 .487 115
570
554
Dull
Soft.
""
1.512 618
Light,,
Bluish,,
""
""
Grey.
Ilard.
""
whitish grey.
Grey.
Bluish grey,
Dark
Bright
Grey.
Bluish grey.
Rather soft.
Hard.
Soft.
Rather soft.
Soft.
""
""
Grey.
Light grey.
Like zinc.
Soft and fluid.
Rather soft.
Hard & brittle.
Plankynaston,
Elba,*
In the table each bar
cast-iron from the principal ironworks in the kingdom.
is reduced to exactly one inch square, and the transverse strength, which may
be taken as the criterion of the value of each iron, is obtained from a mean
between the experiments upon it-first, in bars 4 feet 6 inches between the
supports; and next, in those of half the length, or 2 feet 3 inches between the
supports. All the other results are deduced from the bars 4 feet 6 inches long,
28
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
which have not been introduced into the table. In all cases the weights were
laid on the middle of the bar.
125. The following table shows the results of experiments, made by Mr
Hodgkinson, to ascertain the tensile and crushing force in pounds and tons of
well-known varieties of iron; also the proportion existing between these powers.
Mr Hodgkinson calculates the crushing force of cast-iron to be 43.5 tons per
square inch, and the tensile to be 6.6 tons; which, on the average, makes the
resistance of cast-iron to compression 6 times its resistance to tension. Hence
its value in constructive purposes for struts, posts, beams, &c.
DESCRIPTION of Iron.
Tensile strength
per square inch
of section.
Height of Crushing strength per
Specimen. square inch of section.
Ratio of the power to resist
tension and compression.
lb.
tons.
Inch.
lb.
tons.
64,534 28.809
Lowmoor iron, No. 1,
12,694
5.667
1
56,445
25.198
Do.
do. No. 2,
15,458
6.901
99,525
44.430
1
92,332
41.219
Clyde iron, No. 1,
16,125 7.198
92,869
41.459
88,741 39.616
Do. do. No. 2,
17,807 7.949
109,992 49.103
1 6.177
mean.
1:5.084 1:4.765
1: 4.446 S
1: 6.438
15.978} 1: 6.205
1: 5.759
:
1 5.503
1:5.631
1: 5.953
Do. do. No. 3,
23,468 10.477
102,030 45.549
1: 5.729
107,197
47.855
1: 4.568
1: 4.518
Blasnaven iron, No. 1,
13,938
6.222
104,881
46.821
1: 4.469
90,860
40.562
1 : 6.519
1: 6.149
Do. do. No. 2, 1st sample,
16,724
7.466
1
80,561
35 964
1: 5.780
117,605
52.502
Do.
do. No. 2, 2d
do.
14,291
6.380
102,408
Calder iron, No. 1,
13,735 6.131
Coltness iron, No. 3,
15,278 6.820
Brymbo iron, No. 1,
14,426 6.440
·
Do. do. No. 3,
15,508 6.923
Bowling iron, No. 2,
13,511
6.032
•
76,133 33.988
Ystalyfera anthracite iron, No. 2,
14,511
6.478
1
76,958
34.356
Do.
Yniscedwyn anthracite iron, No. 2, |13,952
do. No. 1, 13,348
Mr M. Stirling's iron, denominated
6.228
76,132 33.987
1
33.028
5.959
second quality,
Do.
do.
25,764 11.502
third quality,23,461 10.474
45.717
68,559 30.606
68,532 30.594
72,193 32.229
75,983 33.921
100,180 44.723
1:7.032
1:6.123} 1:6.577
1 : 4.797
1 : 4.795
1 : 5.256
1:5.532)
1: 6.557
1: 4.796
1: 5.394
101,831 45.460 1: 6.665}1:6.611
74,815 33.399
1:5186) 1:5.216
75,678 33.784 1 : 5.246
73,984
99,926 44.610
95,559 42.660
83,509 37.281
78,659 35.115
77,124 34.430
75,369 33.646
125.333 55.952
119,457 53.329
158,653 70.827
1 : 4.909
1: 4.963} 1: 4.936
1:5.635) 1:5.555
1:6 585
1: 6.735
1: 5.811
1 : 5.985
1 : 5.638
1: 5.778 1:5.712
1: 5.646
1: 4,865
14.637
1: 6.762
1 : 4.751
1
129,876 57.980 1: 5.5361: 6.149
:
1: 6.886
126. In connection with cast-iron, it has been a generally received opinion-
derived from observation chiefly—that its value increased with the number of
meltings it received. To test the truth of this popular notion, Mr Fairbairn
instituted a series of experiments, by which he proved that the maximum of
transverse strength was only arrived at after the twelfth melting. Thus at the
first melting the mean breaking weight being given at 490.0; at the sixth
melting it was 438.7, and at the twelfth 692.1. From this it rapidly decreased,
till, at the eighteenth melting, it was reduced to 312.7, less than its original
strength. Again, with reference to its compressile strength, Mr Fairbairn
found that, up to the eighth melting, the strength remained at its usual amount,
say 40 per square inch; from the eighth to the thirteenth the compressile
strength was increased one-half, say 60; and from the thirteenth up to the
eighteenth melting it was doubled.
127. Wrought-Iron.-Wrought-iron, in construction, is generally used for
parts subjected to a tensile strain, as ties. Mr Hodgkinson's experiments
showed the tensile force of wrought-iron to be 24 tons per square inch of
WROUGHT-IRON.
29
section, or about 4 times that of cast-iron. The resistance to compression per
square inch of section is 27,000 lb., or say 12 tons.
128. The mean breaking weight per square inch of section of wrought-
iron plates is 50,000 lb., the strength being equal, or nearly so, whether the
plates are torn in the direction of the fibres or across them. In a succeeding
section we shall enter briefly into the loss of strength incurred by riveting
plates together.
129. The experiments of Professor Barlow show that a bar of wrought-iron,
2 inches square in the section, and supported at both ends, 33 inches being the
distance between the supports, was deflected .020 (inch) by a weight acting in
the middle of the bar equal to 1.75 tons; the deflection being .030 (inch) with a
2-ton weight. The elasticity of wrought-iron bars may be presumed to be
injured by a weight of 24 tons, and destroyed by 3 tons.
130. With reference to the opinion that severe tensile strains are injurious to
the bearing powers of wrought-iron, the experiments of Thomas Lloyd, Esq.,
of Woolwich, go to prove that this is not correct, but that the tensile strain of
wrought-iron is not injured by breakages up, even to four times in succession.
On this point Mr Fairbairn remarks, that “ in practice it may not be prudent to
test bars and chains to their utmost limit of resistance; it is, however, satisfac-
tory to know that, in cases of emergency, these limits may be approached with-
out incurring serious risk of injury to the ultimate strength of the material."
The experiments of Mr Lloyd also prove that the length of the bar does not.
affect its tensile strength.
131. We have already (par. 9) pointed out the influence which the mere form
of the beam, or the position in which it is laid, has upon its capability to resist
strains; and that a beam laid on its edge, as in fig. 3, is capable of supporting a
greater weight than when laid flat. Hence, as we pointed out, the reason for
making beams thin and deep,-the strength of rectangular beams of this kind,
supported at both ends, being as the square of the depth multiplied by the
breadth, and divided by the span. Thus a beam having the supports 4 feet
wide, and of a size 4 × 2, has a strength of 8; while one of a size 8 × 3 has a
strength of 48-
4 x 4
4×
=
16 × 2=32
= 8
4
8 × 864 × 3=192
4
=48
Again, suppose a beam 8 by 4, the distance between the supports being 4, to
be laid on its edge, its strength will be represented by 64; if laid flat, its strength
will only be 32. Thus :-
8 x 864 × 4 = 256
4
=
64
4 x 4 16 × 8=128
4
32
The proportions here shown (8 × 3 and 8 × 4) are well calculated for beams for
flooring purposes, or where they can have cross supports and braces in the manner
hereafter shown; but for single beams, the best proportion for the depth to the
width is as the square root of 2 to 1: a beam 7 inches deep and 5 wide will meet
this proportion nearly.
132. But the form of the beam is not alone that which regulates its bearing
strength; the manner in which the load is laid upon it exercises a most im-
portant influence. Thus a beam supported at the two ends, e d, fig. 10, with
the load on its centre, as at g or f, will bear only half the weight which a beam
a, fig. 11, will sustain with the weight uniformly distributed over it, as repre-
sented by the dotted line g h. Thus a beam with the load uniformly distributed
30
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
over its surface will bear twice the weight, without breaking, of a beam the
load of which is applied at the centre.
α
Fig. 12.
a
e
DISTRIBUTION OF THE
LOAD ON BEAMS.
133. Again, if the beam be supported at one end only, as
the beam a, fig. 12, in the wall b, the weight acting in the
direction d from the point c, it will only carry one-fourth of
the load which it would do if supported at both ends, as in fig.
10, and loaded in the middle. But in this case also, as in
the preceding one, by uniformly distributing the load over
the beam, as represented by the dotted lines e e, fig. 12, it will
carry double the weight.
134. In beams loaded at one end, as in fig. 12, at c, the strength (s) is in
the proportion of the square of the depth (d), multiplied by the breadth (b), and
divided by four times the length (1).
d x b
1 x 4
S
135. On the supposition that the length of the beam a, fig. 12, is 1 foot,
and the weight acting at c 1 pound, the strain at the point b is called a unit
of strain. To calculate the strain to which a beam is subjected at the point c,
multiply the length (1) of the beam by the weight (w); the product is the strain
The strain at any other point is found by the same formula, the length
from the point b to the extremity c (1)-7x w = the strain. These are termed
units of strain. As before stated, if the beam is loaded uniformly, the strain at
b will be half the strain as when the load is applied at d.
at c.
Fig. 13.
d
(1)—1 ×
136. Theoretically, if a beam, as c d, fig. 10, could be fastened immovably at
both ends, instead of being merely supported, as in practice; if the load was
distributed equally over it, its strength would be increased in the proportion of
three to two. If the load was acting in the middle, as at fig. 10, the fracture
would be in three places instead of one. Hence may be deduced the truth, that
a beam supported at different points, as by passing over partition walls, or sup-
ported by struts or ties, is stronger than if it had no such supports.
137. The horizontal position is the weakest in which a beam can be placed;
as the beam is made to incline, its strength increases in
proportion to the angle till it reaches the perpendicular,
where it is greatest. The relative strength of beams placed
at different angles may be ascertained thus: Let a b, fig.
13, be an upright beam; draw b c perpendicular, and equal
to a b. Incline the beam to the point d, drop from d a line.
perpendicular to bc, cutting it in the point e. The
strength of b d will diminish as the distance b e increases ;
STRENGTH OF BEAMS AS THEIR thus the strut bƒ is as much weaker than b d, as b
bf
9 is
longer than be. Where the vertical position of a b is
changed to the horizontal one b c, the beam is laid in its weakest position.
The strength of a vertical piece a b is to that of a strut b d as the distance b a
is to be.
INCLINATION.
b
138. The strength of a horizontal beam to resist transverse strains is much
influenced by the distance between the supports c and d, fig. 11. Thus beams
decrease in strength as the distances between their supports increase.
139. Where the load is applied to a beam supported at both ends more upon
one side than another, the strain on the beam is less than if the weight was
applied in the centre, in proportion as the weight is brought nearer the end or
point of support. Thus in fig. 14, let the weight upon the beam a b, supported
PRESSURE ON BEAMS.
Fig. 14.
a
f
h
31
at the ends by the walls cd, be acting at the point b, and let the point ƒ be the
centre of the beam. Multiply the length
ce by the length e a, and square the
length ƒ a or ƒ b, the products of these
will show the proportion the pressure of
the weight e decreases, as it is made to
bear upon the beam nearer the end. Thus,
let the length of the beam ab between c
the supports c and d be 14 feet, and the
weight e acting at a point 5 feet from the
a
PRESSURE ON BEAMS AT DIFFERENT POINTS.
b
d
end b, and of course 9 feet from a, then 5 × 9=45—7 × 7 = 49 (ƒb³ or ƒ a²).
The pressure on the beam a e by the weight acting at b, compared with that,
if the weight acted at f, is thus as 45 to 49.
140. We have shown (pars. 134 and 135) how the strain is calculated to
which a beam is subjected by a weight acting at its extremity, when the beam
is supported at one end. In the case last given (par. 139, fig. 14) to calculate
the strain at the points a and b, fig. 14, where the beam is supported at the
two ends, let the weight represented by the arrow e be equal to 200 lb., and the
length of a b, as before, 14 feet. Multiply the distance e a=9 by the weight 200,
and divide by the length of the beam, 14, the product will be the pressure sus-
tained at the point b—namely, 128 lb. To find that at the point a, multiply
the distance be=5 by the weight 200, and divide by 14, the product is the
pressure required-71 lb.
a e =
4
141. The same diagram will illustrate the method used to ascertain the units
of strain (par. 135) at other points on the side of that (as e) at which the
pressure is applied. Let it be desired to know the pressure at the points g and
h. For the pressure at the point g, multiply the weight e = 200 by the distance
9, and the product of this by the distance b g, say 3, and divide the pro-
duct by the distance 14 between the supports c and d. To find the pressure
at h, multiply e (200) by the distance b e (5), and the product by the distance
a h, say 4, and divide the amount thus obtained by the distance a b (14), and
the product will be the pressure at the point h. In all cases the weight of the
beam, as part of the load it has to bear, must be taken into account.
α
d
Fig. 15.
е
142. From these cases and calculations, the truth of our statement (par.
7) will be evident, that beams, to support cross pres-
sures or given weights, do not require to have their
scantling or size uniform throughout their length, but
may be tapered. Thus, for a beam loaded at the middle,
the stress not being equal at every point of its length,
but decreasing towards the point of the supports, as
shown in the two last paragraphs (140 and 141), theoretically the form may
be that of a parabola, terminating in the points a and b, fig. 15. In practice,
however, the ends must have bearing-surfaces; for this purpose the ends.
d and c may be half the depth of the central point e.
THEORETICAL FORM OF BEAMS.
143. A beam supported at one end, and loaded at the other extremity, as by
the arrow c, fig. 16, is as strong when the under side is a parabolic curve
from the point a to d, as it would be if rectangular, as shown by the dotted
line a e. Again, the beam hf, fig. 16, with the load uniformly distributed over
its length, as at g, is as strong when the form is a triangle hif, as it would
be if it was a rectangle hijf.
144. So far as we have gone, the section of the beams has been supposed to
be rectangular, or square; but by altering the section of a beam it may be
32
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
made to carry a much greater weight. This alteration of the form is much
Fig. 16.
d
f
e
j
C
THEORETICAL FORM OF BEAMS.
Ο
more easily carried out in cast-iron than
in any other material; hence its value in
the construction of beams to support
heavy weights.
145. For the investigation to determine
the form of cast-iron beams best calculated
to support heavy weights, the mechanical
world is again indebted to Mr Hodgkin-
These investigations are so com-
son.
plete, and the form deduced from them so universally adopted in improved con-
structions, that we deem it advisable to enter somewhat fully into a detail of
their peculiar features.
Fig. 17.
CAST-IRON
146. In commencing the experiments, it was "assumed that a beam, to bear
the most, ought to have strong ribs or flanges at top and bottom, with only a
thin sheet of metal between the flanges to connect them firmly and stiffly
together. In that case the resisting powers of the beam to compression and
tension would lie chiefly in the flanges, and be as far asunder as possible, giv-
ing to it the greatest attainable power of resistance through leverage.” The
form of beam experimented upon at the beginning, was that recommended by
Tredgold, and considered to be the best; namely, that in which the top and
bottom flanges were of equal dimensions, as at fig. 17; which form
having been taken as a good one from “ a too common generali-
sation of the fact, that bodies, when not overstrained, offer the same
resistance to tension as to compression." Experiment showed Mr
Hodgkinson that "the bottom flange ought to be larger than the other;
"SHAPED for the bottom flange was torn asunder, showing that to be the
weakest part." This was found to be the case when the bottom
flange was increased to double or triple its size; and an augmentation of
strength was obtained each time considerably greater than the increase of
metal used. In the experiments which followed, the flanges were successively
increased, particularly the bottom one, till such time as the top flange, and the
sheet of metal between the flanges, were no longer able to overpower the con-
tinually augmented bottom flange; for up to that time the strength per square
inch of section was increased. In the nineteenth experiment the top part first
gave way, by the separation of a wedge-like piece of metal; but it was not till
the bottom flange at the middle of the beam was six times as great as the top
one, and had more matter in it than double the rest of the section. The gain
in strength from this form of section over the best of those in common use,
seems to be considerably more than one-fourth of the metal. The augmenta-
tion of strength obtained by varying the form of the section at the middle of
BEAM
Area of Section of
Beam in inches.
Area of Section of
bottom Flange in
inches.
Ratio of Sections
of the bottom and
top Flanges.
Ratio of Section of Strength per square
bottom Flange to
that of whole sec.
inch of Section
in lb.
2.82
2.87
.7
.98
1 to I
1 to 4
2368
2
1
1
2.9
2567
وو
3.02
1.2
4 1
1
2.5
2737
""
""
3.37
1.57
4.5
1
1
2.14
3183
""
""
4.50
2.2
4
1
1
2.05
3214
""
""
5.00
2.89
5.5
1
1 1.7
3346
""
""
5.41
3.31
1 1.6
3883
رو
وو
6.4
4.4
6.1
1 1.45
4075
""
""
1
CAST-IRON COLUMNS.
33
the beam, will be best understood from the preceding table referring to some of
the experiments.
Fig. 18.
I
147. In fig. 18 we give a section of the best form of a cast-iron beam;
in fig. 19 a plan; and in fig. 20 an elevation. It will be observed
from fig. 19, that in plan the shape of the flanges is not rect-
angular, but that it tapers from the middle towards the ends a a
in the form of double parabolas, with the vertex at the middle.
By this arrangement the quantity of metal in the bottom flange
is reduced without deteriorating the strength of the beam. The
ratio of the strength of this beam, and that with the equal flanges,
as in fig. 17, is as 4075 to 2368.
Fig. 19.
Fig. 20.
SECTION OF
STRONGEST
FORM OF CAST-
IRON BEAM.
α
α
PLAN OF STRONGEST FORM OF CAST-IRON BEAM.
ELEVATION OF STRONGEST FORM OF CAST-IRON BEAM.
148. The transverse or lateral strength of square beams of equal length is
as the cube of their depth. In cylindrical beams their transverse strength is as
the cube of their diameter.
149. In two beams, one square and the other round, the sectional area of
which is equal, the strength of the round to the square is in the proportion of
845 to 1000.
150. If the material of a solid cylinder be made to form a hollow tube or pipe,
the thickness of which is three-seventieth parts of the diameter, the strength of
the hollow cylinder will be to the solid as 2 to 1; that is, the strength of the
hollow tube is double that of the solid cylinder.
151. The relative strength of solid and hollow cylinders of equal section, or
containing the same quantity of material, is "as the difference between the
fourth powers of the exterior and interior diameters of the tubular beam,
divided by the exterior diameter, is to the cube of the diameter of the solid
cylinder."
152. The capability of a vertical beam, a, fig. 9, to resist compression, is
not limited to the weight which would crush its fibres, but is considerably
under that amount. This arises from the tendency of the beam to deflect or
bend laterally, so that, as in the case of a horizontal beam, its strength is
regulated by its height: a timber-post should not exceed in height ten times
its diameter. Of two solid cylinders of cast-iron, of equal diameter, but of
which the height of one is 6 and the other 16 feet, the shortest is capable of
supporting 61 cwt., the longest only 22 cwt.
153. Cast-iron columns and pillars are subjected to compression only, but
their strength depends upon certain circumstances, as form, &c. We here give
Mr Hodgkinson's investigations into this subject, as containing some information
calculated to be useful. "1. It was found that a long pillar, with its ends flat,
and perfectly immovable, was about three times as strong as another of the
same dimensions with the ends rounded, so as to be capable of turning as on a
universal joint. When one end of the pillar was rounded and the other flat,
according to the definitions given above, the strength was an arithmetic mean
between that of the other two. In other words, if three long pillars be formed
all of equal diameter and length, and one pillar has both ends made round,
another one end round and one flat, and the third both ends flat, the strength
of these pillars will be as 1, 2, 3 nearly. Some of the pillars with flat ends
C
34
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
had discs upon the ends to give them an increased breadth of bearing; but this,
however necessary in practice, added very little to the strength. 2. A long
pillar with both ends flat, or firmly fixed, has nearly the same strength as one
of the same diameter and half the length, with both ends rounded as above.
3. If a solid pillar be enlarged in the middle in the proportion of 3 to 2 or
upwards of the diameter of the ends, and taper from the middle to the ends like
frustrums of two cones whose bases are united in the middle, the strength will
be increased more than the weight of the metal by about one-seventh of the
whole. This will be the case whether the ends are rounded or flat. 4. Similar
Pillars. If long pillars be cast and turned perfectly similar, the diameter being
to the length in a constant ratio, the strength was found, from a mean of several
experiments, to vary as the 1.865 power of the diameter or any other lineal
dimension. It varies, therefore, nearly as the square, but somewhat lower.
5. If a pillar with flat ends be so placed that the pressure it sustains acts dia-
gonally from the extremity of the diameter at one end to the opposite extremity
of the diameter at the other, the strength is reduced to one-third, as was proved
by several experiments. It is easy to infer that this is a case analogous to that
of a pillar with rounded ends. 6. Relative Strength of Columns of different
Materials.-Representing the strength of columns of cast-iron by 1000, I found
the strength in wrought-iron 1745, cast-steel 2518, and Danzig oak 108.8, red-
deal 78.5. 7. The properties of columns, enumerated as above, apply to such
only as have the length so great that fracture may be considered as having been
produced wholly by the flexure of the column. They apply, as appears from
my experiments, to all cast-iron columns with rounded ends, in which the
length is more than fifteen times the diameter; and to all with flat ends, in
which the length is more than thirty times the diameter, or upwards. If the
pillars are shorter than this, fracture takes place by flexure, and partly by crush-
ing, and the properties are more complicated than are here described."
154. Although wrought-iron is so much stronger than cast-iron-as shown
in No. 6 of the above paragraph to be 75 per cent-it is not, as might be sup-
posed, better fitted for pillars than cast-iron, where compression is only to be
guarded against. For the experiments of Mr Hodgkinson have proved the
singular fact, that, with a pressure exceeding 12 tons per square inch, it sunk
to any degree, or was permanently compressed-it only regaining its original
length when the load was under this amount; while, on the contrary, cast-iron,
although decreased in length about double the extent of wrought-iron by the
same weight, took twice, or perhaps three times, the crushing weight to pro-
duce the same effect-that is, to compress it permanently.
155. From these remarks may be deduced the truths in construction, that
where the crushing force is more than 12 tons per square inch, wrought-iron
for columns is practically useless; and that for this purpose it should only
be used where it has also a tensile strain to bear, and this greater than the
compressile, as in the case of a hydraulic press, where the pillars sustain not
only the weight of the entablature, but also the much greater strain produced
by the pump tending to force the entablature upwards. Again, these experi-
ments show the importance of having the ends of pillars perfectly flat which are
to sustain compression, and the loss of strength incurred by having them rounded,
as in the case of the round and jointed ends of some construction of cranes.
156. SECTION SECOND-Framing and Carpentry.-In the various species of
construction which the mechanic will be called upon to design, he will rarely
PRESSURE ON INCLINED BEAMS.
Fig. 21.
b
35
find instances in which a given weight to be sustained can be supported
by one resisting part. Where such cases occur, he will have
little difficulty in estimating the pressure which these parts
sustain: thus, in fig. 21, any weight, represented by the arrow
b, pressing upon the pillar a, exerts obviously a pressure equal
to the amount of the weight; and the dimension of the pillar
is resolved by a single calculation, having reference to the nature
of the material of which it is composed, and of the peculiar
strain to which it is subjected.
a
PRESSURE ON A
VERTICAL BEAM.
157. But suppose the same weight or pressure, represented by b,
fig. 22, to be sustained by two supports, a and c, the united pressure
on the pillars d and e will not be, as might naturally be conjectured,
equal to that sustained by the single pillar a, in fig. 21, but will be much greater,
and that in proportion to the extent of the stretch or distance between the ends
of the supports a and c. Thus, under the same circumstances, the united pres-
sure sustained by the pillars ƒ and g will be greater than that sustained by d
and e.
The pressure b or j, being
dependent upon the angle, or rate
of inclination of the supporting
pieces a and c or h and i, it is ob-
vious that where, in a framing,
one piece is at a different angle
from another, as m is different from
n, the pressure o sustained by the
Fig. 22.
ს
M
n
h
i
a
C
d
g
PRESSURE UPON INCLINED BEAMS.
pillars k and l, on which they bear, will be different in amount.
158. From these statements it will be seen that, as by a slight alteration in
the form or position of the pieces through which a pressure is communicated to
other parts, this pressure will be increased, so that a small weight may be made
to give a great pressure; and, moreover, as, by changing the relative positions.
of the pieces, as m and n in fig. 22, one part 7 will have to sustain a greater pres-
sure than another k, it is a matter of importance
to the mechanic that he shall be able to estimate
the amount and direction of pressures which oblique
supports have to sustain. To aid him in this is the
object of the following remarks.
h
Fig. 23.
e
d
Ъ
с
PARALLELOGRAM OF FORCES.
g
159. Suppose a body, a, fig. 23, is pressed by
a force represented by the arrow h, it will have
a tendency to follow the path a b; in like man-
ner, the same body, pressed by a force e, will
move in the direction a d. If, however, the body be pressed by the two forces.
e and h with equal intensity and at the same time, the path will be in the direction
of the line ac; this, in fact, being the diagonal of a square, of which the side
a d is equal to a b. But if the force h is twice the intensity of e, the diagonal will
be in the direction a g; and a parallelogram would be formed, of which the side
d g would be equal to a ƒ, and twice the length of a d. The two forces acting, one
in the direction of a b, the other in the direction of a d, are called the compo-
nents, and the diagonal a g the equivalent, or resultant. The lines a f,
ƒ g, g d, d a, compose what is usually known as the parallelogram of forces.
In the diagram given, the force acting in the direction of the diagonal a g would
be equal to the two forces h and e; and the method of finding the amount of this
force a g, to balance the two other forces acting in different directions, a d and
36
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
a f, is called the composition of forces; while the reverse operation-namely,
finding two forces which, acting in different directions, as a d and a f, will
exactly balance any single force acting say in the direction a g-is termed the
resolution of forces.
C
160. Upon a right understanding of the laws relating to the composition and
TCRITE
Fig. 24.
a
b
e
J
METHOD TO ASCERTAIN THE PRES-
SURE ON INCLINED BEAMS.
Fig. 25.
resolution of forces, depends the scientific arrangement of
framing, whether required for the purposes of architecture
or engineering. Let us exemplify their application to
practical purposes.
161. Let the weight represented by a, fig. 24, be equal
to-say 8 tons. Drop a perpendicular, a b, which would
be the direction in which the weight would fall if left un-
supported by the two beams a c and a d. From a scale of
equal parts make a b equal to the weight 8: thus, if a
scale of inches be taken, a b should be made 8 inches; if tenths, 8 one-tenths,
and so on. From the point b draw, parallel to a d, a line bf cutting a c in f.
Measure a ƒ from the same scale of equal parts from
which a b was taken, and the distance thus formed
will be equal to 5 tons. As the inclination of the
two pieces is equal, the distance be will be equal to
ƒ, and the pressure equal also. Taking the sum
of the two pressures, 10 tons, it will be found that
the weight a exerts a greater pressure upon the two
pillars c and d, than it would if simply pressing upon
the pillar a in the direction b, fig. 21.
9
α
e
d
h
PRESSURE AS INCLINATION OF THE BEAMS.
రు
JUMAATIK
•
Fig. 26.
се
UNEQUAL PRESSURE WITH UNEQUAL INOLI-
NATION OF TWO BEAMS.
162. To show how the united pressures increase
as the angle of inclination decreases, or the distance
between the extremities, c and d, of the pieces a d
and a c increases, let us investigate the cases shown
in fig. 25. The weight a is the same as in last
case, 8 tons. Make a b, as before, equal to 8,
taken from the same scale of equal parts. Draw
be parallel to a c; measure a e, and it will be
found equal to 5 tons. As the distance a ƒ is
equal to a e, the pressure the weight a exerts
upon the parts d and e is 11 tons, which is greater
than in the assemblage in fig. 24. In the lower
diagram of fig. 25, the weight exerts a pressure
still greater than in either of the two last cases,
the distance between the points g and h being
greater than between c and d.
163. Take, again, the case as in fig. 26, where the angles which the lines a e
and a ƒ make are unequal, and where, as before stated, the pressures are also
unequal. Let the weight be 8 tons as before; draw a b, and make it equal
to 8. From ʼn draw, parallel to a f, the line b c, and, parallel to a e, the line
b d. Measure a d and a c-a d will give the pressure on the support ƒ, 62
tons, and a c that on the support e, 5 tons; the two together giving a united
pressure of 112 tons.
164. The length of the piece a e, fig. 26, has no influence on the relative
disposition of the pressure, but the compressile force to which a e is subjected
depends upon the length; this must be taken into account, and the size
increased in proportion to its length. (See par. 166.)
PRESSURE ON INCLINED BEAMS.
Fig. 27.
37
165. These examples we have given come under the head of the "resolution
of forces," finding two to balance one, the two acting in
different directions. We shall now exemplify the "
position of forces," finding one to balance two.
com-
9
α
DIRECTION AND AMOUNT OF ONE
FORCE TO SUSTAIN TWO.
166. Let a b, fig. 27, be a piece of timber pressed with
a force of 12 tons in the direction of a b; and c b, another
piece, acted upon with a pressure of 8 tons in the direction
c b. It is required to find a force which will balance these
two, and the direction in which that force shall act. From
the point b continue the lines c b to d, and a b to e. Make,
from a scale of equal parts, be equal to 12 (the weight
pressing upon a b), and b d equal to 8 (the weight pressing
upon c b). From d, parallel to be, and from e, parallel to
b d, draw the lines df and ef, meeting in the point f, and
completing the parallelogram d f e b. Draw the diagonal
bf; this will be the direction in which a piece of timber
g must be placed in order to sustain the two pieces a b and
cb;
and the size of which must be proportioned to the strain which the two pieces
exert on it. The amount of this strain will be found by measuring the length of the
diagonal bf in the scale of equal parts, from which b d and b e were measured.
167. In fig. 28 the weight represented by a exerts a pressure upon the pieces.
a b and a c in the direction of their length.
Supposing them to be resting on a com-
paratively smooth floor, the tendency of
the pressure would be to cause the ends b
and c to slide outwards, and to become further
separated. On the supposition, however,
that the ends b and c rested on walls b and c,
preventing the ends from separating as be-
fore, the tendency of the weight a would
be to press the walls b and c outwards. The
amount of the strain thus exerted on the
walls, tending to thrust them outwards, is
also easily ascertained by the principle of the parallelogram of forces (par. 159).
168. For, let a ƒ, fig. 28, represent the amount of the pressure of the weight a.
Complete the parallelogram a gfh, and from the points g and h draw a line at
right angles to a f. The distance g i or h i gives the amount of the horizontal
pressure at the foot of a c or a b, tending to thrust out the walls.
α
p
g
a
Fig. 28.
f
r
h
k
b
e
n
j
OUTWARD OR LATERAL THRUST ON WALLS EXERTED
BY INCLINED BEAMS.
α
Fig. 29.
169. This horizontal pressure may be ascertained by another method. Con-
tinue the central line or axis of one of
the beams, as a b, fig. 28, to the point
j, and make bj equal to the amount
by which a b is pressed. Complete
the parallelogram b kj m: the dis-
tance bk will be the measure of the
horizontal pressure.
k
e
b
h
d
g
THE PRESSURE ON BEAMS UNIFORMLY LOADED.
170. Where an inclined beam a
b, fig. 29, rests its extremities on
the walls b c and a d, and is pressed by a weight as in the direction of
the arrow, it exerts a pressure on the wall b c in the direction of its length.
But where the beam is uniformly loaded throughout its length, as in the case
of a roof, the direction of the pressure is estimated differently.
38
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
Ag
171. Thus, let e be the centre of gravity of the beam (in regular prisms and
cylinders this is in the axis of the beam and the centre of its length).
Through the point e, parallel to a d, draw the line ef; at right angles to this
from draw a f, and join fb. The direction of the thrust or pressure is in the
line ƒ b. To ascertain the amount of this pressure, make ƒg equal to the
number of tons, pounds, &c., with which the beam a b is loaded; from g,
parallel to a ƒ, draw a line cutting ƒ b produced, at h. Measure the distance from
f to h, and this will give the amount of the pressure on the wall b c, while g h
will give the amount of pressure on the wall a d.
172. The same operation is applicable evidently to the case of two in-
clined beams uniformly loaded, as a b and a k, a k being shown by the dotted
lines.
173. We have hitherto shown the application of the composition and resolu-
tion of forces to cases of framing, where the pieces are equally inclined to each
other after the manner of roofs; we shall now illustrate its application to cases
where the pieces have different relative positions given to them.
174. Thus, to estimate the pressure sustained by the pieces a b and b c, fig.
30, the weight acting from 6 in the direction of g, make b d equal to the weight
represented by g. From d, parallel to a b and c b, draw d e and df, completing
the parallelogram bf d e, and draw the diagonal ƒ e.
The distance bf, taken on the scale of equal parts, will
show the strain sustained by the piece a b, and the dis-
tance be the strain on the piece b c.
Fig. 30.
h
b
d
e
DISTINCTION BETWEEN STRUTS
ს
g
AND TIES.
Fig. 31.
a
и
es
PRESSURE ON THE PARTS OF SHEARS.
175. To ascertain the pressure sustained by the
"guy" a b c, and the leg a b of the shears for lifting
heavy weights, as be in fig. 31, make bf equal to
the weight represented by e from b, and draw f d
parallel to bc; the distance f d will give the pres-
sure sustained by bc, and b d that sustained by
ba.
176. All pieces in framings subjected to compres-
sion are called struts, and those subjected to tension
ties. We have already pointed out, in par. 16-19, the
necessity of an acquaintance on the part of the me-
chanic with the offices the various members of a
framing are designed to perform, so as to be able to
distinguish between those acting as struts and those
acting as ties. The following is a method of geome-
trically ascertaining this difference.
The
177. Note the direction in which the straining force
or weight acts, and in which it would fall if unresisted; the weight repre-
sented by g, fig. 30, for instance, would fall in the vertical direction b g.
sustaining forces are in this case a b and b c. On the line b g of the straining
force make b d equal to the weight g, and complete the parallelogram of bf d e.
Draw the diagonal fe, and from the point b draw a line parallel to it, h i. The
part bc being on the side of the line hi, which the weight would occupy if
allowed to fall, is a strut, and is compressed; while the part a b, being on the
side of the line hi opposite to the direction in which the weight g would
fall if unsupported, is a tie, and is in a state of tension.
178. Thus in fig. 31, produce c b to g, and complete the parallelogram b d f g ;
then draw the diagonal d g, and through the point b draw a line d h parallel to d g.
The part b a being on that side of the line d h to which the straining force e has
PRINCIPLES OF THE TRUSS.
39
a tendency to fall, is performing the office of a strut, while b c is performing that
of a tie, being on the other side of the dividing line d h. In fig. 28 the line
pr is the dividing line, and the two pieces, a b and a c, constituting the
framing, are both acting as struts.
f
179. Another rule to ascertain a 66 strut" from a (6 tie," is to note whether one
of the sides of the parallelogram of forces (constructed as already explained in
par. 159), as say df, fig. 30, parallel to one of the pieces c b, cuts the other
piece a b, or whether it cuts a line produced from it. If it cuts the line pro-
duced from it, as at f, the piece a b is a tie; if it cuts the piece c b itself—as is
done by the line de of the parallelogram b ƒ de, at e, the piece c b then performs
the office of a strut. "To this rule," the author of the celebrated article on
Carpentry in the Encyclopædia Britannica, who gives it, says, "there is no
exception." " In general," the same author continues, "if the straining-piece
is within the angle formed by the pieces which are strained, the strains which
they sustain are of the opposite kind to that which it exerts. If it be pushing,
they are drawing; but if it be within the angle formed by their directions pro-
duced, the strains which they sustain are of the same kind. All the three are
either drawing or pressing. If the straining-piece lie within the angle formed
by one piece and the produced direction of the other, its own strain, whether com-
pression or extension, is of the same kind with that of the most remote of the
other two, and opposite to that of the nearest.'
""
180. As a ready means in many cases to ascertain whether a piece is perform-
ing the office of a strut or tie, it may be considered whether a rope could be
substituted for it: if it could, the piece is acting as a tie; if a rope could not be
substituted, it is performing the office of a strut. Thus an inspection of the
arrangement in figs. 30 and 31 will show that ropes could be easily substituted
for the parts a b, fig. 30, and c b, fig. 31, but that they could not be used for the
parts c b, fig. 30, and a b, fig. 31.
181. In roofs, the horizontal pressure tending to thrust out the walls, as in fig.
28, is removed by connecting the feet of the beams a b and a c by means of a
horizontal beam in the direction of bo c. By this arrangement the pressure of
the assemblage of beams on the walls is vertical, and is equal to their weight
and that of the materials which they support.
Fig. 32.
182. Three such pieces, a b, b c, and c a, fig. 32, constitute what in framing is
termed a truss. In par. 11 we pointed out that the strongest known figure was
that of a triangle, which could only change its form when
the pieces of which it was composed, and the joints by
which it was put together, gave way, and that conse-
quently its stability is dependent upon the strength of the
materials.
183. This triangular truss, a b c, fig. 32, constitutes
the essential feature of all framing; and its absence in any
framing so called, is at once evidence that the arrange-
ment is defective in principle.
b
a
THEORETICAL TRUSS
184. It is of all forms the most perfect, as the strains which it imposes on
the materials of which it is composed, are such as they are best calculated to
bear. Thus, in the case illustrated in fig. 32, the pressure on the beams a b and
a c is similar to that exercised on the column a, fig. 21; that is, it tends to com-
press them in the direction of their length, as shown by the arrows, and has
no tendency to bend or cause them to swerve from their line-so much so,
that each beam might be made up of small pieces, as shown, without destroy-
ing the integrity of the arrangement. The pressure being thus, tends to force
40
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION.
the lower extremities of the beam asunder; but being connected by the tie- ·
beam d, this tendency is only to tear asunder the tie-beam in the direction of
its length. And as the pressure on the tie-beam is tensile, its place can be
taken by a rope or chain.
185. Hence, in the construction of a roof to resist a purely vertical pressure
acting at the point a, fig. 32, all that is essential is the truss a bc; care being
taken to choose materials strong enough to resist compression or crushing for
the parts a band a c; and for the part 6 c, a material strong enough to resist ten-
b
sion or drawing asunder. Also, to proportion the pitch or inclination of the roof
to the material of which the beams a b and a c are made; for that which is calculated
best to support a compressile strain, will require to be placed at a higher incli-
nation than the material best calculated to support a tensile strain. Thus,
where the beams a b and a c are made of cast-iron, the pitch or inclination will
require to be made higher than if wrought-iron was used.
186. In some cases, as in machine framing, the weight to be supported may
be vertical, as in fig. 32; but in roofs where the load is uniformly spread over
the length of the beams, we have to add certain contrivances, the aim of which
is to transfer to, or concentrate at the point a, or apex, fig. 32, of the triangle,
all the load spread over the beams a b and a c. For it is to be noted that the
triangular truss a b c is, in strict principle, only fitted to resist a load at the
apex acting vertically.
187. Thus, connect the apex a of the truss, fig. 32, with the centre of the tie-
beam d, by means of another piece, shown by the dotted line a d. This will be
subjected to a tensile strain; and its lower extremity d will afford us starting-
points from which we are enabled to carry up other pieces, as de and df, to
support the beams a b and a c, say in the middle of their length, or at any part
where the strain is greatest. The pieces d e and dƒ are struts, and resist com-
pression; and being on each side of the piece a d, they exert an equal pressure
on it.
188. But the beams a b and a c may be of such length that more supports will be
Fig. 33.
a
Ic
m
f
S
g
Z
i
2
C
d
•
7
i
h
Comment
k
m
g
33.
SKELETON OF TRUSSED ROOF 30 FEET SPAN, SCALE INCH TO THE FOOT.
required than de and df. Other struts will then be necessary, and their pressure
must also be transferred to the point a. How this is done is illustrated in fig.
From the extremities i i of the struts h h drop tensile pieces if, iƒ corre-
sponding to a d. The foot of these will give bearing-places for other struts m m,
the extremities, k k, of which are connected with the tie-beam by other tensile
pieces g g.
189. The pressure of all these struts is transferred thus to the point a. The
strut k m presses against the foot of the tensile piece fi, tending to draw it
downwards. This pressure, and that of the beam at the point i, is transferred to
the strut d h i, which, pressing on the foot of the tensile piece a d, tends to pull
down the point a.
A
FOUNDATIONS.
41
190. Should further subdivision of the length of the beams a band a c be
deemed necessary, struts may be carried up to points 7 l, bearing on the tensile
piece a d near the point d. Other struts may also be used, springing from 9 g
to the points s s.
Fig. 34.
C
b
191. It is only at the central tensile-piece a d, fig. 33, that two struts can be used,
as at the point d, for one being on each
side, their pressure is counterbalanced.
A strut at any of the other tensile-
pieces as a b, on the second tensile-
piece c d, fig. 34, is altogether wrong,
for its only tendency would be to push
out in the direction of the arrow, or
bend the piece c d. And it is an axiom
in true framing that no tendency to
bend a material should be allowed, un-
less counterbalanced or resisted.
a
d
TKUSSED ROOF 35 FEET SPAN, SCALE INCH TO THE FOOT.
192. In order thus to proportion the strains of the various parts of a framing,
it is advisable to design it in straight lines such as we have indicated in the
diagrams illustrative of this section; so that all junctions may be made, and
made visible to the mechanic to meet in a single point. This will also facili-
tate the adoption of the principle of the composition and resolution of forces, in
order to estimate the amount and direction of the pressures to which the various
parts are subjected, and from these data to calculate their scantlings or sizes.
DIVISION THIRD.-PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
193. SECTION FIRST.—It seems here necessary to premise, that although this
work refers specially to the construction of implements and machines, a know-、
ledge of imparting stability to the foundations of the walls and to the beams,
joists, and floors of those parts of the buildings which accommodate the machi-
nery, is as necessary to the mechanician and the farmer as the construction of
the machines themselves, and to this subject we first devote our remarks.
194. Foundations. It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of a good
foundation, for on its being carried out in a proper manner depends obviously
the stability of the superstructure. The term "foundation" has a twofold
meaning, having reference, first, to the preparation of the ground on which the
materials rest; and, secondly, to the arrangement of the materials forming the
lower part of the substructure resting on the ground so prepared. Our
remarks, therefore, are naturally divided into two classes-1. The choice
and preparation of the ground; 2. The arrangement and construction of the
"footings," by which name the lower part of walls is designated.
195. Choice and Preparation of the Ground.-The best foundations are in
compact gravelly soils. This soil is incompressible, dry, little affected by the
atmospheric influences, and yields very little laterally. In a soil of this kind
the foundation is easily formed; all that is necessary is to dig a trench con-
siderably wider than the width of the walls of the building, and of depth not
less than 3 feet. In some instances, a soil of this kind may not be uni-
formly good, but may present places where the soil is defective, being soft and
yielding. When these parts are met with, a simple method to secure a good
foundation for structures of no great weight is to dig out the bad earth till
42
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
good is met with, filling up the holes so made with sand; or the patches of
yielding soil may be rammed well up with layers of small broken stones, as
angular in their form as obtainable. The more firmly these patches are rammed,
the better.
196. In the preparation of foundations in compact clayey soils, great care
must be taken, as they form treacherous foundations in consequence of their
being so subject to atmospheric influences. Thus a blue shale may be so difficult
to work as in some cases to require blasting with gunpowder, yet so susceptible
that in a short time the influence of the atmosphere may reduce it to a thin
sludge. In soils, therefore, of this nature, it is essentially requisite to secure
the foundation from the action of the air. To attain this the trenches should
be dug deep, if possible, to reach the sound compact substratum; the depth
should not be less than 30 inches. Before commencing to lay the bottom-
courses of the walls, a layer of concrete should be laid along the trenches. The
preparation of this material, and the advantages obtained by its use, will be
described in par. 202.
197. Firm compact beds of sand form good foundations, but only in circum-
stances where the sand has no tendency to move laterally—that is, slide from
under the foundation. As this lateral tendency cannot in all cases be traced,
and as, however firm an examination may show the soil to be, the action of
springs, or even of surface water, may give at any time this lateral tendency,
it is deemed advisable, in the majority of cases where sand is met with, to adopt
special arrangements. These are as follows:
198. First, simply extend the bearing surfaces on which the walls rest.
This is easiest done by making the trenches considerably wider than the width
of intended wall, and laying broad and thick flagstones on the surface of the
trenches. The width of the stone for a single-storied building should be such
as to project a foot beyond the lowest course of the wall-the thickness of
the flagstone 3 inches. If the building is to have two stories, add 3 inches
to the above breadth and 1 inch to the thickness. It is of essential importance
that the stones should have a fair and flat bedding, to prevent unequal settle-
ment. In some cases this extension of bearing surface is given by laying a
platform of wood on the sand forming the foundation, this being confined with
walls of masonry or brickwork. A much better plan, however, is to dig sub-
sidiary trenches, completely surrounding the main trenches. The main trenches
are filled up to the level with concrete, and the subsidiary trenches also. These
subsidiary trenches should be deeper than the main trenches. By this arrange-
ment the sand is greatly prevented from sliding laterally from under the founda-
tion-courses. In some cases a firm unyielding soil is found below the bed of
sand on which it is proposed to build. In this case piles may be driven down
to the solid soil, and the whole of the piles sawn off level. A timber platform
may then be put on the piles, on which to rest the superstructure. If possible
to be carried out, the better plan will be to dig out the sand, filling up the
spaces with concrete or beton.
199. To secure a good foundation in soils of a very soft, yielding character,
having a tendency to lateral displacement in almost every direction, it will be
necessary to surround the whole area of the foundations with a row of piles
driven close together, the heads of the piles sawn off at a level, and to spread
over the surface of the soil enclosed by the piles, and over the soil, to some
distance beyond the piles, a layer of concrete or beton.
200. In commencing work on the most secure, yet the most difficult class of
foundations to work, namely, rock, care should be taken to level all the
CONCRETE-BETON.
43
trenches perfectly throughout, to fill up all rents either with concrete or
masonry, and specially to note that the trenches are deep enough to get rid of
all portions which have been subjected to the influence of the weather. Where
the ground is unequal, the foundation will require to be "benched out," or cut
into a terrace form, as it were. Where the level of these benches varies much,
to insure equal settlement of the superstructure, it is recommended to have the
whole built up to the same level by courses of masonry.
201. In digging foundations the material should be economically dealt
with; that is, the "sod" should be cut carefully off, and removed to some dis-
tance; the same with the surface-soil or mould. Sand, if met with, should be
retained for mortar, gravel to make concrete with, and clay for puddling pur-
poses. The digging should commence and be carried out, so that, when the
excavation is finished, the floor may be as uniform and undisturbed as possible.
The whole should then be carefully gone over with a rammer, and the unsound
parts excavated, and filled up with concrete or sand. Sand used in this way
possesses many advantages, in cases where it is not allowed to slide laterally.
Indeed, where this lateral movement can be prevented, sand is recommended
in preference to wood for piles, inasmuch as it is capable of yielding and
assuming new positions according to the pressure-the lateral pressure which
it exerts tending to relieve the vertical on the bottom of the trench.
202. Concrete is a compound of lime finely pulverised, gravel or broken
stones—the more angular the better-and sand. The whole must be mixed
up near the spot where the concrete is to be used, as it sets very quickly. The
proportions of this compound vary with the locality, and with the practice of
engineers. The lime must be fresh burned, and pulverised without slacking.
A proportion adopted in London is five parts of gravel and sand to one of lime.
The materials are thoroughly mixed up while dry, and a little water is then
added to bring the whole to the consistence of mortar; it is then quickly worked up
with a shovel, and applied. In filling in foundations, it is considered by some
a good plan to "toss" in the concrete from some height, as it tends to consoli-
date the mass. A contrary result may, however, be apprehended, as it tends, we
think, to separate the constituent parts. When first made, the bulk of concrete
is less than the bulk of the materials of which it was composed; but the mass
ultimately expands, in the proportion of nearly half an inch in height for every
foot of depth.
203. In some instances concrete is applied in blocks as a building material,
but both in durability and transverse strength it is very deficient. Away
from atmospheric influences, such blocks may be used in the interior of thick
walls. As a material for securing a good foundation, and for the prevention of
damp, it is exceedingly valuable, and is deservedly in high repute.
204. The term beton is applied to any mixture of hydraulic lime with frag-
ments of brick, stone, or gravel. The most economical mixture, and one which
is very good, is broken stone or brick, in fragments of the size of pigeon-eggs,
with coarse and fine gravel. In preparing beton, the lime is first prepared,
with which is next incorporated the finer quality of gravel used. This is then
spread out where required to a depth of some 4 or 6 inches, over which the coarse
gravel and broken fragments of stone or brick are then strewed, and the whole
brought to a well-mixed condition with water by the spade or the lime-hoe. Beton
is superior to concrete, especially for foundations under water, or in wet soils.
205. We shall give a few of the proportions usually adopted in making
mortar and hydraulic cements—that is, cements calculated to harden under
water. Mortar is a combination of lime and sand. Lime, in its ordinary state
44
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
of carbonate, is useless for building purposes; but when burnt, a new sub-
stance is produced, which has a powerful affinity for water: this new sub-
stance is termed an oxide of calcium. When water is added to this, a hydrate
is formed, which, when combined with sand, forms a new substance again-
namely, a silicate. The office which the sand performs is simply to act as neuclei,
round which the crystals of carbonate of lime, and the portions of silicate which
are formed, may arrange themselves. Sand, therefore, must not be rotten or
friable; moreover, it must contain no salt calculated to make the lime soluble
;
hence the use of sea-sand must be avoided.
206. The sands used for the preparation of mortar are generally classed as
pit, river, and sea sands. Of these, river-sand is generally considered the best,
pit-sand being dirty and sometimes friable; while the sea-sand is objectionable
for the reason stated in last paragraph, as also from walls built with it being
peculiarly liable to atmospheric influences, soon showing damp, arising from the
affinity salt has for moisture. A mixture of coarse and fine sand is better
than sand of equal fineness. For good mortar, the proportion of lime to sand
should be two and a half of sand to one of lime.
207. Pure lime, when reduced to a paste by the addition of water, has no ten-
dency to harden-the lime, after the water has evaporated, returning to its
original dry condition. Different effects are produced, however, on different
limes by the addition of water: thus in some, termed "rich or fat limes," the
bulk is much increased; in others the bulk is very slightly altered. These last
are termed "poor" or "meagre" limes, and are those only which, in combination
with silica, alumina, and magnesia, have the power of hardening under water.
This combination of poor limes with silica, &c. is called a hydraulic mortar
or cement.
208. There are various methods of forming this species of cement. Smeaton's
mortar, as used at the Eddystone Lighthouse, was "composed of equal parts of
Aberthaw lime, in the state of hydrate of lime in fine powder, and puzzolano
also in fine powder, well beaten till it had acquired the utmost degree of tough-
ness." Puzzolano is a volcanic concrete thrown up from Vesuvius; it is so
named from the town Puzzuoli, where it was first found. An artificial puzzolano
is prepared by burning clay. The cement or hydraulic mortar used by the
Romans was composed of two parts of puzzolano to one of lime.
The facing
of the London docks was cemented with an excellent mortar, composed of four
parts of lias lime, six of river-sand, one of calcined limestone, and one of puzzo-
lano. A good hydraulic mortar may be composed of two and a half parts of
burnt clay to one part of blue lias lime, to be pulverised between rollers, mixed
and used immediately.
209. What is known as Roman cement is made of the masses found within
the upper and lower beds of the Lias formation, of which the blue limestone
forms the main feature. These masses are known as 66
septaria," and are burnt
with coal. Parker's cement consists of forty-five per cent of clay to fifty-five of
carbonate of lime.
210. We may here observe, that any lime that is used on a farm for the purpose
of steeps for grain or for mortar, gets leave to lie about in the most careless
manner, either under a shed, or at some place contiguous to water, where it
had been made up into a mortar. In either case there is waste of a useful
article; and in many parts of the country, where carriage is far distant, it
is a high-priced article. The lime that is to be used in a dry state should be
kept under cover; and all that is required in a season could be held in a cask
or small hogshead, to stand in a corner of the cart-shed, but not in the straw-
•
STONE FOOTINGS.
45
barn, where a little damp may cause it to ignite the straw. With regard to
mortar, no more should be made at a time than is used, or it should be carefully
heaped together in a convenient place, and covered with turf.
211. Puddling is a very simple process, and may be performed in this man-
ner: Let a quantity of tenacious clay be beaten smooth with a wooden hammer,
mix with it about one-fourth of its bulk of lime (slacked), which has the effect of
deterring worms from making holes in it. After the mass has lain for some time
souring, let large balls of it be formed, and thrown forcibly in the bottom of
the space required to be puddled, and well rammed down with a wooden
rammer, or with men's feet. This should be repeated till the space is filled up.
212. Stone Footings.-In the construction of footings, the great object is to
give a wide base, to which the vertical pressure of the walls is to be transferred,
greater stability being thus given to the structure by diffusing its weight over
a larger surface. The width of the base will obviously depend upon the nature
of the soil in which the foundation is made-rock of a firm stable character
requiring the minimum, soil of a loose and yielding nature, the maximum breadth.
213. The proper thickness of the wall begins usually at the ground-level, the
space below, in the foundation-trench, being
devoted to the footings, which spread out
the farther they proceed from the ground-
level line. Two methods are in use for form-
ing the footings of stone constructions, as
exemplified in fig. 35. In one method, the
lower courses are so made as to form what
is called a "set-off," this being formed by
one course, as c, being narrower than d, and
b narrower than c, the wall a narrower than b. The other method consists in
giving a uniform slope or batter, from g to f, to the footings, upon which the
wall e is raised. This presents a smaller volume of material than the method
at b c d, with an equal stability. The breadth of each set-off, where used,
should not exceed 4 inches.
e
Fig. 35.
a
b
C.
d
STONE FOOTINGS—SCALE, } INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 36.
n
n
0
0
7 iz
mlk
C
a
f
7
g
PLAN OF STONE-FOOTINGS-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
214. The largest sized stones are used for the bottom course; and the thick-
ness of stones used for any course should be uniform. The more perfectly
levelled the surfaces are the better. If obtainable, stones of size sufficient to
go across the foundation should be used. When, for thick walls, all the stones
cannot be obtained of breadth sufficient to reach across, the place of every second
stone should be taken up with two shorter
blocks of the same width and thickness.
Thus, in fig. 36, let a, b, and c represent
the longest, and d e f g the shortest blocks.
Another method is also illustrated in fig.
36, where the longest stones, as hj l, are two-thirds of the thickness of the wall;
and the shortest stones, as i k m, one-third. The method of disposition is shown
in the diagram. The joints of all the stones should be so disposed that the joints
of one course will fall upon the solid parts of the course below, as the joints of
nn rest on the solid parts of the stones o and o. This is called "breaking joint."
215. Where the soil is somewhat compressible, and the stones cannot be
obtained with straight surfaces, a plan of forming the foundation is thus recom-
mended: Make the first course with the smaller blocks, well bedding them into
the soil or on the concrete; form the next course with the large blocks, binding
the smaller stones together, and spreading the weight uniformly over them.
216. The largest stones should be used for the angles of the foundations, par-
46
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
ticular care being taken in bedding them; and wherever the soil is liable to mois-
ture, hydraulic cement should be used for the joints. As in walls the pressure
is nearly always vertical, the surfaces of the stones to which this is transferred
should be horizontal, carefully levelled, and presenting no angular points. The
stones of the upper course, as b, fig. 35, should be so arranged that the first
course of the wall a shall rest on the outer stones.
b
Fig. 37.
e
d
с
217. Brick Footings.-In brickwork, when a brick is placed with its side
parallel to the length of the wall, as a, fig. 37, it is called a
"stretcher;" when its end is parallel, or its side at right angles
to the length of the wall, as b, it is termed a "header." In forming
brickwork footings, it is advisable to have all the outside courses
headers, as b. The benefit derived from attending to this is obvious
enough on examining the diagram in fig. 37. For, let the line c d re-
present the outside line of the succeeding course, then it is obvious
that the brick a (stretcher) sustains the pressure of the superstruc-
ture over half of its surface only; while the brick b (header) sustains it over
nearly three-fourths of its surface. We have already shown that the more uni-
formly (Strength of Materials, par. 133) a weight or pressure is distributed over
f
HEADER AND
STRETCHER
(BRICKS.)
กา
Fig. 38.
b
a
d
C
g
j
i
e
a material, the greater the weight which it can support.
Thus by increasing the width of the offset of the footing,
as say to the line e f, the bearing-surface of each brick
b and a is much reduced.
218. In fig. 38 we give a sketch showing the arrange-
ment of brick-footings adapted for a 14-inch wall a b,
with the footings c d e f g, hij. In fig. 39 we give the
plan of the footing hij, fe being the breadth or thick-
ness of the wall, the length being in the direction e g.
Make the set-off equal to half the width of a brick, or 24 inches, this will give
the lines a d, a b, and d c; these two last being, of course, continued as long
FOOTINGS FOR A 14-INCH BRICK
WALL-SCALE, INCH TO THE
d
f
FOOT.
Fig. 39.
b
с
a
g
PLAN OF LOWER FOOTINGS OF 14-INCH-
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
as the wall. Fig. 40 shows the arrangement of the
course e f g in fig. 38, the width of which b d corre-
sponds to the width a d in fig. 39. This course is made
up of two rows of headers g and h, placed on each side of
stretchers e and f. Setting off as before the distance of
half a brick breadth, the lines jk, ji, and k l will be
obtained, j i and k l stretching along the wall. Fig. 41
is the plan of the course c d in fig. 38, the line j k cor-
responding to j k in fig. 40. In this course there are two
rows of headers, placed end to end. Set off as before,
2 inches, and the lines b d, b a, d c, will be obtained,
Fig. 40.
7
i
C
a
h
e
exfany
'2
Fig. 41.
Fig. 42.
C
α
d
g
e a
7
Ic
7
i
h
b
PLAN OF FIRST COURSE OF 14-INCH WALL
—SCALE, INOH TO THE FOOT.
b
d
g
J
d
b
7c
j
j
PLAN OF SECOND COURSE OF FOOT-
INGS-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
PLAN OF THIRD FOOTING-
SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
giving the space for the wall as a bin fig. 38. Of this course a b c d, fig. 42, is
STONE MASONRY.
47
the plan composed of headers and two stretchers. If the reader would take
tracings of all these sketches, figs. 39 to 42 inclusive, and superpose fig. 40 on
fig. 39, and fig. 41 on fig. 40, and fig. 42 on fig. 41, he would find that the joints
of all the bricks of each course would lie against the solid parts of the bricks
in the course immediately beneath, just as shown in the section in fig. 38.
Should a 9-inch wall be required, as shown by the dotted lines k m in
fig. 38, the bricks will be laid as in plan ij k l, fig. 42: j i will correspond
with h f, il with fe, and j k with h g.
Ն
Fig. 43.
a
219. Where solid foundations are required for pillars, as in the case of a
large roof covering a stackyard, &c.,
and where the ground is of a soft
yielding character, the plan of turn-
ing inverted arches might be adopt-
ed with advantage, as shown in fig.
43, where c and d are the bottom
blocks for supporting the pillars or
columns a and b, and e ƒ is one of
the inverted arches.
d
TO THE FOOT.
220. Stone Masonry.-The two INVERTED ARCHES FOR FOUNDATIONS—SCALE,
principal kinds of stone masonry are "ashlar" and 66 rubble." Ashlar con-
sists of stones cut and dressed to specific sizes; it is the strongest method
of building, although, from the expense of dressing the stones, it is not so often.
followed. The front or outside of an ashlar wall is termed the face, as the inside
is termed the back: the stones composing these are, therefore, styled the
facing and the backing. Where the courses-that is, the horizontal layers of
the stones-are of regular and equal thicknesses, the style of building is
called regular coursing; if of unequal thicknesses, irregular or random. The
upper surface of each stone, as it lies on the course, is called the "bed ;'
and the method by which the connection is made between the different stones
is called the "bond."
""
221. For ashlar-work the stones are generally from 28 to 30 inches long,
12 to 18 wide, and 5 to 9 inches thick. The sizes will depend upon a
variety of circumstances; but, as a general rule, the breadth should never
be less than the thickness, and never exceed twice this dimension the
length of the stone not exceeding three times its thickness. Every care
should be taken to have the stones well dressed; the closer they fit together,
the better the work: unequal settling will certainly result from unequal sur-
faces, if not actual fracture of the stone from the unequal pressure on the
different points. All the surfaces should be at right angles to the direction
of the pressure.
The practice so often adopted by scamping workmen of
dressing the stones a few inches from the face, should be carefully avoided.
When this plan is followed, voids or empty spaces will be left, as
a b in fig. 44, and unequal settling, and possibly fracture of the
stones at the joints wilt be the result. Where the backing of an
ashlar front is of rubble, this tapering-off of the blocks to the
back is recommended as affording a good bond between the facing
and the small stones composing the rubble backing; but even in
this case the stones should be dressed as far back from the face at
least as a foot.
Fig. 44.
M
DEFECTIVE
ASHLAR WORK.
b
α
222. Bond in stone-work is obtained generally by the system of header and
stretcher, by which the vertical joints of one course fall over the solid parts of
the stones above and below-"breaking joint" (par. 214). If the header
48
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
α
Fig. 45.
reaches from the face to the back of the wall, as a b in fig. 45, it is termed a
through; if only part of the distance, a binder. In walls with
dressed facing and backing, as in fig. 45, and rubble "filling-
in," these "throughs" are essential parts in sound construc-
tions. In laying the blocks in ashlar-work, each block should
b be lifted into its bed, and the accuracy of the joint tested; if
it does not lie fair and perfectly stable, the deflective parts must
be observed, the block removed, and the changes desired made.
The bed should now be carefully cleansed from dust, stone-
chippings, and moistened with water; the mortar should next
be laid on the bed, and the block, with its under-side cleansed
and moistened, lowered, and settled in its place by blows of the
"RUBBLE" FILLING-IN mallet. The joint which goes up against the joint of another
block, in the same course, must be as carefully made. The
vertical joints must be at right angles to the horizontal ones, and also at right
angles to the facing; by this arrangement of the horizontal and vertical joints,
the greatest strength possible is given to each block.
C
d
MODE OF BUILDING
ASHLAR WALLS WITH
d
-SOALE, INCH TO
THE FOOT.
Ъ
с
Fig. 46.
a
223. Heavy blocks are raised and lowered by what
is called a "lewis," as illustrated in fig. 46. An aper-
ture, as a, is made in the upper surface of the stone;
two wedges, as b c, of wrought-iron, are made with a
slope to correspond to the slope of the aperture a
a flat piece d goes between them, and the whole are
united by the bolt f. In using a lewis the bolt ƒ is
taken out, and one of the tapered wedges, as b, in-
serted in the hole a; the other, as c, is next in-
serted; lastly, the piece d; the bolt ƒ is then passed through them. The chain
is attached to the ring e passing through d, and the tendency of the weight
of the stone is only to tighten the wedges b c in the hole a.
LEWIS FOR RAISING BLOCKS OF STONE-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
224. In ashlar-work, the stones in particular constructions, as embankment
d
Fig. 47.
b
walls, &c., are often required to be joined to-
gether, as well as one course to those above and
below it. To effect this junction, "dowels" or
"joggles" are sometimes used, as at a in fig. 47,
or as at b. These dowels or joggles are made of
copper or of slate, or hard stone. Iron "cramps"
of various shapes are also used; the object being
to give them as complete a hold of the stones as
possible. These are let into similarly-shaped in-
dentations made in the stone, and run with lead
two of which cramps are shown at c and c. The connection of the course with
another above or below it is also made by means of cramps, as at d and e.
Projections are sometimes made in the bed of one block, and corresponding
indentations on the under-side of the other.
α
DOWELS, JOGGLES, AND CRAMPS, FOR JOINING
BLOCKS OF STONE.
;
225. Rubble-work is of two kinds, coursed and uncoursed, or regular and
irregular. In the coursed work the stones are hammer-dressed to sizes nearly
uniform; the courses may be of unequal thicknesses. In uncoursed rubble, the
stones are prepared by knocking off all the sharp angles. The bedding should
be carefully prepared, and the interstices filled in with smaller pieces or
chippings pressed into the mortar. As each course is finished, grout,
or thin mortar, should be applied to the surface, in order completely to
fill up all the interstices. Due care should be taken to place the stones in
BRICK WALLS.
49
their natural or quarry-bed position, which is indicated by the lamina of the
stone.
226. Rubble-work is sometimes used as a backing for ashlar-facing. This
is by no means a good plan, for, the mode of building being so dissimilar, un-
equal settlement is likely to take place, and the backing to be separated from
the facing. The method illustrated in fig. 45 is a good one, and will be cheaper
than solid ashlar-work, and, if carefully built, nearly as strong. The great art
in building rubble-work uncoursed, is to place the stones of different sizes in
such a way as to interweave with each other, the interstices being well filled
up with mortar. To test if rubble-masonry is well built, step upon a levelled
portion of any course, and, on setting the feet a little asunder, try, by a
searching motion of the legs and feet, whether any of the stones ride upon
others. When the stones ride, they have not been properly bedded in mortar.
To ascertain if there are any hollows, pour out a bucketful of water on the wall,
and those places which have not been sufficiently packed or hearted with small
stones will immediately absorb the water.
227. Brick Walls.-Since the repeal of the
duty on bricks, they are made of all sizes and
shapes; but the dimensions of ordinary build-
ing-bricks remain still as before—namely, 9
inches long, 4 inches wide, and 3 inches thick.
Each course is thus of the same depth, being
regulated by the thickness of the bricks. The
facing of brick walls is "set" up in two ways
a
b
Fig. 48.
α
a
a
с
с
b
ð
OLD ENGLISH BRICK BOND-SCALE, INCH
TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 49.
b
a
a
b
b
a
b
a
FLEMISH BOND-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT
"old English" and "Flemish" "bond."
The former is illustrated in fig. 48; in this the
courses are made up of alternate rows of
headers and stretchers: a a, b b are stretchers,
c c are headers. The "Flemish " bond is illus-
trated in fig. 49; in this each course is made up
of headers and stretchers alternately: a a are stretchers, b b are headers.
228. The Flemish bond is considered to look the best, but the old English is
undoubtedly the strongest. In the Flemish there is comparatively little lateral
tie, as the length of the stretchers predominates over that of the headers. In
the old English, on the contrary, the bond or connection between the various
parts is very complete, the headers giving good bond across the wall, the
stretchers along it. As brick walls are apt to split or rupture transversely, or
in the direction of their thickness, and laterally in the direction of their length,
every attention should be paid to avoid this tendency. Old English bond is
preferable to Flemish, on this account chiefly, that the frequency of the headers
gives strong lateral bond. To afford the mortar a secure hold of, or to enable it
to "key" to the brick, bricks are now sometimes moulded with shallow rectan-
gular indentations on the upper and under sides; into these the mortar is pressed,
forming a "key" or hold.
229. Still farther to secure the advantages of a good "bond" in the structure,
"bond-timber" is often used to connect the wall longitudinally. This consists
of timber of some 3 or 4 inches square, or of such dimensions as the builder
thinks fit, built into the centre of the thickness of the wall, and running along
in the direction of its length.
230. Bond-timber is, however, fast falling into disuse, in view of the superior ad-
vantages of hoop-iron for binding purposes. Timber is apt to rot when imbedded
in the wall, and no external evidence is given of its decay; but this objection.
D
50
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
does not hold against the use of hoop-iron. Sir I. K. Brunel was the first who
introduced this material for binding purposes, and its use has gradually
extended, till it is all but universal in good constructions. Experiments have
proved that brick beams have been strengthened ten times with the use of cement
and iron-hoop bonds. The hoop-iron should be slightly rusted before being built
in, as the adhesion of the mortar is thereby better secured. Two strips of the
iron should be laid along the length of each course; where economy, however,
is more consulted than efficient workmanship, one only may be used. It should
be remembered that the strain the hoop-iron bond has to sustain is that of
tension.
231. In carrying up walls in old English bond, the "quoins," or corners,
а
Fig. 50.
a
b
d
b
FLAN OF FIRST COURSE OF 9-INCH WALL IN
OLD ENGLISH BOND-SCALE, INCH
TO THE FOOT.
đ
Fig. 51.
e
a
ს
α
must be commenced with a half-brick, termed a
"closure" or "closer." The same must also be
attended to in Flemish-bond walls; the object of
this being that the bricks, as they are laid down,
shall “break joint." For instance, in an old Eng-
lish 9-inch bond wall, in the course of stretchers,
it is obvious that if the second line of stretchers,
making up the thickness of the wall, started fair
with the first line, all the joints would lie against
each other; but by putting in a half of a brick at
the end, and starting with a whole brick, all the
joints of the second row, in the direction of the
breadth of the course, will lie against the solid
parts of the facing bricks. In fig. 50 we give the
plan of the first course of a 9-inch wall in old
English bond; and in fig. 51, the plan of the
second course. In fig. 51, the position of the
PLAN OF SECOND COURSE OF 9-INCH WALL Stretchers a a a in fig. 50 is taken by the head-
ers αα;
while in fig. 50, the position of the
stretchers c e d, fig. 51, is taken by the headers
b b. In fig. 50, by inserting the "closer" c, the
joints of the second header d are carried to the solid
parts of the first and second stretchers a a. If the
closer had not been inserted, one of the joints of d
would obviously have come to the joint of a. The
same effect is produced by inserting the closer b
in fig. 51. Corresponding plans of Flemish bond
are shown in figs. 52 and 53; c and c being closers.
232. In Flemish bond the facing is generally
made of a superior quality of brick, and to serve
this the headers are not whole-length bricks, but
are cut through. This is a practice utterly wrong;
for the headers, on which depends, or should
depend, the transverse strength of the wall, have
no hold of the back part of the wall. The con-
SCALE,INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 52.
PLAN OF FIRST COURSE OF 9-INCH WALL
IN FLEMISH BOND-SCALE, INCU
TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 53.
C
PLAN OF SECOND COURSE OF 9-INCH WALL,
FLEMISH BOND-SCALE,
TO THE FOOT.
INCH
sequence is that the " backing" and "facing"
separate from each other, and the whole structure
becomes endangered.
233. Walls.-In carrying up walls, the courses
should be taken up as uniformly as possible, in order to insure regular and
equal settlement. If this is not attended to, and one part a is carried up
BRICK COURSES-FIXING OF BEAMS.
Fig. 54.
a
C
b
MODE OF CARRYING UP BRICK COURSES
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
51
much higher than b, fig. 54, the wall will likely crack. All buildings settle
or shrink; and those parts which are built
up first, and allowed to settle first, will re-
main stationary, so that when the succeeding
part is built up, its settlement will cause it to
be separated from the first-built portion. All
agreements should specify that no particular
part is to be built up exceeding 4 feet in
height. As each part is thus built up, its
ends should not be made square, but the
courses should terminate so as to afford a
series of step-like projections, as from b to c, fig. 54, which will afford a good bond
to the next-built-up portion. The layer of mortar between the bricks should
not exceed a quarter of an inch in thickness; it is a sign of bad con-
struction when thick patches of mortar are seen between the bricks. The
brick should be well wetted before setting, to free it from all matter likely
to prevent adhesion of the mortar. The mortar should be carefully spread
over the brick, and the one to be bedded well rammed down with the trowel,
or, what is better, pressed down with a rubbing motion. The joints in the face
of the work should be finished off with what is called a "straight-ruled joint."
234. In carrying up walls, small piers, as c, fig. 55, should be carried up from
the footings, on which to lay the flooring-joists d.
This allows the air to circulate round the end of
the joist, and tends greatly to preserve the timber.
The plan of building in the ends of the joists, as
the joist b in the wall a a, fig. 55, is greatly to
be reprehended: the decay of the timber is
hastened, and, as it decays, irregular settlement
of the walls is likely to ensue.
In the upper
walls, as piers cannot conveniently be built, the
plan illustrated in fig. 56 should be adopted, to
secure the advantages of a circulation of air round
the ends of the joists. In this illustration the
end of the joist or beam a rests in an aperture
or wall-box, formed by two stone or wooden slabs b and b; the width of this
aperture should be greater than the breadth of the beam, so as to enable
the air to circulate round its sides as well as round its end and top, as at
c, fig. 56. For securing the ends of large girders, wall-
C
Fig. 55.
a
a
GOOD AND BAD METHODS OF SETTING FLOORING-
JOISTS—SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
boxes or shoes of cast-iron are built into the wall in which
the ends of the girders are inserted.
Fig. 50.
MODE OF FIXING BEAMS OF
UPPER FLOORS—SCALE,
INCH TO THF FOOT.
235. In the case of openings-as doors and windows-
in walls, it is essential, in sound construction, to arch them
over. Where the opening is narrow, good construction may,
to a certain extent, be insured by the use of strong and sound
timber lintels. For openings of doors and windows of the
ordinary extent, the size of this lintel may be 5 inches by 4
inches, a bearing of at least 14 inches on the walls being
given to it, as from b to c, fig. 57. A flat arch may be substituted for the lintel,
as fig. 57. If this is used, as the whole strength depends on the mortar, it will
be advisable to use cement of a good quality and hoop-iron bond. As evidence
of the amazing increase of transverse strength obtained by the use of cement and
hoop-iron bond, we here cite an experiment of Colonel Pasley. Brick beams were
52
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
made 10 feet long, 18 inches wide, 12 inches thick, of four courses, and made to
Fig. 57.
α
b
rest on brick piers. The first beam was built
with pure cement only; the second with
pure cement and hoop-iron bond, two pieces
being placed at the upper and lower joints,
and one in the centre, thus ; the third
beam was built with mortar only. The
breaking-weight was placed in the centre of
the beams, between the two pieces. No. 1
(pure cement) was broken across with 498
lb.; No. 2 (pure cement and hoop-iron bond)
was broken with 4723 lb.; No. 3 (mortar only) took a weight of 450 lb. only to
break it.
•
FLAT ARCH AND LINTEL-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
236. Arches.—To enter fully into the "theory of equilibrium" of arches, would
be beyond the scope and exceed the limits of this work; we shall therefore only
refer to a few forms of arches of ordinary occurrence.
=
Fig. 58.
b
a
237. An arch is the disposition of the building materials in a curved form,
the mutual pressure of which enables them to sup-
port large weights pressing upon them. In fig. 58 the
wedge-shaped blocks a to a are termed the voussoirs;
the central b are the key-stones; the line formed by the
external surface of the blocks c to c, the extrados; the
line formed by their internal surface, d to d, the in-
trados, or soffit. The distance from d to d is called
the span, that from f to b the rise of the arch. The
parts receiving the thrust of the arch c and c,
or those from which the voussoirs, a to a, spring, are
called the abutments.
e
d
α
e
DISPOSITION OF THE PARTS OF AN ARCH
—SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
238. The flat arch illustrated in fig. 57 is applicable to narrow openings,
where the weight of materials over them is not great. Great care, however,
should be taken to get a proper slope or bevil to the bricks, or a
66 skew-back,"
as it is termed. To proportion this, let d e, fig. 57, be the width of opening;
from d and e, with d e as radius, describe arcs cutting in f. From ƒ draw lines
ƒ d, fe, forming an equilateral triangle with de; and continue them to g and h.
All the joints of the bricks should converge to the point f. To insure good
construction, the use of parallel bricks should be carefully avoided. The
bricks should be rubbed to the proper shape, so that, when placed in their
respective situations, the whole joints will lie close to each other. If parallel
a
Fig. 59.
b
bricks are used, their upper joints naturally open.
If cement is used, the work should be quickly done,
as it sets rapidly; possibly the better way will be
to use blue lias mortar. Arch bricks of the proper
level and curvature are now made to suit arches of
all sizes.
239. In all cases where the opening is wide, or a
large amount of material is resting above it, as in the
case of openings near the ground-level, circular,
elliptic, or segmental arches must be constructed.
Fig. 59, a segmental arch, is illustrated at a b, a
semicircular arch at c d. The bricks, to insure good
construction, should be carefully rubbed; but to lessen the amount of the open-
ing of the joints at the upper ends, it is considered a good plan to divide the
с
d
SEGMENTAL AND SEMICIRCULAR ARCHES.
ELLIPTICAL ARCH-SINGLE FLOORING.
53
depth of arch into two concentric circles or arcs. Thus a 9-inch arch may
be made up of two rings of half bricks, as from a and d, fig. 59.
Fig. 60.
e
Tc
d
C
b
0
m
a
240. As useful to the mechanic, we here give the method of describing a
semi-elliptical arch in fig. 60. Let a b
be the span, bisect it in the point c, and
draw a line from e to 7 through c at right
angles to a b. Let ce be the rise of the
arch; through e draw a line parallel to a
b, and from a draw a line parallel to c e,
cutting this in d. Bisect a c at g, and a dat
f. From d through the point g draw the line.
d g h, meeting the line e l in h. Join ƒ and
From where the line fe cuts the line
d g h at i, bisect the line ƒ e at k, from which
point I raise the perpendicular k l, meeting
the line e 7 in l. Join d and 1, cutting the
line a b in m.
describe the arc a n, and from 7, with 7n or 7 e as radius, describe the arc n e.
The other half of the arch will be described by setting off the distance a m
from b to o, and describing first an arc from o, with ob as radius, and then
from this arc describing an arc to e from the centre l.
e.
From m, with m a as radius,
7
SETTING-OUT OF ELLIPTICAL ARCHES.
241. SECTION THIRD-Construction of Timber-Framing.-We shall now explain
some of the methods of constructing timber-framing.
242. Flooring.-The simplest form of floor
66
is illustrated in fig. 61, and is called the
single flooring." Where a a a are the joists
laid on the wall c c c, parallel to one another,
the distance should not in any case exceed 12
inches from centre to centre of joists. The
flooring-planks b b are laid on the joists a a a.
Fig. 61.
b
α
α
C
с
C
α
243. When the walls, as a a and b b, fig. 62,
are separated more than 8 feet, the joists
are apt, under sudden strains as weights
hauled over the floor, people walking quickly,
&c.—to bend laterally. To prevent this, struts SINGLE FLOORING-SCALE, & INCH TO THE FOOT
are placed between the joists, as c c between the joists d d d. When the
span of floor is wide, these struts should be placed at distances of not
less than 4 feet apart. One row will do for joists,
with a bearing exceeding the 8 feet; for every 4 feet of
extra bearing, one row of strutting should be given.
They may be formed either of pieces of thin wood, as at
e, fig. 62, the same depth of the joists, or of two pieces
crossed, as at f.
Fig. 62.
хо
cl
C ||
d
d
244. When the course of the joists is to be interrupted,
as in fig. 63-where, for instance, a well-hole g is to be
made, as in the floor of a barn or granary, to admit of
passage from one floor to another by means of trap-
stairs—the joists, as a a, b b, are supported by cross
pieces c c, d d, called "trimmers” or bridles." These
again are supported by larger joists, e e, ff, which run parallel to the
ordinary joists a a, b b; these larger joists are called "trimming-joists," or
66
TRUSSING OF FLOORING BEAMS.
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
54
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
((
carriage-beams." The trimmers, c c, d d, must be made strong in propor-
е
a
a
Fig. 63.
f
TRIMMING-JOISTS—-SCALE,
е
b
tion to the number of joists which they have
to carry, and the scantling of the carriage-
beams is proportioned to the weight which the
trimmers carry. From par. 291 to 308 will be
given the necessary rules for calculating the
sizes of joists.
INCH TO THE FOOT.
245. For floors of a wide span, and where
more perfect work is required, as in the sup-
porting of heavy weights, what is called
"double flooring" is used. This is illustrated
in fig. 64, where b b b represent two large
joists, termed "binding joists," which are laid
on the wall a a at each end, at distances of 10 feet apart from centre to centre.
These joists support other joists, termed "bridging-joists," c c c, laid at
right angles to b b. These bridging-joists are laid at distances of from 12 to
20 inches apart, and support the flooring-planks d d, which run parallel to the
"binding-joists" bb. Where it is deemed in the apartments of the steading to
have a 66
ceiling" on the under-side of the floor, what are called "ceiling-joists"
should be notched into the under-side of the binding-joists, as at e e. The dis-
tance between these is usually set off at 12 inches.
246. A still more complicated form of flooring, and one usually adopted where
Fig. 64.
Fig. 65.
d
b
b
с
d
α
e
a
a
a
C
α
C
نا
DOUBLE FLOORING-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
""
DOUBLE-FRAMED FLOORING-SCALF,
INCH TO THE FOOT,
girder,"
the bearing is great, is illustrated in fig. 65, and is known as the "
or "double-framed flooring. In this case the binding-joists b b are not
supported at the ends by the walls, but are supported by "girders," as a a,
which rest on the walls, and are placed generally at a distance of 10 feet apart ;
Span or CLASS I.
Bearing.
Joists.
CLASS II.
Binders.
CLASS III.
Girders.
Ceiling
Joists.
Distance apart
of Girders.
Distance apart Distance apart
of Binding-
Joists.
of Joists.
W.
D.
6
2 × 6 in.
W.
D.
6 x 4 in.
W.
D.
W.
D.
...
3 × 2 in.
8
27
7 441
4
21
10 feet
4 to 6 feet
12 to 14
10
2층 ​7호
​8 5
9 x 7 in.
5
2
apart. The
12
24 8
9 53
10 8
14
29
10 6
16
...
20
3 12
11 61
13 7
11
12 10
13 11
9
...
...
12 in.
bearings on
wall 9 to
apart. Bear in. 4 to 6
ing 4 to 6 in. in. bearing
on walls.
on walls.
24
15 12
28
: :
...
16 13
...
:
FLOORING-GATES.
55
on the "binding-joists" b b the bridging-joists c c c c are placed, these sup-
porting the flooring-planks d d.
247. Taking fig. 61 as representative of the "first class" of floors, fig. 64
of the "second," and fig. 65 of the "third," the preceding table, compiled from
data given by the eminent authority Tredgold, will be useful, as showing the
scantling of floors for various spans. W represents the width, and D the depth
of the joists, binders, and girders.
248. The following remarks on flooring by Mr Gwilt will, we trust, be of
use. First, the wall-plates—that is, the timbers which lie on the walls to re-
ceive the ends of the girders or joists-should be sufficiently strong, and of suffi-
cient length to throw the weight upon the piers. Secondly, if it can be avoided,
girders should not lie with their ends over openings, as doors or windows; but
when they do, the strength of the wall-plates must be increased. To avoid the
occurrence in question, it was formerly very much the practice in this country,
and indeed is still partially so, to lay girders obliquely across rooms, so as to
avoid openings and chimneys, the latter whereof must always be attended to.
Thirdly, wall-plates and templates must be proportionately longer, as their
length and the weight of the floor increase. Their scantlings will in this respect
vary from 4× 3 inches up to 71 × 5 inches. Fourthly, the timbers should
always be kept rather higher-say half to three-quarters of an inch-in the
middle than at the sides of an apartment, when first framed, so that the natural
shrinkings and the settlements which occur in all buildings may not ultimately
appear after the building is finished. Lastly, when the ends of joists or girders.
are supported by external walls whose height is great, the middles of such
walls ought not at first to rest upon any partition-wall that does not rest higher
than the floor, "but a space should (says Vitruvius, lib. vii. 1) be rather less be-
tween them, though, when all has settled, they may be brought to a bearing upon
it. Neglect of this precaution will induce unequal settlements, and besides
causing the floor to be thrown out of a level, will most probably fracture the
corners of the room below."
249. Gates.-Hitherto, it may safely be averred, very little attention has been
paid to principle in the construction of field-gates; and for the truth of this we
have only to look around us, where the eye of the constructive student will
detect probably not more than one in a hundred of our field-gates that are not
glaringly defective as pieces of constructive carpentry. Defects in point of
construction are not even confined to the field-gate; we find them in many of
those gates of much higher pretensions, and where, the hand of a master having
been at work, we might be led to expect something like an approach to the
true and simple principle. Yet how seldom does the eye experienced in
directing those geometrical and dynamical principles on which alone a just
and permanent system of construction depends, light upon a form that satisfies
its discriminating glance.
250. Wooden Gates.-The essentials of a field-gate, whether of wood or iron, are
a rectangular frame, consisting of the heel and head posts, and a top and bottom
bar or rail, which four parts, properly connected at the angles, are rendered of an
unchangeable figure by the application of one or more diagonal bars, and these
diagonals should in no case be applied short of the whole length between any two
of the opposite angles. The upfillings, whether of rails or otherwise, as may be
desired to attain any particular object, are mere accessories, and not in any way
tending to the stability or durability of the fabric. In pars. 17, 18 we have
pointed out the materials to be used in the construction of gates, but in the
present section our illustration will have reference chiefly to those made of wood,
56
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
reserving for the succeeding section those of iron, although the principles of
construction apply to structures of field-gates generally, of whatever material
formed.
C
i
Fig. 66.
α
h
b
THE ELEMENTS OF A TRUSS IN A WOODEN
FIELD-GATE
251. In treating of the practical construction of field-gates, it is perhaps un-
necessary to dwell upon the strains that occur in the individual horizontal
bars, because, if the principles referred to above are attended to, all cross strains
in the principal joinings are avoided; and except when any extraneous force is
applied, the strains are resolved by construction
into those of direct compression or of tension.
Thus, in fig. 66, which may represent the ele-
ments of a fly-gate applicable to a drive or
thoroughfare, and opening either way, if we take
the heel-post a b and the bar a c alone, and hinged
in any manner at a and b; and if the bar a c is 10
feet long, the breadth of the heel-post at a 5
inches, and the parts being joined by mortise and
tenon, and then suppose a load applied to the bar at c,-the mechanical effect of the
load would be a cross strain at h tending to break the bar directly across, with a
force equal to twenty-four times the load, exclusive of the effect of the bar itself;
the bar a c forming here a lever of the first order, whose arm h c is to the arm
ha, or the breadth of the heel-post, as 24 to 1. By increasing the number of
bars we do not alter the total effect of the load, but simply divide it equally over
the superinduced bars, supposing them to be connected with a head-post at i.
But reverting again to the single bar a c, and applying to it the diagonal b c, we
have now the triangular figure a b c, the parts of which being firmly connected
at their points of junction, the form becomes unchangeable, and the effect of
the load at c is instantly altered. The effect of the load at c is now resolv-
able by the parallelogram of forces into two others, the one of tension on the
bar a c, the other of compression on the diagonal b c; and taking the length
a b as a representative of the gravitating or direct effect of that load, then the
tension on a c will be to the absolute load as the length of a b is to that of a c,
and the compression on the diagonal will be as be to b a. In this example the
hinges of the gate are not shown, but in actual practice the tails of the upper
hinge stretch along part of the top bar, binding it securely to the heel-post,
while the bottom hinge may be made to form an abutment to the foot of the
diagonal. For methods of estimating the strains, whether of compression or
extension, see the section on Principles of Framing, from par. 156 to 191.
252. The practical insertion of the diagonal is also of some importance.
d
Fig. 67.
a
b
Fig. 68.
EXAMPLES OF THE APPLICATION OF A DIAGONAL
c
Fig. 67 exhibits one mode
of performing this, where
a b is the strut half lapped
upon the heel-post at bot-
tom and upon the head-
post at top: it is not an
elegant mode of insertion,
but it is efficient in so far
that, while it acts as a strut, it binds the top of the head-post to the top bar,
and prevents it from flying off by the thrust of the diagonal.
253. Fig. 68 exhibits another mode of insertion of the diagonal, which is
perhaps preferable to the former: here the head of the diagonal is attached
to the top bar, half lapped upon it at b, and notched into the lower edge as an
abutment, forming a very efficient strut, the tension strain being brought entirely
VARIOUS FORMS OF GATES.
57
upon the top-rail, which is always securely tied to the heel-post by the tails of
the hinge at c. These examples are applicable to field-gates, where the bars are
always much thinner than the heel and head posts, the latter being generally
about 21 to 3 inches thick, and the former only 1½ inches. In such cases the
diagonal is slightly notched upon all the bars, and deeper upon the heel and
head posts, where the method, fig. 67, is adopted; but in no case should the
bars be notched except on the edge of the top bar, where it receives the head
of the diagonal.
Fig. 69.
b
254. A very common form of field-gate to be seen in this country is shown in
fig. 69; and applying the principles to
it which we have been considering, we
shall find it defective in several most
essential particulars. It has a strut a b,
but instead of extending across the
entire diagonal to c, it stops short at the
centre of the gate at b. The part of the
top b c is liable to be
broken off by
a
A COMMON FIELD-GATE.
d
any undue force being exerted upon it
at c, when it is converted into a lever,
whose fulcrum is supported at b by the end of the strut a b. It has also a tie
b d, which is not only made of a wooden rail, but it does not extend across the
rectangle to e, and in no part does it cross the strut a b, so as to act with it in
maintaining an equilibrium of forces. The consequence in practice is, that this
form of gate is very frequently fractured at the head-post c d, and falls to the
ground at d.
α
Fig. 70.
e
my
THE KILMORY WOODEN TRUSSED FIELD-GATE.
d
255. The principle of trussing has been successfully introduced into the
wooden field-gate by Sir John Orde of
Kilmory in Argyllshire. Fig. 70 shows
the rectangular form trussed, so as to
make a compact firm structure. The
heel-post a b, the head-post c d, and the
upper and lower rails a c and b d, form
the rectangular frame. The truss con-
sists of four bars of wood, ae, be, ce, and
de, each of which abuts into an angle of
the rectangle, and all meet at the centre
of the gate e; where, each bar being longer than the half of a diagonal of the rect-
angle a d, they become elevated in the form of a pavilion roof. A similar truss
is formed for the other face of the gate, whose apex is at f. Through the points
e and f, the apeces of the trusses, passes the iron bolt e f, the head of which holds
the bars at ƒ; and a screw and nut upon a plate hold those at e; and when the
screw is tightened, the trusses are brought nearer together in the centre, and
their ends abut with great force against the angles of the rectangular frame at
b a c and d. To resist this pressure, it is necessary to connect the posts and
rails with an iron clamp at each angle of the frame. We believe that this con-
struction of gate will admit the frame neither to bend nor twist, and it will bear
any pressure of stock against its sides; but its peculiar form is attended, we
think, with a practical inconvenience. The trusses rising on each side of the
gate 93 inches above the plane of the frame, the projecting parts at e and ƒ
present an easy and ready hold for the foot of a colt, should he be disposed to
amuse himself about the gate—a recreation which young horses are apt to
indulge in; and the same projection will likely graze against the sides of cattle,
58
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
and lay hold of the harness of horses when passing through the gate. We
are therefore doubtful of its utility as a common field-gate. The interior of the
frame can be filled up with any light material, as wire or spars of wood. When
fitted up with wooden spars, the frame costs 13s. 6d., and the posts suited for
it, 13s. 6d. more.
d
Fig. 71.
MILES' WOODEN FIELD-GATE WITH IRON HEEL-POST.
a
256. A gate constructed by Mr Charles Miles, architect, London, which
seems well adapted for fields, is
illustrated in fig. 71. It consists of
both iron and wood. It has a strong
cast-iron heel - post, a, which is
round, tapering to the top, and is
batted into a large stone in the
ground. At a is a collar of iron
embracing and revolving round upon
a projecting bead encircling the post.
To one side of this collar is attached
a socket of considerable depth, and of
a form to receive into it the upper rail of the gate, which, when properly
seated, the socket prevents from drooping at the head d. The under-rail style
at b is in every respect fitted up in the same manner as the upper one. The
head-style d is light, and completes the framing. The filling-up of the
frame is left to choice, either in iron or wood. In the figure the filling-up con-
sists of light wooden spars, nailed on alternately upon both sides of the upper
and lower bars. Were a wooden strut introduced into the frame from the bot-
tom rail b to the opposite angle at d, the gate would be much strengthened,
though the deep hold of the sockets makes the rails much more rigid than might
be expected. The receiving-post c is made of wood fitted into an iron socket,
which is batted into a stone. The cost of the gate, without the receiving-post,
is 37s. 6d.; with the post, 45s.
257. We have hitherto alluded only to the simplest efficient form of wooden
field-gates, in the construction of which cheapness is always an object, and we
have, in order to avoid confusion of ideas, restricted the description to the essen-
tial parts; the number of bars, or other means of rendering the gate a sufficient
fence, is left to be filled up at discretion. In making these upfillings the maker
should studiously keep in mind that no curved bars or timbers of any descrip-
tion should enter into the construction either for ornament, or ostensibly for use.
(See par. 15, fig. 8.)
258. In the construction of wooden gates for drives or approaches, where
utility is the chief object, strict attention should still be paid to the princi-
ples of construction, but a little more latitude may be admissible in point of
finish and expense. For such purposes, the rails and posts of the gate should
be all of one thickness, or at most, the only difference should be a gradual dimi-
nution in thickness towards the head, to lessen the effect of gravity on the
hinges and gate-post: for pleasant effect, there should not be more than three
horizontal rails, with two diagonals; and if it is necessary to have a closer
upfilling, it should be of an upright light balustrade form. Fig. 72 is an
example of this form of gate, adopted many years ago, and the originals then
constructed are still good and serviceable, but it is considerably more expensive
than the common field-gate. The heel-post a b is 5 inches broad and 3 inches
thick, while the head-post c d may be reduced to 21 inches if thought advisable.
The top and bottom bars are formed with abutment pieces at both ends, which
are 5 inches broad, the intermediate parts being reduced to 3 inches; the middle
HANGING OF GATE-POSTS.
59
bar has the same breadth, but is made up in the middle with corresponding abut-
ments, as at e, and the two diagonals, of 2 inches in breadth, are inserted in four
α
+++
Fig. 72.
e
d
C
1
2
+
3 feet
WOODEN GATE SUITED FOR THE APPROACH TO A VILLA.
pieces, exactly fitted between the abutments of the bars. The hinges are of the
common double-tailed crook-and-band form, binding the top and bottom rails
firmly to the heel-post, and the gate may be hung upon pillars of stone, or of
wood well secured. The best balustrade for a gate of this kind is rods of iron
inch diameter, as in the figure, passed up through the bottom and middle bars
and the diagonals, the holes for these being easily bored with an auger after the
gate is formed; but a simple and cheaper balustrade is formed of light wooden
spars sunk into the bars and diagonals.
259. For all wooden gates, the method of bracing with light iron diagonals
is to be preferred to wooden struts, but to be effective two diagonals must
always be applied. In some cases they may pass from one angle to its oppo-
site in one length, but in others they may be applied in four pieces, the con-
nection at the centre of the gate being effected either by a ring of iron, in which
the four ends are screwed, or by bolting the palmated ends of the four parts,
two and two together, through the middle bar, as at e, fig. 72, one bolt secur-
ing the four ends; and in either case the rods pass through the top and bottom
of the heel and head posts of the gate, and are there secured by screw-nuts. It
is obvious that iron diagonals would apply in this manner to the gate, fig. 72,
instead of the wooden braces from e.
260. Field-gates should always be made to fold back upon a fence, to open
beyond the square, and not to shut of themselves. When they shut of them-
selves, and are not far enough pushed back when opened, they are apt to catch
the wheel of a cart when passing, and to be broken, or the post to be snapped
asunder by the concussion; and as self-shutting gates are all apt to be left un-
fastened by people who pass through them, requiring greater attention than is
usually bestowed on such matters, the stock, particularly young horses, which
seem to take delight to loiter about gates, might then escape from the field.
Young horses are fond of rubbing their rumps against gates, to prevent which
it is necessary to wattle thorns into the bars.
261. An excellent plan of fixing a hanging-post is to dig as narrow a hole
as is practicable for the purpose, 3 feet deep, and at the bottom lay a flat stone
of about 15 inches square and 7 or 8 inches thick, in the centre of which is cut
through a hole of 8 or 9 inches in diameter, to take in the lower end of the post,
dressed with the axe to fit the hole. Earth alone is then put in spadefuls into
60
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
the hole, and made firm around the post with a rammer, up to the surface of the
ground, in which is sunk a stone, at the edge of the upper square face of which
the iron-shod heel-post of the gate is made to rotate in a shallow hollow made
་་་་་
4.4
་ ་་་
་་་་་་་
Fig. 73.
d
SECURE MODE OF FASTENING THE HANGING-POST OF A
FIELD-GATE.
to fit it. Fig. 73 shows the different
parts of this mode of fastening the hang-
ing-posts of field-gates; where a b is the
hole into the bottom of which the stone e
is sunk, and into this stone the end of
the post d is inserted and secured. Water
passing through the hole in the stone,
the lower end of the post will be pre-
served; and more so by being charred
or in the bark, and smeared with coal-
tar: the upper part of the post at d
will be best preserved by being planed
and painted. The top of the post should
always be semi-spherical, or pyramidal,
to prevent the lodgment of water upon
them. The earth is rammed hard into
the pit a b to the surface of the ground,
in which is sunk at ƒ a stone, on which
the heel-post of the gate rotates. Part
of the hedge-fence of the field in which
the gate is placed is shown, as also the
crook above d on which the gate is hung.
262. Another method is in digging a hole 2 feet square, and of 3 feet in
depth; and the post being set into it, the pit is filled with rubble masonry
in mortar, packed firmly, and grouted round the post. This is no doubt a very
effectual mode of fastening gate-posts—a matter not so well attended to on a
farm as it ought to be; and the lime may tend to preserve the wood under
ground a longer time than it would be without it; but it is expensive, and
when the post has to be renewed, the masonry will have to be removed, as
no new post can again be fixed so firmly in the pit as when both were put in
together.
263. There is no better mode of hanging a field-gate than by crook-and-
band hinge at the upper rail, and a heel-crook at the bottom of the heel-post.
Both the band-hinge and the heel-crook ought to be double-tailed, to embrace
both sides of the heel-post and of the upper rail. The upper-crook keeps the
gate close to the upper part of the hanging-post, while the heel-crook, resting
on and working in a hole made in a hard stone, supports the entire weight of
the gate. A gate-post of whatever kind, which has to support the entire weight
of a gate, requires to be very securely fixed into the ground; but when the gate
is supported by a heel-crook, the post may be of more slender form.
264. The simplest mode of fastening field-gates to the head-posts is to hook
on a small linked chain from the stile-head of the gate to a hook in the receiving-
post. No animal is able to unloosen this simple sort of fastening; but horses
soon learn to unfasten almost every other sort.
265. Field-gates ought to be painted before being put to use, and they
ought to receive a new coat every year, as without it they will rot in a com-
paratively short period of time. Iron gates must of necessity be painted, to
keep them from rusting. Coal-tar does not look well as a paint, and is apt to
blacken the hands and clothes after exposure for a time to the air. Many com-
JOINTS OF BEAMS.
61
positions are presented to the public notice as suitable for painting outside
work, amongst which we have seen a thick black varnish, but there is nothing
better than good white-lead and oil. Field-gates painted white have a lively
appearance amongst the dark-green foliage of thorn hedges, and they harmo-
nise well even with the colour of dry-stone walls.
b
C
Fig. 74.
f
e
a
d
JOINING TIMBERS IN THE DIRECTION OF THEIR
LENGTH-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
266. Joining Timbers.—We now proceed to illustrate the various methods in use
of joining timbers together. (1.) Joining timbers in
the direction of their length.—When timbers are to
be joined in the direction of their length, when sub-
jected to tension, the method illustrated in fig. 74
may be adopted; thus the ends of the beams a and b
are squared up, and made to abut against each
other; they are secured in this position by bolting together the two pieces c and d,
the bolts passing through the beams a and b. This is a strong, if not the strong-
est, method of joining timbers under this head, although it is objected to on
account of its clumsy appearance. The joint
may be made stronger by notching the pieces.
ƒ ƒ and g g, as in fig. 75, or inserting flat keys into
apertures made partly in the beams and partly in
the pieces, as shown at e and f, fig. 74. In fig.
75, b c d are the two beams to be joined; ƒƒ
and g g the two pieces notched in; h and i
showing the plan or upper side of the notches.
b
f
Fig. 75.
g
h
с
f
d
g
2
JOINING TIMBERS IN THE DIRECTION OF THEIR
LENGTH-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
267. When the joint is so constructed that the surfaces of the two beams are
flush with each other, the united beams presenting the appearance of one only,
the joint is called a "scarf" joint. The simplest and the strongest form of this,
known as the "half-lap joint," is shown in fig. 76; the beams to be joined
being shown at a b, the abutting ends c d being square; bolts eƒ are used to
Fig. 76.
A
#
d
#t
"T
11
α
።።።።።
α
Fig. 77.
b
Fig. 78.
e
h
h
C
b
da
f
THE HALF-LAP JOINT-SCALE, INCH
TO THE FOOT.
THE HALF-LAP JOINT-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
SCARF-JOINT-SCALE, INCH TO
THE FOOT.
keep the parts together. Fig. 77 shows another form of "half-lap" scarf
joint, a b being hard-wood keys. These keys should not be driven in too
tightly, so as to produce any strain on the parts; all that is necessary is to
bring the joints together, and then bolt together the beams firmly.
268. When the jointed beams are subjected to a cross strain, the form of
"scarf" shown in fig. 78 will be found a good one. The two beams to be joined
are represented by a c; the portion db is oblique, not parallel to the sur-
faces of the timber as in fig. 76. The end de is at right angles to the surface
of the beam, the end bf oblique. A piece of timber g g is secured to the
under-side by hard-wood keys, and the whole secured by iron hoops or bands
hh.
269. Where the jointed beams are subjected to compression and extension at
the same time, the form of joint should be designed to meet those strains. Fig.
79 shows a form adapted to these circumstances; a b are the two beams
to be joined; the folding wedge or double keys c d serve to bring the parts
together. A plate of wrought-iron g g is placed at the under-side, and secured
by bolts e e.
62
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
"" •
270. In fig. 80 we give a diagram illustrative of the "indented scarf-joint;
a b are the two beams with the surfaces of the abutting ends cut into indents
g
b
e
Fig. 79.
d
g
a
Fig. 80.
с
с
d
e
a a
SCARF-JOINT-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOг.
SCARF-JOINT—SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
and corresponding projections; a key is inserted at ccc; wrought-iron
plates e e are bolted together by the bolts d d.
271. When two pieces of timber are to be joined vertically together in the
direction of their length, to resist compression, joints, as in figs. 81 and 82, may
Fig. 81.
h
α
h
Fig. 82.
b
99.00
с
JOINT TO RESIST VERTICAL COMPRESSION-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
JOINT TO RESIST VERTICAL COMPRESSION-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
be used. In fig. 81 let a b c d be the end of the lower part of the beam; two
square pieces are cut out at opposite corners. Let the end of the upper part of
the beam be similarly cut, as at e, and the two placed together, so that the solid
parts of the upper beam may fit into the hollow spaces of the lower beam. In
fig. 82, a b d c, e f g h represent the ends of the beams to be joined. From the
lower beam parts are cut at each corner, as at a b c d, of any depth required.
The method of cutting the end of the upper beam is shown at e f g h; the
corners being left solid, the solid parts of the lower beam go into the hollow
parts in the upper beam. If there is any chance of the beams thus joined
being subjected to a cross strain, plates of iron may be put at the sides, extend-
ing some distance on either side of the joints, and secured together by bolts
passing through the beams, or, what will be better, by hoops passing outside.
272. As regards the proportions of scarf-joints, of which we have given illus-
trations, Tredgold, in his valuable work on Carpentry, has given some valuable
notes: these we here append. "The length of the scarf should be, if bolts are
not used, in oak, ash, or elm, six times the depth of the beam-in fir, twelve
times the depth of the beam. If bolts and indents are combined, the length of
the scarf should be, in oak, ash, or elm, twice the depth of the beam-in fir,
four times the depth. In scarfing beams to resist transverse strains, straps
drawn on tight are better than bolts. The sum of the area of the bolts should
not be less than one-fifth the area of the beams when a longitudinal strain is to
be borne. No joint should be used in which shrinkage or expansion can tear
the timbers."
273. In joining timbers, all the bearing-surfaces should be made with great
accuracy, all inequalities tending to increase the strain more upon one part
than another, and thus to cause rupture. The simpler the parts are the
better.
JOINTS OF GIRDERS.
63
274. In heavy girders of more than a foot in thickness, it is a good practice
to saw them down the centre, turning the inside surfaces outward, bolting them
together with pieces of thin wood between them; this enables the air to circu-
late freely, in addition to affording an opportunity to examine the quality and
condition of the timber.
a
d
Fig. 83.
C
ово
о
ย
о
о
g
d
275. When the bearing of a girder exceeds 25 feet, the deflection which
arises has a tendency to push
out the walls in which it rests.
The usual method of prevent-
ing this is to "truss" the
girder. This is performed by
cutting the girder in two
through the centre in the
direction of its length, and
inserting two pieces of timber
-oak is the best-inclining
towards each other as in the
principal rafters of a roof. The
rise of these pieces is very
trifling, projecting or rising
very little above the beam.
Fig. 83 illustrates a method
of trussing a beam with
wrought-iron and wood; a a
d
e
f
TRUSSED BEAMS.
Fig. 84.
b
e
α
f
TRUSSED BEAMS.
e
Fig. 85.
C
the beam, bb struts or braces abutting on the wrought-iron bolts and seats
с с с. In fig. 84 we give another method of trussing a beam after the queen-
post principle, fig. 83 being on the king-post. The
abutting pieces d b a care of wrought-iron; the struts or
braces e e e of wood. The two halves are bolted together
by bolts and nuts, as at f, which is a plan showing the
position of these. In fig. 83 we have another method of
trussing a beam; d d the beam; e e suspension-pieces
fixed to the under-side of the beam by bolts, or other-
wise; fg g are tie-rods of wrought-iron. In fig. 85 the
girder is shown trussed, with an arched piece of wrought-iron abc between the
two halves, the whole d being secured by bolts.
ď
TRUSSED BEAMS.
276. A method to obtain depth in a girder, and to avoid deflection or bending,
is illustrated in fig. 86, and is recommended by some as preferable to the
trussed girder. Two beams of equal scantling are laid edge on, as a b, c d, and
secured together by keys e e e, the whole being secured together by hoops of
iron fff driven tightly on. In place of
hoops, bolts may be used, as shown at 9, but
hoops are preferable. The thickness of the
keys should be equal to about half of the
breadth-the total thickness of all the keys,
when laid on each other, being equal to of
the depth of the beam.
277. In fig. 87 we illustrate another
method of deepening a beam, the surfaces
in contact being provided with indentations
al
C
Fig. 86.
b
e.
d
¶ f
f
METHOD OF INCREASING DEPTH OF BEAMS.
Fig. 87.
METHOD OF INCREASING DEPTH OF BEAMS
and corresponding projections, the two being well secured by bolts and nuts.
278. (2.) Joining timbers at right angles to each other.-When the piece, fig.
64
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
88, is to abut vertically upon a horizontal piece a, the joint is made by what
is called a mortise-and-tenon joint. The projecting piece or tongue d is called
the tenon, and the slot or aperture b which receives it is
called the mortise. When the piece d is inserted into b,
the two are generally connected by an oak pin driven
through at e.
Fig. 88.
с
a
b
279. The dovetail joint, illustrated in fig. 89, is used
when one beam abuts against another, as b against a, the
piece b being subjected to tension. The mortise in this form
is not rectangular, but horizontal, as at c; and the tenon
is of the same form, if the piece can be driven in later-
ally—that is, when the mortise extends the whole way
across the beam a as at d. If the tenon is to be in-
serted in the beam a, in its centre as at e, the tenon is
made of the form as at b, and small oak wedges ƒ ƒ
are inserted in the end of b; and as the tenon is driven in
the mortise, the wedges ff are forced into and cause the tenon to expand, filling
up the mortise c. This species of joint is called "fox-tail dovetailing."
280. The following remarks from the Encyclopædia Britannica, article "Join-
MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINT-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 89.
с
d
b
с
ery," with reference to mortise-and-tenon joints, may
be useful: "It is of the utmost importance in fram-
ing that the tenons and mortises should be truly made.
After a mortise has been made with the mortise-
chisel, it should be rendered perfectly even with a
float, an instrument which differs from a single cut or
An inexpe-
float-file only by having larger teeth.
rienced workman often makes his work fit too tight
in one place, and too easy in another; hence the
mortise is split by driving the parts together, and
the work is never firm; whereas, if the tenon fill the
mortise equally without using any considerable force in driving the work to-
gether, it is found to be firm and sound. The thickness of tenons should be
about one-fourth that of the framing, and the width of a tenon should never
exceed about five times its thickness, otherwise, in wedging, the tenon will
become bent, and bulge out of the sides of the mortise. If the rail be wide,
two mortises should be made, with a space of solid wood between. In thick
framing, the strength and firmness of the joint are much increased by putting
DOVETAIL JOINT-SCALE, INCH
TO THE FOOT.
d
C
Fig. 90.
e
a cross or feather-tongue in on each
side of the tenon; these tongues are
about an inch in length, and are easily
put in with a plough proper for such
purposes. Sometimes in thick fram-
ing a double tenon in the thickness is
made, but we give the preference to a
single one when tongues are put in the
shoulders, as we have described; be-
cause a strong tenon is better than two
weak ones, and there is less difficulty
in fitting one than two." These re-
marks apply principally to the joints
used in joinery and pattern-making, but
they convey some hints useful in connection with the operations of carpentry.
METHODS OF NOTCHING "
α
"
WALL-PLATES TOGETHER-
SOALE,INCH TO THE FOOT.
JOININGS OF WALL-PLATES-TIE-BEAMS.
65
281. Wall-plates are joined at the corners by methods shown in fig. 90, half
notched at the end as at a and b, or a little from the end of each, as at c and d.
By this method of joining, the tendency to disconnect in either direction is
prevented. A dovetail joint is sometimes used as at e, a corresponding tenon
being made at the extremity of the other wall-plate. The joint shown at c and.
d is perhaps the best.
282. Tie-beams are joined to the wall-plates, as a a to bb, fig. 91, by the
joint at c, the tie-beam being simply let into
this. A better and more secure joint is shown at
d, which is similar to that at c, with this excep-
tion, that the wood is not cut across, but a piece or
feather is left in the middle: a corresponding piece
e is cut out of the lower edge of the tie-beam, into
which the feather goes.
b
Fig. 91.
JOINING OF TIE-BEAM WITH WALL-PLATE
-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
283. When one piece is oblique to the other, as
in the case of the foot of the rafter butting in the
end of the tie-beam, a simple joint, as in fig. 92,
may be adopted-a is the rafter, b the tie-beam.
The butting end c is at right angles to the line e f of the rafter.
d e f is not cut out across the upper edge of the tie-beam, but a piece form-
ing a feather (as in fig. 91 at d) is left as at g; a corresponding mortise is cut
out at the lower edge of the
rafter a, fig. 92, into which
g fits.
The tenon may be
formed on the end of the
rafter, and the mortise in the
tie-beam; this is the usual
way.
284. A better form for the
same joint is illustrated in fig.
93-a the rafter, b the tie-
beam, and d plan of the upper
edge of the tie-beam, with
10
Fig. 92.
b
JOINING OF AN INCLINED WITH A
HORIZONTAL BEAM—SCALE, INCH
TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 93.
a
d
The part
b
JOINING OF INCLINED BEAM WITH A
HORIZONTAL BEAM-SCALE, INCH
TO THE FOOT.
the mortise cut to receive the tenon b, formed on the end of the rafter a.
с
Fig. 94.
α
d
с
285. In fig. 94 we give a sketch of a simple form of centre for turning an
arch over a window or door opening in a wall; a b are the arch timbers or ribs,
two of which are used for walls of ordinary thickness.
The ribs should rest on posts c c, between the upper ends
of which and the ribs wedges should be placed; these to be
driven gradually out, so as to release the ribs, and allow the
arch to settle gently. The bolster-pieces d d are laid across
the ribs at right angles to the line of the walls, and on
these the bricks or building materials are laid. The curve
of the ribs a b should be of the same radius as the desired
opening in the wall, less the depth of the bolster-pieces d.
286. In fig. 95 another form of centre is shown adapted to narrow spans;
each rib is composed of segmental pieces a b c d, of two or more thicknesses of
planking. The second thickness of planking is shown at efg; they are thus
disposed in order to break joint with the other, pieces a b c d. Another form of
centre is also shown in fig. 95, adapted to a span where a centre-post, as h, can
be placed to support the tie-beam ii, resting on two other posts 77. The ribs m m
are supported by a king-post n, and braces o o o o.
E
CENTRE FOR WINDOW-ARCH—
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
66
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
287. It does not form part of the plan of this work to describe the opera-
α
m
Fig. 95.
m
a
tions of joinery; it may, however, be ser-
viceable to point out a few "joints" useful
in the construction of implements, or of
"patterns " for the parts of machines or
engines. In fig. 96 we give illustrations of
methods for joining flooring - timbers or
planks, that at a being used chiefly for fir
planking, that at b for oak. The joint at a is
termed a "tongued and grooved" joint. In
fig. 97 we show two methods of joining pieces
of wood at right angles to each other. In
fig. 98 we illustrate at a a method of joining
i thick timbers in the direction of their length;
grooves are cut on the edges of each piece,
and a hard-wood " dowel" driven into the
space formed by the tongues when the two
pieces are laid edge to edge. When pieces
are fastened together by the joint at b, it is termed a "rebate" joint; it is
similar to the half-lap joint, fig. 76. In pattern-making for parts of engines, as
core-boxes," &c., two pieces of wood are joined together by pins i i, which
2
n
h
CENTRES FOR ARCHES-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 96.
a
b
JOINTS FOK FLOORING-
1초
​TIMBERS-SCALE,
INCHES TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 97.
JOINTS AT RIGHT ANGLES-SCALE, INCHES
TO THE FOOT.
go into corresponding aper-
tures, as atjj, fig. 98. Pieces
of wood, as c c, are kept
together by the cross piece d,
this being provided with a
feather passing into a groove.
made in the ends of c c; this is
shown in the end view at e.
The cross piece and side pieces are sometimes mitre-jointed, as at g h h.
288. We here append a few notes on the cutting of timber, which may be
useful; first giving a diagram of the method of cutting the strongest beam out
i
T;
d
Fig. 98.
C
b
g
i
VARIOUS FORMS OF JOINTS-SOALE, 12 INCHES TO
THE FOOT.
d
Fig. 99.
а
b
METHOD OF OBTAINING THE
STRONGEST SECTION OF BEAM
OUT OF A TREE-SCALE,
1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
of a tree, or a cylin-
drical balk. Let a b,
fig. 99, be the tree,
and c the centre; draw
any diameter e d; from
e and d as centres, with
e c or d c as radius, de-
scribe arcs bc, a c;
join a d, d b, be and
e a (see remarks on
Strength of Materials,
page 24, &c.)
289. In preparing
timber joists, it is a good rule to have as few faces sawn as possible; a piece
with one sawn face is the best and safest.
290. As to the influence which cutting timber in a peculiar way has upon its
form, we extract the following from the last edition of the Encyclopædia Britan-
nica (Art. “Joinery"): "It is well known that wood contracts less in propor-
tion in diameter than it does in circumference, hence a whole tree splits in
drying. Mr Knight has shown that, in consequence of this irregular con-
traction, a board may be cut from a tree that can scarcely be made by any
BEAM AND PLANK CUTTING FROM TREE.
6
;
C
α
Fig. 100.
f
67
RIGHT AND WRONG METHODS OF
CUTTING TIMBER.
means to retain the same form and position when subjected to various degrees
of heat and moisture. From the ash and beech,' he
remarks, 'we cut some thin boards in different directions
relatively to their transverse septa, so that the septa
covered the middle of some of the boards at right angles,
and lay nearly parallel with the surfaces of others. Both
kinds were placed in a warm room under perfectly similar
circumstances.' The results of the experiments showed
that while the parts which had been cut transversely to
the septa, as at c d, fig. 100, soon became warped, con-
cave at one side, convex at the other, the rate of con-
traction in drying being nearly 14 per cent in width
on the other hand, the parts cut with their surfaces nearly parallel to the septa,
as a b, h e, retained with slight variation their form, and the per-centage of
contraction in width was little more than 3 per cent. The same authority, in
experimenting upon firs, found that a board cut like a bor he retained its
straightness, while the ash, cut like c d or ƒ g, became hollow on one side, and
convex on the other; the rate of contraction of the pieces at c d, b a being as
3.75 to 0.7 per cent. In cutting wood on this system, the pieces, as a b or
e, are found to work easily, and to present a finer surface than when the pieces
are cut transverse to the septa, as c d or ƒ g. In cutting wood, it is a good plan
to "turn the stuff inside out," as it is technically termed; that is, to saw the
plank down the centre, bringing the corresponding parts together, outside to
outside, and reversing the circular lines of the grain.
h
291. In par. 122 we gave a table of the ultimate breaking-weight, or the
strain which will break a timber joist under the circumstances there mentioned;
as also the greatest weight which a beam can sustain without having its elas-
ticity destroyed. The table is also useful in calculating the dimensions of beams
used, as in the case of a tie-beam, or a beam thrown across an opening, as
in gateways, ports, &c.
292. To find the ultimate or breaking weight of a beam supported at both ends,
and loaded in the middle: let a represent the distance in inches between the
supports, b the depth of the beam, c the breadth, and s the breaking-weight of the
material of which the joist is composed, this value being taken from the table in
par. 122.
Rule multiply s by 4, and this by c, and by the square of b, and
divide by a.
Example: let the beam be 9 inches in depth by 4 in breadth or
thickness, the distance between the supports 10 feet, and the material of which
it is made English oak, the value of s, from the table in par. 122, being 1672——
1672 × 4 x 4 × 81
120
18057.6 lb.
293. Where the beam is fixed at one end and loaded at the other, the following
is the rule to ascertain the ultimate breaking-weight: let a be the depth of
the beam in inches; b its breadth, also in inches; c the length of projec-
tion, also in inches, from its point of support; and s the tabular value of the
material (par. 122) of which it is composed. Rule: multiply s by the square of
a and the product by b, and divide by c. Example: let the beam be 8
inches deep by 5 inches thick or broad, the length it projects beyond the
point of support 5 feet or 60 inches, and the material of which it is composed
ash, the value of which, in the table, par. 122, is 2000; thus-
2000 × 82 × 5
= 10666.6 lb.
60
68
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
294. By referring to the section on Strength of Materials, page 24, the
reader will perceive that when a weight is distributed uniformly over the
surface of a beam, it will bear twice the amount applied at the centre. Beams
should not be loaded with more than one-fourth of the calculated breaking-
weight—in no case with more than one-third. Authorities are divided as to the
exact amount or proportion; but it will be best to err on the safe side, and
load beams with only one-fourth of the calculated breaking-weight.
295. In some cases a given weight is to be suspended or supported at the
end of the beam fixed at one end, the deflection not to exceed a certain amount.
The following is the rule to ascertain the dimensions: Let a represent the
length of the beam from the point of support of the weight to where it is fixed
in the wall, let b represent the breadth in inches, and c the load in pounds which
the beam is to support, d the elastic strength, par. 122, of the material of which
the beam is made, and e the deflection in inches. Rule: divide c the weight
by d the elastic strength, multiplied by b the breadth of beam, and e the
deflection of the elastic strength. The cube root of the quotient multiplied by
a (the length) will give the depth of the beam in inches. Example: a beam
of elm 6 inches broad, 6 feet long, from the point of fixing, is to carry a load
of half a ton or 1120 lb., the deflection not to exceed quarter of an inch; the
tabular value of the elastic strength of elm, par. 122, being 50:-
1120
50 × 6 ×.25
15 nearly
cube root of 15 = 2.466 × 6 = 15 nearly, which is the depth of the beam in inches.
296. When the degree of deflection a is known, the weight b which the
beam has to support, and the distance c between the two supports at the end,
the dimensions of a beam to sustain the weight in the centre may then be ascer-
tained. Rule: multiply the weight by the cube of the distance, the length
in feet; divide the product by 32 times the tabular value of the elastic
strength in par. 122, of the material of which the beam is to be made, multi-
plied into the given deflection in inches; divide the quotient by the assumed.
breadth, the cube root of this will be the depth in inches. Example: What
are the dimensions of a beam of Riga fir, which has to support a ton weight
in the centre of its length, or 2240 lb., the distance between the supports
being 20 feet, and the deflection half an inch? The tabular value of the
elastic strength of Riga fir is 96.2, par. 122:-
320 = 8000 × 2240
96.2 x 32 x .5
=
1164.8.
Assume the breadth of the beam to be 4 inches, divide the above quotient
1164.8 by this, and the quotient is 291.2, the cube root of which is 6.82 inches,
the depth required.
297. Where the beam is to be square-not rectangular, as in the above cases
—the fourth root of the quotient gives the side of the beam. If the beam is to
be cylindrical, multiply the quotient by 1.7, and then extract the fourth root,
which will be the diameter.
298. In the case of pillars or posts to sustain compression only, the following
rule, with the aid of the table in par. 122, may be used to find the dimen-
sions. Let a be the length of the pillar in feet; the pressure or weight
which it has to support being represented by b, and the tabular value of the
elastic strength of the material by d. Rule: "multiply the weight by the
square of the length, and divide this product by 20 times the elastic strength,
RULES FOR FINDING STRENGTH OF BEAMS.
69
the quotient will be the fourth power of the thickness of the side of a square
beam." If the pillar is to be round, multiply the quotient by 1.7, and the fourth
root will be the diameter.
299. Where the breadth of the beam is given, its length b, and the weight
c it has to support, the depth of a rectangular beam may be found thus:-
Rule: square the length, and multiply the weight by it; divide the product by 20
times the tabular value of the elastic strength of the material, multiplied into
the breadth, the cube root of the quotient will be the least thickness re-
quired. Example: a post or pillar of oak 10 feet high, with a breadth of 4
inches, is required to sustain a pressure of 4480 lb., or 2 tons-what must be
its least thickness? the tabular value of the elastic strength of oak, par. 122,
is 104:-
102 = 100 × 4480
105 × 20 × 4
53.3, the cube root of which is 4.06 thickness of the post.
300. For any post or pillar of wood to be secure, it is necessary that its
height shall not exceed 10 times its diameter. The pressure on a pillar of pine,
where the end butts against the grain of a lower piece, should never exceed 1000
Ib. per square inch.
301. According to the experiments of Muschenbroeck, fir is better calculated
for pillars or posts than oak, it being able to bear a compressile strain three
times greater; oak, however, is best calculated for ties.
302. The following are calculations for determining the dimensions of the
members of flooring. The distance between ordinary joists should not exceed
12 inches. Let a be the length in feet, and b the thickness. Rule: to find
the depth, square the length in feet, divide this by the thickness, take the cube
root of the quotient and multiply it by 2.2 when the material is pine, and by
2.3 for oak. Example: the length of pine joists is 14 feet, their thickness 4
inches-what is the depth?
142=196
4
49, the cube root of which is 3.65 × 2.2 = 8.03 inches.
303. Where trimmers are used as in fig. 63, an eighth of an inch should be
added to the thickness of the "carriage beams
carriage beams” e e, ƒƒ; for every joist, as a a,
the "trimmers c c, d d must be made strong enough to support half the
weight which the joists a a support.
""
304. To find the depth of "binding-joists," as bb, fig. 64, their thickness
and the length in feet being given, 6 feet being the distance from centre to
centre: let a be the thickness, b the length in feet, and c the multiplier
for pine 3.42, and for oak 3.53. Rule: square the length, and divide it by
the thickness; take the cube root of the quotient, and this, multiplied by the
multiplier, will give the depth in inches. Example: the length of pine binders
is 15 feet, the thickness 5 inches:
152=225
5
45, the cube root of which is 3.55 × 3.42 = 12 inches full.
In the above formulæ, the multipliers 2.2 and 2.3 in par. 302, and 3.42 and
3.53 in par. 304, usually termed "constants," we deduced from data afforded by
experiments made to ascertain the breaking-weight of beams of determined
dimensions of the materials named.
305. The size of the "bridging-joists" c c, fig. 65, supporting the flooring-
planks d d, will be found by the rule given in par. 304.
70
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
306. We have already given, in par. 296, a rule to estimate the ultimate
breaking-weight of a beam, supported at both ends and loaded in the middle,
which may be used to ascertain the scantling of girders used in the double-
framed flooring illustrated in fig. 65; or the rule given in par. 302 may be
used, substituting as the multiplier in 2.2 for pine the multiplier 4.2, and for oak
2.3 the multiplier 4.3.
307. A square of single flooring, fig. 61, is from 1200 to 2000 lb.; and of framed
flooring, figs. 64 and 65, from 2700 to 4500 lb.
308. These results may prove useful: 46.66 cubic feet of elm, 51.49 cubic
feet of beech, 47.76 cubic feet of Riga fir, 36.20 cubic feet of English oak, 66
cubic feet of Scotch fir, 47.15 cubic feet of ash, 54.55 cubic feet of red pine,
54.95 cubic feet of yellow pine, and 67.86 cubic feet of larch-weigh respec-
tively 1 ton.
309. SECTION FOURTH-Iron Framing.
310. Iron, when used for the construction of flooring surfaces, is generally
employed in conjunction with other materials, as wood, brickwork, concrete,
&c. One obvious advantage obtained by the use of iron in the construction of
framing is, the ease with which, by its means, buildings nearly if not absolutely
fire-proof may be secured. We shall first describe floors composed partly of
iron and partly of wood not fire-proof.
も
​311. In figs. 18, 19, and 20, we gave illustrations of the improved form of cast-
a
α
scale
Fig. 101.
α
α
PLAN AND ELEVATION OF CAST-IRON GIRDER FOR SPAN OF
18 OR 20 FEET.
b
iron girder, showing sections of
greatest strength. In fig. 101
we give at b b an elevation of a
cast-iron girder, calculated for a
span of 18 to 20 feet between
the bearings. In the plan, fig.
19, it will be observed that the
shape of the lower flange is para-
bolic; but as the extremities of
this are too narrow for bricks or beams to lie on, the plan of the beam in fig.
101 is modified, so that the bottom-flanges are parallel, as at a. In fig. 102, at
a b c d, we give a section of this girder, of which the following are the dimen-
g
Fig. 102.
[ப
7
8
sions: the width of bottom flange, a b, 14
inches, its thickness 19 inches; the top
flange, c d, 4 inches broad and of an
inch thick; the total depth, g h, 20 inches;
the thickness of the rib at e, 11 inches; at
f, 1 inch. Beams of this size, placed 9
feet apart, are calculated to support on the
flooring 22 to 24 cwt. on each square yard;
the weight of flooring-beams, &c., or of
the arches which may be used to support
the floor, being extra. In fig. 102 we
also give a section of a girder where the
weight per square yard is less than just
stated, namely, from 12 to 13 cwt. per yard.
Breadth of bottom flange 9 inches, thickness 14 inches; breadth of top flange
22 inches, thickness inch, total depth 18 inches; thickness at section of rib
corresponding to e, 1 inch; thickness at f, of an inch.
h
α
e
0 3 6 9
12
SECTION OF GIRDER FOR SPAN OF 18 or 20 FEET.
8
312. In fig. 103 we illustrate a method of filling in the spaces between the
JOINING GIRDERS WITH JOISTS.
Fig. 103.
C
71
""
girders with the "binding-joists" a a, 8 inches by 5 inches; the "bridging-joists
bb, 6 inches by 2 inches; and the flooring-planks c c. Another method is shown
in fig. 104, where "shoes," as a, are cast
in the side of the girder, in which the
joists b are laid; c is a front view of
the shoe. Ceiling-joists, as d, may be
suspended from the under-side of the
girder by bolts and nuts, the former
passing through projecting snags or
brackets e cast into the bottom flange.
313. A very little consideration of the
g
b
b
α
α
它
​form of the girder now illustrated, and CONNECTION OF BINDING-JOISTS WITH OAST-IRON GIRDERS--
of the way in which it is calculated to
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 104.
C
b
α
α
IF
" SHOES FOR JOISTS
—SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
resist any superincumbent weight that is laid upon it, will show that the method
of placing the cross joists, or "binding joists," on one side of the flange, as
shown in fig. 103, or in one side of the rib, as in
fig. 104, is wrong. The most correct method is to
place the cross joists at once on the top flanges of
the girders, stretching from girder to girder. On
this point Mr Fairbairn remarks: "Supporting the
load on one side of the flange is wrong in principle,
and, to a certain extent, injurious in practice; but
that method has many conveniences, and in prac- CAST-IRON GIRDERS WITH
tice we are frequently called upon to abandon self-
evident principles in order to meet the requirements of different structures. Under
such circumstances, when the load is on one side of the girder, the flange should
be carefully constructed, in order to bring the bearing of the cross-beam as
much as possible into the centre or vertical plane of the girder." In fig. 103
we illustrate the method which Mr Fairbairn recommends to connect a wood
cross-beam with the girder: small projections e are made in the lower flange
at the places where the cross-beams d are to rest; bolt-holes are made in these,
by which the cross-beam d is bolted to the flange. By this method the whole
of the cross-beams and girders are united together, and the "girder will be
prevented from 'canting,' as the strain has a tend-
ency to bring the top flange inwards, and to force the
top flange outwards, thus producing a lateral strain
upon the girder, which would in a great measure be
resisted by the bolts in the cross-beams. The best
security for girders loaded in this way will, however,
be good broad flanges, cast upon the top and bottom
sides, in order to resist the lateral thrust of the cross-
beams."
"L
314. When the cross-beam or binding joist"
is of cast-iron, and of the same section as the
girder, Mr Fairbairn recommends an arrangement
to be adopted, illustrated in fig. 105, a narrow shelf
b
Fig. 105.
α
d
CONNECTION OF CROSS BEAMS WITH
a being cast on the side of the flange, from one end GIRDERS-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
of the girder to the other (not merely, it is to be noted, at the places where the
cross-beams occur); "this would give a sufficient bearing for the cross-beam
by forming the ends, as shown in the sketch at d; and the bolt-holes c should
perforate the vertical rib as near as possible to the neutral axis of the girder."
The cross-beam is shown at b.
72
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
315. With reference to this plan of perforating the girder, and also of mak-
ing perforations for passing through the tie-bolts, often used in trussing cast-
iron girders, Mr Fairbairn says, that in "cast-iron girders," even where the
hole, or rather the metal immediately surrounding the aperture, is greatly
strengthened, "such a process, if not fatal, would be, to say the least of it,
exceedingly injurious. I have," he continues, "decided objections to anything
like perforations in cast-iron girders; and it is even with some reluctance I
would have a bolt-hole through the neutral axis, unless thickened so as to com-
pensate for the part taken out; besides, it is exceedingly objectionable to cut off
the connection between the two resisting flanges of a girder, or to damage in
any other way a casting of this description. There is nothing I should be
more tenacious about than the cutting or boring of any part of a well-propor-
tioned girder; and I believe there is nothing so dangerous in the hands of per-
sons unacquainted with the laws which govern the strength of these important
structures."
316. Mr Fairbairn remedies the evil arising from the use of perforated gird-
Fig. 106.
ers by the plan illustrated in fig. 106. It is of essential
importance that the bottom flange shall not be perforated, the
cross-beam being supported only by "hook-bolts." The
other method is to lay the cross-beams at once upon the
girders.
317. We shall now describe the methods of making
flooring fire-proof by the use of cast-iron girders and brick
arches. This is illustrated in fig. 107, representing the
method adopted by Mr Fairbairn during his long practice.
as an engineer. The cast-iron pillars k l, on which the gird-
ers c d rest, are placed at a distance of 9 feet 6 inches apart
from centre to centre-the distance covered by the arch
being called a "bay." A convenient length for the girders is 20 feet, as illus-
trated in fig. 101. In fig. 107 the arches are composed of a brick in length from
a to e, or from 6 to i, three-quarters of a brick from e to f, or i to h, and half a brick
SUSPENSION OF CROSS-BEAMS
FROM GIRDERS-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
from f to g, or h to g; the
α
d.
e
f
Fig. 107.
9
h
i
position of the tie-rod is
shown at the line a b.
b
"When the arches are
C
finished, and before the
scale L
་
LU
centres are struck, the key-
bricks, from f to h, and also
all the others, are wedged
between the joints with
thin pieces of slate, for the
purpose of equalising the
bearings, to prevent set-
The arches being thus secured, are
afterwards levelled and filled up with a concrete of lime and ashes, on which
is laid the flooring of tiles or stone flagging, as the case may be." The best
and safest rise for arches such as now described is 1½ inches for every foot of
span.
CAST-IRON GIRDERS, PILLARS, AND BRICK ARCHES, FOR FIRE-PROOF FLOORING.
tling after the centres are withdrawn.
318. Where tie-rods are used to truss the girders and prevent their lateral
movement, it is important that they should be placed in the proper position.
This practically is at the soffit of the arch, as shown by the line a b, fig. 107;
in this position the tie-rods will perforate the "neutral axis" of the beam. The
TIE-RODS-WROUGHT-IRON BEAMS.
73
maximum point of tension of the tie-rods is at the bottom of the flange; but this,
although the safest, is not the most convenient position in practice, as the tie-
rod would then stretch across the chord of the arc, as shown by the dotted
line c d. Tie-rods should never be placed above the arch near the top
of the girder. For cases where the weight to be supported is equal to 13 cwt.
per square yard, the sectional area of the tie-rods should not be less than 3
square inches for every 20 feet in width of the building; where the weight to
be supported is equal to 24 cwt. per square yard, the area should be increased
to nearly 5 square inches.
319. As already noticed, par. 315, Mr Fairbairn objects to all perforations in
girders, as in cases where tie-rods are used; he, however, has objections to the
use of tie-rods on other grounds, which we here give: "In trussing a cast-iron
girder, I would much rather give the strength to the girder itself than depend
upon a malleable-iron truss. The two materials are widely different in cha-
racter, the one being ductile, and subject to elongation under a severe tensile
strain, and the other rigid and firm under compression: they seldom, if ever, agree
(if I may use the expression) well together; and during the whole of my experi-
ence I have found it safer and better to keep them separate. Besides, the effect
of tightening or screwing up the truss-rods has a tendency to throw increased
strain upon the girder, or, vice versa, upon the rods themselves; in fact, an igno-
rant person screwing up the trusses might do serious injury without ever being
aware of having done so. Altogether, I have now, and always had, an objection
to trussed girders, whether composed of chains or rods: I have, therefore, no
hesitation in recommending a perfectly simple and well-proportioned girder,
free from encumbrances of all kinds."
320. With the pillars, cast-iron girders, and brick arches, as in fig. 107,
buildings are not so safe in the event of fire as might be expected or wished for.
The heat causes the pillars, &c. to yield, more especially when cold water is
dashed upon them again, should one of the arches fall, as the stability of all
of them in a measure depends upon the reaction of the adjoining arches, the
whole building may be endangered. In view of these and other defects of cast-
iron fire-proof constructions, and the great weight of the girder, wrought-iron
beams have been introduced with marked success. Mr Fairbairn, than whom no
more practical authority on all matters connected with construction can be cited,
thus remarks on their use:-
321. "From the increased safety and greatly increased strength of the wrought-
iron beam, it appears to me to be in every respect adapted to the construction
of fire-proof buildings. It offers much greater security, and is free from the
risk of those accidents which not unfrequently occur with cast-iron beams, and
which have created so much alarm in the public mind. . . It now becomes
a consideration of some importance to exhibit the advantages which may be
gained by its introduction, on a large scale, into the building of warehouses,
cotton and flax mills, and dwelling-houses, which require protection from risk,
whether arising from weakness, from the employment of a dangerous material,
or from fire. In these erections, it will be found exceedingly valuable, irre-
spectively of the sense of security which the nature of the material is sure to
establish in the public mind. Impressed with these convictions, I unhesitatingly
recommend its adoption to the architect and engineer, and provided the laws
which govern its strength be carefully attended to, I have every reason to be-
lieve that a few examples will not only give entire confidence in its powers, but
that increased experience will elicit improved conditions, and probably better
forms for its application."
74
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
Fig. 108.
8
322. In fig. 108 we give a section of the "plate beam" which Mr Fairbairn
most approves of. The length between the bearings for this ex-
ample is 30 feet, and the breaking-weight at the centre is 27.5
tons, uniformly distributed over its surface 55 times: one-fourth or
one-third of this should be the amount laid upon it. The total
depth is 22 inches; the breadth of bottom flange 5 inches;
its thickness of an inch; the breadth of upper flange 71
inches; and thickness an inch. The thickness of the middle plate
is of an inch. As will be seen from the sketch, the beam is
composed of a central plate, with angle irons riveted on each side
at the upper and lower edges. There is very little difference be-
tween the cost of a girder of this kind and that of a cast-iron
girder, calculated to bear the same weight; but the wrought-iron girder is
only one-third of the weight of the cast-iron, and therefore costs less for
carriage, and is easier erected and put in its place, besides possessing, as we
have shown, the advantages of increased safety.
SECTION OF
WROUGHT-IRON
BEAM-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
16
323. Wrought-iron beams or joists are rolled solid after the manner of rail-
α
Fig. 109.
INCH TO THE FOOT,
L
α
way bars; a usual form is the I-shaped joist, as in fig.
109 at c c. The same figure illustrates Fox's patented
method of constructing fire-proof flooring, in which the
iron joists c c stretch across the room; b b are rough
strips of wood bearing on the bottom flanges; these
support a layer of rough mortar, indicated by the dotted
FIRE-PROOF FLOORING-SCALE, lines above b b. The mortar is pressed down tightly
so as to exude from between the joints of the strips of
wood. A key or surface is thus formed to which the ceiling-plaster, &c., a a,
adheres. Above the layer of rough mortar a bed of concrete d d is placed, in
which is placed the flooring-tiles or cement. If boards are used for the floor,
narrow strips or battens of wood e e are imbedded in the concrete; on these strips
the boards are nailed. The iron joists c c, and strips of wood b b, are thus com-
pletely imbedded in mortar, concrete, and plaster. This system is very widely
used, and forms an exceedingly strong and fire-proof floor. Where the span does
not exceed 20 feet, iron joists in the length may be used; for spans exceeding
this, cast or wrought iron girders will require to be used; and for spans ex-
ceeding 60 feet, columns will be required.
324. We here append the dimensions of cast-iron girders, and joists or binders,
for a few of the most useful spans, calculated for loads of 280 lb. per square
foot of floor, this including the material resting upon the floor, as grain or
machinery, and the weight of the joists and the flooring materials. Fig. 102
will illustrate the different measurements; thus a b is the "bottom flange," c d
the "top flange ;" e the "thickness of rib" at the bottom, ƒ the thickness at
top, g h total depth of girder.
325. The following are the sizes of main girders adapted to support 2 cwt. per
square foot. A floor of 30 feet square, 900 superficial feet, supports a load of 111
tons 5 cwt. The dimensions of the girder are as follow: length, 32 feet; extreme
depth, from g to h, fig. 102, 30 inches; bottom flange, a b, 2.4 inches in breadth,
4½ inches thick; top flange, cd, 8 inches broad, 43 inches thick; thickness of
rib at e, 31 inches; at ƒ, 2 inches. For a room of 25 feet square, the floor
of which, 625 feet superficial, supports nearly 81 tons; length of girder,
27 feet; breadth of bottom flange, a b, 21 inches, thickness 43 inches; breadth
of top flange, c d, 61 inches, thickness 24 inches; depth of girder, g h, 24
inches; thickness of rib at e, 23; at f, 13. For a room 20 feet square, the
4
1
DIMENSIONS OF GIRDERS AND JOISTS-IRON GATES.
75
floor of which, 400 feet superficial, supports a weight of 50 tons; length of
girder, 22 feet; breadth of bottom flange, a b, 15 inches, thickness 3 inches;
breadth of top flange, c d, 5 inches, thickness 1½ inches; depth of girder,
g h, 24 inches; thickness of rib at e, 2 inches; at f, 11 inches. For a room of
16 feet square, the floor of which, 256 square feet, supports 28 tons, the length
of the girder is 18 feet; the breadth of bottom flange, a b, 14 inches, its thick-
ness 2 inches; breadth of top flange, c d, 4 inches, its thickness inch;
depth of beam, gh, 18 inches; thickness of rib at e, 12 inches; and at f, 1 inch.
326. The following are the dimensions of binders or joists adapted for the
foregoing cases, and still illustrated by fig. 102: For a bearing of 30 feet, with a
distance of 6 feet from centre to centre of joists, the weight supported is 221
tons, at 21 cwt. per square foot. Length of joist 25 feet, breadth of bottom
flange, a b, 18 inches, thickness 24 inches; breadth of top flange 6 inches, thick-
ness 1 inches; depth of joist, g h, 18 inches; thickness of rib at e, 19; at f, 11.
For a bearing of 25 feet, the distance from centre to centre of joists being 6 feet,
the weight supported is nearly 19 tons. Length of joist 25 feet, breadth of
bottom flange, a b, 18 inches, thickness 24; breadth of top flange, c d, 52, thick-
ness 11 inches; depth of joist, g h, 12 inches; thickness at e, 15 inches;
at ƒ, 11. For a bearing of 16 feet, with the joists 6 feet apart from centre to
centre, the weight supported is 12 tons. The length of joist is 16 feet, the
breadth of flange, a b, 8 inches, its thickness 2 inches; the breadth of flange,
c d, 3 inches, thickness 1 inch; depth of joist, g h, 12 inches; thickness of rib
at e, 11; at ƒ, 1 inch. For a very full table of the sizes of girders and joists for
a variety of spans and depths, we would recommend the reader to Weale's
Engineer's Pocket-Book for 1855-56 (6s.)
327. Iron Gates.—In paragraphs 249 to 259 we have illustrated and described
several forms of wooden gates. We shall now give some figures illustrative of
the application of iron to these structures.
328. In the construction of malleable-iron gates, we as frequently find mal-
formations as in those of wood, such as placing all the bars on edge except the
heel and head post, misplacing the diagonal, if single, and not unfrequently
applying bars variously formed in curves and fanciful figures, to serve the pur-
pose of the diagonals. The field-gate maker should be instructed to hold steadily
in view, that there is but one position and form for that member of the structure
that can be fully efficient, and this is, the straight bar extending from the
upper angle at the heel to its opposite angle at the head-post, and, if the
materials of the gate are light, to apply
an antagonist diagonal crossing the
first. In framing the gate, also, the
top and bottom bars should be set flat-
ways, to enable the structure to resist
lateral strain from animals rubbing or
pushing against it.
e
a
Fig. 110.
d
AN IRON FIELD-GATE WITH IRON POSTS AND STAY.
b
329. Fig. 110 gives a simple form of
an iron field-gate; it consists of six
rails, so arranged as to keep in lambs in the lower part of it. It is both light
and strong. The fore-stile b g is prevented dropping by the diagonal bar a b,
which, on being applied with its flat side, is riveted to each of the rails; and
the twisting is counteracted by the top and bottom rails ƒ b and a g being
The
welded flat-ways to the fore and hind stiles with strong solid knees.
upright bars, as c d, retain each of the rails in its proper place. The gate-
frame is 9 feet long and 3 feet 9 inches in height. The gate can be hung
76
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
upon wooden posts; but the iron posts, as shown in the figure, correspond
better with the appearance of the gate. They are made of malleable iron, and
are fastened into large stones with double bats; and the hanging-post ƒ a is
additionally supported by a stay e. The cost of this gate is 30s., and the posts.
20s. more-together, 50s.-which price completes all the necessary bolts and
nuts for fixing them to the stone blocks, and hanging the gate on the posts.
This form of gate would probably be strengthened by the introduction of a tie
stretching from f to g across the centre of the diagonal a b.
b
Fig. 111.
α
α
330. The same species of iron gate is made on the tension principle, as seen
in fig. 111, where the other parts than the
tension are different from those in fig.
110, in not having diagonals, as a b. In
fig. 111 strong iron tension-wires pass
through the cast-iron blocks a and c,
connected together with an iron collar,
in the centre of the frame. These wires
are fastened by heads to the upper bar
and stiles at b and d, and drawn as tight.
AN IRON FIELD-GATE ON THE TENSION PRINCIPLE.
as required at the lower bar and stiles at e and f, by means of nut and
The cost of this gate, without the posts, is 25s.
screw.
331. It will be observed that the central apparatus of this gate is similar in
appearance to that of the Kilmory wooden gate in fig. 70; but their mode of
action is the opposite, though the effects produced are similar. In fig. 111 the
wires from a and c act as ties, drawing the posts and rails towards them from
the angles, and thereby giving to the entire framing a rigid structure. In fig.
70 the wooden struts from e and f, as centres, push the posts and rails out-
wards at the angles against the clamps, thereby also giving the framing a rigid
structure.
332. One of the latest improvements in iron field-gates is the introduction of
angle-iron, now so extensively used in boiler-making, ship-building, and other
purposes. In the application of the angle-iron to the construction of gates, the
fabric acquires the rigidity of a massive wooden gate, with all the tenacity
and strength of the iron, while its weight is little more than that of wood. Fig.
112 is a form of gate of this construction, from a design, slightly altered, of
Z
Fig. 112.
f
n
a
k
25
h
i
m
e
9
p
0
1
2
8 feet
Ju Ju Ju py
d
THE FIELD-GATE, WITH ANGLE-IRON FRAMEWORK.
Mr William Dunlop, Edinburgh, and is manufactured by A. & G. H. Slight,
Edinburgh. The external form is composed of four bars of angle-iron, measuring
IRON GATES.
77
8
1½ inches on each side; and to give security to the joinings at the four angles
of the truss, the ends of the bars are riveted upon cast-iron corner-plates, those
of the heel-post a b being formed with strong projecting pivots, by which the
gate is hinged. Any number of interior bars may be applied to suit the objects
of the gate. The figure exhibits the arrangement adapted to retain sheep and
lambs. The diagonal b d is contrary to the general rule, for it is apparently a
strut, but being a bar of angle-iron, of the same breadth as before, it possesses
the stiffness of wood to resist lateral strains-and is hence properly adapted
for a strut; to render the bracing complete, the antagonist diagonal a c is
applied, and this, acting as a tie, is only a flat bar 1 inch by inch. The
external frame is thus rendered unchangeable in figure by any force that may
be applied to the head-post in a vertical direction, either upward or downward,
short of what will fracture the gate; and the point e, where the diagonals cross
each other at the centre of the gate, becomes also immovable in the plane of
the truss; hence the perpendicular bar ƒ e g, being riveted to the diagonal at e,
acquires the same property, and by attaching all the horizontal bars to fe g at
their several crossings, each of them is rendered permanent in its position at
that point, and no force short of breaking down the gate can bend any of the
parts upward or downward in the direction of the bar fe g, so long as this last
remains attached to the crossing of the diagonals at e. In order to give farther
support to the horizontal bars by the principle of construction, we have only to
take a point where a diagonal crosses a bar, as at h, forming the opposite
triangles e hi and a h k, which, when the bar and diagonal have been connected,
become also immutable, and the perpendicular bar 7 h m being secured to the
point h, and again to the different bars at their intersection with 7 h m, the whole
are again rendered immovable as in the middle. The support given to the
horizontal bars in the line 7 h m would have been still more complete if there
had been only one intermediate bar below the middle one, as the three parts
would then have met in one point, as they do at h, but two bars are introduced
to render the gate fencible for sheep of all ages. The perpendicular bar n o p
is applied on the same principle as seen in 1 h m, the point of support in this
case being o. This gate would perhaps become more rigid still if the upper
and lower rails a d and b c were double flanged.
4
4
333. In this construction of gates, the greatest possible amount of mutual
support among the parts is obtained with a given quantity of materials; hence
gates of this construction may be made lighter than any other form, where iron
is the material employed, and yet have a greater amount of strength. In this
example, the dimensions of the angle-iron are 1½ inches each way, and about 1
inch thick; all the other parts are 11 inches broad by inch thick, the cast-iron
corner-plates being of course stouter, and the entire weight of the gate is 112 lb.
It may be of use to those who make iron gates, but who have not taken time to
study the first principles of their construction, to notice this further remark.
Any number whatever of additional upright bars to those shown in fig. 112
would add strength or support to the horizontal bars only on the principle of
superposition, or adding bar to bar, without the advantages which arise from
the principle of unchangeableness to the triangle when applied in the construc-
tion of framework, whether in a simple field-gate, or in the highest branches of
constructive carpentry in wood or in iron. In the one case, the stress on the
parts continues to act at right angles to the bars, the direction in which they are
weakest, while in the other—the principle of throwing the frame into triangles
-the whole stress is thrown upon one or more parts in the direction of their
length, in which position all bars and beams are strongest.
78
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
334. An example of an ingenious construction of iron gate is given in Par-
nell's work on road-making, which has been improved on by Dr Buist of
Bombay, and described in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural
Society. These gates consist of a wrought-iron external frame, which is sup-
ported by a very perfect system of bracing, with diagonal ties of iron wire, and
filled up in a variety of forms with the same material. Fig. 113 represents
a
e
Fig. 113.
У
k
m
d
f
P
P
h
τ
b
t
n
с
THE ELEMENTS OF THE BRACING OF A WIRE FIELD-GATE,
Dr Buist's gate with the fundamental braces and ties, which he thus describes :
"The framing a b c d is fashioned like that of an ordinary gate; eƒ, g h, and
k l are three light slips of iron parallel to the ends of the gate, and riveted to
the upper and lower rails; a p b is a wire about the thickness of a goose-quill,
fastened by a rivet at one end, and a screw and nut at the other; it passes
through holes in the slips e f, g h, and k l, and serves as a brace to support the
bar a b. In the same manner d p c serves as a brace to d c, while the two
sides of the gate being coupled together by the slips ef, g h, and k l, the lower
and upper rails have severally the benefit of both braces. The diagonals a c
and d b keep the frame in shape, while a s d and b t c are braces to a d and b c
by means of the light bar m n. It will be seen that all the wires and straps
which act as fills-up, are either braces or supports, so that nothing can be more
stiff than the gate thus completed. It weighs about 80 lb. Its dimensions are
9 feet by 31 feet, but may be made of any size, the price varying in proportion.
It may be observed, that a gate with one bolt, when shut suddenly, vibrates
for some time at the fore-foot; this is obviated by two bolts coupled together
near b and c, and acting simultaneously. It is also convenient for gates open-
ing into policy-grounds, getting bolted when thrown back by means of a short
stump driven into the ground, with a catch at the height of the lower bolt c."
335. Fig. 114 represents a gate of another construction, also by Dr Buist, filled
up with wires in the form of rays from a centre. "The horizontal bar m n, and
Fig. 114.
b
C
THE WIRE FIELD-GATE WITH RAYED UPFILLINGS.
the braces a s d and btc of fig. 113," he remarks, "are here omitted as
superfluous. The rays from a by b and c to d, fig. 114, consist of wires of the
JOININGS OF IRON FRAMING.
79
same thickness as before, and about 9 inches from each other. Their lower
extremities are upset as nail-heads or rivets, and their upper ends are fastened
with a nut and screw. For the admission of the screws a strong iron arch e
is placed in the corner of the gate, and fastened at each end with screw-
nuts; its range down the heel-post, as compared with that along the upper
rail, should be as the length of the gate is to its height, which, in this example,
is 18 inches down the heel-post, and 6 inches along the upper rail.”
11% It may
be here worthy of remark, as a point affecting the rigidness of this particular
form of gate, that the rays of wires, being of different lengths, will be differently
affected by changes of temperature, which will thereby exert an unequal action
upon the many points in the lower part of the gate, and probably have a ten-
dency to twist the gate out of the straight.
336. The wire-gates above described are admirable examples of the prin-
ciples of trussed frames, and for gates. So far as that principle gives them
Fig. 115.
firmness and support, they can hardly be excelled; but there is one defect
attendant upon the wire upfilling, its
too great tenuity, which renders the
wires liable to derangement on being
loaded with any cross strain, such as
a person attempting to climb over
the gate, and setting foot on the
wires. A diagonal wire undergoing
such treatment will be liable to
stretch, and thereby lose its effects.
Could such accidents be effectually
guarded against, these gates might
be regarded as almost perfect.
337. In fig. 115 we give a form of
wicket or side-gate, constructed of
iron, by Messrs Young and Co. of
WROUGHT-IRON SIDE-GATE-SCALE, & INCH TO THE FOOT.
Edinburgh. The price is from 25s. to 30s., and the posts 26s. the pair.
Fig. 116.
wwww
338. Joinings of Iron-framing.-For these we shall take for illustration columns
and roofs, as affording a wide range of exemplification, the
methods illustrated being of course applicable to all
species of framing, whether of machine or otherwise.
339. And first, as to cast-iron columns. Where the
foundation on which the column rests is good hard stone,
the simplest method of fixing or bedding is shown in fig.
116, where a is the foundation-stone, with a socket cut
into it to receive the neck b of the column c. Care must
be taken to have the end of the neck perfectly flat.
α
FIXING OF CAST-IRON PILLAR-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
cast-iron plate g g, fig.
340. Where the foundation is of brick or soft stone, a
117, should be let into the top of the stone a; the plate has a collar or projec-
tion b, which passes into the aperture of the pipe of the column; the solid parts
of the column fit into the parts cc; d shows the pillar connected with the base.
341. The top of the pillar or column must be specially adapted to receive the
girders or joists which rest upon it. A method of doing this is shown at fig.
118, where the top plate b is left square, and has along two of its edges snags
or projections cc; the space between those should be wide enough to allow
the girder to be inserted easily, with a little on each side to allow of expan-
sion; d shows the plan of top plate. Where there are two storeys to the build-
* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv., pp. 612, 613.
80
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
ing, and one row of columns has to rest upon the other immediately beneath,
the best method to adopt is to have the neck ƒ of the lower pillar e prolonged,
C
Fig. 117.
d
α
g
g
Fig. 118.
9
α
d
•
FOUNDATION-PLATE FOR CAST-IRON PILLAR-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
UPPER END OF PILLARS TO RECEIVE CAST-IRON BEAMS—
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
and made hollow, to receive the end g of the upper pillar. The neck fƒ must
be long enough to be flush with or a little above the top edge of the girder,
when it is laid upon the cap of the lower pillar e.
342. There are various methods in use to join girders together lying on
the caps of columns. The simplest is illustrated in fig. 119, which re-
presents a plan of the top of two girders, the ends a c and b d of which are
expanded into flanges, to allow of bolt-holes to be made. The side view is seen
at e.
343. The method adopted where a circular neck is made to the cap of the
column, as ƒ in fig. 118, is illustrated in fig. 120. In this form of joint the
Fig. 119.
a
b
Fig. 121.
f
в
Fig. 120.
α
b
d
C
e
d
JUNCTION OF 4 GIRDERS ON CAP OF
COLUMN-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
α
Fig. 122.
JOINING OF GIRDERS ON THE CAPS OF
COLUMNS-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
JUNOTION OF TWO GIRDERS WITH
CIRCULAR NECK TO COLUMN-
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
ends of the girders b b and c c are expanded into
C
OAST-IRON SHOE FOR RECEIVING END
OF GIRDER-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT
semicircular flanges, which
embrace the neck f, as ƒ and ƒ in figs. 118 and 119, and are secured by bolts and
nuts.
The side view is shown at ef, fig. 120.
344. Where four girders meet on the cap of a column with neck, as at f, fig.
119, the ends of the girders are expanded into flanges of the form as shown in
CAST-IRON SHOES.
81
e,
d c.
fig. 121, at b c.
Where four of these are put together, the ends form a figure,
as shown by the dotted lines b
345. In fig. 122 we give a drawing of a cast-iron shoe, for the reception of
the end of tie-beams or girders, as a. The shoe is provided with snugs c eƒ d,
which act as keys, and give a secure hold in the wall. A shoe for the reception
of joists which require to be bolted to wooden columns, &c., is given at c d f in
fig. 123: this is secured by bolts and nuts as shown at f. In the same figure
a shoe for the reception of "wall-plates," running along the wall, is shown.
The wall-plate rests in the recess a; ca are projections. This may be adapted
to secure to a post, &c., as the shoe c d f, by extending the projection c, as
shown in form towards b, and passing bolts through apertures made in it;
Fig. 123.
d
α
с
h
a
g
g
Fig. 124.
ь
α
e
b
1
α
"
"
CAST-IRON SHOES FOR JOISTS,' WAIL-
PLATES —SUALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
CAST-IRON SHOE FOR THE RECEPTION OF WOODEN STRUTS—
SCALE,INCH TO THE FOOT.
the upper bolt-hole at a will require to be counter-sunk, or have a recess in
which the head of the bolt can go. This will allow it to lie flush with the
inside of the recess, and the wall-plate to pass easily into the recess a. A front
view is shown at g.
346. In composite roofs-that is, roofs composed partly of iron and partly of
timber-certain parts are composed of cast-iron, as queen-bolt-heads, shoes
for braces, struts or tie-beams, and purlin-boxes, &c. These we now propose
to illustrate.
347. Fig. 124 illustrates a "shoe" for the reception of the feet of struts :
a a is the wooden tie-beam, b b the wrought-iron king-bolt, secured by nut and
washer c; d the extremity of strut or brace, butting in the shoe, the section of
which is formed of the proper shape (see figs. 92, 93, page 65); ƒ shows the ele-
vation of the shoe: an aperture is cast in the solid part of the shoe, through
which the king-bolt is passed. At g h i a front
view of the shoe is shown-g is the part where
the brace or strut enters, h the king-bolt, i part
of the tie-beam.
348. Fig. 125 illustrates a form of rafter-box
or shoe, for the reception and support of the
principal rafters: a a are the upper ends of the
rafters, b the king-bolt, c d the box, the side c of
which is in section, the side d in elevation.
An aperture is passed through the solid part
Fig. 125.
d
i
a
а
b
SHOES FOR KING-BOLT-HEADS-
SCALE,INCH TO THE FOOT.
to admit of the king-bolt b being passed through; the ridge-pole passes into
the recess e: i shows a front view of the rafter-box.
F
82
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
349. In fig. 126 we give a drawing of a shoe for the reception of the foot
C
Fig. 126.
e
d
a
b
b
a
of the strut and of the queen-bolt: a a is the
tie-beam, b b the queen-bolt, c the brace or strut,
d the shoe, secured by the bolts e e.
350. Fig. 127 illustrates a queen - bolt - head
"box" for the reception of straining-beam and
principal rafter: a is the queen-bolt, the head
of which is sunk into a recess in the box or shoe
b, c the straining-beam, d the principal rafter.
351. In fig. 128 we give a drawing of a cast-
iron shoe for the reception of the end of the prin-
cipal rafter and the pole-plate: a the rafter, b the
recess into which the pole-plate is placed. The
whole is secured to the tie-beam by bolts c d. Another bolt may be made to
unite the foot of the principal rafter and the tie-beam, passing through in the
direction of ƒ g.
SHOE FOR QUEEN-BOLT AND STRUT—
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 127.
b
a
Fig. 128.
¢
C
જ
d
α
SHOE FOR QUEEN-BOLT AND STRUT——-
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
g
SHOE FOR FOOT OF RAFTER AND POLE-PLATE-
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
352. In fig. 129 a drawing is given of a "shoe" or box for purlins, an end
Fig. 129.
C
C
b
b
d
d
SHOE FOR
14
g
PURLINS -SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
2
Fig. 130.
3
4 5 6
7
SCALE FOR FIGS. 131 TO 144 INCLUSIVE.
Ins.
view of which is given at bb,
and a side view at g. The shoe g
is passed over the upper edge of
the rafter ff which goes into the
recess a, and is secured by bolts and
nuts at d; bb, h is the part re-
ceiving the purlin c c.
353. We shall now illustrate
methods of joining the various parts
of wrought-iron roofs. These illus-
trations comprise the various parts
of a roof on the king-post principle,
the skeleton figure of which was
given in fig. 33, and the span of
which is 30 feet. The scale of all the drawings now to follow, from fig. 131 to
fig. 144, is given in fig. 130.
354. Fig. 131 is a sectional drawing, showing connection between foot of
king-bolt and struts-a a, a a the tie-bolts, c c the struts, d d the king-bolt, ƒ
a section of king-bolt, b b bolts which pass through the ends of the struts c c,
the upper and under plates s s, s s, and the ends of the tie-bolts a a.
A plan
view of the connection is given in the upper part of the drawing: kk shows the
form of the upper and lower plates s s, s s; h the termination of a tie-bolt, g that
JOININGS OF RAFTERS.
83
of a strut. The king-bolt passes through the central aperture i, and the whole
are secured by the bolts b b passing through the holes e e.
Fig. 131.
C
α
g
k
S
e
h
d
с
JOINING OF FEET OF STRUTS AND KING-BOLT.
S
a
355. Fig. 132 shows the method of attaching the upper end of a strut to a
In fig. 132, a a is the rafter, b b a plate (there is a corresponding plate
rafter.
b
α
10
Fig. 132.
C
JOINING OF UPPER END OF STRUT WITH
RAFTER.
α
с
e
e
с
Fig. 133.
a
JOINING OF FOOT OF QUEEN-BOLT WITH STRUT.
a
Fig. 134.
PLAN OF TIE-BOLT.
d
α
on the other side) attached to the rafter by a bolt passing through the plates
and the rafter at d. The end of the strut c is cut off to suit the slope of the
rafter as shown by the dotted lines, and passed between the two plates above
described, and secured by rivets or bolts-rivets being usually employed.
356. The method of joining the foot of strut m and of queen-bolt ƒ with the
tie-bolt a d, fig. 33, is illustrated in fig. 133, where a a is the tie-bolt, d
the strut, c the lower collar of the queen-bolt, terminating in a bolt b, passing
through the strut d, upper washer e e, tie-bolt a a, lower washer e, and secured
by nut f. Fig. 134 shows the plan of tie-bolt corresponding to a a, fig. 133,
with the expanded part, at the aperture b, through which the bolt b, fig. 133,
passes; c is the section of the tie-bolt.
357. Fig. 135 illustrates the method of forming the connection between the
upper end of the queen-bolt c, fig. 133, with the rafter a a, fig 132. In fig.
84
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
135, the upper part of the queen-bolt is jointed as at d, and provided with
two eye-holes at a a. The plates b b, fig. 132, pass between the forks a a of
the end of the queen-bolt in fig. 135; and a bolt is passed through the bolt-
holes in a a, and the bolt-hole d in b b, fig. 132, and is secured by a nut. In
fig. 135, b shows in view the bolt-holes at a a, c the section of the queen-bolt ƒ,
fig. 33 (§ of an inch), and e the section of queen-bolt g (½ inch), also fig. 33.
358. Fig. 136 illustrates the method of joining the upper extremities of the two
rafters in a b, a c, fig. 33, the ends of which are cut off at right angles to the direc-
tion of their length, as shown by the dotted lines e and d, fig. 136. The king-
Fig. 135.
α
α
d
5
JOINT OF QUEEN-BOLT.
Fig. 137.
α
(
с
b
e
~
α
α
Fig. 136.
b
JUNCTION OF RAFTERS WITH KING-BOLT-HEAD.
Fig. 138.
PLAN OF KING-BOLT-HEAL.
a
α
d
END ELEVATION OF KING-BOLT-HEAD,
bolt-head a a is made of cast-iron; and space is provided between its two project-
ing ends, as shown at a a, fig. 138, into which the ends of the rafters are inserted,
and secured by bolts and nuts or rivets passing through the "head" a a, fig. 136,
and the rafters. The upper part of the head is terminated by a recess b, formed
between two plates b b, fig. 137, into which the ridge-pole is placed. In the solid
part of the head a core-hole is cast, into which is passed the upper end of the
king-bolt g g; this is
fixed by a key driven.
through slots made
in the head, and the
key-seat in the bolt:
h is a tie-bolt, with
its bolt-hole f.
359. Fig. 137 is an
α
Fig. 139.
C'
b
ล
e
g
i
a
h
f
SKELETON OF IRON TRUSS FOR SPAN OF 25 FEET-SCALE, & INCH TO THE FOOT.
end view of king-bolt-head; a a the slot into which the rafter is passed, b b the
part sustaining the ridge-pole, c the king-bolt. Fig. 138 is the plan of the king-
bolt-head.
360. In fig. 139 we give the drawing of a 25-feet-span roof ƒ g, in which the
CAST-IRON STRUTS.
85
"king-bolt" at cb is dispensed with, and two struts, d e, d e, are used, with tie-
bolts c e, c e. The dotted lines gia hf and di, d h show the position of the struts
and tie-bolts before being braced up into the positions shown by the black lines.
Fig. 140.
α
Fig. 141.
h
e
e
d
g
b
C
α
d
b
a
а
b
f
e
b
LOWER TERMINATION OF STRUT.
UPPER END OF CAST-IRON STRUT.
361. In fig. 140 we give a side and end elevation of a form
of cast-iron strut adapted to the form of truss in par. 358;
a a part of the rafter, b b the strut, secured by the bolt c.
In the side elevation d is the lower part of the strut, e e the
sides of the upper part, ƒ the place in which the rafter a a
is put, g h the bolt. In fig. 141 we give side, and in fig. 142
edge, elevations of the lower part of the strut a a b b, provided.
with a bolt-hole at c. The part of the tie shown at e cor-
responds to the tie e ƒ in fig. 139; the part at d, fig. 141, to
the tie e be in fig. 139; the part of the tie at g, fig. 141, to
the tie e c, fig. 139. The whole of these, as d, e, g, figs. 141,
142, are secured to the strut a a b b by the bolt ƒ.
Fig. 142.
d
g
b
α
SIDE-ELEVATION OF STRUT.
362. In fig. 143 we give a front, and in fig. 144 a side, elevation of the
k
Fig. 143.
h
i
h
π
h
g
g.
a
g
f
e
j
a
d
b
k
1
Fig. 144.
h
૩
a
h
α
f
d
b
b
g
JUNCTION OF RAFTERS, RIDGE-POLE, BRACKET, AND TIES.
SIDE ELEVATION OF FIG. 143.
assemblage of rafters, ridge-pole, bracket, and ties, for a roof, as of fig. 139:
a a the rafter-head, or box, formed of two cast-iron plates, which embrace the
86
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
ends e of the rafters, and are secured by bolts ff. They are provided with two
snugs bb, to which the ties k k are bolted by the bolts d d; the brackets g g,
cast to the sides of a a, support the ridge-pole box or shoe h h in the cavity
i of which the ridge-pole rests.
363. We shall now give a few useful rules for calculating the dimensions of
cast and wrought iron beams and columns; and first, as to rectangular beams of
cast-iron.
364. In par. 124 we gave a table of results of experiments made to ascer-
tain the strength, &c. of cast-iron from the principal iron-works of the king-
dom. The following is the rule deduced from these experiments by Mr Fair-
bairn, to calculate the breaking-weight of rectangular beams of cast-iron:
Calling b and d the breadth and depth in inches, and 7 the distance between
the supports in feet, and putting 4.5 for 4 feet 6 inches, we have the rule
4.5 × b d² s
し
​breaking-weight in pounds,
the value of s being taken from the column of mean breaking-weight in lbs.
in the table given in par. 124. For example, what weight would be necessary
to break a bar of Lowmoor iron 2 inches broad, 3 inches deep, and 6 feet be-
tween the supports? According to the rule given above, we have b=2 inches,
d=3 inches, l-6 feet, and s 472, from the table. Then
2
4.5 × b d² s = 4.5 × 2 × 32 × 472
Z
6
6372, the breaking-weight in pounds.”
365. In par. 146 we briefly detailed the experiments of Mr Hodgkinson to
ascertain the best form of beam or girder, an illustration of which we also gave
in figs. 19 and 20. The following is a simple rule for calculating the strength of
beams of the strongest section: “ Multiply the area of the section of the lower
flange in the middle of the beam by the depth of the beam there, both in inches,
and divide the product by the distance of the supports on which the beam rests,
in feet. This quotient multiplied by 2.14 will give the breaking-weight."
7
366. The permanent load of a beam in tons can be found by multiplying the
depth d of the beam in inches by the area a of the bottom flange, and divid-
ing the product by the length in feet between the supports. Thus, of a beam
10 inches in depth, with the area of the bottom flange 24 inches-12 inches
wide and 2 inches thick-with a distance of 20 feet between the supports,
the permanent load is
10 × 24
20
= 12 tons.
This rule is given in Weale's Engineer's Pocket-Book as simpler than that given
in par. 365 of Mr Hodgkinson's, and as only slightly differing (7 per cent of
excess) from it in results. The weight in tons, as found by the above, 12 tons,
is calculated as the permanent load distributed over the beam; the permanent
load being assumed as one-fourth of the breaking-weight. Thus, by Mr Hodg-
kinson's rule, the breaking-weight of the beam, the dimensions of which we
have given above, is as follows: a, area of bottom flange, multiplied by b,
depth of beam, divided by 7, the length between the supports, multiplied by
2.14; then-.
24 × 10
20
=
12 × 2.14 25.68 the breaking-weight in tons.
The permanent load of which, taking it at one-fourth of the breaking-weight, is
over 6 tons at the centre, or 12 tons uniformly distributed.
BREAKING-WEIGHT OF IRON BEAMS AND PILLARS.
87
367. A rule for calculating the breaking-weight of wrought-iron beams of
the form given in fig. 108, by Mr Fairbairn, is as follows: "Let w repre-
sent the breaking-weight in tons, a the area of the bottom flange, d the depth
of the beam, and the distance between the supports in inches; then we
have
a d
W =
For the size of the beam, as given in fig. 108—namely, area of bottom flange
5.5 inches, depth of beam 22 inches, and distance between supports 360 inches
-the result is as follows: "The constant multiplier used being 75—
75 × 5.5 × 22
360
25.2 tons, or 50.4 tons distributed equally over the surface.”
368. The following rules are those given by Mr Hodgkinson to calculate the
breaking-weight in tons of cast-iron cylinders or columns, fixed at the ends, and
flat.
w=44.16
d
36
Z 1.7
w = 44.34
d
36
2 36
7 1.7
strength of a solid cylinder.
strength of a hollow cylinder.
w is the breaking-weight in tons; d the external, and i the internal diameter
in inches, and 7 the length in feet. If pillars, with flat ends, be shorter than
30 times their diameter, they will be crushed as well as bent, and the value of
the breaking-weight w will require to be modified by the following formula :-
го с
W
w + 3 c.
c is the weight that would crush the pillar in tons if it were so short as to be
broken without flexure. To find c, multiply the area of the section of the pillar
in inches by 49.
369. The reader is recommended to use a valuable table in Adcock's Engi-
neer's Pocket-Book for 1857, containing the "ultimate breaking-weight in tons
of cast-iron pillars, solid and hollow," for lengths from 1 to 20 feet, at every
half-foot; and for diameters, from 1 inch to 24 inches, calculated from the above
formulæ. The following sizes and breaking-weights of hollow pillars of some
useful sizes are deduced from the above formulæ :
370. The breaking-weight of a pillar, 3 inches outside and 2 inches inside
diameter, and 6 feet high, is 52 tons; same pillar, 10 feet high, 36 tons; 12 feet
high, 26 tons; and 14 feet high, 20 tons. The breaking-weight of a pillar 4 inches
outside diameter, and 3 inside, 8 feet high, is 123 tons; for a 10-feet height,
84 tons; for a 12-feet height, 62 tons; and for a 14-feet height, 47 tons.
The breaking-weight of a pillar, 5 inches outside and 4 inches inside diameter,
and 8 feet high, is 234 tons; 10 feet high, 160 tons; 12 feet high, 127 tons; and
14 feet high, 90 tons. The breaking-weight of a pillar 6 inches outside and 5
inches inside diameter, the height 8 feet, is 393 tons; the height 10 feet, 269
tons; 12 feet, 198 tons; and 14 feet, 152 tons. In those cases the thickness
of the metal is an inch. Making it 1 inch, the breaking-weights for heights.
of 8, 10, 12, and 14 feet, will be as follows: External diameter, 3 inches; internal,
1 inch-66 tons for 8 feet, 45 for 10, 33 for 12, and 25 for 14 feet high: External
diameter, 4 inches; internal, 2 inches-174 tons for 8, 119 for 10, 87 for 12, and 63
tons for 14 feet high: External diameter, 5 inches; internal, 3 inches-356 tons
88
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
for 8, 243 for 10, 178 for 12, and 137 tons for 14 feet high: External diameter, 6
inches; internal, 4 inches-627 tons for 8, 429 for 10, 314 for 12, and 231 tons
for 14 feet high. Half the breaking-weight should only be laid on pillars.
371. For the following formula for calculating the weight which a pillar will
support, in pounds, of solid cast-iron, we are indebted to Mr Weale's Engineer's
Pocket-Book for 1855-56. Let a be the constant multiplier 9562, d the diameter
in inches, and 7 the length in feet; then
a² × d¹
X
4 × d² ÷ 18 × 12
=w, the weight supported.
Example: what is the weight which a solid cast-iron pillar 4 inches in diameter
and 10 feet high can support?
9562 × 44
2
2
4 × 4² + 18 x 10
233967616
8200
=
28532.6 pounds, or nearly 123 tons.
372. For hollow cast-iron pillars, the rule is to calculate the weight which
solid pillars of diameters equal to the internal and external diameters of the
hollow pillar would contain, and take the difference between them as the weight
which the hollow pillar would support.
373. SECTION FIFTH-Machine Construction.—In this section we shall give
illustrations and descriptions of the component parts of machines, their form,
and the methods of "fitting" them together, concluding with some useful cal-
culations for determining the dimensions and proportions of the various parts.
374. The following will comprise the most important parts of mechanism :-
Shafts-Pedestals, Plummer-blocks, or Bearings in which Shafts work-Pulleys,
-Toothed Wheels-Spur and Bevil Gearing-Eccentrics-Cams—Connecting-
rods-Cranks-Clutches.
375. Shafts are now generally made of cast or wrought iron, rarely of wood.
Fig. 145 represents a cast-iron shaft adapted for the steam-engine, of which we
give a front and side elevation, in the Plate entitled Crank Steam-Engine.
The part in which the shaft revolves, as c, is called the "neck" or "journal,"
Fig. 147.
g
f
g
Fig. 145.
e
d
C
α
CAST-IRON SHAFT-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
d
Fig. 146.
α
b
C
b
α
C
(6
WROUGHT IRON SPINDLE OR SHAFT-SCALE,
2 INCHES TO THE FOOD.
LOWER TERMINATION OF
VERTICAL SHAFT-SCALE,
1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
ba
"L collar" or
ruff," d e "bosses" on which the eccentrics are keyed.
The "bosses" are sometimes made with "ribs" or projections, as at ƒ, and at g g
in section. These are made flat to act as the bed of the key, which secures
the eccentric or wheel. At the part a the "crank" is keyed on.
376. In fig. 146 we illustrate a wrought-iron shaft: when of small size, it is
GUDGEONS AND COUPLINGS FOR SHAFTS.
termed a 66
spindle;" a d are the "necks" or "journals," bef the "ruffs"
"collars," c a boss.
89
or
377. These shafts revolve horizontally, but when shafts revolve vertically their
lower extremities run in bearings, and are made of suitable form. Fig. 147
illustrates the lower extremity of a vertical shaft a, the lower part b accurately
turned to run in the bearing, hereafter to be described, c the key-seats.
""
378. In heavy mill-gearing the shaft of the water-wheel is sometimes still
made of timber. In this case the parts which revolve in their bearings must of
necessity be made of iron. These parts are more frequently termed " gudgeons
than "journals." Fig. 148 illustrates a method of fixing the "gudgeon" of a
timber shaft. Let a represent the end of the shaft in elevation, the part b is
reduced, forming a neck or shoulder at its extremity. The end elevation of the
shaft thus formed is seen at c d; mortises are cut in the end of the form of
efhg, with a central aperture i, the depth of which is equal to the part b. The
gudgeon" or "journal" 7, with "collar" m, is cast along with the solid box k,
to which four arms are cast, of which two are seen at n p, the four forming a
66
Fig. 148.
b
n
k
0
2
t
p
Fig. 149.
h
a
g
e.
m
О
g О
f
e
α
d
α
CAST-IRON GUDGEONS FOR TIMBER SHAFTS-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
b
GUDGEON FOR HOLLOW CAST-IRON SHAFTS-
SOALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
cross, as e f h g. The section of these arms is not rectangular or of equal thick-
ness, as at o, but is formed, as shown at r, with the back thicker than the front
edge. This is done so that when the arms of the cross are driven into the
mortises ef h g, and iron hoops are driven and wedged over the collar b, the arms
dovetail into the mortises; s shows half of one of the hoops, t u the half eleva-
tion of the two as they are placed on the collar b.
Fig. 150.
h
379. Heavy cast-iron mill or water-wheel shafts are usually cast hollow, as
at a a a, fig. 149. The end is ter-
minated by a flange b b, and the
part cc is carefully bored; the
66
gudgeon" de fits into c c, and is
bolted to the flange b b. A front view
of the outer end is shown at f g g:
fis the end of the collar of the gud-
geon e, g g the circular flange of the
solid part d with the bolt-holes.
380. When shafts are required
to be joined to make up certain
lengths, what are called couplings are
used to effect the junction. The
forms of couplings are very nume-
rous; we only illustrate three, the
66
t
"
d
h
d
m
и
g
k
2)
"
HALF-LAP" AND ROUND COUPLING FOR SHAFTS-
Scale, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
"
n
half-lap" and the "square," and the "round box coupling." The half-lap is
90
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
illustrated in fig. 150: a b are the ends of the two shafts to be joined at c, with
the half-lap joint (so called from its resemblance to the half-lap joint c d used
in carpentry, fig. 76). The ends of d e are terminated by a boss g g, over
which a coupling-box for h h in section is passed to keep the shafts together,
and keyed on by the key i i. The section is shown at k, l the shaft, m the key,
k the coupling-box. The round coupling is shown by p in the same fig. 150:
no are the extremities of the two shafts, squared up and butting at the ends.
A round "coupling-box" embraces the two, and the whole are secured together
by the two pins r and q driven in at right angles. In the elevation s t are the
ends of the shafts, u the coupling-box, v v the pins.
h
Fig. 151.
d
b
d
SQUARE COUPLING FOR SHAFTS-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
α
This form is only used
for small shafts or spindles,
as heavy strains soon cause
the pins, on which the
strength of the coupling
depends, to work loose.
The square coupling is
shown in fig. 151: a b, the two shafts, are terminated by bosses c c; the ends
may either abut, as at n o, or be formed by the lap-joint at c, both in fig. 150.
A square coupling-box d d, fig. 151, embraces the bosses c c, and are secured
together by the bolts and nuts ef; g shows the section of one of the shafts, and
hi the upper and under halves of the coupling-box.
2
h
α
i
Fig. 152.
.d
k
k
m
b
SWING-JOINT FOR SMALL SHAFTS—SCALE IN FIG. 130.
g
Fig. 153.
h
7
i
g
e
d
f
b
ს
h
UNIVERSAL JOINT-SCALE IN FIG. 130.
a
с
381. Where the shaft, as a hori-
zontal one, a, fig. 152, is to be
joined to another which forms an
angle with it, as b, the coupling
used is known as the "universal
joint" or "swing joint. The
drawing illustrates the method
adapted to small shafts, as the
shafts of "chaff-cutters," &c. The
box c c is keyed on to the bed
of the shaft a by the key d. A
section is shown at f g h: fis the
shaft, g the box, and h the key
passing through the whole; the
dotted circle shows the "bead"
of the box. The box cc is pro-
vided with two "snugs" e and k k.
Into the space between these the
end -edge view at m-of the
angle shaft b is inserted, and the
joint completed by a pin or bolt
passed through. A front view of
the box c c is shown at i; k k the
snugs, j the key. An end view of
the box c c is seen at n.
382. A form of universal joint
adapted for heavier shafts, as
where horse - power is communi-
cated to a churn, straw-cutters, &c., is shown in fig. 153. The end a of
the horizontal shaft is expanded into a fork bb, the extremities of which
are made to embrace the "collars" g g of a "cross" shown in fig. 154. A
side view of the shaft a, fig. 153, is shown at c; d the collar of the cross, e the
BEARINGS FOR HORIZONTAL SHAFTS.
91
wrought-iron "cap"-separate view at o-keyed to the ends of the forks by
the key ƒƒ and h h. The dotted lines around 7 show the position of the shaft at
an angle to a. In fig. 154, which is a plan of the "cross," a a are the collars em-
braced by the ends b b, fig. 153, while b fig. 154, is one of those embraced by
the end i of the angle-shaft l, fig. 153. In fig. 155 we give another form of uni-
versal or coupling joint, a d d d being the plan, ebc b the side view. In fig. 156
Fig. 154.
Fig. 155.
a
a
1
PLAN OF
"
CROSS FOR UNIVERSAL JOINT
-SCALE IN FIG. 130.
Fig. 156.
d
પ
d
e
α
-f- -|
с
d
છે
α
b
e
"
PLAN OF CROSS
-SCALE IN FIG. 130.
ANOTHER FORM OF UNIVERSAL JOINT-SCALE IN
FIG. 130.
we show a cross a; the bolt-hole is at b, through which a pin or bolt passes
to connect the fork of the other lever, as b b, fig. 153. The other arm of the
cross a is hollow, through which a bolt d e ƒ passes connecting it with the ends
of the fork d d, fig. 155, the whole secured together by the nut ƒ.
383. We now come to illustrate the bearings in which shafts revolve. The
simplest form of a bearing is illustrated in fig. 157, where a a is part of the
framing, curved at the part c to admit of a semicircular slot being made
Fig. 157.
Fig. 158.
C
C
Fig. 159.
a
e
d
α
a
d.
e
Ъ
α
с
d
X
HI
a
"
BRASSES" OR
"
ď
e
BUSHES"
BEARING FOR SMALL SPINDLE—
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
PLAN OF BEARING FOR
SMALL SPINDLE-SCALE,
1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
FOR BEARING FOR SMALL
SPINDLE-SCALE, 1 INCH
TO THE FOOT.
in its upper side, the radius of which corresponds to the diameter of the collar
or neck of the shaft in b. The collar is embraced in its upper part by the
cap d, which is bolted to the framing a a by the bolts e ƒ and nuts g h. In fig.
158 is a top or plan view of the same; a a the shaft, b the cap, c c the framing,
d d the bolts.
384. In the method illustrated in fig. 157 the shaft revolves upon iron
surfaces to lessen the friction; the method in use is to make the collar of
the shaft revolve on brass surfaces. These surfaces are constructed in vari-
ous ways, and are termed bushes or brasses. Fig. 159 illustrates brasses
adapted to the bearing in fig. 157: a shows a side view of the lower bush
and b the upper, and d a section across the middle of both. The semicircular
part of the lower bush rests on the curved part c, fig. 157, the upper being
embraced by the cap d; the cap, being screwed down, keeps the bushes
92
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
always in contact with the periphery of the neck of the shaft, while the flanges
at the end of the bushes prevent any lateral movement. The distance between
the flanges is sufficient to allow of them passing the edges of the part c and
e
Fig. 160.
b
d
b.
C
g
f
a
α
h
FRONT ELEVATION AND TRANSVERSE SECTION OF PEDESTAL-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
g
the cap d. A sectional plan of the
lower bush is shown at f, fig. 159,
the part in which the shaft lies.
An end view of the two brasses is
shown at e, and the flanges of the
brasses are shown at e, fig. 158.
385. The method illustrated in
fig. 157 is adapted for small shafts
or spindles. Where long shafts
are used, the bearing-surfaces are
supported in what are termed pedestals or plummer-blocks. We illustrate in
figs. 160, 161, 162, 163, the various parts of the pedestal in which the crank-
shaft / revolves of the steam-engine, of which we give a front and side view in the
Plate entitled Crank Steam-Engine. In fig. 160, a a is the body of the block or
Fig. 161.
p
И
q
m
n...
t
$
.n
pedestal, secured to the entablature on which it
rests by bolts and nuts, as shown at a; b b, the cap
secured to the block by the bolts and nuts c c;
d the upper, e the lower brass. In the section in
same figure, g g is the shaft; f the neck or journal,
corresponding to c, fig. 145; h the lower part of the
block, aa; i the lower, and j the upper brass; k the
cap. In fig. 161 a section through the centre of
the block is given at 77; m the part with three-
sided bottom, into which the lower brass e, fig.
160, or y, fig. 162, is made to fit; n n the bolt-
› holes, through which the bolts securing the cap
pass. They are made with recesses at the lower
part, to admit of the head of the bolts being
flush with the bottom of the block, thus giving
HORIZONTAL SECTION OF PEDESTAL, SHOWING
SECTION AND PLAN OF CAP-SCALE,
1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
the block a fair bearing on the entablature on which it rests; o o the
bolt-holes for the bolts securing the block to the entablature. The section of
the cap is shown at pp, of the three-sided part fitting in to the corresponding
sides of the upper brass x, fig. 162; rr the bolt-holes through which the bolts c c,
fig. 160, pass; s s t is the plan of the cap. A conical aperture is made in the
Fig. 162.
HO
H
BUSHES OR BRASSES FOR PEDESTAL-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
centre of the cap, at t, and which also passes through
the upper brass at k, fig. 160; this allows of oil being
poured down to lubricate the shaft f, as it revolves.
In fig. 162 we give various views of the brasses: v a
side-elevation of the upper, and w of the lower brass;
x y corresponding sections; z a sectional plan of x or
y both are alike in plan.
386. In fig. 163 we illustrate the method of fitting
the pedestal into its place on the upper side of the
entablature a a. The bed or upper surface, as h h, is
carefully dressed with the cold chisel, and where accurate adjustment is required,
a piece of millboard bedded in whitelead may be placed, on which to rest the
block; holes corresponding to those made in the entablature must be made in
the millboard, to allow of the bolts passing through which secure the block to
the pedestal. On the upper face of the entablature a a or ƒƒ two snugs or projec-
BEARINGS FOR VERTICAL SHAFTS.
α
b
h
Fig. 163.
h
о
g
93
Сь
MODE OF FIXING PEDESTAL ON ENTABLATURE-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
tions are cast, b b or g g. The distance between these is such as to admit of the
body of the block being passed be-
tween, and to leave spaces, as e e.
The block is now laid in its place,
and secured by the bolts and nuts.
Iron or wooden keys or wedges are
then driven into the spaces e e; by
these any degree of lateral adjustment
to the block is given; vertical adjust-
ment being obtainable by the thick-
ness of the "packing" of millboard,
&c. on which the pedestal rests. The method by which the various parts are
put together is as follows: Premising that the various surfaces are brought
to accurate bearings by means of chisel and file, the bolts are first
passed through the holes n n, fig. 161, and then the body of the block,
as a a, fig. 160, is carefully adjusted and bolted to the entablature a a,
fig. 163; the lower brass y, fig. 162, is then put into the lower part of
the block m, fig. 161; the shaft is then lifted into its place, resting on the
brass y, and the upper side of it is embraced by the upper brass x, fig.
162; the cap p p, fig. 161, is then put on; the bolts c c, fig. 160, are then
passed through the holes r r, fig. 161. The whole are then secured by the nuts
e e, fig. 160.
Fig. 164.
g
α
387. The bearings of vertical shafts are placed in what are called steps.
A simple form of this is illus-
trated in fig. 164, which is the
working drawing of various
parts of the step adapted for
the governor t of the steam-
engine, of which we give a
front and side view in Plate
entitled Crank Steam-Engine.
The lower extremities of the
governor spindle is shown at
a b; to the upper side of part
of the bracket c c (correspond-
C
"STEP
ing to u in the Plate) a part d is cast.
"
d
C
OR BEARING FOR A VERTICAT. SPINDLE-SCALE,
1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
h
Bolt-holes are bored in this, in the
positions shown in the plan as at i, which are tapped to receive screws. By
these the bush eƒƒ is secured to the part d; the extremity b of the spindle a
runs in the hollow part of eff, and the oil is passed to lubricate it through
the hole h in the section, and g in the plan. The method of fitting the parts
together will be obvious from the drawings, the part e fitting into and secured
by the bolts to d.
388. Steps for heavy vertical shafts, as the shafts of millstones, require more
complicated adjustment than those we have now illustrated. In fig. 165 we
give views of a step for a millstone shaft; a a a the curved bridge or pedestal,
supporting a box b, contains the brass bush in which the extremities of the
shaft c revolves. This box is shown in section at ƒ; this is capable of lateral
adjustment by the four "set screws" d d d d shown in g, the plan of box.
Another adjustment is required in millstone shafts—that is, a vertical one, so as
to bring the millstones nearer to, or take them farther from each other. This is
effected in various ways, one of which is shown in fig. 165. The brass bush
rests on the extremity of a short lever or stud, which passes through the bottom
94
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
of the box b and step a a a, and is screwed as at o in section f; the lower end
66
a
α
d
Fig. 165.
a
C
b
k
Z
d
M
STEP FOR VERTICAL SHAFT- -SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 166.
h
g
с
h
a
C
ADJUSTMENT BUSH OR STEP FOR A MILL SHAFT-
INCH TO THE FOOT.
SCALE
Π
α
e
of this lever or stud moves in
a bearing the sole-plate of the
pedestal a a a. A lever-wheel
e is keyed on to the shaft h, by
which it is turned from right to
left, and the block b, orƒ, in sec-
tion, raised or depressed accord-
ingly, and with it the shaft c.
389. Fig. 166 shows another
method of adjusting vertically
the block b in fig. 165, of a
millstone shaft: a is the stud
on which the block rests,
jointed at b to a lever c c, the
end of which is connected with
a stem d, bolted by a nut e to
the plate ff, on which the step
a a, fig. 165, rests; the screwed
lever g, fig. 166, is jointed to
the other extremity of c c, and
is adjusted by the wheel h.
390. The upper end of ver-
tical shafts revolves in bear-
ings, of which fig. 158 is an
example; this fig., represent-
ing the upper bearing for the
governor spindle," of which a b, fig. 164, is the lower extremity; a a, fig. 158,
is part of the bracket v of the steam-engine, of which we give a front and
side view in Plate entitled Crank Steam-Engine. The reader will find in par.
383 a description of the various parts of this form of bearing, it only being
here necessary to state that it refers to a bearing for a horizontal shaft-
ገቢ
R
"
"
HANGERS
OR
"
Fig. 167.
с
α
α
b
f
C
GALLOWS" FOR SUPPORTING SHAFTS UNDER CEILINGS—
SCALE, INUE TO THE FOor.
the same illustration
serving for that of
a vertical one, with
this difference, that
fig. 158 is lettered as
an elevation, while
for the vertical bear-
ing of the spindle,
a b, fig. 164, it is in
plan. Thus by hold-
ing fig. 158 so that the
line xx will be hori-
zontal, it will repre-
sent the elevation of
the vertical bearing, the shaft a a being vertical; while by reading it as printed,
it represents a plan of a horizontal bearing, the same shaft a a being hori-
zontal. In fig. 165 we give at j jan illustration of another bearing for the upper
extremity of a vertical shaft l, the brass bush k being bolted to the framing j j.
391. When horizontal shafts are carried along under ceilings, or suspended
BRACKETS AND PULLEYS.
95
from part of a machine, the bearings are supported in what are termed
hangers or gallows. In fig. 167 we illustrate a form of this; a the shaft,
revolving in a brass fitted into a correspondingly curved part b of the
hanger, which is secured to the ceiling, &c. by the bolts and nuts c c: d is the
"cap," which is screwed to the part b; ƒ is a front view, and g a section of the
h a front and i an end view of the brass or bush. The other figure to the
left represents another form of hanger or gallows; it is also secured to the
ceiling, &c. by bolts and nuts; the cap is secured by the key k l, instead of
by bolts; m is a front view of the cap with key-seat n.
cap;
o do
Fig. 168.
b
α
392. When horizontal shafts are carried along the face of a wall or part of a
machine, the bearings are supported on brackets,
of which a form is given in fig. 168; a a re-
presenting the line of wall, b b the bracket,
secured to the wall by bolts and nuts. The
usual form of plummer-block or pedestal is fitted
in the space c between the two snugs.. A front
view of the bracket is shown at de. In de-
signing brackets and other parts of machines
subjected to strains, the principles of framing,
already explained from page 34, should be care-
fully borne in mind. Thus, in a bracket, as in
fig. 168, the part b b supporting the table cshould
not be composed of curved lines (see par. 15).
393. In fig. 169 we give three views of a spindle-guide: as for the rod of
a slide-valve, a is the section, bb the end view, c the aperture in which the
rod slides, d the side view, and e the plan.
BRACKETS FOR SUPPORTING SHAFTS ALONG
WALLS—SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
394. We shall now illustrate the methods in use by which motion is com-
municated from one part of a machine to another. The first of these we shall
Fig. 169.
b
с
e
b
Fig. 170.
e
h
a
1:
T
d
g
i
f
b
a
α
d
SPINDLE-GUIDE-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT
e
PULLEYS- -SECTION AND ELEVATION-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
The
notice are pulleys fixed to shafts. In fig. 170, a a is the shaft, b the pulley, c
the central boss. A section is given at e e, f the shaft. A key-seat is cut in
the boss, and a key g is driven in, securing the pulley on the shaft ƒ.
periphery d d should be made convex; if made flat, the belt or driving-strap
will be continually slipping off the pulley; if convex, the tendency of the belt.
is always to keep to the highest part, which is consequently placed in the
centre of the breadth of the rim. A form of pulley with a hollow or cavity
rim-used for ropes or circular belts, or wire ropes-is shown at h, h h being
the cavity in which the rope runs, i the shaft, and k the key. For the forms of
the arms of the pulley, see the various machines figured in the course of this
work, as in the portable thrashing-machine of Messrs Garrett and Co.
96
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
395. Where driving-belts slip on the pulleys, a little powdered rosin strewed
on their peripheries will often cause them to "bite." To obviate this risk, and
to secure the transmission of the power from one point to another, "gearing-
chains" are frequently employed. A notable instance of the application of these
is in the Scotch thrashing-machine. In connection with the description of this
machine, the reader will find illustrations of the mode of construction of the
chain-gearing.
396. Motion is communicated from one point to another through the inter-
vention of toothed wheels. In a system of toothed gearing, the larger wheel,
as in fig. 171, is called the "spur-wheel," the smaller the "pinion." When
the whole of the wheel or pinion is of one material, as iron or brass, the teeth
are called "teeth;" but when the frame or body of the wheel is of iron and
the teeth of wood, the latter are termed "cogs." The teeth of pinions are some-
times termed "leaves;" usually, however, the word "teeth" is used for teeth
of wheels and pinions alike. The driving-wheel, which is fixed on the shaft
giving the primary motion, is termed the "driver," the other the "driven" or
"follower." When the teeth of two wheels are acting in contact, they are said
to be in "gear," or "engaged;" when they are taken out of contact they are said
to be "out of gear," or "disengaged." The methods of throwing wheels out of
and into gear will be described hereafter.
Fig. 171.
Ад
p
Z
w
MODE OF SETTING-OUT TEETH OF WHEELS.
t
d
し
​h
g
i
112
3
397. The line a b, fig. 171, joining the centres of two engaged wheels, is called
the "line of centres; "the two dotted circles r s, tu are termed the "pitch
circles," and touch each other in the line of centres at the point z. To enable
two wheels or a wheel and pinion to work together satisfactorily, it is necessary
to proportion the diameters of these pitch circles to the number of teeth con-
tained by each wheel. We shall give hereafter the rules by which these pitch
circles are proportioned.
398. These pitch circles are divided into a number of equal parts, corre-
SETTING OUT TEETH OF WHEELS.
97
sponding to the number of teeth in the wheel or pinion; the distance between
two of these divisions is termed the "pitch" of the teeth. Each division so set
off comprises a tooth and a space. By space is meant the opening or interval
between any two contiguous teeth.
rilmn.
399. In order to enable the teeth of wheels to work in contact with as little
friction as possible, and in the proper ratio of velocity, it is important to decide
upon the form of the tooth. To ascertain this, mathematicians and engineers
have instituted the most elaborate investigations, the result of which has shown.
that the curve best fulfilling the conditions required in the working of teeth in
contact is what is termed the "epicycloid" curve. Where perfect accuracy of
working is required, it is advisable to set out the teeth with this curve; but as
a portion of this curve resembles very closely the arc of a circle, the practice
is sufficiently accurate which describes the form of teeth by portions of circles.
In fig. 171 is one method of describing the form of teeth by this means. Let
rs be the pitch circle of the "wheel," and t u that of the "pinion." Divide
these into equal parts corresponding to the number of teeth in each, as d, r, n,
in the smaller figure on the right; draw lines through these to the centre of the
wheel and pinion, as to a and b. Let us set off the form of one tooth as of r.
Divide each of these parts dr and rn into four equal parts, def gr and
From d, set off d c, equal to one of the parts, as d e, and from n,
another part n o. Then from fas a centre, with the radius fc, describe the
semicircle c i, and from 7 as a centre, with the same radius, describe the semi-
circle g o;
the arcs g h and ik will then form the sides of the point of the
tooth r. Having decided on the depth of the point of the tooth gh, the proportion
of which will be given hereafter, from a, the centre of the wheel, describe the
arc h k, which gives the face of the tooth. To form the flanks of the tooth, take
d as a centre, with the radius dg, describe
the arc g q, and from n, as a centre, with the
same radius, describe the arc i v. Having
decided on the depth of the flanks, which we
suppose to be g q, from a as a centre of the
wheel with the radius a q, describe the arc
p q v w : p q and v w are the spaces between
the teeth. In like manner the flank of the
tooth d, ep, and that of the tooth n, m w, are
described from the tooth r as a centre.
simpler method of setting off teeth is shown
in fig. 172, where the number of the teeth,
the sides and depth of their points, and the
depth of their flanks, are set off in a similar manner to that described, but the
flanks are formed by simply drawing lines from the pitch circle at its junction
with the sides of the tooth-points to the centre of the wheel. Thus are the teeth
b, c, ƒ formed.
A
Fig. 172:
MODE OF SETTING OUT TEETH OF WHEELS.
400. In setting out the teeth, care should be taken so to proportion the
number that they shall not repeatedly engage with each other. This will
happen if the number of teeth in the wheel is divided by the number in the
pinion without a remainder. To avoid this, let the number of the teeth of the
wheel be such that it can be divided by the number in the pinion without
a remainder; then add an additional tooth to the wheel. By this arrange-
ment the wear will be equalised, as no teeth will engage twice until all the
others have been in contact. The odd tooth is sometimes called the "hunting cog,
or, as is more frequently stated, the number of teeth in the wheel is "prime"
G
""
98
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
to the number in the pinion. The spaces between the teeth will require to be
of such a size as not only to admit of the easy insertion of the teeth of the other
wheel, but to admit of a certain degree of "play." All the teeth must be of
uniform size throughout, and so arranged that, as the last teeth in action cease to
touch each other, the two succeeding shall come into action at the same instant.
401. Where the teeth of a wheel are of wood, those of the pinion being of
metal, or vice versa, the thickness of the teeth will obviously vary, in order to
gain an equal strength in the teeth composed of different materials; but in all
such cases the "pitch" of the teeth must remain the same. The "cogs," of
wooden teeth, are made with tenons slightly tapered, and driven into mortises
made in the rim of the wheel, and are secured by iron pins, as a b b, fig. 173, or
Fig. 173.
b
d
n
b
n
α
by double wedges, as d e, behind the
dovetailed ends of the teeth c c. A
double shoulder is given to the teeth,
as at g, which admits of a stronger
tenon, and of a less weight of metal in
the web of the wheel.
402. The "arms" of open wheels are
generally proportioned to the diameter,
from six to eight being the number
generally employed. They should be
so arranged that the feathers, as x x,
fig. 171, or n n, fig. 173, which
strengthen the arms y y, fig. 171,
should be placed, as in fig. 173, at
the back of one of the teeth in wheels altogether composed of metal, and
between two of the teeth where wooden cogs of beech or plane-tree are used.
In fig. 173, n n, i i shows a section of the arm of a wheel. When pinions are
small, arms are dispensed with, and the central part cast solid.
FORM OF COGS, AND SECTION OF ARM OF WHEELS.
403. For ample instructions as to the construction of patterns of toothed
wheels, we refer the reader to parts 5 and 6, 1s. each, of the Practical Draughts-
man's Book of Industrial Design, published by Longman and Co. of London.
We do not deem it necessary to give these drawings, as toothed wheels of all
pitches and diameters usually employed are kept in stock by many ironfounders,
and can be bought cheaper than they can be made.
b
Fig. 174.
404. In fig. 174 we give a sketch of a ratchet-wheel and pawl used in various
machines, as windlasses, &c. The ratchet-wheel b b is
a keyed on to the shaft a, and is supposed to be revolv-
ing in the direction of the arrow c. The pawl or click
is jointed at its upper end to a stud d fixed in part of
the framing of the machine. As the wheel revolves,
the end of the click passes over the face of the tooth,
and drops into the space between each tooth, as in the
drawing. Should the wheel b b have a tendency to re-
volve in the wrong direction, the end of the pawl catches
against the shoulder of the teeth of the wheel, and pre-
a
RATCHET-WHEEL AND PAWL OR CLICK, Vents it from turning round.
FULL SIZE.
405. Where toothed gearing is used to communicate
motion from one shaft to another, the direction of which is not in the same plane,
but at right angles, &c. to each other, the form of wheels known as "bevelled”
or "mitre" wheels is used. Numerous illustrations of these may be found
throughout the present work. Wheels of this kind are conical or frustræ of
SETTING OUT BEVEL AND MITRE WHEELS.
d-
У
C
v
n
d
h
Fig. 175.
а
BEVEL OR MITRE WHEELS.
Fig. 176.
α
W
23
q
g
99
i
cones, with flutes on their surfaces, the corresponding projections and indenta-
tions of which working in contact produce motion. The form given to the teeth
of wheels, as described in par. 399, is imparted
to these flutes or projections; and the whole
are placed on the surface of the cones so as
to meet at the apeces, touching each other
throughout their whole length. The section of
the teeth is obviously not equal throughout,
but diminishes towards the apex of the cone.
To proportion the surfaces of the cones of two
wheels working at right angles to each other
is comparatively simple, the bevel or slope of
each being determined thus: Suppose the
shafts, or rather the central lines of the shafts,
a b, bc, fig. 175, produced, they will meet in a
point b, from which, if a line be drawn to the
point where the circumferences of the two
wheels meet, as at d, the slope or bevel b d,
b g, or b h, will be found. But in some cases
the shafts a b, a d, fig. 176, do not lie at right
angles; to determine the form of the outline
of the "cones" for bevel-wheels in such cir-
cumstances, proceed as follows: Let a b, a d,
fig. 176, be the lines of the two shafts, eƒ the
diameter of the pitch circle of wheel, g h that
of the pinion. From a point j, parallel to
a b, draw a line at a distance from a b equal
to half of e f; draw the line j m, parallel to
a d, at a distance equal to half of g h; join
j a, and make ji equal to e ƒ, and j n equal
to gh, jn being at right angles to a d, and
ji at right angles to a b; join i a, n a; set
off from k, a distance k q equal to p, the breadth of the face or web of the
wheel; parallel to i j draw q s, and parallel to jn draw s t; then jstn is the
form of the wheel, j s q i that of the pinion. To develop the surfaces on which
to describe the teeth, proceed as follows: At right angles to aj draw from j a
line, cutting the line a b in b; and also from j draw a line, cutting the line a d
at v; join v n, b i. From centres b and v, with radii b j and v j, describe the arcs
jx, jy; from s parallel to a b drop the line sw, cutting
the line bj in w, and from s, a line s o, cutting the line
j v in z. From centre b, with radius b w, describe the
arc w c, and from v as a centre, with radius v z describe
the arc z u. The larger and smaller circles thus formed
are those on which the forms of the teeth are described,
these all converging to the centres v and b.
.m
20
e
ッ​ト
​th
MODE OF SETTING OUT FORM OF MITRE-WHEELS.
Fig. 177.
C
(1.
a
DOUBLE CRANK—SCALP,
TO THE FOOP.
1 INCH
406. A form of wrought-iron crank is illustrated
at fig. 177: a a the journals of the two shafts, b
the crank, c the connecting-rod; this is a "double
crank." If only one-half of this was used, and the connecting-rod c gave
motion to one shaft only, the crank would be a single one.
407. A usual form of cast-iron crank used for steam-engines is illustrated in
fig. 178, where a is the front, b the side or "edge," and f the back view: a
100
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
section is shown at g. The end a of the crank-shaft, fig. 145, passes into the
circular eyes h, c, fig. 178, and is keyed in by a key which passes into the key-
seat or slot cut in the inside of the aperture c, h, as shown in the drawing. The
eye j is that into which the "crank-pin" passes, and in which it is secured by
the key or (
cottar," which passes through a slot made at d in the end of the
crank-eye, and also through a slot in the end of the crank-pin. The part of
the crank-pin embraced by the connecting-rod is shown at m, of which n is a
section, and r an end view; o is the front and p the edge view of the cottar or
key which secures 7 in the eye j.
408. A simple form of connecting the end of a connecting-rod with the
journal m, fig. 178, of a crank-pin, is shown at fig. 179, where a a is the termi-
nation of the connecting-rod; this being finished with a semicircle of same
radius as the journal, as m in fig. 178. The strap or part c is similarly cut in
Fig. 178.
a
Fig. 179.
g
C
ん
​h
d
a
a
6
9
с
h
O
[=
P
m
j
.~
"
TERMINATION OR BUTT OF SIM-
PLE FORM OF CONNECTING-ROD-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 180.
α
a
b
π
с
DIFFERENT VIEWS OF STEAM-ENGINE CRANK AND ORANK-PIN—
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
CONNECTING-ROD-SCALE, 1 INCH
TO THE FOOT.
a semicircular form, and the end of the rod a a is passed between the forked
ends h, and secured by a key or cottar. A side view of the connecting-rod
and the strap is shown at g. In fitting the parts together, the journal of the
crank-pin is embraced by the strap h; the end a a of rod is then passed between
the ends of h, and the key d driven up. Another simple form of connecting the
end of a connecting-rod with the crank-pin is shown at fig. 180, where a a
represent the end of the crank, b that of the rod, which is provided with a
circular aperture; the pin c is passed through this, and is secured to the crank
by the bolt and nut d.
409. In both these forms the iron journal of the crank works in contact with
the iron of the rod; to lessen the friction, brasses or bushes are provided, in
which the journal revolves. A method of arranging the brasses is illustrated
in fig. 181. The method of fitting the various parts together is as follows,
a being a front and b c an edge view of the butt of the connecting-rod, d a front
and e f an edge view of the "strap." The position of the "key" g and "gib" h
is shown at d; i is an edge, j a side view of the key, k l corresponding
views of the gib; m n front and o p edge views of the brasses; q a section,
and r a sectional plan of the upper brass m, and s t corresponding views of
BUTT, STRAP, BUSHES.
Fig. 181.
101
the lower brass n. In fitting together the parts, the lower brass n is put
in its place in the semicircular ter-
mination of the strap d; the crank-
pin journal is then embraced on
its lower side by the brass and
strap; the upper brass o is then
made to embrace the upper side
of the crank-pin journal; the butt
a is then passed down the end
resting on the brass o; the gib h is
then placed in the slotf, and the
cottar g driven up.
410. In fig. 182 the upper termi-
nation of a steam-engine connect-
ing-rod is shown; c c the circular
head of the rod, with the hexagonal
eye a, into which the brasses b b
are accurately fitted, and secured by
the cottar d. A section is shown
at the right hand of the cut; a is
the part occupied by the crank-pin
journal.
h
TU
k
تم.
8
p
in,
2
es
ΠΠ
t
""
STRAP,"
VARIOUS PARTS OF CONNECTING-ROD, “BUTT,"
BUSHES "SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
AND
带着
​Fig. 182.
C
b
C
b
a
Ъ
C
α
b
d
C
411. In some machines the con-
tinuous circular motion of a shaft is
required to communicate a recipro-
cating rectilineal motion to another
part, as to the pump-rod of an en-
gine, or the shaker of a winnowing
machine. A mode of effecting this
is by employing a crank, the con-
tinuous revolution of which imparts
a reciprocating movement to the
connecting-rod. A usual method of
effecting this movement in steam-engines is illustrated in fig. 183, which repre-
sents the various parts of an eccentric, as the contrivance is called. The body
of the eccentric a a is of cast-iron, secured to the shaft which passes through
the eye b by a key, as shown. The edge of the eccentric is not flat, but a rim or
groove is turned, as shown at the edge view at c and section d d e.
The ring
EYE OF CONNECTING-ROD-SCALE, 2 INCHES TO THE FOOT.
d d is embraced by two straps ff, h, secured in two halves by bolts and nuts,
as shown. The breadth of these is such as to admit of easy play between the
projecting parts dd; and to insure ease of working, segmental pieces of brass
are riveted by copper rivets to the inside of the straps ƒ ƒ, h, the brasses
working in contact with the periphery of the eccentric ring d d; the oil for
lubrication is passed through the oil-hole i. The connection of the rod is shown
at g. The "throw" of the eccentric, or extent of the up-and-down motion of
the rod, is just twice that of the distance of the real centre of the eccentric ring
from that on which it is fixed to the shaft. Thus in fig. 183 the extent of
movement of the rod g, or the "lift" of the pump-rod to which we may suppose
it is attached, is just twice the distance of the centre of the eye b from the
centre of ring a a.
412. Reciprocating movement is sometimes obtained from continuous circular
by means of cams.
A common form of cam is that known as the "heart-
""
102
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
wheel" illustrated in fig. 184. In the eccentric in fig. 183, the reciprocating
movement of the rod g is not uniform throughout its stroke, the velocity in-
Fig. 183.
i
h
Fig. 184.
1
2
"
1
1
♡
g
18
e
α
ECCENTRIC, AND ECCENTRIC STRAP-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
8
7
MODE OF SETTING A CAM FOR UNIFORM MOTION.
10
creasing during its first half, and decreasing during its second half. Uniform
motion is obtained by the heart-shaped wheel, when its outline is produced as
follows: Let b c, fig. 184, represent the vertical distance through which the
rod, as c d, has to rise and fall, and a the centre of the cam.
From a, as
centre, with a b, a c, describe the circles through b and c. Divide the circle a c
into any number of equal parts, as 16, 1, 2, 3, &c., and draw as many radial lines
from a; divide the distance c b into half as many, or 8; and from a, as centre,
describe circles passing through these 8 points in b c. These circles will intersect
the radial lines drawn from a; if then a curve be drawn by hand through the points
of intersection, it will form the outline of a cam, which by its revolution will
enable the point b to rise to c during a half revolution of the shaft, while it will
allow it to fall from c to b during the other half revolution-the motion being
uniform both in the rise and the fall of the rod d c. In
practice a roller is fixed at the end of the rod, the centre
of which is the point b. Let b d be the radius of the
roller or friction-wheel; at the various points of inter-
section, describe circles corresponding to b d, and through
the points, as e f g h i, draw a curve; this will form the
true outline of the cam, in contact with which the roller
b d revolves.
α
с
Fig. 185.
and
C
a
b
FAST-AND-LOOSE PULLEY-SCALE,
1 INCH TO THE FOOT
413. The plan most usually adopted by which machin-
ery is disengaged and engaged, or put "out of" or "in
gear," as it is technically termed, is the "fast-and-loose
pulleys," illustrated in fig. 185, where a a is the shaft, e the
journal, c c a pulley revolving loosely on the shaft, d d a similar pulley keyed
on the shaft by the key b. While the driving-belt is kept running on the
pulley cc, no motion is imparted to the shaft, as the pulley revolves loosely
SLIDING-CLUTCHES AND FRICTION-BRAKE.
103
on it; but on being shifted from the loose pulley c c to the fast one d d, motion
is imparted to the shaft a a. As the belt is gradually passed from c c to d d,
or the contrary, the shaft is set in motion or at rest gradually, and comparatively
little shock is experienced.
414. Another method of engaging and disengaging machinery is by the
sliding - clutch, fig. 186, where
a a are the two shafts, b b the
journals, each provided with
"clutches" or "glands" cd, hav-
ing corresponding projections
and indentations which inter-
a
e
Fig. 186.
SLIDING CLUTCH FOR ENGAGING AND DISENGAGING SHAFTS
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
α
lock with each other; so that if c is at rest and d in motion, and dis
gradually brought in contact with c, motion is communicated to c. The
clutch d is not fixed on the shaft, but has a lateral movement along two
ribs e e, which pass into corresponding slots made in the eye of the clutch d.
These ribs or feathers serve at the same time to carry round the clutch with
the revolution of the shaft. In fig. 187 we give an elevation and section
of another form of sliding-clutch. The same letters refer to both views,
d
Fig. 187.
с
Fig. 188.
с
h
d
d
C
V
→
α
d
d
e
h
g
CLUTCH FOR ENGAGING AND DISENGAGING SHAFTS-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
CLUTCH OR GLAND FOR ENGAGING AND DISENGAGING SHAFIS-
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
of which the upper is the elevation and the lower the section, cb the two
shafts, ff the fixed clutch keyed on by the key e, g gh the sliding clutch, d d
the ribs or feathers. In fig. 188 another form of sliding-clutch is shown, where
a is the journal of a shaft in which the wheel d d is keyed: curved projec-
tions, as ƒ, are cast to the wheel, which take into correspondingly curved
recesses c made in the clutch e,
which slides on the rib or feather
on the other shaft b.
g
415. The rate at which wheels-
such as those of hoisting-cranes-
revolve, is regulated by means of a
friction-brake. Let a a, fig. 189, be
a pulley, with the driving-belt or
chain i i passing round it; let b b be
the friction-pulley fixed on the same
shaft as carries a. Part of the peri-
phery of the pulley b b is embraced
by a series of wood - blocks d d,
Fig. 189.
Ъ
i
i
а
O
a
d
FRICTION-BRAKE-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
g
carried by the iron strap c c, jointed at one end to the stud e, and at the other to
the lever ƒ of the belt-crank hf, the centre of which is on the pedestal g. By
104
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
pulling down the end of h, the blocks of wood are tightened up against the
periphery of the pulley bb, the friction created moderating its velocity. In
fig. 190 we give a simpler form: a is the pulley, with a block of wood b in
contact with its periphery; this is attached to a lever c d, jointed at c; by
pressing on the end d of the lever the block b is brought into contact with the
periphery of the pulley a.
d
Fig. 190.
a
Fig. 191.
d
C
a
FRICTION-BRAKE-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
LEVER FOR SHIFTING SLIDING-CLUTCH-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
416. In the fast-and-loose pulley described in par. 413, the belt is usually shifted
from one pulley to the other by hand. In putting the sliding-clutch, as illus-
trated in figs. 186, 187, and 188, into and out of gear, a lever is used, as illus-
trated in fig. 191, where a represents the section of the journal of the clutch, as
Fig. 192.
α
C
ос
PLAN OF LEVER FOR SHIFTING
SLIDING CLUTCH-SCALE,
1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
h in fig. 187 this is embraced by the forked extremity b
of the lever d, which vibrates on the pin c fixed to part
of the machine; by moving the extremity of the lever d
from right to left, the sliding-clutch is moved into or out
of contact with the fixed clutch. In fig. 192 a plan of
the clutch-lever is shown; a the journal of the clutch,
b the end of lever, c the pin on which it vibrates, e e pins
which retain the lever in any position desired, either
keeping the clutches in contact or separate. When the
lever is between these two pins e e, the clutches are
out of gear.
417. We shall now illustrate a few of the methods
employed to fit together the essential parts of machines.
Two pieces of iron, as a a, b b, fig. 193, or of wood, are
united together by means of bolts and nuts; c is the
bolt, d the "head" of the bolt, e the nut.
418. Nuts are usually made square and hexagonal.
The hexagonal nut is illustrated in fig. 194, where a is the plan, g and d edge
views in different positions.
Fig. 193.
Fig. 194.
112
Fig. 195.
b
a
e
d
C
a
ს
α
9
e
b
i
h
d
k
g
с
b
BOLT AND NUT-SCALE, 1 INCH
TO THE FOOT.
HEXAGONAL NUT-SCALE, 2 INCHES
TO THE FOOT.
a
PROPORTIONS OF BOLTS AND
NOTS-SCALE, FIG. 130.
419. In fig. 195 we give an illustration showing the proportions observed be-
tween the different parts of hexagonal nuts and bolts. Where the diameter of bolt d
#
BOLTS AND RIVETS.
105
is an inch, thickness of head b c = 1, thickness of the "nut" fm, breadth
of nut over the sides, as h i, 1 inch, and breadth over angles, as h k, 13 inch.
Diameter
7
81
3
b c = 2,ƒm=14,
f
f
3
inch, b c =
§, fm= },
1
""
22
""
""
112
11
hi=1}, h k = 1½ inch.
hi=12, h k=2
hi=23, h k=216
""
19
11
""
""
22
99
bc= 3,ƒm=17,
b c = 1}, ƒm=11, hi=2, h k = 23
b c = 153, ƒ m=21, hi=31, h k = 31
For other and intermediate sizes, see p. 208 of Weale's Engineer's Pocket-
Book for 1855-6.
Fig. 196.
d
с
b
420. Plates of wrought-iron are frequently connected together by means of
rivets. Fig. 196 illustrates the usual method
of making the joints. Where a a b b are the
two plates to be joined, holes at certain dis-
tances are bored or punched through both the
plates, and countersunk, as at c, by enlarging
the hole for some distance in the thickness of a
the plate, or the ends of the holes may be left
plain. The rivets formed with a head e at one
end are inserted red hot in the holes, and the
upper end d hammered, as at f, a resistance being made at the part g-while the
head ƒ is being hammered. The two plates are thus closely bound together.
07
g
e
MODE OF RIVETING PIECES OF IRON--
SCALE, FIG. 130.
а
421. Mr Fairbairn, to whom the engineering world is so much indebted for
valuable investigations, has also thoroughly examined this department of
mechanical construction. The experiments instituted had special reference to
two forms of riveting, one in which a single row of two rivets was placed across
the plate thus ° °, this being termed the "single-riveted joint," the other form
having three rivets placed thus 。。, this being termed the "double-riveted joint."
The result of the experiments proved that the loss of strength by the use of the
single-riveted joint, "including loss caused by the rivet-holes, is not less, under
ordinary circumstances, than 40 per cent. During the whole of the experiments
on single-riveted joints, it was observed that the ends of the plates under
strain curled upwards on each side, and produced a diagonal strain upon the
joint.
This position gave an oblique direction to the forces, and caused
the plate to break in some degree transversely through the rivet-holes. In
order to obviate this defect, and prevent as much as possible a transverse strain
upon the plates through the points in contact, the lap was increased, and a
third rivet introduced to keep down the ends of the plates." This is shown in
the form of double-riveted joints as above. This form of joint "gives a con-
siderable accession of strength, and exhibits several important facts in connection
with the construction of vessels exposed to severe pressure," and "the plates ap-
pear to retain their position under strain much better than single-riveted joints."
422. Taking the mean breaking-weights of "single" and "double" riveted
joints, and comparing them with the section of a "plate itself, the areas being
the same, we have for the tensile strength of the plates-
Section of iron
torn asunder.
lb.
Solid plate,
.44
25,400
Double-riveted joints,
.44
•
25,707
Single do. do.
.44
18,590
Assuming, therefore, the strength of the plates to be 1000, we have-
For the strength of plates of equal sections,
For double-riveted joints,
1000
933
For single
do.
do.
731
106
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
We may safely assume these ratios as the comparative values of jointed plates
of equal sections, when acted upon by a force calculated to tear them asunder.
The correct value of the plates, computed from a sectional area taken through
the rivet-holes, will therefore be to their riveted joints as 100, 93, and 73, or, in
round numbers, as 10, 9, and 7. In addition to a loss of nearly one-tenth in
the double-riveted joints, and three-tenths in the single ones, it will be
observed that the strength of the plates is still further reduced by the quantity
of iron punched out for the rivets. For this loss of metal 30 per cent will
have to be deducted from the above ratios, thus giving the absolute strength of
the plates to that of the riveted joints as 100, 68, and 46. "In some cases,
where the rivets are wider apart, the loss sustained is, however, not so great;
but in boilers and similar vessels, where the rivets require to be close to each
other, the edges of the plates are weakened to that extent. In this estimate
we must, however, take into consideration the circumstances under which the
results were obtained, as only two or three rivets come within the reach of
experiment; and again, looking at the increase of strength which might be gained
by having a greater number of rivets in combination, and the adhesion of the
two surfaces in contact, which in the compressed rivets by machine is consider-
able, we may fairly assume the following relative strengths as the value of
plates with their riveted joints. Taking the strength of plate at 100, the
strength of the double-riveted joint would then be 70, and the strength of the
single-riveted joint 56. These proportions may therefore in practice be safely
taken as nearly the standard value of joints such as are used in vessels where
they are required to be steam or water tight, and subjected to pressure varying
from 10 lb. to 100 lb. upon the square inch." We shall in a succeeding paragraph
give a table showing the strongest form and best proportions of rivets for
joints, deduced from Mr Fairbairn's valuable experiments.
(6
423. Where flush joints or even surfaces are required in riveting, the holes
are countersunk," as it is termed, the ends of the rivets being hammered into
the cavities, giving them a conical form. This will of necessity lessen the
strength of the riveted joints. "It is, however, satisfactory to know that
countersinking the heads of the rivets does not seriously injure the joint in its
powers of resistance to a direct tensile force; but the rivets are liable to start
when exposed to collisions or a strong impinging force, such as the sides of
ships are frequently doomed to encounter."
424. Driving-belts may be joined together by leathern thongs, as shown at d,
d
α
d
Fig. 197.
с
с
b
C
JOINING OF LEATHER DRIVING-BELTS-SCALE, IN FIG. 130.
с
b
fig. 197. A better
method is to rivet
the two, a a, b b,
together by small
copper rivets, as
e e, tin washers
being used, as at
СССС.
425. Wheels,
pulleys, &c. are
keyed on to the shafts, as represented in fig. 170, in which the "key-seat" is
cut in the eye of the wheel, and the periphery of the shaft is slightly flattened
at the place where the key is driven up. To the piston-rod a a, fig. 198, the
cross-head b is secured by a key or wedge driven through the box b and piston-
rod. The brasses of the connecting-rod embrace the parts cc, dd; the piston-
rod passes through the hole e. The lower figure d d is a plan of the upper c c.
CROSS-HEAD, PULLEYS, SPINDLES.
107
426. For small wheels as a, fig. 199, a pinching-screw as d may be used to
connect them to the shaft b b. The screw passes through the boss c, and
tightens on the shaft b b.
Fig. 198.
a
Fig. 199.
Fig. 200.
с
d
a
C
d
ს
(
૩
C
d
C
ს
α
b
се
d
ELEVATION AND PLAN OF
"
PISTON-ROD CROSS-
HEAD"-SCALE, 1 INCH
TO THE FOOT.
FIXING OF PULLEYS, &c.
ON SHAFTS BY PINCH-
ING-SCREWS-SCALE,
1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
ELEVATION AND SECTION OF VERTICAL SPINDLE AND
HANDLE-SCALE, 12 INCHES TO THE FOOT.
427. This method is also illustrated in fig. 200, where part of a handle c is
fixed to the upper termination e of the shaft a, a, which it is employed to turn.
The screw d passes through the boss ff. The two are further secured together
by bolt and nut, as at bb.
428. When a bolt is used for a movable joint, as at c, fig. 204, it is made as
in fig. 201; a slot is made at b, through which the key c is driven; d is an edge
Fig. 201.
Fig. 202.
d
Fig. 203.
d
b
a
d
f
PINS AND KEYS-SCALE, 2 INCHES
b
a
C
a
ર
0
ს
TO THE FOOT.
GIBS AND COTTAR, OR KEY.
JUNCTION OF RODS OR LEVERS-
SCALE, 1 INCHES TO THE FOOT.
view of the key; the bolt a is previously passed through.the eyes of the rods
to be jointed; e is a side and ƒ an edge view of a "split key."
Fig. 204.
429. In fig. 202 we give what are termed gibs and cottars, or keys. The
parts a bare forced asunder or tightened up against
the parts upon which they rest or butt, by driving
up the key or cottar d between the gibs c c.
430. In fig. 203 we illustrate a method sometimes
adopted of effecting a junction between one rod a b
and another c d. The end of c d is hollow, to
admit the extremity b of b a. Slots are cut in both
sides of c d at e, exactly opposite each other; a cor-
responding key-slot is cut in a b at b. When the
end of a b is inserted in c d, a key g is driven
through the three holes: ƒ is an end view of the
key g. The end of a lever is sometimes jointed, as
in fig. 204, a being the edge view, b the front. The
bolt, as a b, fig. 201, passes through c.
"
JOINED END OF LEVER-
b
SCALE, 12 INCHES TO THE FOOT.
431. In fig. 205 we illustrate a method of attaching the movable handle
108
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
which terminates the lever c, fig. 200, for turning the shaft a, a.
d
Fig. 205.
Fig. 206.
d
b
e
e
e
с
α
C
a
FIXING OF WOOD HANDLE OF IRON LEVER
—SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
of the shaft a by a nut d;
passes through the eye e
e
h
e
Fig. 207.
b
a
g
h
g
i
FIXING OF WOOD HANDLE TO IRON RODS—
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
The part e e,
fig. 205, is usually made
a of wood, in the central
aperture of which c c, the
stud f revolves loosely,
which is screwed to the
end of the lever a a by
the nut b. The illustra-
tion to the right of the
cut is in section. In
fig. 206 we give another
method of forming a
handle. Let a be the
shaft, to turn as the shaft
of a churn, &c.; b c the
handle secured to the end
the end a is reduced so as to form a shoulder which
of the handle, as shown at section e.
The loose part
f is secured to g by the nut h, while g is secured
to the lower termination of the handle c by the
nut i.
HEATED
432. A lever b, b, fig. 207, as the stud of a
"throttle-valve" of a steam-engine, &c., may
be worked by the handle a riveted to the
shoulder c, made in the end of the shaft b, by a
rivet passing through a hole made in the eye of
the handle a, as shown at e e, which is a section of
the eye of f. The handle g is secured to a by
bolt and nut; the lower part is formed as at h, which gives a shoulder and part
to form the bolt as shown. The above may be used to turn a screwed lever,
FIXING OF IRON HANDLES OR LEVERS TO RODS
-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
b
α
Fig. 208.
d
α
α
C
с
FIXING OF LEVER OR HAND-
WHEEL TO RODS-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
as g, fig. 166. Where the lever-wheel is used, as at e, fig.
165, the parts are connected as in fig. 208; c the shaft
corresponding to a, fig. 165, a a the wheel, keyed or riv-
eted on as at e; the handle b is riveted on to an eye d,
shown in the plan of wheel.
433. Before giving the "rules" to calculate the dimen-
sions of the various parts of mechanism we have attempted
to describe, we shall here give a few remarks on the
subject of fly-wheels a matter of some importance in
the construction of many machines of the farm, as chaff-
cutters, pointing out where these auxiliaries to machinery
may with propriety be applied, and where they ought not.
434. In the first place, it may be asserted that in no case
can a fly-wheel act as a generator of power; and under a
false impression of this supposed function of fly-wheels,
numerous instances occur of their misapplication, or at least
a misconception of their effects; and, secondly, the only
available function of fly-wheels is their capability of acting as reservoirs of that
power or force that is communicated to them while in motion. Thus a compara-
tively small force applied to a heavy fly-wheel for a few seconds, will, on the prin-
ciple of its absorbing and partially retaining that power and force, accumulate a
momentum that may, through the agency of mechanical means, be discharged on
FLY-WHEELS.
109
a particular point, and produce an instantaneous effect that the first mover never
could accomplish without such means. This is finely exemplified in the machine
for punching and cutting thick iron plates and bars; and the principle applies in
all cases where fly-wheels can be employed with advantage. The principle of
action is this: Fly-wheels may be employed with advantage in every case
where the intensity of either the power or the resistance is variable; and where
both are variable, it becomes still more necessary. On the other hand, where
both the power and the resistance are uniform, a fly-wheel may be held as an
encumbrance, and can only act as a load upon the first mover. In the steam-
engine, for example, of any form in which a crank is used to communicate
motion to machinery, the fly-wheel is indispensably necessary; and such is the
requisite governing power of a fly-wheel to keep up steady motion, that its
momentum is sufficient to compensate for considerable variation in the resistance
of the machine or machinery upon which it operates. With water-wheels, how-
ever, the power is perfectly uniform, and if the resistance is also uniform, as in
grist-mills and even thrashing-mills, fly-wheels will be worse than useless; but
where the resistance is intermitting, such as rolling and tilt mills, and punching
machines, a heavy fly-wheel becomes necessary, in which the power of the first
mover can be accumulated for a short period, and which will be expended during
the succeeding short period that the driven machine is in action. In every case
where manual power is applied, fly-wheels are useful if not essential. This
arises from the power itself being variable; for the power of a man working a
winch varies according to the different positions which the winch occupies in
the course of its revolution, and has been ascertained to range in the proportion
of 30 lb. and 60 lb. The rationale of this is, that when he is in a position that
restricts his exertion to 30 lb., he might not be able to overcome the resistance
unless at a very slow rate; but in the position where he can exert a force of
60 lb., he can do more than overcome the resistance. And here it is that the
fly-wheel comes to his aid; for suppose the resistance requires an actual force
of 45 lb., while he is putting forth 60 lb., there is a surplus of 15 lb. The
ever-ready fly-wheel, whose velocity, from its inertia, he is not able greatly to
increase, takes up, with a small increase of velocity, this surplus force exerted
by the hand; and this is stored up in the mass of the wheel, to be delivered
out again at the next weak point in the revolution of the winch.
Hence a
nearly equable force is produced to act upon the machine to which the power
of the man is directed. If this power is directed upon an intermitting machine,
such as a straw-cutter, the demands upon the fly-wheel are very much in-
creased; but as the point of the machine to which the power is applied moves
at a much slower velocity than the centre of gyration in the fly-wheel, and as the
intermissions of the resistance are not likely to coincide exactly with the incre-
ments or decrements of the power, there will be a mutual compensation going
on amongst the forces to bring out a uniform result. There is a possibility
that a coincidence of the above circumstances may occur; hence, it is some-
times of consequence to observe the placing of the winch so as to counteract
any defect of compensation.
435. The power of horses to impel machinery being of nearly uniform inten-
sity, requires no regulator in itself; but it comes under the general law, if the
resistance is intermitting. Thus, in the thrashing-machine, which is slightly
variable in resistance, it would, if worked with horse-power, be considerably im-
proved by the addition of a well-proportioned fly-wheel. In various other
machines worked with horse-power, where the resistance is frequently inter-
mitting, such as blowing bellows, pumping, and the like, a fly-wheel is indis-
110
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
pensable; while in a malt or other mill, whose resistance is uniform, the fly-
wheel would be an encumbrance. Steam-power applied to a thrashing-machine
requires, as already observed, no additional fly-wheel, but that the steam-engine
for such purpose should be above the standard allowed for ordinary purposes.
436. The general theory of the application of fly-wheels may be repeated in
a few words. They are usefully employed in all cases of intermitting resistance
and of variable force, whether in the first mover or in the resistance. Where
the motion is uniform and not intermitting, the first mover being also uniform,
the fly-wheel is in almost every case unnecessary, and frequently an obstruction.
437. The strains to which lying-shafts are subjected, are, first, "lateral,” their
weight and that of the wheels, &c. which they support, tending to break or
to deflect them; second, "torsion," or twisting-the strain causing this arising
from the resistance of the work to be performed. A shaft is exposed to rupture
by torsion, when the force at one end is greater than at the other, or when the
forces at the end act in opposite directions.
438. The lateral strain, and tendency to rupture by torsion of all shafts,
should be estimated; and where one exceeds the other, the greatest strain
should be calculated for. The following rules are extracted from Mr Cresy's
work, Cyclopædia of Civil Engineering, Longman and Co.: "For the lateral
stress in cast-iron shafts, the weight w in pounds, acting in the length 7 in
feet, the formula is,
3/ w x l
W
500
diameter.
For malleable iron the result must be multiplied by 0.935; for oak, 1.83; for fir,
1.72; and for shafts to resist torsion, we have in horse-power h, that the shafts
will drive, making turns n per minute,
240 × h
n
=
diameter for cast-iron.
For malleable iron the result must be multiplied by 0.963; for oak, by 2.238;
and for fir, 2.06: these are for shafts of first movers; for second movers, mul-
tiply the result by 0.8; and for third, by 0.793."
439. Hollow shafts of cast-iron are less liable to rupture by torsion than solid;
a good proportion for the thickness of the metal is two-tenths of the entire
diameter. The following table, showing the diameter of hollow cast-iron shafts
to resist “lateral" strain, is compiled from one given by Mr Cresy in the work
above referred to. The letters E. D. denote exterior diameter in inches,
I. D. interior diameter; S=4 S=6, &c., denote the stress or strain to be 4 or 6
times, &c. the weight of the shaft.
Length. E. D. I. D.
E. D. I. D.
E. D. I. D. E. D. I. D.
4
1.5
0.9
1.9 1.1 2.2
1.3
2.4
1.4
6
2.8
1.6
8
4.3 2.5
10
6.0 3.6
12
7.9
4.7
3.5 2.1
5.3 3.1
7.4 4.4
9.8 5.8
4.0
2.4
4.5
2.7
6.1 3.6
6.9
4.1
8.5
5.0 9.5 5.7
11.2
6.7 12.6 7.5
S=4
S=6
S=8
S=10
"When the diameter of a shaft is found for cast-iron, by multiplying this
diameter by .935 the product will give a diameter for a shaft of equal stiffness,
RULES FOR PROPORTIONING THE DIAMETERS OF WHEELS. 111
made of wrought-iron; and a shaft of fir should be 1.716 times the diameter of
a cast-iron one, and of oak 1.83 times, in order to be of equal stiffness."
REVOLUTIONS OF SHAFTS PER MINUTE.
Diameter of
Shafts in
inches.
10 Horse Power. 20 Horse Power. 30 Horse Power.
40 Horse Power.
234 LO CO
0.33
0.66
0.99
1.33
0.13
2.25
3.37
4.5
2.66
5.33
7.99
10.36
5
5.2
10.4
15.6
20.8
6
9.0
18.00
27.0
36.0
440. The preceding table is also compiled from Mr Cresy's work; it shows
the diameter of cast-iron shafts to resist torsion. "When the cylindrical shafts
are hollow, the diameter must be multiplied by 1.05; and when the shafts are
laid horizontally, something should be added to what is given in the fore-
going tables, as they are calculated for vertical shafts. When the shaft is
of wrought-iron, multiply the diameter found by 0.963; if of oak, by 2.238;
when of fir, by 2.06." The reader will find complete tables of the dimensions
of cast-iron and wrought-iron shafts in Adcock's Engineer's Pocket-Book for 1857.
441. The journals of shafts should be at the least equal in length to the
diameter, if the load is heavy; one and a half to two times may be the
tion used. A journal twice as long as the diameter will be easily lubricated.
442. The following rules will be useful to proportion the diameters of wheels
and pulleys, so that they will work satisfactorily. First, as to pulleys: Suppose
we have two pulleys to run at so many revolutions each, let n represent
the number of revolutions of one of the pulleys; let the diameter of one of them
be known, and let this be represented by d; to find the diameter of the other,
the velocity of which is given, and which will be represented by o, then
n x d
0
the diameter.
propor-
Example: Let a pulley 24 inches in diameter have a velocity of 80 revolutions
per minute—to find the diameter of another pulley, the velocity of which is
50-then
24 × 80
50
38.4 inches in diameter.
443. As before stated, in par. 398, in designing toothed wheels, the diameters
of the pitch-circles must be proportional to the number of teeth in the wheels.
To proportion these, the following data must be known: 1. The radii of the
pitch-circles of the two wheels, and the number of the teeth of one of them; 2.
The number of the teeth in each of the wheels, and the radius of one of them;
3. The distance between the centres of the two wheels, and the number of teeth
of both of them. The following formulæ are given for these three cases :—
444. Case 1: Let 7 be the radius of the large wheel, s that of the small
one, and n the number of teeth of the large wheel; then
n x s number of teeth in the small wheel.
112
PRACTICE OF CONSTRUCTION.
Case 2: Let 7 represent the number of teeth in the largest wheel, s in that
of the smaller one, and r the radius of a larger wheel; then
sx r
=
radius of the pitch-circle of the smaller wheel.
Case 3: Let d be the distance between the centres of the two wheels, 7 the
number of teeth of the larger wheel, s the number of teeth of the smaller
one; then
d x l
s + l
= radius of pitch-circle of the largest wheel.
This, being subtracted from the distance between the centres, will obviously
give the radius of the other or smaller wheel.
Case 4: To these cases may be added another-namely, where the distance
between the two wheels is known, and the number of revolutions of
each. Thus: Let d represent the distance between the wheels, 7 the
number of revolutions of the fastest-going wheel, s that of the slowest-then
d x l
1+s
= radius of large wheel.
The radius of the smallest being found by subtracting the radius of the largest
from the distance between the centres of the wheels.
445. For the following table of the proportions of the parts of toothed wheels
we are indebted to Templeton's Workshop Companion :—
Thickness,
Length of the teeth,
Breadth of face,
Edge of the rim,
Projecting rib inside the rim,
Thickness of flat. arms,
Breadth of arms at rim,
of the pitch.
4 of the pitch.
2 times the pitch.
each of the pitch.
2 teeth and pitch,
increasing in breadth towards the centre of the wheel in the
proportion of an inch for every foot in length.
Thickness of the ribs or feathers in the arms, =
Thickness of metal around the eye or centre,
4
of the pitch.
of the pitch.
446. For tables of the dimensions of the teeth of wheels to transmit certain
power, &c., the reader is referred to Weale's Engineer's Pocket-Book for 1855-
1856. The following notes on this important subject by Mr Buchanan will be
useful: "Multiply of the square of the pitch in inches by the breadth of the
teeth in inches-the product is the horse-power that the teeth will transmit
when the pitch-line passes through 4 feet per second. In quick speeds or
fractional pitches it may be more convenient to take the following rule: Multiply
the square root of the pitch in inches by the breadth of the teeth in inches-the
product is the horse-power at 10 feet per second. A general rule to ascertain
the length of the teeth is, to take of the pitch for the distance from the root
to the pitch-line, and of the pitch for the distance from the pitch-line to the
top. When wheels drive pinions, let no pinion have less than 8 teeth, rather
10 or 12 if convenient: when pinions drive wheels, let no pinion have less than
6 teeth, rather 8 or 9. The number of teeth in a wheel should be prime to the
number of teeth in its pinion. To increase or diminish velocity in a given
proportion, and with the least quantity of wheel-work: let the number of teeth
RULES REGARDING FLY-WHEELS.
113
on each pinion be to the number of teeth on its wheel as 1:3.59. Even to save
space and expense, never let the ratio exceed 1:6.”*
447. In designing and arranging mechanism, it is sometimes necessary to
know, first, the velocity of the circumference of a wheel, pulley, or fly-wheel,
when the number of its revolutions per minute are known; or, second, the num-
ber of revolutions it makes per minute when the velocity of its circumference
is known. For these two cases the following rules may be useful:
Case 1: Let d be the diameter of the wheel, and n the number of revolu-
tions it makes per minute: then multiply the diameter by 3.1416,
which gives the circumference c of the wheel; multiply the circumference
by the number of revolutions, and the product will be the space passed
through per minute by any point in the circumference, which, divided
by 60, will give the velocity of the circumference in feet per second.
Case 2: Letv be the velocity of the wheel in feet per second, and c the
circumference of the wheel: then multiply the velocity by the circum-
ference; the product obtained is then to be multiplied by 60, which
gives the number of revolutions per minute.
448. The circumferential velocity of the rim of a fly-wheel, or any point near
its centre, as the pitch-line of a toothed wheel, may be ascertained by mark-
ing any point on the rim of the wheel, and observing how frequently this
point passes any fixed point during any number of seconds; then multiply the
number of revolutions recorded by the circumference of the wheel or rim, and
divide by the number of seconds of observation—the quotient will be the circum-
ferential velocity.
449. The determination of the weight of a fly-wheel for any given purpose,
is a problem not very definite in its results; but approximations to it have
been made by men of eminence. Amongst these, we find Tredgold stating a
rule for the fly-wheels of steam-engines,+ which, for practical purposes, is con-
venient, and comes near to the general practice, though this is to be taken with
considerable latitude, seeing that the practice of engineers differs considerably
on this point; and the rule, though it applies to heavy fly-wheels with tolerable
exactness, does not agree with practice in the case of fly-wheels for the hand,
and other small machines. But the following approximation will be a tolerable
guide in practice for the weight of small fly-wheels.
450. Taking the average force that a man will exert in turning a winch of 12
inches radius at 23 lb., when he turns it 45 times per minute, the rule will be—
RULE.-Multiply 20 times the force in pounds exerted on the winch by its ra-
dius in feet, and divide this product by the cube of the radius of the fly-wheel
in feet, multiplied into the number of the revolutions per minute; the result
will be the area of a section of the rim of the fly-wheel in square inches.
EXAMPLE. The force applied to the winch being 23 lb., its radius 1 foot, and
the revolutions per minute 45, required the section of the rim of a fly-wheel
whose radius is 1½ foot, or 3 feet diameter.
20 × 23 × 1 460
1.53 × 45 151.8
3 inches, the area of section of the rim.
451. Though this formula will serve for small fly-wheels, whose velocities
range from 40 to 80 revolutions per minute, it becomes necessary, in order to
make it agree with practice, to change the constant multiplier. Thus, for velo-
cities ranging from 80 to 150, the number 10 will be substituted for 20; and
* BUCHANAN On Mill-work and Machinery, p. 116.
+ TREDGOLD On the Steam-Engine, p. 266.
H
114
FRICTION AND FORCE.
from 150 to 300, the number 5. In this last case the fly-wheel cannot exceed
2 feet diameter, and in the former it is restricted to 3 feet.
452. The following table is given by Mr Fairbairn "for proportioning the
distances and strength of rivets in joints requiring to be steam or water tight:-
Thickness of
Plates in
inches.
Diameter of
Rivets in
inches.
Length of
Rivets from
the head in
inches.
Distance of
Rivets from
Quantity of
Lap in single
centre to
centre in
joints in
inchies.
Quantity of Lap in
double joint in
inches.
inches.
.19- 3
.38
.88
1.25
1.25
16
6
.25
4
I 6
.50
1.13
1.50
1.50
2
.31
5
16
.63
1.38
1.63)
1.88
5
}
For the double-
6
riveted joint
.38
6
.75
1.63 4.5
1.75
2.00
5.5 add two-thirds
i 6
.50
.81
2.25
2.00
2.25
1 6
of the depth of
.63
10
.94 1.5
2.75
2.50 4
2.75 4.5
16
.75 /
1 2 1.13
3.25
3.00
3.25
the single lap.
16
453. The figures 2, 1.5, 4.5, 6, 5, 4, 6, 5.5, 4.5, in the preceding table, are
multipliers for the diameter, length, and distance of rivets; also for the quantity
of lap allowed for the single and double joints. These multipliers may be con-
sidered as proportionals of the thicknesses of the plates to the diameter, length,
and distance of rivets. For example, suppose we take plates, and required
the proportionate parts of the strongest form of joints, it will be-
.375 × 2 .750, diameter of rivet, & of an inch.
.375 × 43 = 1.687, length of rivet, 12 inches.
.375 × 5 = 1.875, distance between rivets, 12 inches.
.375 × 51 = 2.062, quantity of lap, 2 inches.
.375 × 51 = 2.062 + 3 = 3.437, quantity of lap for double joint, 3½ inches.
.75, 1.68, 1.87, 2.06, and 3.43, are, therefore, the proportionate quantities
necessary to form the strongest steam or water tight joint on plates § of an
inch thick."*
""
DIVISION FOURTH.-FRICTION AND FORCE.
454. SECTION FIRST. Friction. - In commencing to move one body upon
another, however well polished the surfaces may appear to be, we find that a
certain amount of force is required to change the condition of the body from
a state of rest to that of motion, and that a certain further force is requisite
to continue or keep up the motions so commenced. The resistance thus ob-
served, one body moved over the surface of another under pressure, is called
"friction; that resistance which is required to overcome the state of rest,
and convert it into motion, being known as the "friction of quiescence;" that
which is required to keep up the motion being termed the "friction of motion."
455. In view of the importance of a right knowledge of the laws which regulate
the effects of friction, various scientific men have from time to time instituted
elaborate experiments, from which might be deduced practical rules of value to
the mechanic. Among the authorities best known in this department of science.
we may name Coulomb, Rennie, and Morin. The experiments of the latter,
which were carried out at the expense of the French Government, are the most
complete of any yet instituted; and the results, which may be received with
* Useful Information for Engineers, p. 281.
LAWS OF FRICTION.
115
great confidence, have afforded deductions which are now accepted as correct by
nearly all practical men.
456. The experiments of M. Morin showed the friction of two surfaces, which
have been for a considerable time in contact, to be different in amount and
nature from the friction of surfaces in continuous motion; the friction of qui-
escence being subject to variation and uncertainty not observable in the friction
of motion. "This variation," remarks Professor Moseley (Mechanical Princi-
ples of Architecture and Engineering, p. 146), does not appear to depend upon
the extent of the surfaces of contact, in which case it might be referred to
adhesion," for with different pressures, the ratio of the friction to the pressure
-or the co-efficient of friction, as it is called-varied greatly, although the
surfaces of contact were the same. (Thus, in the case of oak upon oak, with
parallel fibres, the co-efficient of the friction of quiescence varied under
different pressures upon the same surface from .55 to .76.) "The uncertainty
which would have been introduced into every question of construction by this
consideration, is removed by a second very important fact developed in the
course of the same experiments. It is this, that by the slightest jar or
shock of two bodies in contact, their friction is made to pass from that state
which accompanies quiescence to that which accompanies motion; and as every
machine or structure, of whatever kind, may be considered to be subject to
such shocks, or imperceptible motions of its surfaces of contact, it is evident
that the state of friction to be made the basis on which all questions of statics
are to be determined, should be that which accompanies motion." The laws of
friction, which we shall shortly state, "have been shown by the experiments
of Morin to obtain, in respect to that friction which accompanies motion, a
precision and certainty never before assigned to them; they have given to all
our calculations in respect to the theory of machines (whose moving surfaces
have attained their proper bearings, and been worn to their natural polish),
a new and unlooked-for certainty, and may probably be ranked amongst the
most accurate and valuable of the constants of practical science."
((
457. The following are the "laws" of friction, as stated by Professor Moseley :
(1.) That the friction of motion is subject to the same laws with the friction of
quiescence (about to be stated), but agrees with them more accurately; that
under the same circumstances of pressure and contact it is nevertheless different
in amount. (2.) That when no unguent is interposed, the friction of any two
surfaces (whether of quiescence or of motion) is directly proportional to the
force with which they are pressed perpendicularly together (up to a certain
limit of that pressure per square inch), so that for any two given surfaces of
contact there is a constant ratio of the friction to the perpendicular pressure of
the one surface upon the other. Whilst this ratio is thus the same for the
same surfaces of contact, it is different for different surfaces of contact. The
particular value of it in respect to any two given surfaces of contact is called
the co-efficient of friction in respect to these surfaces. (3.) That when no un-
guent is interposed, the amount of the friction is in every case wholly inde-
pendent of the extent of the surfaces of contact, so that the force with which
two surfaces are pressed together being the same, and not exceeding a certain
limit (per square inch), their friction is the same, whatever may be the extent
of their surfaces of contact. (4.) That the friction of motion is wholly inde-
pendent of the velocity of motion. (This result, of so much importance in the
theory of machines, is fully established by the experiments of M. Morin.)
(5.) That where unguents are interposed, the co-efficient of friction depends.
upon the nature of the unguent, and upon the greater or less abundance of the
116
FRICTION AND FORCE.
supply. In respect to the supply of the unguent, there are two extreme cases
that in which the surfaces of contact are but slightly rubbed with the unctuous
matter (as, for instance, with an oiled or greasy cloth), and that in which, by
reason of the abundant supply of the unguent, its viscous consistency, and the
extent of the surfaces in contact in relation to the insistent pressure, a continu-
ous stream of unguent remains continually interposed between the moving sur-
faces, and the friction is thereby diminished, as far as it is capable of being
diminished, by the interposition of the particular unguents used. In this state
the amount of friction is found (as might be expected) to be dependent rather
upon the nature of the unguent than upon that of the surfaces of contact.
Accordingly, M. Morin, from the comparison of a great number of results, has
arrived at the following remarkable conclusion, easily fixing itself in the memory,
and of great practical value: That with unguents, hog's lard and olive oil, inter-
posed in a continuous stratum between them, surfaces of wood on metal, wood on
wood, metal on wood, and metal on metal (when in motion), have all of them very
nearly the same co-efficient of friction, the value of that co-efficient being in all cases
included between .07 and .08. For the unguent tallow, the co-efficient is the same
for the other unguents in every case, except in that of metals upon metals. This
unguent appears, from the experiments of Morin, to be less suited to metallic sub-
stances than the others, and gives, for the mean value of its co-efficient under the
same circumstances, .10.'”*
6
458. The following is a table of the co-efficients of friction for various sur-
faces used in machine construction. In these experiments the surfaces, after
having been smeared with an unguent, were wiped so that no interposing layer
of the unguent prevented their intimate contact.
SURFACES OF CONTACT.
Friction of
Motion
co-efficient.
Friction of
Quiescence
co-efficient.
Oak upon oak, the fibres being parallel
0.108
0.390
to the motion,
Do., the fibres perpendicular,
0.143
0.314
Oak upon elm, the fibres parallel,
0.136
Elm upon oak,
do.
0.119
0.420
Beech upon oak,
do.
0.330
Elm upon elm,
do.
0.140
Wrought-iron upon elm, do.
0.138
Wrought-iron upon wrought-iron, do.
0.177
Cast-iron upon wrought-iron,
0.143
•
Wrought-iron upon brass,
0.160
Brass upon wrought-iron,
0.166
Cast-iron upon oak,
0.107
0.100
Cast-iron upon elm, the unguent being
0.125
tallow,
Do.
do.,
hog's lard and
black lead,
Cast-iron upon cast-iron,
0.137
Elm upon cast-iron, fibres parallel,
0.135
0.098
•
0.144
Do. upon brass,
0.132
·
•
Brass upon cast-iron,
0.107
•
Brass upon brass,
0.134
0.164
Copper upon oak,
0.100
Yellow copper upon cast-iron,
0.115
Leather (ox-hide) well tanned upon cast-
iron wetted,
0.229
0.267
Do.
do.
upon brass wetted,
0.244
* Mechanical Principles of Architecture and Engineering, p. 142.
CO-EFFICIENTS OF FRICTION.
117
459. M. Morin was the first to observe the distinction between the friction of
surfaces between which no unguent was interposed, those which are merely
unctuous, and those between which a uniform stratum of the unguent is inter-
posed. The differences between his experiments and those of M. Coulomb are
considered to have arisen from those of the latter not having been carried out
with sufficient care. Thus, the slight unctuosity arising from the greasy hand
of a workman passed over the surface, was found to cause a considerable dif-
ference in the co-efficient of friction. Thus, in the case of surfaces of oak rubbed
with dry soap, and thoroughly wiped, showing no traces of the unguent, the
friction was reduced to the extent of two-thirds, the co-efficient being reduced
from 0.478 to 0.164. Where surfaces were rubbed or moved in contact with-
out unguents, the effect was to wear down the surfaces, black particles con-
tinually arising, which had to be removed from time to time; whereas by the
use of an unguent this wearing away ceased, and in place of new contacts of
surfaces being produced by the wearing away, the same surface remained,
the continued motion giving a higher polish.
460. The following is a table of the co-efficients of friction of plane surfaces
with unguents interposed. In these experiments "the extent of the surfaces.
bore such a relation to the pressure as to cause them to be separated from
one another throughout by an interposed stratum of the unguent."
Surfaces of CONTACT.
Friction of | Friction of
Motion. Quiescence.
Unguent.
Oak upon oak fibres parallel,
0.164
0.440
Do.
do.
0.075
0.160
Dry soap.
Tallow.
Do.
do.
0.067
Hog's lard.
Do.
do. fibres perpend.
0.083
0.254
Tallow.
Do.
do.
0.072
Hog's lard.
Do.
do.
0.250
Oak upon elm, fibres parallel,
0.136
Do.
do.
do.
0.073
0.178
Do.
do.
do.
0.066
•
Oak upon cast-iron
do.
0.080
Water.
Dry soap.
Tallow.
Hog's lard.
Tallow.
Do. wrought-iron,
do.
0.098
•
Beech upon oak,
do.
0.055
...
•
Elm upon oak,
do.
0.137
0.411
·
Dry soap.
Do.
do.
do.
0.070
0.142
Do.
do.
do.
0.060
Tallow.
Hog's lard.
Elm upon elm,
do.
0.139
0.217
Dry soap.
Do.
cast-iron,
do.
0.066
•
Wrought-iron upon oak, do.
0.256
0.649
•
Do.
do.
do.
0.214
Do.
do.
do.
0.085
0.108
•
Do. upon elm,
do.
0.078
•
Do.
do.
do.
0.076
Do.
do.
do.
0.055
Wrought-iron upon cast-iron,
1.103
Do.
do.
0.076
Do.
do.
0.066
0.100
Wrought-iron upon wrought-
0.082
iron,
Do.
do.
0.081
Do.
do.
0.070
0.115
Wrought-iron upon brass,
0.103
Do.
do.
0.075
Do.
do.
0.078
Tallow.
Greased, and saturated with water.
Dry soap.
Tallow.
Tallow.
Hog's lard.
Olive oil.
Tallow.
Hog's lard.
Olive oil.
Tallow.
Hog's lard.
Olive oil.
Tallow.
Hog's lard.
Olive oil.
[TABLE continued.
118
FRICTION AND FORCE.
SURFACES OF CONTACT.
Friction of Friction of
Motion. Quiescence.
Unguent.
Cast-iron upon oak,
0.189
Dry soap.
Do.
do.
•
0.218
0.646
Do.
do.
0.078
0.100
Greased, and saturated with water.
Tallow.
Do.
do.
0.075
Hog's lard.
Do.
do.
0.075
0.100
Olive oil.
Cast-iron upon elm, do.
0.077
Tallow.
Do.
do.
0.061
Olive oil.
Do.
do.
0.091
Do. upon wrought-iron,
0.100
Hog's lard and plumbago.
Tallow.
Cast-iron upon cast-iron,
0.314
Water.
Do.
do.
0.197
Soap.
Do.
do.
0.100
Tallow.
Do.
do.
0.070
0.100
Hog's lard.
Do.
do.
0.064
Olive oil.
Do.
do.
0.055
Cast-iron upon brass,
0.103
Do.
do.
0.075
Do.
do.
0.078
Lard and plumbago.
Tallow.
Hog's lard.
Olive oil.
Copper upon oak fibres, parallel,
0.069
0.100
Tallow.
Yellow copper upon cast-iron,
0.072
0.103
Tallow.
Do.
do.
0.068
Hog's lard.
Do.
do.
0.066
Olive oil.
Brass upon cast-iron,
0.086
0.106
Tallow.
Do.
do.
0.077
Brass upon wrought-iron,
0.081
Do.
do.
0.089
Do.
do.
0.072
Do. upon brass,
0.058
Steel upon cast-iron,
0.105
0.108
Do.
do.
0.081
Do.
do.
0.079
Do. upon wrought-iron,
0.093
Do.
do.
0.076
Do.
brass,
0.056
Do.
do.
0.053
Do.
do.
0.067
Tanned ox-hide upon cast-iron,
0.365
Do.
do.
0.159
Olive oil.
Tallow.
Lard and plumbago.
Olive oil.
Tallow.
Hog's lard.
Olive oil.
Tallow.
Hog's lard.
Tallow.
Olive oil.
Lard and plumbago.
Greased, and saturated with water.
Tallow.
Do.
do.
0.133
0.122
Olive oil.
Tanned ox-hide upon brass,
0.241
Tallow.
Do.
do.
0.191
Do.
upon oak,
0.29
0.79
Olive oil.
Water.
Hempen fibres not twisted
moving upon oak, the fibres
of the hemp being placed in
a direction perpendicular
to
0.332
0.869
Greased, and saturated with water.
the direction of the motion,
and those of the oak paral-
lel to it,
The same as above, moving
upon cast-iron,
Do.
do.
0.194
0.153
Tallow.
Olive oil.
461. For the matter of the table on the following page, of the experiments of
M. Morin on the "friction of gudgeons or axles in motion upon their bear-
ings," we are indebted to Professor Moseley's work, referred to in par. 455, p. 158.
462. With reference to these experiments of M. Morin, Professor Moseley
draws attention to the fact that they were made under insistent pressures, small
as compared with the extent of the surface pressed, the pressures varying only
from 14 lb. to 28 lb. per square inch. This must be borne in mind, as the
66
EFFECTS OF UNGUENTS.
119
experiments of Coulomb, and particularly the excellent experiments of Mr G.
Rennie, carried far beyond those limits of insistent pressure (Mr Rennie's
Co-efficient of Friction when the
grease is renewed.
SURFACES IN CONTACT.
State of the Surfaces.
In the usual
Continuously.
way.
Cast-iron axles in cast-
iron bearings.
Coated with oil of olives,
with hog's lard, tallow,
and soft gom,
0.07 to 0.08
0.054
With the same and water,
Coated with asphaltum,
0.08
0.028
0.054
0.019
Greasy,
0.14
>>
Greasy and wetted,
0.14
Coated with oil of olives,
with hog's lard, tallow,
0.07 to 0.08
0.054
Cast-iron axles in cast-
iron bearings.
and soft gom,
Greasy,
0.16
Greasy and damped,
0.16
Scarcely greasy,
0.19
Without unguent,
0.18
With oil or hog's lard,
0.090
Cast-iron axles in lig-
num vitæ bearings.
Wrought-iron axles in
cast-iron bearings.
Iron axles in brass bear-
ings.
Coated with olive oil, tal-
low, hog's lard, or soft
gom,
Coated with oil of olives,
hog's lard, or tallow,
Coated with hard gom,
Greasy with ditto,
0.10
Greasy, with a mixture of
hog's lard and molyb-
dæna,
0.14
0.07 to 0.08
0.054
0.07 to 0.08
0.054
0.09
Greasy and wetted,
0.19
Scarcely greasy,
0.25
Iron axles in lignum
vitæ bearings.
Coated with oil or hog's
0.11
lard,
Greasy,
0.19
Brass axles in brass) Coated with oil,
0.10
bearings.
hog's lard,
0.09
""
Brass axles in cast-iron
Coated with oil or tallow,
0.045 to 0.052
bearings.
Lignum vitæ axles ditto.
Coated with hog's lard,
0.12
Greasy,
0.15
Lignum vitæ axles in
lignum vitæ bearings.
Coated with hog's lard,
0.07
In
experiments were carried, in some cases, to from 5 cwt. to 7 cwt. per square
inch), have fully shown the co-efficient of the friction of quiescence to in-
crease rapidly from some limit attained long before the surfaces abrade.
respect to some surfaces-as, for instance, wrought-iron upon wrought-iron-
the co-efficient nearly tripled itself as the pressure advanced to the limits of
abrasion."
463. In par. 464 we give a table by Mr Rennie, showing the co-efficients
of friction under different pressures. These have reference only to the friction
of quiescence; but Professor Moseley is of opinion that "it seems probable that
the co-efficient of friction of motion remains constant under a wider range of
pressure than that of quiescence. It is, moreover, certain that the limits of
pressure, beyond which the surfaces of contact begin to destroy one another or
to abrade, are sooner reached when one of them is in motion upon the other
120
FRICTION AND FORCE.
than when they are at rest: it is also certain that these limits are not independent
of the velocity of the moving surface."
464. The following is the table of Mr Rennie referred to in the preceding
paragraph :-
Pressure per Square
Inch.
CO-EFFICIENTS OF FRICTION.
Wrought-Iron
upon
Wrought-Iron.
Wrought Iron
upon
Cast-Iron.
Steel upon
Cast-Iron.
Brass upon
Cast-Iron.
32.5 lb.
.140
.174
.166
.157
1.66 cwt.
.250
.275
.300
.225
2.00
.271
.292
.333
.219
""
2.33
.285
.321
.340
.214
"9
2.66
.297
.329
.344
.211
3.00
.312
.333
.347
.215
""
3.33
.350
.351
.351
.206
""
3.66
.376
.353
.353
.205
4.00
.376
.365
.354
.208
4.33
.395
.366
.356
.221
""
4.66
.403
.366
.357
.223
""
5.00
.409
.367
.358
.233
""
5.33
.367
.359
.234
""
...
5.66
.367
.367
.235
""
...
6.00
.376
.403
.233
""
...
6.33
.434
.234
6.66
.235
...
7.00
.232
...
...
...
7.33
""
:
.273
465. With respect to the different unguents, Mr Rennie found, from a mean
of experiments with axles in motion and under different pressures, "that with
the unguent tallow, under a pressure of from 1 to 5 cwt., the friction did not
exceed th of the whole pressure; when soft soap was applied, it became th;
and with the softer unguents applied, such as oil, hog's lard, &c., the ratio of
the friction to the pressure increased; but with the harder unguents, as soft
soap, tallow, and anti-attrition composition, the friction considerably diminished."
466. The practical deductions from the investigation given in paragraph 463
may here be summed up: (1.) Friction is independent of the extent of surface
—that is, it does not increase with the increase of rubbing surfaces. Small
bearings, or journals, or surfaces in rubbing contact, wear more rapidly than
when made large; hence, by increasing the surfaces, we increase their dura-
bility, but do not increase the power absorbed by friction. (2.) Friction is
independent of velocity, so far at least as regards the friction on a given extent
of surface: thus the friction of a shaft, during each revolution, is the same
when revolving twenty times as when revolving five times a minute. Friction,
however, is not independent of velocity when time is considered: thus, placing
the friction of each revolution of a shaft which revolves twenty times a minute
as 1, by increasing the revolution to sixty per minute the friction per minute is
trebled, and represented by 3. The friction of each revolution of a revolving
shaft has therefore a constant value, while the friction of any given time, as
an hour or minute, increases with the velocity; hence, a machine wears out the
quicker, the greater the velocity with which it is worked, although the friction
of any one revolution is not increased by the increase of revolutions. (3.) Fric-
tion increases in proportion to the pressure: thus, with double pressure there
AXLE-GREASE AND LUBRICATORS.
121
is double friction, with treble pressure treble friction, and so on. (4.) When
unguents are employed, the nature of those applied must be regulated by the
pressure, or the insistent weight; the greater the pressure, the harder should
be the unguent (see par. 465). The office which lubricating agents have to
perform is to prevent the rubbing surfaces coming into contact. Their effi-
ciency is therefore proportional to their viscidity, although care should be taken
not to choose a lubricating agent the viscidity of which is greater than that
amount necessary to keep the surfaces out of contact: when the viscidity is
too great, an additional resistance may be created.
467. The following is a recipe for making Booth's Patent Railway Axle
Grease, from Weale's Engineer's Pocket-Book: "Water 1 gal., clean tallow 3 lb.,
palm-oil 6 lb., common soda lb.; or, tallow 8 lb., palm-oil 10 lb." The
mixture to be heated to about 210° Fahr., and well stirred till it cools down.
Another recipe for axle-grease we borrow from Adcock's Engineer's Pocket-Book
for 1857: "In a small boiler dissolve from a cwt. to 60 lb. of soda in about
3 gallons of water; in a 60-gallon boiler melt tallow, and to it add palm-
oil, each in quantity according to season, as hereinafter stated. As soon as
the mixture boils, put out the fire, and let the mixture cool down gradually,
frequently stirring it while cooling. When reduced to blood-heat, run it off
through a sieve into the solution of soda, stirring it well the while to insure
perfect commixture. Proportions of tallow and palm-oil: in summer weather,
tallow 1 cwt. 3 qrs., palm-oil 1 cwt. 1 qr.; in winter, tallow 1 cwt. 1 qr., palm-
oil 1 cwt. 3 qrs. ; in spring and autumn, tallow 1 cwt. 2 qrs., palm-oil 1 cwt. 2 qrs."
468. In using oil for the lubrication of machinery, care should be taken to
insure a good quality. In the manufacturing districts, so important a matter is
the choice of good oil that "tests" are regularly applied to ascertain its value. It
is evident that, in such large establishments as are there existing, a large expen-
diture of power will be required when the oil is of inferior quality, having a tend-
ency to "drag." Sperm is used largely in these districts; and "mineral oil,"
manufactured from a peculiar quality of bituminous coal, is also highly thought of.
469. In figs. 160, 161, and 164 we have shown a usual method of applying oil
to movable joints-a tapered hole being generally bored through the cap of the
pedestal, as at k, fig. 160, and at t, fig. 161, or to the end of a vertical spindle, as
at h, fig. 164; into this the oil is poured from an oil-can as desired. As the
supply of oil to the bearings is thus dependent upon the care of the attendant, and
is consequently liable to frequent fluctuations, if not in many cases to total stop-
page, a lubricator, which will act at all times, has been a desideratum among
engineers, to meet which numerous contrivances have been
introduced from time to time. A simple contrivance is to
attach an oil-cup or small vase a a, fig. 209, to the bearing, a
pipe c leads from the interior of this to the journal. Down
this a skein of cotton or wool is placed, one end of which
rests in the oil in the vase; the oil is thus supplied to the
journal by capillary attraction. The supply to the journal is
constant so long as the vase is supplied with the oil; but no
regulation can be attempted by this in proportion to the re-
quirements of the machine-the supply being constant, whether
the engine is standing or working, or going fast or slow. The
top of the vase is at b. A method of overcoming this objection was introduced
by Mr Barton, which consisted in the employment of a conical plug-tap like
that of our ordinary stopcock, on one side of which he placed a small spherical
aperture calculated to contain a drop of oil. So long as the supply of oil was
a
Fig. 209.
C
α,
LUBRICATOR FOR SHAFTS
-SIZE.
122
FRICTION AND FORCE.
maintained to the vase, and this cup remained uppermost in the tube connect-
ing the vase to the bearing, no oil was supplied to the bearing; but on turning
the tap half a revolution, the spherical cup was reversed, and the oil contained
in it was discharged on the journal. To render it self-acting, and to stop its
supply when the motion of the engine or machine ceased, all that was necessary
to be done was to connect a ratchet-wheel to the continuation of the plug-tap,
and work this ratchet from the shaft which required lubrication.
470. In fig. 210 we give a section of Tidmarsh's (23 Foxley Road, Ken-
α
i
с
g
k
r
LIBRARI
Fig. 210.
h
a
и
TIDMARSH'S SELF-ACTING LUBRICATOR.
nington, Surrey, London) self-acting
lubricator or oil-cup, which enjoys a
high reputation for efficiency and cheap-
ness.
471. Fig. 210 represents a vertical sec-
tion of one form of lubricator: a a is the
box cylinder, or vase of metal or glass
containing the oil, b b the oil or lubricat-
ing material, which is raised or elevated
by four tubular arms or spoons r r, and
conveyed into the cylindrical end of
driving - spindle c d, and then passes
through the perforation k and the tube
h to the bearings or other surface to
be lubricated. The whole four arms
can be used, or one only, according to
the space to be lubricated; being screwed in, they can easily be turned round
so as to come up backwards, they then take up no oil; they are screwed into the
hollow driving-spindle c d, which works through the cylinder vase or oil-cup,
having a button or washer to keep it in its proper position within the cup; the
driving end of this spindle outside the cup has a flat side, to allow the pulley or
rigger e to be moved along and set at any required distance by the pinching-
screw f―the pulley is driven by a band from the nearest source of motion:
k is the perforation which allows the oil to be conveyed from the hollow arms
or spoons r r, through the vertical stem h, to the point where it is required;
the hollow spindle is provided with a stop or washer, fixed between the
hollow arms, to prevent the oil raised by the forward-motion spoon passing
a
d
Fig. 211.
b
down the back-motion spoon: i is the top of the cylinder
or vase. To be set in working order, this lubricator
only wants the tube g at the bottom fixed in the oil-hole
of the bearing, and a small band of catgut or string
placed round the pulley e and attached to the nearest
shaft to give motion. The price of this form is 10s.
472. In fig. 211 we illustrate a form of lubricator by
the same inventor, by which the oil is regulated by hand
from 1 drop to 100 drops per minute: a b the vase or cup
containing the oil k k; d the button, through which the
screw i works in order to raise the valvej to allow the
oil to pass down the tube ƒ to the moving surfaces requir-
ing lubrication; i the index or thumb-screw, by which
the supply of oil is regulated; c a guide-plate attached
to the valve and spindle j; h h pillars or standards on
which the guide-plate works. To set this lubricator at work, the tube fis fitted
into the oil-hole, and the cup filled with oil; the index-plate is then set at the
TIDMARSH'S HAND-LUBRICATOR.
FORCE-LABOURING FORCES.
123
quantity required according to the figures thereon. The price, in glass or bronzed
tin cups of this form, is 4s. 6d; in brass cups, 6s.; and without boxes, 3s. each.
473. SECTION SECOND-Force.-Mechanical work or effect is to overcome,
during a definite period, a certain resistance or series of resistances, in esti-
mating which the "pressure" exerted, the "distance" or the space passed
through, and the "time" in which the distance is passed over, are all required
to be taken into account. It is easy to enumerate various kinds of mechanical
labour; the simplest, however, is to raise a perpendicular weight where inertia
is not regarded. What is called the "unit" of mechanical effect is the power
required to lift one pound "weight" through the "space" of one foot in a minute
of time. This is called the English unit, the French being a kilogramme
raised one metre high in a second. The unit of power adopted generally in
England is what is called a "horse power," this having been assumed by
Watt to be equal to 33,000 lb. raised 1 foot high per minute.
474. The principal sources of labouring force are the lower animals, man,
wind, water, and steam. The three last, subject to mechanical laws, can be
kept in action as long as required; the force of the lower animals and man
depends upon a variety of circumstances, and can only be carried out at inter-
vals. "What may be termed the amount of a day's work, producible by men
and animals, is the product of the force exerted multiplied into the distance or
space passed over, and the time during which the action is sustained. There
will, however, in all cases be a certain proportion of effort, in relation to the
velocity and duration, which will yield the largest possible product, or day's
work, for any one individual, and this product may be termed the maximum
effect. In other words, a man will produce a greater mechanical effect by ex-
erting a certain effort at a certain velocity, than he will by exerting a greater
effort at a less velocity, or a less effort at a greater velocity; and the propor-
tion of effort and velocity which will yield the maximum effect is different in
different individuals."
475. For the following table of the average amount of mechanical effect pro-
ducible by men and animals, we are indebted to Johnson's Book of Industrial
Design, &c.
NATURE OF THE WORK.
Mean Weight | Velocity or
elevated, or Distance per
effort exerted. second.
Mechanical
Effect per
second.
Dura-
tion
per day.
Mechanical
Effect per
diem.
1b.
feet.
lb. raised
1 foot high.
hours.
lb. raised
1 foot high.
143
.50
71.5
8
2,059.200
A man ascending a slight incline,
or a stair, without a burden, his
work consisting simply in the
elevation of his own weight,
A labourer elevating a weight by
means of a cord and pulley, the
cord being pulled downwards,
A labourer elevating a weight di-
rectly with a cord or by the
hand,
A labourer lifting or carrying a
weight on his back, up a slight
incline or stair, and returning
unladen,
40
.65
26.0
6
561.600
44
.56
24.6
6
531.360
143
.13
18.6
6
401.760
[TABLE continued.
124
FRICTION AND FORCE.
NATURE OF THE WORK.
Mean Weight
elevated, or
Effort exerted.
A labourer carrying materials in
a wheelbarrow, up an incline of
1 in 12, and returning unladen,
A labourer raising earth with a
spade to a mean height of 5 feet,
ACTION ON MACHINES.
A labourer acting on a spoke-
wheel, or inside a large drum, at
the level of the axis,
Velocity or
Distance per
second.
Mechanical
Effect per
second.
Dura-
tion.
per day.
Mechanical
Effect per
dieni.
lb.
feet.
lb. raised
1 foot high.
hours.
lb. raised
1 foot high.
132
.06
8.5
10
306.000
60
.13
7.8
10
280.000
132
.50
66.0
Co
8
1,900.800
Near the bottom of the wheel,
26
2.30
59.8
8
1,722.240
A labourer pushing or pulling
horizontally,
26
1.97
51.2
8
1,474.560
A labourer working at a winch
handle,
17/1/20
2.46
43.0
8
1,238.400
A labourer pushing and pulling
alternately in a vertical direc-
tion,
11
3.61
39.7
8
1,143.360
A horse drawing a carriage at au
ordinary pace,
154
2.95
45.43
10
16,354.800
•
A horse turning a mill at an ordi-
nary pace,
99
2.95
292.0
CO
8
8,409.600
A horse turning a mill at a trot,
An ox doing the same at an ordi-
66
6.56
433.0
4/1
-2
7,014.600
143
1.97
281.7
8
8,112.960
nary pace,
A mule
do.
do.
66
2.95
194.7
An ass
do.
do.
31
2.62
81.2
∞∞
8 5,607.360
8
2,338.560
476. If we find that a machine only does a certain fraction of the work which
it is required to perform, this fraction is called the "modulus" of the useful
effect, the remainder being the amount lost by friction. Thus, if the work done
is only two-thirds of that required, one-third is lost by friction, two-thirds being
the modulus of the useful effect of the machine. Thus in working the screw-
press two-thirds are lost by friction, so that one-third is the modulus of the
screw-press. The endless screw loses in working one-half of its power by fric-
tion; its modulus is therefore only one-half.
477. To ascertain the "modulus" of any machine, or, what is the same thing,
the amount of working effect lost by friction, we use the dynamometer and the
friction-brake. The dynamometer is employed in cases of draught, as plough-
ing, reaping, dragging of carts, &c.; the friction-brake where rotatory motion
is employed. We shall
We shall describe these contrivances at the proper places,
hereafter proceeding, for the present, to notice the mechanics of "carriage-
wheels," and the principles of "draught."
478. The roller is the simplest and most accessible auxiliary in the hands
of the common labourer or workman, to aid his energies when he has occasion
to move heavy masses, as beams of wood or iron, or blocks of stone, over short
distances; and how few of those, who are every day employing this mechanical
agent, are likely to consider that, by means of it, they are moving the substance
under transportation over twice the space that the roller itself has passed through.
When the substance moved is borne upon rollers having an axle passing
through them, as in the case of a wheel-carriage, the transported body either
MOTION - EFFECTS OF THE SIMPLE ROLLER.
125
rests upon the axle, or on a carriage attached to it; hence the velocity of its
rectilineal motion must be the same as that of the axis of the roller, which, as
is well known, passes over a space equal to the circumference of the roller or
wheel in every revolution of the same. When the substance simply rests on the
periphery of the roller or wheel, it will be easily seen, that for every revolution.
that the roller makes it will move over a space on the surface of the ground
equal to its own circumference, and that while doing so, the substance which it
bears along, will, in the same time, have applied to the roller a portion of its
length equal to that circumference, and which will have passed over the roller;
but the substance being entirely borne by the roller, must also partake of its
progressive motion through space, and that at the same rate as the roller itself;
hence the substance must have passed over double the space that the roller has
done in a given time. This result will perhaps be more clearly understood by
considering increments of the motions.
f
u
m
Fig. 212.
g
N
d
16
THE EFFECTS ON MOTION OF THE SIMPLE ROLLER.
b
479. Let a b, fig. 212, be the surface of the ground on which a roller, repre-
sented by the circle c d
e, is to roll, bearing the
beam fg. If the beam
be pushed in the direc-
tion of g f, every point
in the arc c d of the
roller will successively
come in contact with
corresponding points in
the surface of the beam
lying between c and d;
during this process the
circle will have moved
in the direction b a, over
a space e h, on the
ground equal in length to the arc i k or c d, and the centre o of the circle will
have moved over a like space o l, but the diameter e c will now have assumed
the position km, and id the perpendicular position h n, the point p having
moved to n, or through twice the space o l, or twice the arc cd; and the beam
gf has in like manner moved through twice the length of the arc c d, equal
to the space p c n, which is double of o l or e h. It results from this con-
clusion that the body must very soon pass beyond the roller; hence a constant
succession of rollers must be applied in front of the moving body, and hence,
also, the application of this species of carriage must in general be limited to
short distances. But from the extreme simplicity of the apparatus, and if the
bed on which the rollers move is of a uniform texture, an almost entire
absence of friction is obtained, whereby very heavy masses may be moved with
a comparatively small force, and we accordingly see this simplest form of carriage
in almost daily application. It is further well known that this principle has been
applied in modern times to the transport of immense masses, larger, perhaps,
than ever were moved by the engineers of antiquity, however colossal their
works may have been. The mass of rock that forms the pedestal to the statue of
Peter the Great at St Petersburg, stands a noble monument of modern engineer-
ing, especially as regards its transport over a distance of four miles, achieved
by the application of this principle: the rollers, however, in this case, were
spheres of metal about 6 inches in diameter, and not cylinders, but this does
126
FRICTION AND FORCE.
not alter the principle of the motion. The subject is one of much interest, but
it would be out of place to follow it up here, our object being more of an agri-
cultural than an engineering character.
480. Though it is probable that the simple roller had succeeded the sledge,
as a medium of transport for heavy bodies, in the early stages of society, it
appears evident, from historical records, that the wheel and axle had been
resorted to at a very remote period; for both in sacred and profane history
we can trace their use through a period of not less than 3000 years. It appears
very probable, also, that in the early application of the axle, it was adopted at
first to combine two short rollers, which would have an advantage over the long
roller, by avoiding, in their progress, much of the obstruction that the con-
tinuous roller must have met with. The transported body would then lie upon
the axle, and to prevent its travelling over it, which it would do, though at a
much slower rate, than under the arrangement shown by fig. 212, the transition
is easy to round the axle, and confine it to turn in a box or bush attached to
the body under transportation, which now, in fact, becomes the carriage.
There is every reason to believe that this has been the original form of wheel-
carriages; that is to say, the axle and the wheels moving together, the former
being confined to turn within bearings attached to the body of the carriage,
and the wheels short but solid cylinders of wood. This form of wheel and axle
is not confined to antiquity; it has existed in Europe, in Britain, within the last
century, and is yet to be met with in some remote regions. It is worthy of
remark, that the wheel and axle of almost all railway carriages, whether of
early or late construction, are upon this plan; and the most perfect of all
wheel-carriages—the railway locomotive—is the same.
481. It might be urged from this last circumstance, that this being held
as the best form of wheel and axle for railways, and especially the locomotive,
that it ought also to be the best for all other wheel-carriages; but there are
circumstances which render it applicable in the one case, and inadmissible in
the other. In the railway carriage, it has been found by experience that the
wheels and axles are less liable to derangement when turning together within a
box or bush, than with the wheel turning upon the axle, though a carriage
mounted in that way is not so well adapted to turn in a curve of short radius ;
but to obviate this, railways are now laid out with curves of very long radius.
On the other hand, wheel-carriages for common roads and all domestic pur-
poses would be extremely inconvenient if their wheels moved together, as they
have very frequent occasion to turn in very narrow limits, which could only be
done under great disadvantages were the axle and wheel to move together;
but with wheels turning upon the axle, the greatest possible freedom of motion
is afforded for turning in a small space; and, but for this difficulty, it appears
yet undetermined whether or not the ordinary cart would be better adapted for
its work, and the wheels more durable, were they fixed upon the axle. Be this
as it may, the step from the fixed wheel and axle to the fixed axle and revolv-
ing wheel has been easy and obvious.
482. Though, in some barbarous cases, the rude form of wheel and axle is to
be found in later times, there can be no doubt that in those countries where the
arts flourished at an early period, the wheel and axle were employed under the
same principle as we now see them in the present day; and this is another
instance of the really small progress of human invention during a period of from
two to three thousand years; but it must be admitted, that though we have not
brought any new principle into operation, we have greatly improved in the
details of the construction of wheel-carriages.
CURVES GENERATED BY REVOLUTION OF WHEELS.
127
483. In considering the action of carriage-wheels in general, we have seen
that, when applied as simple rollers, if the surfaces on which they roll were
level, perfectly smooth and hard, and the roller also possessing the two latter
qualities, there would be little or no resistance from friction, and the carriage or
body would move with the least possible force. These circumstances not being
attainable, and, from considerations of convenience, the wheels being placed
upon an axle, it comes to be viewed under a change of circumstances: thus,
though we may still conceive the wheels to move upon a surface that might
present no obstruction to its forward motion, we have an element of resistance
now introduced, the friction caused by the wheel turning upon its axle;
which, along with certain peculiarities connected with the subject, is first to be
considered.
484. If we take the wheel as rolling upon a level plain, and its circum-
ference being supposed a perfect circle, it presents several peculiarities. Let
the circle a, fig. 213, represent a wheel rolling from 6 towards c on the level
Fig. 213.
α
i
9
α
k
ს
e
THE CURVES GENERATED BY A POINT RESPECTIVELY IN THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF A WHEEL AND ITS NAVE
DURING ONE REVOLUTION OF THE WHEEL.
line bc; when it has made one revolution, its centre a will have moved through
a space, and will have described a straight line i k in that space, in a vertical
plane, equal to the circumference of the wheel; that point of the circumference,
also, from which it started on the level plane, will have described the beautiful
and highly important curve the cycloid b d c, having its base b c equal to the
circumference of the wheel, and its height de, or axis of the cycloid, equal to
the diameter, while the length of the curve b d c has been found to be equal to
four times the diameter of the wheel. When the describing point is taken any-
where within the circumference of the circle or wheel, the curve described,
though a modification of the cycloid, assumes a somewhat different character.
Suppose a point in the circumference of the nave of the wheel, as at f, the curve
generated by this point will be inflected, as gf h, crossing the straight line
described by the central point of the circle twice in the course of one revolution
of the wheel; but the base of any curve that can be so generated, will be
always equal to the circumference of the primary circle. It is foreign to the
objects of this work to trace the remarkable properties of the cycloid; suffice
it to say, that they are highly important in the theoretical consideration of
dynamics, and have been investigated and determined by the most eminent
geometers; and we can thus see that even the mean and homely object-a
cart-wheel-may have afforded data upon which some of the finest intellectual
discoveries of the human mind have been based; for the investigation of
this curve has occupied the attention of such men as Des Cartes, Pascal, and
Huygens, to the latter of whom we owe the discovery of the remarkable property,
that in a cycloid (in a position inverted to that of our fig. 213), bodies let
128
FRICTION AND FORCE.
fall from any point of the curve will reach the lowest point of it at the same
time.
485. As regards the theory of the wheel, applied practically in agricultural
carriages, we have, first, to notice the manner in which it is affected by the
draught, the resistance of the road, and the friction at the axle. We have
seen that wheels in moving along a level road have their centres always pre-
served at the same height; and from the manner in which the carriage is
attached to the axle, and the draught to the carriage, we know that the ultimate
effect of the latter results in its direction being nearly in a straight line drawn
from that point of the shafts where they are suspended from the back of the
horse on to the centre of the axle. This line may in some cases be horizon-
tal, as in the case of a horse of low stature; but in most cases it forms an
angle with the horizon of from 5° to 12°, and its true position is such as to
bring that point of the shafts to which the draught-chains are attached into a
straight line between the centre of the axle and the hook of the horse's collar,
and in the present consideration, it will be sufficient to assume that the line is
horizontal. If we now suppose a carriage loaded to the ordinary extent, and
bearing upon the axle, which again rests upon the lower side of the box or
bush of the wheel, we have the following results.
e
486. Let fig. 214 exhibit the above arrangement; abc is the wheel, d the
b
j
Fig. 214.
g
k
C
h
a
THE FRICTION OF CARRIAGE-WHEELS.
axle, a e the horizontal plane, on
which the wheel moves in the direc-
tion of the line of traction df. If
the plane a e is truly level and
smooth, the wheel will be put in
motion with a very small force;
and if we suppose all friction at
the axle destroyed, it goes on
without stopping, as there would
be no resistance; but such a state
is not attainable in practice, and
that from external causes,—the re-
sistance of the air, the impossibility of procuring a surface devoid of in-
equalities, and, consequently, any attainable surface will be productive of
friction or resistance. A wheel, with a cylindrical edge, rolling on a plane,
whether horizontal or inclined, as it does not slide upon that plane, but makes
simply a succession of contacts, cannot be said to meet any resistance from
friction: the chief resistance it encounters, then, is from inequalities of surface,
which may induce a constant succession of ascents of the wheel and its load
over these inequalities, with intermitting descents of the same; or, as in the
case of a soft and yielding surface, it will amount to a constant ascent, but still
without friction, a term which can only be applied to that species of resistance
arising from the motion of one body sliding upon, or through another. The
chief source of friction, then, in the wheel, is that which is generated between
the axle and its bush; the amount of this friction will depend upon the relative
diameter of the wheel and its axle, and upon the nature of the materials of the
axle and the bush, and also the state of their surfaces. As regards the first, if
the radius of the wheel da, fig. 214, is taken at 28 inches, and that of the axle
di at 11 inches; and a force applied to the axle in the direction dƒ, while the
whole pressure of the load rests on the point i, where the friction is produced :
if the axle is thus drawn forward by the force db, the wheel is resisted by its
contact with the ground compelling it to roll along, and thus there is produced
RESISTANCE OF OBSTACLES ON THE GROUND.
129
the sliding motion at i upon the axle; but the radius da acts in this case as a
lever of advantage, in favour of the force db, in the proportion of da to di, or
the circumference of the wheel to the circumference of the axle. For when the
entire circumference of the wheel has been applied to the surface of the ground,
that of the axle only has been applied to the surface of the bush; and as the
diameter of the axle may be taken at 22 of the wheel, the amount of friction
acting in resistance to db the draught, will be only of the entire resistance,
whatever that may be.
22
22
6
1
22
487. Much uncertainty prevails as to the value or amount of friction in rela-
tion to the load: while some experimenters have found it not to exceed,
with a surface of iron running upon brass, and well oiled, others have made it
asor of the load; and as cart-grease is not usually the most unctuous
of substances, we with safety take it at for cart-axles. Let the load, then,
including the cart, be 25 cwt.; of this is 175 lb. for the absolute resistance
from friction at the axle; but we have just shown above that the leverage of the
wheel and axle reduced it to or 172-8 lb. nearly, as the actual value of the
friction at the axle, resisting the force in the direction d b, fig. 214, or, in other
words, the draught; but here it must be understood that the axle and bushes
must be in the best condition, the former steeled on the lower side and turned,
or turned and case-hardened, and the bush smooth and hard. We see from this
reasoning, that the friction of the axle produces but a small portion of the
resistance; for taking the draught at an average of 160 lb., which is known,
both from theory and experiment, to be about the amount of a horse power,
moving at 2 miles per hour, the resistance of the axle forms only of this
draught.
488. It is from the surface of the road, then, that we are to find the remain-
ing of the resistance;
2
h
Fig. 215.
d
α
0
е
and this will appear suf-
ficiently obvious from a
consideration of fig. 215.
The resistance to the mo-
tion of the wheel, it has
been stated, arises from
inequality of the sur-
face over which it rolls,
and this may be shown
by taking the point b as
an obstacle coming un-
der the wheel, and over which the wheel and load must be raised. Most of those
who have treated this part of the subject, have usually demonstrated only the
relation of one wheel to another, in terms of their diameter or their radius, and the
resistance respectively encountered in passing over any obstacle, viewing the
wheel simply as a roller, within which the whole load is concentrated. Thus, if the
circle cad represents a wheel rolling on the horizontal line c h, and opposed by an
obstacle at b, while it is drawn forward in the direction o a by a certain force, this
force will act with a leverage equal to o e in overcoming this obstacle, while the
weight of the load on the wheel opposes it with a leverage that is represented
by the line e g. By construction, b is equal to ✅ dc × √ ec;* and suppos-
√
ing the obstacle to be the same for all heights of wheel, bƒ=ec will be constant,
while de varies as the diameter, but be will increase only as the square root of
de, which, in all ordinary cases, may be held as equal to the diameter, and
THE EFFECT OF RESISTANCE FROM OBSTACLES ON THE SURFACE OF THE ROAD
* Euclid, iii. 35.
I
130
FRICTION AND FORCE.
therefore the force required to move the wheel over the obstacle b will be
inversely as the square root of the diameter of the wheel, nearly: for example,
taking the common cart-wheel of 56 inches diameter, its square root is 7.5
nearly, which may be called unity; and take another wheel of 68 inches, or 1
foot higher, the square root of this is 8.2, and, compared with the first, is 1.09
to 1. If a force of traction, therefore, of 300 lb. were required to overcome this
obstacle with wheels of 56 inches, a force of 275 lb. would overcome it with
wheels 1 foot more in diameter, for as 1.09:1::300: 275; this is supposing
that in both cases the force is supplied horizontally from the centre of the
axle.
489. The foregoing example is still only applicable to the case of a roller
or wheel having the load concentrated within it, or otherwise placed right over
its axle; but as this does not apply with exactness to a two-wheeled cart having
the load disposed in such a manner as to throw its centre of gravity about 5
inches before the axle, we shall now take a more practical case, and consider it
under this last circumstance.
19
d c
2
се
56
2
18
490. Referring still to fig. 215, suppose that the wheels are moving over
a surface that yields to the pressure so as to sink inch into the road, which
may hence be considered as presenting a constant obstacle of one-half inch in
height. This will give us de equal to 55 inches, and e c one-half inch, the
√55.5 × √.5=5.2 inches be, and if the force of traction is applied at o in a
horizontal direction, it gives the lever o e=
ce= - .5 = 27.5 inches,
while the resisting arm is 5.2 inches, making the power to the resistance as 27.5 to
5.2. The entire load being supposed 25 cwt., of which, from its disposition on the
length of the lever formed by the body and shafts of the cart, from to is
borne by the horse, the remainder by the axle: the load on the horse may there-
fore be taken at 25 = 1.3 cwt. nearly, leaving on the axle 23.7 cwt.; and this, in-
creased by the weight of the wheels and axle, will make the amount of resist-
ance about 28 cwt. But as the power of the lever o e is to that of e b as 27.5
to 5.2, or 5.3 to 1 nearly, then § = 5.283 cwt., or rather above 51 cwt. for the
force of traction during the first instant of raising the wheels with this load
over an obstacle an inch high. This is supposing that both wheels meet the
obstacle, and that it is perfectly incapable of being depressed. If only one
wheel meet it, then the resistance is reduced one-half, and the traction one-half;
and if the obstacle arises from a uniform sinking of the surface by the pressure
of the wheels, then both meet the obstacle; but as it suffers depression while
the load is in the act of being raised, the maximum of resistance will again not
exceed one-half of the result quoted above, or 2.625, and will vary downward
according to the state of the road, till it reach the minimum force of traction,
which cannot be estimated at less than 120 lb.
491. From the foregoing remarks we have seen that the friction at the axle
is inversely as the diameters of the wheel and the axle, but, at the same time,
that friction is so small in amount, that any practicable addition to the dia-
meter would produce such a mere fraction of reduction upon the total resist-
ance as to be of no importance in practice. On the other hand, though the
resistance arising from impediments on the surface of the road affects wheels to
an amount greatly beyond the friction at the axle, to not less than 20 times
the amount of the other, and though the reduction of resistance increases in
a much lower ratio with the diameter, being inversely as the square roots
nearly, yet even this, as we have seen, would only increase the advantage by
of the whole resistance, or as 1: 1.09 as above, with wheels of 1 foot greater
1
12
DISPOSITION OF THE LOAD ON A CART.
131
diameter,—an advantage not to be compared with the many inconveniences that
would attend such an increase of height in the wheels.
492. The present seems an appropriate place to introduce a few remarks on
what may be called the "philosophy of loading of wheel-carts," or the disposi-
tion of the load.
493. The Disposition of the Load. It is always of importance to husband
well the energies of the horse; and in no case is it more necessary than in the
cart-horse. The disposal and management of the loaded cart has frequently
occupied attention: by some it has been treated in a becoming manner, though
frequently too abstruse for the agricultural mechanic, or general agricultural
reader. In others, the lucubrations are neither rational nor mathematical,
though professing to be the latter, but exhibit an attempt to set at nought the
received statical laws, and partially to annihilate matter, or at least its effects,
as evinced in the principle of gravitation, a curious example of which is to be
found in a modern periodical. We do not stop to point out the errors here alluded
to, but proceed to a simple consideration of the subject.
494. To facilitate the arrangement of the load in the two-wheeled cart-
described hereafter in the section Construction of Carts, Book Second—the
practice has been to place the cart upon the axle, in a position that places ‡ of
the body before the axle, and & of it behind. Whether this has been deduced
from calculation or experiment, cannot now be determined; but one thing is
certain, that the above proportion seems to suit all purposes, and what is more,
it yields, by calculation and experiment, a result which loads the horse in the
shafts with a fair degree of pressure, and such as he is quite capable of support-
ing through a moderate journey. The amount of this load on the back of the
horse has frequently been very much overrated; and few practical people having
a clear conception of its amount, it may be satisfactory to many that the true
state of the matter be made to appear.
1
14
1
=
1
7
495. The position of the caddy-bolts is usually determined in accordance
with the above practice, or the following division affords the same result: To
the length of the body-frame add half the slope of the front, or 2 inches; divide
this whole length into two equal parts, and subdividing the back half into seven
equal parts, the caddy-bolt holes will be in the first of these subdivisions, or at
part of the whole length behind the central division. Thus, in the cart
whose body-frame is 5 feet 4 inches, add 2 inches for the half slope of the front,
making 5 feet 6 inches, or 66 inches in all. Half this is 33 inches, of which
= 4.71 inches, and 33 +4.71 37.71 inches, the length of that portion of the
body that lies before the caddy-bolt, while the remaining 28.29 inches lies
behind, being and as before. When the cart is loaded, therefore, there will be
a preponderance of of the load before the axle on which the cart-body rests.
496. Taking the whole load at 21 cwt., of this is 3 cwt., or 336 lb., the
preponderance of the load forward, on the supposition that it is uniformly dis-
tributed over the cart-body; but as the common practice places it more towards
the front, the preponderance may, with more accuracy, be taken at 400 lb.
Taking the weight of the cart-body, exclusive of the wheels and axle, at 5 cwt.,
and taking of this also, or 80 lb., and adding to this the effect of the shafts, with
the iron mounting, which may amount to about 60 lb., and is to be considered as
acting at the centre of gravity of the preponderating part of the load, we have
an aggregate preponderance of 400 + 80 +60 = 540 lb. This quantity is to be
supposed as distributed over that part of the body lying before the axle, and from
the disposal of this part of the load, its centre of gravity will be at the distance
of about 20 inches before the axle. Again, the shafts in this arrangement form
132
FRICTION AND FORCE.
4.5
a lever of the second order, whose fulcrum is the axle, and the load is applied
at the distance of the centre of gravity, 20 inches from the fulcrum, while the
power (the horse's back) is applied at 4+ 3 feet, or thereby = 90 inches from
the fulcrum, giving the power a mechanical advantage of 90 to 20, or 4.5 to 1:
the horse therefore bears part of the preponderating load, which, as we have
seen, is 540 lb., part of which is 120 lb. for the pressure on the back of the
horse. This calculation agrees perfectly with experience, for, by experiments on
loaded carts with a dynamometer, the strain on the back-chain of the horse has
been found to range from 100 to 140 lb., when the shafts were in the due work-
ing position.
1
•
497. From the want of a due consideration of the effect of the load as it
presses on the horse's back, the results are frequently much exaggerated, and
much uncalled-for pity and commiseration excited in behalf of the horse, by
those who, not taking time to investigate, are led by their feelings into erro-
neous conclusions as to the amount of suffering which, in too many cases, is
inflicted most unnecessarily upon that valuable animal by his careless and
unthinking driver. But the direct load on the horse's back here established, is
that due to travelling on a level road, and it is liable to variation when travel-
ling on inclined roads, always to the inconvenience and suffering of the horse.
In such cases the variation depends much on the nature of the substance com-
posing the load. If it is of a nature to load high, the variation becomes the
greater, in consequence of the centre of gravity being proportionally high; and
the inclination of the cart-body and shafts following the rise or fall of the road,
the position of the centre of gravity is thrown backward or forward: backward
in ascending, thereby lessening the pressure on the horse's back; and forward
in descending, increasing the pressure. These variations, though no doubt a
source of inconvenience, have also been exaggerated; for we have found, from
actual experiments, as well as from calculation of the effects, that in descending
an inclination of road so great as 1 in 8, that the increase of pressure on the
back of the horse is not more than of the pressure on a level road, the ulti-
mate strain on the back-chain arising from such inclination being about 160 lb.
This is, besides, a very extreme case, for few roads are now to be found with
such a high gradient. There is good reason, therefore, to conclude that the addi-
tional strain on the back will seldom amount to 30 lb., except with loads of corn
and hay, in which the centre of gravity is necessarily high. In ascending accli-
vities, the pressure on the back is reduced in nearly the same proportion as the
increase upon declivities.
498. The inconveniences thus attending the variation of load in ascending
and descending inclined roads, has given rise to numerous proposals for methods.
to equalise the pressure on the back. Hitherto, however, nothing of value has
been discovered, in which the trouble and inconvenience attending the adjust-
ment of the apparatus proposed, does not more than counterbalance any advan-
tage that could be obtained from it. One of the most feasible plans proposed
to achieve this, is to have the cart so placed on the axle that the whole cart-
body, with its load, shall be made to slide a few inches backward or forward
upon the axle, by means of a screw placed at the back of the cart, and may be
turned by the hand. Such an apparatus may no doubt be rendered capable
of effecting the intended purpose; but it would so encumber and break in upon
the simplicity of the machine, besides requiring considerable attention, and all
these to an extent that, it is to be feared, would not be compensated by advan-
tages of equal value.
499. It will always be on descending inclinations of road that the horse will
LINE OF DRAUGHT OF CARRIAGE-WHEELS.
133
be most distressed; and, from the comparatively small increase of load that
is brought upon him in the descent, as has been already shown, it seems pro-
bable that what he suffers arises more from the cart with its load pressing him
forward, than from the direct effect of gravity upon his back. If this view is
correct, and there appears much reason to believe it, it would then be of greater
moment to obtain a ready and efficient means of retarding the forward tendency
arising from gravity, by the application of a drag, than by any attempt at shift-
ing the load. This has been attempted by the action of the horse in holding
back through the medium of the breeching-harness acting upon friction-blocks.
pressing against the edge of the wheel; but it seems very questionable if the
method can be rendered sufficiently effective with safety to the horse. As a con-
venient means of dragging, there appears no method more simple and efficient
than that which we have copied from our French neighbours, and is now applied
with such success to omnibuses and gentlemen's carriages, namely, the lever,
or the lever-and-screw drag, applied to the periphery of the wheels. This mode
possesses most of the advantages required in an efficient and convenient drag,
is easily managed, and not very expensive; neither would it incommode the
ordinary working of the cart; and as it can only be required in hilly districts,
or where roads are not well levelled, it could be laid aside or applied, according
to the nature of the journey that might be in contemplation. Attempts have
also been made to apply a drag on this principle to the nave of the wheel; but
this has been, and always will be, a failure, owing to the comparative small-
ness of diameter, and consequent low velocity of the revolving surface against
which the friction-blocks are pressed, affording but a small degree of friction,
unless the levers are made very strong, and to act with great mechanical advan-
tage. But these conditions involve two other disadvantages-the additional
weight of a stronger apparatus, and the risk of fracture, arising from greater
pressure being requisite to give it effect.
500. These considerations naturally lead us to consider the question of the
direction of the line-draught of wheel-carriages. This is a point which is also
deserving of consideration in its application to wheel-carriages; and in this
view the structure of the horse, as an animal of draught, should be kept in
mind. From the configuration of the skeleton in the horse, and his muscular
system, we perceive at a glance that his form is adapted to produce a much
greater effect in dragging a load than in carrying upon his body. In man the
case is different. From the circumstance of his skeleton, in the lower extre-
mities and trunk, being composed of parts superimposed, and forming a column,
which, though furcated below, is only thereby rendered the more stable, he is
capable, though greatly inferior in weight and mass, to bear a vertical load even
surpassing that of a horse, while in dragging he is greatly inferior; and it is
only by inclining his body from its upright natural position, that he is able to
exert beyond a very moderate force in a horizontal or slightly-inclined direction.
It is true that, if his body is once so far inclined as to admit of his gravity to
bear with its maximum effect, while his limbs and vertebral column are brought
to act in concert with his weight to resist a force of traction applied to his
shoulders, he will, in such a position, produce a much greater effect, taking
weight for weight, than a horse; and while a man will travel with a load on
his shoulders equal to of his own weight, a horse will not do the same with
more than 1. But a horse will perform a journey with equal ease, and drag a
load of twice his own weight, if placed in a two-wheeled cart. And hence we
see the vast importance of the modern system of good roads and wheel-car-
riages, as compared with the state of things only a century ago, when roads, if
134
FRICTION AND FORCE.
existing at all, were in a wretched state, and, consequently, much of the con-
veyance of goods and produce was performed by pack-horses-the load laid on
the back of the horse. Now the useful effect of a horse may be estimated at
six times that of the back-load practice.
501. In achieving these great improvements, advantage has been taken of
the physical properties and conformation of the horse, especially that of hist
being more adapted for drawing than for carrying. But it has also resulted that,
from his powers of draught depending in some degree upon his weight as well
as upon his muscular energy, it is found advantageous to give to his weight an
increased effect, either by direct application of a limited load upon his back, as
in the case of the two-wheeled cart, or artificially, by causing the direction of
the line of draught—as in the plough-produce indirectly a force in the direc-
tion of gravity, by the oblique direction of the draught. Thus we see, that in
drawing the plough, while the horse is exerting a force of draught of 160 lb. to
draw forward the plough, he is bearing, as a part of this result, a vertical pres-
sure at or near his shoulders, arising from the direction of the trace-chains,
which here lie at an angle of about 18°. Though this angle, in working the
plough with horses of ordinary stature, is found convenient and effective, it does
not follow that the same is requisite in all cases of draught; for, with due con-
sideration to the comfort of the horse, it should vary with the weight and the
supposed muscular powers of the different horses that may be employed;
though, from the practical difficulties attending any attempt at such adjustment,
it becomes necessary to adopt general principles, and to be satisfied with
approximation. In no case, however, can it be otherwise than disadvantageous
to the horse to make him draw horizontally; and much worse were the line of
draught to incline upwards from his shoulders, as either of these would tend to
deprive him of part of his natural weight.
502. It appears evident that, in order to give the horse full advantage of
his own weight in pulling, the line of direction in which his force is applied
should lie in a plane that would pass through the centre of gravity of his entire
mass. This will be more clearly evident from fig. 216, representing a horse,
Fig. 216.
b
C
d
༡
THE PRINCIPLES THAT DETERMINE THE ANGLE OF DRAUGHT.
with lines of draught extending from the hook of his collar, and which will
serve to elucidate our position. The centre of gravity of the horse will lie about
the position g, coinciding nearly with the line a d, forming an angle of 18° with
the horizon, which is nearly the angle of draught in the plough. Hence, in the
PRINCIPLE OF THE ANGLES OF DRAUGHT.
135
plough-yoke, the traces being at 18°, the principal condition will be very nearly
fulfilled, and there will be no undue tendency either to take from or add to the
effect of his natural weight. If he is made to draw at a higher angle, such
as would cause the line of draught to fall still beyond the position of his hind-
feet, he will feel an unnatural pressure towards the earth on his fore-quarters;
and if the angle is still increased till the line fall within the position of his hind-
feet, the unnatural pressure would extend to both fore and hind quarters; if the
contrary, at a lower angle, as at a b, the line of draught lying thus above the
centre of gravity, the effect will tend to lift the fore-quarters from the earth.
Any tendency towards lifting his fore-quarters takes directly from the power of
the horse; and any tendency towards pressing upon his fore-quarters, though it
will not reduce his power directly, will produce a necessity for greater exertion
in his muscular system throughout, by having to move with what is equivalent
to an increase of his weight.
503. In the two-wheeled cart we can observe a very neat adaptation of the
principle here brought forward; and though it appears justly adapted to suit
the case, it has probably been realised more from chance than from reasoning,
but most probably from a long course of observation, without reference to causes
and their effects. In the cart with wheels of the height commonly employed,
we have the line of draught determined by the radius of the wheel, the height
of the hook in the horse-collar from the ground, and the distance from that hook
to the centre of the axle. The height of the hook may be taken at 4 feet 6 inches,
the radius of the wheel at 2 feet 3 inches, difference 27 inches, and the horizontal
distance 7 feet 6 inches, giving an inclination to the line of draught of about
12°, corresponding to the line a c, fig. 216. The plane of this line lies higher
than the centre of gravity of the horse, and for that reason would have the ten-
dency of taking from his weight; but to obviate this, the necessity arising from
the nature of the vehicle, that a small portion of its weight be thrown upon
the horse's back, comes aptly in to restore the equilibrium. By throwing a por-
tion of the pressure of the load upon the back of the horse, we do in effect
lay an extraneous body upon that part of the animal, which, for the time, be-
coming in effect a part of his entire mass, raises his centre of gravity, and, if
all is properly adjusted, it will be again in the plane of the line of draught, and
the fore-quarters of the horse will be nearly as free to move as before. There
will, however, be an additional pressure thrown upon his hind-quarters by this
extraneous weight; but this is again compensated by the average force of trac-
tion in the cart being less than that of the plough, in the proportion of 120 to
160. Although, from the nature of the subject, we cannot reduce these data to
any minute calculation, there appears to be sufficient grounds to establish the
foregoing remarks, as being based upon the legitimate principles that govern the
determination of the angle of draught. It is certainly evident that the nearer
we can approach to the principle of coincidence of the centre of gravity of the
horse and his load with the plane of the line of draught, so much the nearer
are we to removing all unnecessary exertion of the animal.
504. From these considerations, it follows that the angle of draught, so
far as regards the horse, should not exceed 18°, but that it may range from
that to the horizontal line, or even to ascend above it, provided that duly pro-
portioned extraneous loads be placed upon him. We see here also a corrobora-
tion of the advantages of two-wheeled carts over four-wheeled waggons; for if
the foregoing views are correct, waggons having four wheels of the same height
as common cart-wheels, the shaft-horses in such waggons never can give out
their full effect, or an effect equal to what they would do in carts; and it is
curious to remark, that giving to waggons high front-wheels, which is now
136
FRICTION AND FORCE.
becoming prevalent, is rendering them less effective than under the old system of
low front-wheels, so long retained for the convenience of turning. Waggons
with low fore-wheels brought the line of draught to nearly the same angle as
in the plough; hence the shaft-horses would give out their maximum effect, and
what is more, the higher angle of draught must have served to counteract the
disadvantage under which low wheels must always lie in passing over obstacles,
or in soft roads producing a continuous obstacle.
5
505. We see here also the disadvantage of employing two, three, or more horses
in line, whether in the plough, the cart, or the waggon, for in all such cases
every horse before the one in the shafts must of necessity draw upon a line nearly
horizontal; and it is not too much to say, that, so yoked, a horse will not give out
more than to ½ of his full working effect. This conclusion agrees with well-
established practice under the Scotch system of managing horse-labour; and it
is, moreover, seen to be gaining favour over the still older practice of the four-
wheeled waggon; for in a report of experiments, on the large scale, of the reduc-
tion of horse-labour by the use of single carts, by Mr Hannam of Burcott, Oxford-
shire, a saving of expense, on the carting alone, of a farm, amounts to 19 per
cent, as compared with team-labour in waggons, and no less than 47 per cent
when the pair-horse system is extended to all the operations of the farm.
506. We have thus endeavoured to establish some data for the angle of the
line of draught, showing that it is not necessary to be alike in every case, and
that beyond a certain limit either way it is disadvantageous to the horse. In the
cart, as well as in the plough, it is confined practically within a small range of
angle; thus the height from the ground to the centre of the axle gives nearly an
invariable point. The hook of the collar is subject to small variation, arising
from the height of the horse and the distance between the hook and the axle;
and, in some descriptions of carts, is liable to more considerable variation; but,
on the whole, the range will be between 8° and 13°; and it is to be kept in
view, that the straight line lying between the hook of the collar and the centre
of the axle is invariably the true line of draught. It is not affected by any
bolstering up of the cart upon the axle, nor by lowering it, though these two
conditions have an influence on the load, as they tend to raise or lower its
centre of gravity; and to keep that low should be an invariable rule. In yoking
the horse in the cart, the back-chain should be so adjusted to length as to place
the shoulder-slings or draught-chains in the straight line towards the axle ;
every deviation from this places the horse at a disadvantage. If the back-chain
is too long, so as to make the draught-chains range towards a point below the
axle, the horse will be unnecessarily loaded on the back, causing undue exer-
tion both before and behind; if the contrary, he will be deprived of part of the
benefit of his weight, and his fore-quarters will not have their due share of
effect on the draught.
507. For horses employed in light carriages going at a high speed, the
draught-chains or traces are not required to be at such a high angle as for
heavy loads at a low speed, the amount of draught in cases of high speed
becoming very small as the speed increases, and the effect of the angle of
draught has little influence on the amount of exertion, and in all such cases
it is better to approach as much as possible towards the horizontal line.
508. This leads us to consider the effect of springs on loaded carriages. Of
the efficacy of springs in fast carriages there can be but one opinion, whether
we regard safety, comfort to man and beast, and ease of draught. For all
vehicles also employed for carrying the lighter description of loads, the advan-
tages of springs seem equally well established; but for all such purposes they
EFFECTS OF SPRINGS ON CARRIAGES.
137
should possess the property of admitting undulation in the vertical direction
only, with as little horizontal motion as possible. The latter, especially in the
direction of the draught, produces constant inequalities in the resistance to the
draught, from the swinging motion of the vehicle, whereby the momentum
which at any one instant may have been acquired by the carriage, may be
destroyed by a swing of the suspended body in an opposite direction. The grass-
hopper-spring, in some of its modifications, is the one to be adopted in all such
cases. The effect of the grasshopper-spring being to produce vertical motion
almost solely, has the beneficial effect of greatly lessening the jolts and shocks
that vehicles are subject to on the very best of roads, and in the case of small
obstacles being presented to the wheels these springs perform a very important
part. Instead of the whole mass of the carriage being instantaneously elevated.
upon the obstacle, the wheel and the axle, or, it may be, the bed-frame of the
carriage, are in the first instant raised, and are allowed to do so by the yielding
of the springs before this upward motion is communicated to the suspended part
of the vehicle, thus dividing the upward impetus between the two. In descend-
ing from any such obstacle, the reverse of this process occurs, the fall being in
like manner broken by the elasticity of the springs; but this is not all the
advantage, for in thus passing over a stone, or any obstruction that occupies but
an instant of time, the yielding of the spring before elevating the load, will, in
effect, reduce the height of the obstacle to an extent proportioned to the elasti-
city of the spring, thereby requiring less exertion of the power to take the car-
riage over it.
509. The useful application of springs to heavy-loaded carriages has also been
frequently recommended by those who may be competent judges; and it must
be admitted that they might be applied with beneficial effect, in so far as regards
the draught and ease to the animals of draught; but a serious obstacle inter-
venes, the expense-and especially if the expense incurred would balance any
advantage that might accrue from their adoption. The cost of a set of springs
for a single-horse cart, supposed to bear a load of 1½ tons, cannot be less at the
present time than £3, which adds more than 25 per cent to the price of the cart
complete without springs; and we are yet without any certain data by which
we can calculate that a horse would take a greater load upon a cart so con-
structed. There can be no doubt that roads and horses would be benefited by
the introduction of springs to all carriages; but it is yet an unsolved problem,
whether, on the whole, it presents that amount of economy to make its adoption
an object to the farmer.
510. There is one other point yet in connection with the draught which is
deserving of notice, and it bears also some relation to springs. We have said that
if springs are applied to carriages, they should be so constructed as to afford not
elasticity in the longitudinal direction. Such elasticity destroys the impetus
that may have been generated in the carriage, in the case of the wheels being
checked by any obstacle; and instead of that impetus being directed to the
carrying of the vehicle over the obstacle, the sudden shock allows the whole of
the momentum to expend itself in causing the suspended body of the carriage
to be swung forward, while the whole mass is nearly or altogether brought to
rest. This is, without doubt, true, both in theory and practice; but the
theoretical part of it has been carried further than this, for we find a
clever writer asserting that not only should there be no elasticity longitu-
dinally between the wheels and the carriage, but it should also be entirely
banished from between the wheels and the horse. This is certainly not agree-
* Library of Useful Knowledge-" The Horse," p. 445.
*
138
FRICTION AND FORCE.
able to practice; and, what is more, it is contrary to a well-known principle,
that impetus or momentum will enable a body to overcome obstacles, which it
could with difficulty accomplish if starting from a state of rest. A horse, there-
fore, at the first instant of his motion, having not yet acquired any momentum,
but moves simply with his initial force, will not have an effect upon the load on
a carriage equal to what he would acquire in the succeeding instant, when his
initial force has been multiplied by his velocity. We apprehend, therefore, that
there ought to be a distinction between that longitudinal elasticity that may
exist in a carriage betwixt the wheels and its body if suspended on springs,
and that betwixt the wheels and the animal of draught, or the power, whatever it
may be. Everyday experience teaches us this fact; for who has not observed
that the draught-chains of a horse that have stood all the ordinary strains of
dragging the same loaded cart, plough, or machine, for days or weeks, when the
horse is allowed to take a step in advance before they have been brought to their
bearing, snap asunder; and what can have produced this fracture but some
power more intense than the chains have hitherto undergone the increased
momentum of the horse? Such being the case, there must be some advantage
in having a degree of elasticity interposed between the shoulders of the horse
and the ultimate resistance the wheels of the carriage. Independent of the
occasional advantages afforded to the horse for overcoming obstacles, such an
arrangement will yield much ease and comfort to the animal; and fortunately,
too, nature has provided the means for this compensation, both in the animal
structure and in the physical condition attendant upon inert matter. Thus, in
the animal frame, those parts upon which the actions under consideration depend,
are more or less yielding and elastic; and again, the substances that form the
media through which the force of the animal is applied, both from their inherent
nature and the external laws under which they act, necessarily partake of the
principle of elasticity. For example, if a chain is employed as a medium, its
gravity has a perpetual tendency to make it assume the catenarian curve, and the
change of form, from the curve towards the straight line, produces a beautifully
elastic spring. In the plough this is particularly the case, and it exists more
or less in every arrangement of strain or draught, from the chain-cable of our
floating bulwarks, through the tow-line on the canal, the buffers, connecting-
links, and springs of the locomotive, down to the meanest office in which either
inert matter or animals of draught are employed as a medium of traction.
Where a less rigid material than iron is employed, such as hide, leather, hemp,
and other substances, though they partake less of the catenarian elasticity, from
their lower specific gravity, a compensation is afforded by their inherent elas-
ticity. We may here infer, that where nature has so largely provided a
principle which appears to be on all occasions advantageous, and conservative
of both living and inert matter, it were folly in us to attempt counteracting it,
and much more so when from its abstraction we should earn nothing but dis-
advantages.
511. The inference to be drawn from the above remarks is, that instead of
endeavouring to render the yoke of a horse, or all that intervenes between his
shoulders and the cart-axle, as rigid as possible, we should, on the contrary, give
it elasticity, and by so doing we shall not only render the labour of the horse.
more endurable, but we prevent innumerable accidents, by breakage, to the sub-
stances that are employed as the medium of draught-chains, traces, swing-trees,
and the like. The draught of ploughs will be treated of in the section on
Ploughs, Book Second.
512. In paragraph 477 we alluded to the dynamometer and the friction-brake :
SLIGHT'S DYNAMOMETER.
139
the dynamometer, useful to ascertain the relative strength of animals in dragging
instruments, as ploughs, carts; and the friction-brake, to estimate the amount of
useful effect lost by friction in machines of revolution, as steam-engines, &c.
These apparatus we shall now describe.
513. The simplest form of dynamometer for ascertaining the draught of ploughs
is the ordinary spring-balance placed within a cylindrical case. The hook which
terminates the spring is attached to the whipple or swing-tree, the other hook
at the end of the case being attached to the plough-bridle. The movement of a
pointer, or the extent to which the spring-lever is pulled out, shows the amount
of draught.
514. Another and usual form of spring dynamometer consists of an elliptical
spring, to the ends of which hooks can be attached to connect the spring to
the plough on the one hand and the whipple-trees on the other, thus making
it to form a link in the line of draught of the implement to be tested; the
whole of the draught is thus transmitted to the spring, the force exerted upon
it altering its form, increasing its length, and causing the sides to collapse in
proportion to the strain.
515. In fig. 217 we illustrate a form of dynamometer on this principle, manu-
10 Cart 0
Fig. 217.
α
b
a
6
9
e
с
© d
>
a
a
inches
SLIGHT'S DYNAMOMETER.
factured by Messrs Slight, agricultural engineers, Leith Walk, Edinburgh.
Within the spring a a a circular brass box b b is placed, and attached to one side
of it by a single screw c. The opposite side of the spring carries a stud d. To
this a light bar or connecting-rod e is jointed. This bar is connected with a
This
segmental rack ƒ, the teeth of which take into those of a small pinion.
pinion is fixed on a small axle, which carries the pointer g mounted in front of
the circular dial. This dial indicates a number of cwts. from 0 to 10. The
position of the pointer indicates the amount of compression which the spring has
sustained by the draught of the acting force and the resistance which it has to
overcome, and the force in cwts. which is applied to the draught.
516. Fig. 217 contains first a front elevation of the instrument with its
pointer-index; secondly, a back view, with the cover removed, to show the
internal arrangement, and the connection c d between the sides of the spring

140
FRICTION AND FORCE.
and the segmental rack and pinion f; thirdly, a section through the box and
spring; and, fourthly, one of the draught-hooks by which the spring is connected
with the plough and the moving force. The dial-plate is protected from injury
by a glass plate in front. For convenience, the instrument, with the necessary
pair of hooks to form the connection between the plough and the horse, are
packed in a small box. The price of the whole complete is £3, 15s.
517. In the form of dynamometer now described, the indications of the pointer
are read off by the eye, while the implement to which it is attached is at work.
This simple form of apparatus, we are inclined to think, indicates results in a
sufficiently precise and available way for the majority of practical purposes; but
from the inequalities of land through which the plough has to pass during its
operation, and from the irregularities in the draught of the horses which work
it, considerable variation in the rapidity of motion of the pointer arises: this
changing irregularity from slow to quick, and vice versa, renders it a diffi-
cult matter in some cases to ascertain the points which it indicates. A
machine has therefore been desiderated by some authorities which would
accurately register the movements of its pointer; these being marked off on
paper, which, after the trial, would afford data to strike an average of the indi-
cations. The most notable of dynamometers of this kind are those of Mr Bentall
of Heybridge, Essex, and of M. Morin of France.
518. In fig. 218 we give a perspective sketch of a Danish dynamometer of
Fig. 218.
b
α
C
MM. Gamst and Lund, exhi-
bited at the Paris Exhibition
of 1855, and reported on very
favourably by the jury. In its
compactness and simplicity of
construction it contrasts favour-
ably with other self-recording
dynamometers which have been
introduced from time to time.
We are indebted for our illus-
tration and description to the
Journal d'Agriculture Pratique
of February the 20th, 1857. It
is constructed on the same
principle as Mr Bentall's-a
coiled or helical spring being
employed, as the drawing, fig.
218, indicates. This spring is
enclosed in a box or case a a; to this are attached the vertical standards bb,
carrying the wheels c c on which the apparatus runs. In the drawing, part of
the case is broken off, in order to show the disposition of the coiled spring d.
The hook e forms the extremity of the central bar, round which is coiled
the spring, and to the opposite end of this central bar the extremity of the
last spiral of the spring is fixed, and the horses yoked by means of their swing-
trees. The hook e, riveted to the end of the box a a, serves to connect the
bridle f of the plough-the draught of which has to be tested-to the dyna-
mometer. To the extremity of the axle of the right-hand wheel a small pulley
is keyed on, this carrying in its grooved periphery an endless band j, which
passes over the upper pulley i, the periphery of which is similarly grooved.
This upper pulley i moves, through the medium of a pair of mitre or bevel
wheels, a sheet of white paper h, which is stretched between, and rolls upon,
DANISH SELF-REGISTERING DYNAMOMETER.
141
FRICTION-BRAKES.
Fig. 219.
a
α
b
two cylinders placed parallel to each other. The right-hand wheel, in turning
as the machine is dragged over the ground, turns the pulleys, and causes the
paper, through the medium of the bevel-wheels and cylinders, to move in a line
at right angles to the length of the machine. A pencil g, fixed on a bar which
is attached to the last spiral of the spring d, is placed in contact with the
paper; and as it is caused to move to and fro by the irregular action of the
draught in a line at right angles to the direction of motion of the sheet of paper,
the result of the two motions is a curved or irregular line drawn upon the paper,
the undulations of which are proportioned to the tractional efforts of the horse.
519. The dynamometers above described are applicable only to cases where
the draught is applied in a direct line. To ascertain
the power in prime movers, as steam - engines, or
machines of revolution, the friction-brake is used;
the object of which is to convert all the work per-
formed by the machine into friction, and then to
measure that friction. A very simple form of friction-
brake is illustrated in fig. 219, where a a is a pulley
keyed on the main shaft of the engine or machine.
The periphery of this must be turned perfectly smooth
and true. An iron hoop b b is placed over the pulley,
one end of which is fastened to the bar c, passing
through the block d; this bar can be lowered by the
nut facting on its screwed extremity. The other end.
of the hoop is fastened by its hook to the ring of the
spring-balance e, firmly connected to the block d. The
hoop b is brought in close contact with the pulley by
tightening the nut f, and the machine is made to
work at its usual speed. By this arrangement the
power is absorbed by the friction between the pulley
and hoop, which in time checks the machine. The
hoop acts on the spring, pulling out the bar and in-
dicating a certain weight, which represents the resistance to the working of the
machine. If we multiply the weight in pounds thus indicated, by the circum-
ferential velocity of the pulley b b, dividing the quotient by 33,000, the amount
of labour in horse power performed by the machine at the time of registration is
obtained. This brake gives only approximative results, but is sufficiently
useful for ordinary purposes. Weights may be placed in a dish-as shown
by the dotted lines—as a substitute for the spring-balance.
с
1
1
1
#
d
FRICTION-BRAKE.
520. A more perfect kind of friction-brake is that known as Prony's, which acts
on the principle of the lever. A pulley is provided, cast in two halves; these
are made to embrace the shaft of the engine or machine to be tested, and are
united by bolts and nuts. Two iron jaws embrace the periphery of the pulley,
and are tightened down by screws. The lower jaw is lengthened to form a
lever; at the extremity of this lever a dish containing weights is suspended.
In using this apparatus to test the power of a machine, weights corresponding
to this power are put into the scale; these weights, acting through the medium
of the lever, producing a pressure equal to the power. The weight of the lever,
from its extremity to the centre of the pulley on the shaft, including the weight
of the dish in which the weights are to be suspended, must be ascertained.
Having fixed the apparatus, and put weights into the dish so as to bring down
the lever to some distance below the horizontal line, the machine is started
with a gradually increasing velocity. When the machine is going at its proper
142
FRICTION AND FORCE.
66
rate, and the lever raised a little above the horizontal line, or rather balanced
properly, the weight represents the amount of its power. Should the lever be
raised too much above the balance-level, more weight should be added to the
dish should, on the contrary, the lever fall below the balance-level, the
machine is short of the power required to raise it, and some of the weight must
be taken out of the dish. The weight which is thus found to balance the
ordinary working power of the machine enters into the calculation for ascer-
taining its power of working effect. The following is the rule, premising that,
before using the brake, the apparatus is arranged so as to balance when sus-
pended on its centre of gravity; this balancing will obviate the necessity of
making the weight of the lever and its accompanying dish enter into the calcu-
lation of the circle: Multiply the circumference described by the end of the
lever by the number of revolutions of the shaft per minute, and by the weight
in the scale, and divide the product by 33,000, and the quotient will be the
actual force of the machine in horse-power."
521. In fig. 220 we illustrate the form of dynamometer used at the trial of the
steam-engines at the Royal Agricultural Society of
England's meetings: a a the base, b the upright or
pedestal which supports the shaft of the pulley c c, with
which the driving-belt of the engine to be tested is placed.
On the same shaft a large friction-wheel d d is keyed,
a provided with a strap and friction-blocks e e; the rod f
carries a dish g, in which the weights are placed to test
the power; the strap and blocks are tightened up by the
screw h. For the mode of ascertaining the results, and
of using the data thus obtained, see the section on Steam-
Engines, Book Second. We are indebted for this illustra-
f
Fig. 220.
a
h
DYNAMOMETER FOR TESTING POWER
OF STEAM-ENGINES.
tion to Mr Waller's paper, there alluded to.
522. The dynamometer invented by Mr Amos, Consulting Engineer to the
Royal Agricultural Society of England, possesses many ingenious arrangements.
It has been instrumental in detecting many defects in the working of our farm
machines. It indicates with remarkable precision the force exerted by a
d
C
Fig. 221.
M
h
f
exporting
k
e
g
し
​machine in the performance of a given
amount of work, and also registers the
number of revolutions it makes dur-
ing the time it is at work. Fig.
i 221 will illustrate the principle on
which this dynamometer operates.
Let a represent the shaft of the ma-
chine
as a chaff-cutter the force
required to work which, it is desirous
to estimate. To the extremity of this
shaft a pulley or arm b is keyed; the
band or belt c of this is made to pass
over the pulley d of the dynamo-
meter, which is brought close up to
the machine to be tested. The end
f of the shaft e on which the pulley d is keyed is passed into an oblong
slot or mortise, forming part of a lever l. This slot is of such dimen-
sions as to allow the end ƒ of the shaft e to have a certain amount of tra-
verse or play in a vertical direction. The lever l has its centre of vibration
in the shaft m, and is continued backward, and terminated by a weight k. The
α
AMOS'S DYNAMOMETER.
2
AMOS'S DYNAMOMETER.
143
weight k is so adjusted that when the machine is at rest the lever I and the
wheel g are balanced so that the end of the shaft e rests unsupported in, or is
balanced in, the slot in the lever l. Near the end of the shaft m a spur-wheel h
is keyed, the teeth of which take into those of the spur-wheel g of the same size
and pitch, keyed on to the shaft e. To the extremity of the shaft m a fly-wheel
¿ is fixed, provided with a handle o, by which it is turned, the radius of the lever-
age i o being equal to the radius of the pulley d, or of b. By this arrangement the
force required to turn the pulley b of the machine under trial is transferred to or
must be overcome by a force applied to the lever o of the wheel i o, this force
being measured as follows: After the connection is made between the machine to
be tested and the dynamometer by the band c, the power is applied to the handle o:
the tendency of the resistance of the machine under trial is to prevent the
wheel g from revolving, and to cause the power of the wheel i, acting through
the wheel h, to lift g up, raising its shaft in the slot of the lever; and lifting the
extremity n of the lever l. As the power is continued to be applied to the handle
o, weights are suspended at n until the two wheels h and g begin to revolve, the
weights at the same time pressing the end ƒ of the shaft e down in the mortise or
slot of the lever l. The weights thus obtained, therefore, at the extremity of the
lever 1, multiplied by the power they exert on the lever, is the measure of the
force required to overcome the resistance of the machine under trial. The num-
ber of revolutions which the machine makes during a given time is registered
by a pendulum acting on a counter attached to the framing of the dynamometer.
BOOK SECOND.-PRACTICE.
ON THE PRACTICAL CONSTRUCTION, PROPERTIES, AND USES OF FARM
IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES.
523. BEFORE engaging in the practical department of our work, it is proper to
make the reader acquainted with the general arrangement of the subjects which
we have adopted, and which arrangement must partake in a great measure of
an arbitrary character, as also with the various subjects to each of which we
shall have to direct his special attention.
524. On taking an extended survey of all the implements and machines of
the farm that have ever existed, they may be viewed under these three
aspects: first, Those which have been used, and have become obsolete ;
secondly, Those which exist, but are not used; and, thirdly, Those which exist,
and are used.
525. It were obviously a self-imposition of a useless task to trouble ourselves
with a description of implements and machines which for a time had been
used, but had been abandoned, on account of their own unworthiness, as soon
as better had appeared. It would be equally futile to notice those which may
once have attracted considerable attention by the novelty of their construction
or great pretensions, but are now seldom used or even heard of, although they
may still be found in the implemental store of some farmsteads. During the
last fifteen or twenty years both these descriptions of implements and machines
have been presented to the notice of the farmer in great profusion, and
have induced him to expend large sums on their purchase. There remain
only those implements and machines in actual use to demand our attention,
and upon which we shall now bestow our regards in the second department of
our work.
526. While thus our review of the implements and machines of the farm must
be restricted to those actually in use, the best mode of treating each of them
demands our most serious consideration. Must every one in use be figured and
described? If that were so, their description would occupy so bulky a volume
as to become repulsive to every one who desired to purchase it. But a volumin-
ous description is not necessary. Some classes of machines-as the turnip-
sowing machines, for example-are so multifarious in construction, and unne-
cessarily so, that the repetition of their description would become inevitably
tiresome. Nor is it to be proposed that every implement and machine in use is
to pass in review before the reader, as if under a critical examination of its
construction; for beside the arrogance of such a proceeding, it would be very
unfair to implement-makers to institute what could not but be deemed an
invidious comparison betwixt their respective manufactures. Enough for us
K
146
PROPOSED ARRANGEMENT OF THIS BOOK.
to accomplish, if we accomplish it well, is the indication of those machines of
each class which combine in their construction the principles which have been
enunciated in the former part of this work, with that mechanical skill which
evinces an intimate knowledge of the strength and properties of the materials
employed, so that the use of such machines may produce the largest amount of
good work with the least expenditure of power.
527. To accomplish even this restricted task with the degree of explicit-
ness required, will necessarily occupy a considerable space; and we believe,
moreover, that such a task should only be undertaken by a combination of mind,
and not by any single individual; for a knowledge of general mechanical prin-
ciples, a facility of mechanical representation, an aptitude of mechanical descrip-
tion, and a practical experience of the use of implements and machines at work,
are all requisite in order to place even the simplest of them in a vivid picture
before the reader.
528. Numerous as are the implements and machines brought into operation
by the requirements of modern husbandry, and varying greatly as they do in
their characteristics of arrangement and construction, they may nevertheless be
classed under two great divisions-1. Implements and machines connected with
the cultivation of the soil; and, 2. Implements and machines connected with the
products of the soil; and these divisions may be subdivided into as many
sections as there are various classes of implements and machines suited to the
different operations of the farm, conducted in each of the seasons of the year.
To those two great divisions others may be added, so as to comprise all the
mechanism which aids the farmer in carrying out his important avocations,
and which are the moving powers of the farm, and the convenient arrangement
of the machines in the steading.
529. The arrangement of the subjects will therefore be as follows :-
530. DIVISION FIRST.-IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES CONNECTED WITH THE CUL-
TIVATION OF THE SOIL.
531. Section First.-Ploughs, including steam-ploughs, trench and subsoil
ploughs.
532. Section Second.-Grubbers, scarifiers, cultivators.
533. Section Third.-Harrows, clod-crushers, weed-extirpators, rollers.
534. Section Fourth.-Horse-hoes, scufflers.
535. Section Fifth.-Sowing-drills, manure-distributors.
536. Section Sixth.-Manual implements connected with the above sections,
as draining tools, &c.
537. DIVISION SECOND.-IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES CONNECTED WITH THE
PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
538. Section First.-Haymaking machines.
539. Section Second.-Corn-reaping machines.
540. Section Third.—Barn machines, including thrashing-machines, fixed and
portable; winnowing-machines, hummellers, corn-cleaning machines,
corn-weighing machines.
541. Section Fourth.-Carts, waggons.
542. Section Fifth.-Chaff-cutters, hay-knives.
543. Section Sixth.-Turnip-slicers, root-pulpers.
544. Section Seventh.-Corn-bruisers, corn-mill, linseed-mill, oilcake-breaker.
545. Section Eighth.-Boiling and steaming apparatus.
546. Section Ninth.-Dairy machines, cheese-presses.
547. Section Tenth.-Manual implements connected with the above sections,
as forks, graips, shovels, barn implements, dairy utensils.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS ON THE PLOUGH.
147
548. Section Eleventh.-Machines not directly connected with any of the
above sections, but useful on the farm.
549. DIVISION THIRD.-MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
550. Section First.-Horse-power, horse-wheel.
551. Section Second.-Water-power, water-wheels, turbines.
552. Section Third.-Steam-power; steam-engines, fixed and locomotive.
553. Section Fourth.-Wind-power.
554. DIVISION FOURTH.-ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINES IN THE STEAding.
555. Section First.-Arrangement of machines in the ground-floor.
556. Section Second.-Arrangement of machines in the upper floor.
557. Section Third.-Arrangement of small machines with the moving power.
DIVISION FIRST.-IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES CONNECTED WITH
THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
558. SECTION FIRST-The Plough. The present age is perhaps the most
remarkable that time has produced, for the perfection of almost every kind of
machine or tool required in the various departments of art and of manu-
factures. In that most important of all arts the production of the raw
material of human food-something like a corresponding progress has been
effected in its machinery and tools, though certainly not to the same degree
of perfection as those employed in most of our manufactures, whether they
be from the animal, vegetable, metallic, or mineral productions. Various
causes exist to prevent, or at least retard, an equal degree of perfection being
arrived at in agricultural machinery, amongst which may be noticed one
pervading circumstance, that affects more or less almost every machine or
implement employed. This circumstance is, that all the important operations
of the farm are performed in seasons occupying comparatively short periods of
time; and should the artisan be endeavouring to produce any new or important
machine, he can only make trial of it in the proper season. The imperfection
of human perception is too well known to leave us in surprise at the first attempt
of any improvement turning out more or less a failure. The artisan, therefore,
will in all probability find that his project requires amendment; and before that
can be effected, the season is past in which a second trial could be made'; and,
consequently, it must be postponed for a year, in the course of which many
circumstances may occur to cause its being forgotten or abandoned. Impedi-
ments of this kind do not occur to the inventor or improver of manufacturing
machinery, where constant daily opportunities occur to test the successive steps
of his invention.
559. One other general cause, and of another kind, exists, to supersede
the necessity, or even the propriety, of employing machinery of such high
and delicate finish as we see in the machines of all in-door manufactures:
this is, the irregularity of the media on which agricultural machinery is em-
ployed, and the numerous changes produced on these media-the soils and pro-
duce-by vicissitudes of weather and other causes, which not only affect the
operation, but also the existence of many of these machines. From this cause,
with its train of incidents, it may be inferred that agricultural machinery and
tools must of necessity be of simple construction, which shall embrace nothing
but the essentials of usefulness; that they have sufficient strength for their
intended purpose, and free of any undue weight; that there should be no redun-
148
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
dancy nor misapplication of materials; that all materials employed should be
of the best quality, and the workmanship plain and sound-which properties,
it must be admitted, are of greater importance to agricultural machinery in
general, than the minute delicacy of construction and finish observable in
many of those almost intellectual tools employed in some of the other arts and
manufactures.
560. Although, therefore, agricultural machines in general do not require a
high mechanical finish, yet there are amongst them those which are based on
principles implying a knowledge and application of science, as well as mechan-
ical skill in their construction; and in this class is to be ranked the Plough,
which, in one word, is as yet the most important of all agricultural machines.
561. To the plough, then, our attention is first to be directed, not only as
standing at the head of all its fellows in the ranks of the machinery of the farm,
but as being the first implement to which the attention of the farmer is called,
in the commencement of his agricultural year—the Winter season.
562. Before entering upon the details of the implement as it now appears, it
may be interesting to take a short retrospective view of its history. With the
earliest stages of human industry, the tillage of the ground in some shape must
be considered as coeval; and in those early attempts, some implement analogous
to a plough must have been resorted to. In all ancient figures and descriptions
of that implement, its extreme simplicity is to be remarked; and this is but a
natural result; but with the progress of human intellect is to be also observed
deviations from the original simplicity, and an increase in the number of its
parts, with a corresponding complexity in its structure. The Roman ploughs,
imperfectly as they are described by different Roman authors, are an example of
this. And as an example of apparently very remote origin, the caschrom, or
plough, used even at this day in some parts of the Outer Hebrides and Isle of
C
Fig. 222.
e
THE CASCHROM.
d
ווין
b
of Skye, in Scotland,
forms a very curious
and interesting anti-
quarian relic of the
ancient Celtic habits.
It is formed, as in fig.
222, of one piece of
wood, selected from its
possessing the natural
bend at a, that admits
of the head a bas-
suming a nearly hori-
zontal position, when
the handle c is laid upon the shoulder of the person who wields the implement.
A simple wedge-shaped share b d is fitted to the fore part of the sole. A wooden
peg e is inserted in the side of the heel, which completes the implement. On
this last member the foot of the operator is applied, to push the instrument into
the ground. It is of course worked by the hand alone, and makes simply a rut
in the ground. Yet even in this rude implement are to be traced the rudiments
of the plough.
563. As the cultivation of the soil became more and more an object of
industry, corresponding improvements naturally followed in the implements by
which such operations were performed. But in Britain, previous to the beginning
of the last century, the plough appears to have continued in a very uncouth
About that period, agriculture seems to have become more an object of
state.
INTRODUCTORY OBSERVATIONS ON THE PLOUGH.
149
improvement. Draining began to be studied, and its effects appreciated. The
amelioration of the soil produced by draining would soon call for better modes
of dressing such improved soils; hence still further improvements in the plough
would come into request. In accordance with this, we find the introduction of
an improved plough into the northern counties of England under the name of
the Dutch, or Rotherham plough. This appears to be the foundation of all the
modern improvements, and from the circumstance of engineers and mechanics
having been brought from Holland to conduct the draining of the English fens,
there is good reason to conclude that the Rotherham plough was originally an
importation from Holland, in a similar manner as the barley-mill was, at a
later period, borrowed from that country. About the middle of the past century,
the Rotherham plough appears to have been partially introduced into Scotland;
but until James Small took up the subject, and, by his judicious improvements,
gave a decided character to the plough, little or no progress had been made
with it.
564. Small appears to have been the first who gave to the mould-board and
the share a form that could be partially imitated by others, whereby, following
his instructions, mould-boards might be multiplied, each possessing the particu-
lar form which he had directed to be given to them. It is to be observed, that
when Small first taught the method of construction, mould-boards were really
boards of wood, and, for their defence, were covered with plates of iron. The
method of construction being not very clearly defined, and mould-boards being
necessarily constructed by many different hands, the improved plan, it may be
easily conceived, must have been liable to failure in practice. It was there-
fore one of those happy coincidences which now and then occur for the benefit
of mankind, that the founding of cast-iron was then beginning to become general.
The fortunate circumstance was seized. Mould-boards, together with the head
or sheath, and the sole and land-side plates, were made of cast-iron; and a
model or pattern of these parts having been once formed, any number of dupli-
cates could be obtained, each possessing every quality, in point of form, as per-
fectly as the original model. The plough, thus in a great measure placed
beyond the power of uninformed mechanics to maltreat, came rapidly and
deservedly into public esteem, under the name of Small's plough. Though
originally produced in Berwickshire, the plough that seems to retain the prin-
cipal feature of Small's improvements-the mould-board-is now found chiefly
in East-Lothian, and differs very sensibly from that now generally used in
Berwickshire.
565. Other writers, about the same period, published methods for constructing
a mould-board on just principles. Amongst these, the method proposed by
Bailey of Chillingham may be mentioned as approaching very near to the true
theoretical form. Others less perfect have been proposed, which it is not neces-
sary to notice; while several have published general descriptions of their con-
struction of the plough, but have withheld the principles upon which their
mould-boards are formed.
566. While these improvements of the past century were going on, the plough
was universally constructed with wooden framing; but about the beginning of
the present century (the precise year cannot now be well defined), malleable
iron began to be employed in their fabrication. The application of this material
in the construction of ploughs came with so much propriety, that it is now, in
Scotland, almost universal. It has many advantages; but the most prominent
are its great durability under any exposure, and its better adaptation to with-
stand the shocks to which the implement is frequently liable in the course of
150
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
working. In a national point of view, it is also deserving of the most extended
application, being from a produce-iron-for which Britain stands unrivalled.
567. This period also was productive of an innovation on the form of mould-
board and share which had been established by Small. The mould-boards hitherto
referred to came under the denomination of concave, or, more properly, straight-
lined; when Wilkie, of Uddingstone, near Glasgow, introduced his new form with
convex lines, and which has been adopted in various districts in Scotland, to the
exclusion of the concave form.
568. These two forms-the concave and convex-have undergone numerous
slight changes, forming sub-varieties, but retaining the respective leading
features of the concave and convex mould-boards; and as they have each
spread (especially the first) over a wide extent of country, they may be distin-
guished by the county in which they are chiefly employed. Thus, the Small's
plough is used in East-Lothian, and Wilkie's in Lanarkshire.
569. Before entering upon the detailed description, it will be useful to the
reader to give the nomenclature employed in this work of the various parts of the
plough, that there may be no misunderstanding of the descriptions which are
to follow. Thus, fig. 223, which is a view of a plough in perspective, presents
Fig. 223.
с
a
d
~
f
π
i
g
A VIEW OF THE LAND-SIDE OF A PLOUGH.
that which ploughmen and agricultural mechanics denominate the land-side-so
called, because when in work it is always (except in the case of turn-wrest or
right-and-left ploughs) in contact with the firm or unploughed land. The
opposite, or right side of the plough, being that which turns over the furrow-
slice cut from the firm land, is called the furrow-side. That member of the
plough to which the animals of draught are yoked, marked a in the figure, is the
beam. Those parts by which the ploughman holds and guides the implement
are called the stilts or handles, b being the great stilt or left handle, and c the
little stilt or right handle; d is the muzzle or bridle by which the horses are
attached to the beam; e, the coulter, is a cutting instrument that severs the
slice from the firm land, and ƒ the sock or share which cuts the slice below
from the subsoil; g is called the wrest or mould-board. It is probable that the
term wrest applied formerly to only a particular portion of the mould-board-
the lower portion in the more ancient plough—which was supposed to wrest or
turn aside the slice after being cut by the share; thus we find in the Kent turn-
wrest plough that the wrest is a simple straight bar of wood. The mould-board,
in the improved implement, receives the slice from the share, turns it gradually
over, and deposits it continuously at the proper angle: h is the sole-shoe on
which the plough has its principal support, and on which it moves, and
i is the land-side plate, only serving to complete the sheathing of the
land-side, presenting a uniform smooth surface to the firm land, and pre-
venting the crumbled earth from falling within the body of the plough.
EAST-LOTHIAN AND LANARKSHIRE PLOUGHS.
151
These last parts cover the body-frame from view, which will be exhibited
amongst the details.
570. The East-Lothian Plough, figs. 1 and 2, Plate I.—In this plough the
proper lines of the body on the land-side lie all in one plane, which, in working,
should be held in the vertical position, or very slightly inclining to the left.
The coulter slightly oblique to the land-side plane, the point standing towards
the left, the rake of the coulter varies from 55° to 65°. In the mould-board the
vertical sectional lines approximate to straight lines, giving the character of
apparent concavity, and it is truncated forward. Share pointed, with a feather
or cutter standing to the right, having a breadth of at least the breadth of the
furrow, the cutting edge of the feather lying nearly as low as the plane of the
sole. The neck of the share is prolonged backward, joining and coinciding
with the curve of the mould-board, which curvature is also carried forward on
the back of the feather. The character of this plough is to take a furrow of
10 inches in breadth by 7 inches in depth, cut rectangular, leaving the sole
of the open furrow level and clean. The resistance to the draught is generally
below the average of ploughs, and this plough is employed for every kind
of soil.
571. Lanarkshire Plough.—The character of this plough is to take a furrow
whose section is a trapezoid, its breadth from 7 to 9 inches, and greatest
depth 6 inches, the sole of the furrow being not level, and deepest at the
land-side. In the finished ploughing, the laid-up furrow-slices have the acute
angle upward, giving the character which may be called high-crested to the
furrow-slice, especially observable in ploughing lea. Resistance to the draught
about the average, and it is considered to be well adapted to stiff clay, and
to lea-land.
572. Before entering upon the specific details of the two varieties into which
the modern Scotch ploughs are here divided, it will be necessary to lay down
certain data, on which the details of each variety will be based. For this purpose
the figure in elevation, fig. 1, Plate I., is supposed to stand upon a level plane,
the heel and point of the share touching that plane, they being actually the
points on which the plough is supported when in motion, and which plane is
called the base line. The fore-part of the land-side of the plough's body-
standing in the vertical position, as seen in plan in fig 2, Plate I.-is supposed
to be placed upon a similar line, touching the land-side of the sole-shoe and the
point of the share. The base-line is divided into a scale of feet for the con-
venience of comparison. The zero of the scale is taken at that part of the
plough's body, where a vertical transverse section, at right angles to the plane
of the land-side, will fall upon a point on the surface of the mould-board, which
shall be distant from the land-side plane by a space equal to the greatest
breadth of the furrow taken by the respective ploughs; the height of this point
above the base line being also equal to the breadth of the slice. Or, the zero
is that vertical section of the mould-board, which, in its progress under the
slice, will just place the latter in the vertical position. The scale, by this
arrangement, counts right and left of the zero. The dotted line marked surface-
line in fig. 1, Plate I., represents the depth of the furrow taken by the respec-
tive ploughs.
573. This zero point has not been fixed on without much consideration; for,
having experienced the inconvenience of vague generalities in stating the
dimensions of the plough, as given in works on the subject, it has appeared to
us desirable that some fixed point should be adopted, and this has been chosen
as less liable to change than any other point in the longitude of the plough; all
152
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
other points of this implement being liable to and may be changed at pleasure,
without change of effect. Thus the beam or the handles may be lengthened or
shortened, the position of the coulter and the length of the sole may be varied,
the mould-board itself may be lengthened or shortened forward without pro-
ducing any decided change in the working character of the plough, the apparent
changes being easily counteracted by a corresponding change in a different
direction. The lengthening of the beam, for example, would only require a
corresponding change in the height of its extremity above the base line; an
alteration in the length of the share, or in the position of the coulter-box, induces
only a corresponding change in the angle which the coulter forms with the base
line, which angle, in any case, is liable to change from the wearing of the irons.
themselves, but which can be rectified as required by shifting the draught-bolt
in the bridle. The zero point here proposed can, with tolerable exactness, be
determined in any plough with the instruments that every mechanic has in his
hands, squares and a foot-rule.
574. It may be well, also, to premise further, in regard to the contour in
elevation of the different ploughs, that although the heights at the different
points throughout the beam and handles are given in detail, as adopted by the
best makers, which those unacquainted with the implements may follow with
confidence, in the construction of implements of the same character, yet we
cannot pass over the circumstance without noticing, that, with the exception of
one point—the height of the beam at the draught-bolt-any part of the contour
may be altered to the taste of the maker, and even the point of the beam, as
already noticed, may be altered, provided the alteration is continued backward
or forward in a certain angle. The change in position in the vertical direction
of three other points is limited within a certain range, not from principle, how-
ever, but for convenience. These points are the height of the beam at the coulter-
box and at the breast-line of the mould-board; these cannot be brought lower
than the given dimensions without subjecting the plough to an unnecessary
tendency, to choke in foul ground, though they may be raised higher without
injury, provided the corresponding parts-the mould-board and body-frame-—
are altered in proportion. The third point here alluded to is the height of the
handles, which is altogether a point of convenience; but it may be affirmed of
this, that it is better to be low than high, since being low places the plough more
under the command of the ploughman. The different points, as given in the plan,
being more matters of principle, with the exception of the position of the handles,
cannot be deviated from without compromising the character of the plough.
575. Details of the East-Lothian Plough.-Fig. 1, Plate I., represents an elevation
of this plough, on the furrow side, drawn to a scale of 1 inch to 1 foot, and fig. 2
a horizontal plan of the same. The letters of reference apply alike to both eleva-
tion and plan. The plough is found with various shades of difference, but not
to the extent or of such a marked character as to require separate description
from what follows. The beam and handles or stilts are almost invariably made of
malleable iron, the body-frame being of cast-iron, the latter varying slightly with
different makers. In its construction the beam and left handle are usually
finished in one continued bar ABC, possessing the varied curvature exhibited
in fig. 1, as viewed in elevation. When viewed in plan, as in fig. 2, the axis or
central line of the beam and left handle are in a straight line-though in this
arrangement there are some slight deviations among the different makers—the
point of the beam being in some cases turned more or less to the right or furrow
side, and this is found to vary from inch to 2 inches from the plane of the
land-side.
DETAILS OF THE EAST LOTHIAN PLOUGH.
153
576. The right handle, DE, is formed in a separate bar, and is attached to
the body-frame at its fore end by a bolt, as will be shown in detail, and further
connected to the left handle by the bolts FFF, and the stays GG.
577. The coulter I is fixed in its box K by means of iron wedges, holding
it in the proper position. Its office being that of a cutting instrument, it is
constructed with a sharp edge, and is set at an angle of from 55° to 65° with
the base-line.
578. The mould-board L, which is fixed upon the body-frame, and to the
right handle, is a curved plate of cast-iron, adapted for turning over the furrow-
slice. Its fore-edge or breast MN coincides with the land-side of the plough's
body; its lower edge T behind stands from 91 inches to 10 inches distant from
the plane of the land-side, while its upper edge P spreads out to a distance of 19
inches from B, the land-side plane. In this plough the mould-board is trun-
cated in the fore part, and is met by the gorge or neck of the share, the junc-
tion being at the line N.
579. The share or sock NR is fitted upon a prolongation of the sole-bar of
the body-frame, termed the head, and falls into the curves of the mould-board,
of which its surface forms a continuation.
580. The bridle C, or muzzle, as sometimes named, is that part to which the
draught is applied, and is attached to the point of the beam by two bolts, the
one S being permanent, upon which the bridle turns vertically. The other bolt
U is movable, for the purpose of varying the earthing of the plough; the landing
being varied by shifting the draught-bolt and shackle V to right or left. The
right and left handles are furnished at A and D with wooden helves fitted into
the sockets of the handles.
581. The general dimensions of the plough may be stated thus, as measured
on the base-line. From the zero-point O, fig. 1, to the extremity of the heel T,
the distance is 4 inches, and from O forward to the point of the share R the dis-
tance is 32 inches, giving as the entire length of the sole 3 feet. Again, from O
backward to the extremity of the handles A is 6 feet 2 inches, and forward to
the draught-bolt V 4 feet 7 inches, making the entire length of the plough on
the base-line 10 feet 9 inches; but, following the sinuosities of the beam and
handle, the entire length from A to C is about 11 feet 3 inches.
582. In reference to the body of the plough, the centre of the coulter-box K
is 14 inches, and the top of the breast-curve M 9 inches before the zero-point,
both as measured on the base-line; but following the rise of the beam, the dis-
tance from M to the middle of the coulter-box will be 7 inches.
583. The heights at the different points above the base-line are marked on
the figure in elevation, along the upper edge of the beam and handle; but the
chief points in height are repeated here, the whole of them being measured
from the base-line to the upper edge of the beam and handles at the respective
points. At the left handle A the height is 3 feet, at the right handle D 2 feet
9 inches; and a like difference in height of the two is preserved till the right
handle approaches the body at the middle stretcher F; from thence the differ-
ence increases till it reaches the body. The height at the point of the beam is 18
inches, and the centre of the draught-bolt V, at a medium, 17 inches. The lower
edge of the mould-board behind, of this plough, at T is usually set about inch
above the base-line, and at the junction with the share about the same height.
584. The dimensions in breadth, from the land-side line, embrace the obli-
quity that is given to the direction of the beam and handles, compared with the
land-side plane of the body taken at the sole. The amount of obliquity, as
exhibited by the dotted line AC, fig. 2, which coincides with the land-side plane
154
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
of the body, is, that the axis of the beam at the extremity C stands 14 inches to
the right, and at the opposite end the left handle A stands about 2 inches to the
left of the line. These points may, however, be varied slightly from the dimen-
sions here given. In the point of the beam, the variation is found, in the prac-
tice of different makers, to range from 1 to 2 inches. In the opinion of some
writers and practical men, it is held that the beam should be parallel with the
land-side plane of the body. With all deference to such opinions, we apprehend
that the direction of the line of draught, in a vertical plane, cannot coincide with
the plane of the land-side; for the point of resistance in the plough's body can-
not fall in that plane, but will pass through some point to the right of it, and
which, from the nature of the subject, cannot be very precisely defined. Both
reason and experience, however, point this out to the plough-maker, and espe-
cially to the observant ploughman. Hence, also, may be remarked, from the
instructions laid down by Small* for the formation of the beam, which, in his
time, was made of wood, that the land-side of the beam should lie in the plane
of the land-side of the body, and as he directed the beam to be 21 inches in
breadth at that point, its axis must have been 11 inches to the right of the land-
side plane; and in all cases, it must be admitted that the resultant of the effect
will lie in the axis of the point, provided the draught-bolt is placed in that line.
But, for very sufficient practical reasons, the draught-bolt has a range from right
to left, by which the effects of variation of soil and other causes can be rectified
at pleasure.
585. A similar difference of opinion has prevailed in regard to the position
of the handles, in reference to the land-side plane. In the plough now under
review, the left handle deviates only 2 inches from the line, whereas another
variety has the handle 7 inches to the left of the line; and this deviation has
been advocated on the principle of allowing the ploughman to walk right in the
middle between the handles, his right and left arms being equally extended.†
Now we would again submit, whether the man who walks with his arms equally
extended, and his body equally distant from either handle, or he who is com-
pelled to have one handle always near his body, whereby he can, on any emer-
gency, bring his body instantaneously in contact with the hand, or that which
it grasps,—which of these men will have the greatest command over the instru-
ment he guides? Little consideration, we imagine, will be necessary to satisfy
the inquirer that the latter will have the advantage.
4
586. The dimensions of the parts of the framework of the plough are: The
beam, at its junction with the mould-board at M, is from 2 to 22 inches in
depth, by 1 inch in breadth, the same strength being preserved onward to the
coulter-box K. From the last point a diminution in breadth and depth begins,
which is carried on to the extremity C, where the beam has a depth of 12 inch,
and a breadth of to § inch.
587. The coulter-box is formed by piercing an oblong mortise through the bar,
which has been previously forged with a protuberance at this place, on each side
and on the upper edge; the mortise is 2 by inches, and the depth 34 inches.
3
4
588. From the junction with the mould-board at M backward, the beam
decreases gradually till, at the hind palm of the body at B, it is 2 inches in
depth and § inch in breadth, where it merges in the left handle A. This last
member retains a nearly uniform size throughout of 2 inches by inch. The
right handle D is somewhat lighter, being usually 1 inches by & inch, and both
terminate in welded sockets, which receive wooden helves, of 6 or 8 inches in
SMALL'S Treatise on Ploughs.
+ WILKIE in Farmer's Magazine, vol. xii. p. 342.
BODY-FRAME OF EAST-LOTHIAN PLOUGH.
155
length. The stretchers FFF, which support and retain the handles at their
due distance apart, are in length suited to their positions in the handles, and
their thickness is about 4 inch diameter, tapering towards the ends, where they
terminate in a collar and tail-bolt, with screwed nut. The upper stretcher has
also a semicircular stay riveted to its middle, the tails of the stays GG termi-
nating like the stretcher with screwed tails and nuts.
589. Having given the general dimensions and outline description of this
plough, there remains to be described the details of the body-frame and its
sheathing, all the figures of which are on a scale of 1½ inches to 1 foot.
590. The Body-frame.-The different views of the body-frame are exhibited
in the annexed cuts, figs. 224 and 225, wherein the same letters refer to the
Fig. 224.
W
α
SO
d
α
xi
с
g
a
ω
Enthum
ИНЕШАНИЙ
h
k
d
Ρ
i
x!
Fig. 225.
d
m
a
THE DETAILS OF THE BODY-FRAME OF THE FAST-LOTHIAN PLOUGH.
C
น
Fig. 226.
corresponding parts in the different figures. Fig. 224 is an elevation of the
furrow side; fig. 225, a plan of the sole-bar of the frame inverted;
and a vertical section, on the line x x, is given in fig. 226. In all
the figures, then, a a is the sole-bar, with two arms b c extending
upward, and having at the lower edge a flange d running along
the right-hand side. Each of the arms b c terminates in a palm e, f,
by which it is bolted to the beam. The arm c is furnished, besides,
with an oblique palm or ear g, upon which the fore edge of the
mould-board rests, and to which it is bolted. The sole-bar a, with
its flange, terminates forward in the head h, which is here made to
form the commencement of the twist of the mould-board, and upon
which the share is fitted, reaching to the dotted line ii, fig. 224.
The fore edge kil of the frame is worked into the curve
answering to the oblique section of the fore edge or breast of the
mould-board, and serves as a support to the latter throughout their
junction. The curvature given to the arm b is unimportant to
the action of the plough, but the general oblique direction here
given to it is well adapted to withstand the thrust constantly
exerted in that direction when the plough is at work. In fig 225, the
a
d
h
g
A VERTICAL SFC-
TION OF THE
FRAME.
156
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
sloping edge d m represents the enlargement of the sole-bar, on which the share
is fitted, and where the lower part of the fore edge of the mould-board rests.
The depressed portion m n is that which is embraced by the flange of the share.
In the frame, fig. 224, o is the lower extremity of the right handle, broken off at
o, to show the manner in which it is joined to the sole-flange of the frame by the
bolt p. The bolt-holes q, q are those by which the beam is secured to the palms
of the frame; r, r are those by which the land-side plate is attached; and s, s
those of the sole-shoe, t being that which secures the mould-board to the ear,
and u that which receives the lower stretcher of the handles. (See fig. 2, Plate
I., at F and O.) The letter v marks the second bolt-hole of the mould-board,
while its third fixture is effected upon the right handle by the intervention of a
bracket, or of a bolt and socket, as seen at Ō, fig. 2, Plate I. The dotted lines
w, w mark the position of the beam when attached to the body, the beam being
received into the seats formed on the land-side of the palms e, f, as seen more
distinctly at w, in fig. 226.
591. The body-frame being an important member of the implement, regard
is paid to having it as light as may be consistent with a due degree of strength;
hence, in the different parts, breadth has been given them in the direction of the
strain, while the thickness is studiously attenuated in such places as can be
reduced with safety. The least breadth of the sole-bar a is 32 inches; of the
arm c, 4½ inches; and of b, 21 inches. The breadth of the sole-flange is 2 inches,
the greatest thickness in any of the parts is 2 inch, and the total weight of the
frame is 30 lb.
3
4
4
592. The Share.―Figs. 227-231 inclusive are illustrations of the share and its
Fig. 227.
b
Fig. 230.
b
Fig. 228.
b
Fig. 229.
α
h
g
α
C
Fig. 231.
h
g
d
C
h
g
THE DETAILS OF THE SHARE.
configuration; fig. 231 is a plan, 230 a geometrical elevation of the furrow-side;
and 227 a direct end view, looking forward, of which a is the boss adapted to the
curvature of the mould-board, b the land-side flange which embraces the head on
the land-side, c the sole-flange, embracing, in like manner, the head below, and
these three parts form the neck or socket of the share, fitting closely upon the
head, and being, in effect, part of the mould-board. The part d e ƒ, fig. 231,
forms the share proper, consisting of d c e the shield, terminating in the point
e, and of the part c ge the feather or cutter running off at the point e. The
extreme breadth of the share in this plough, measuring from the land-side to
the point g of the feather, varies from 6 to 6 inches, and its length in the sole,
including the neck, is about 16 inches, the feather being 11 inches. The other
figures, 228 and 229, are transverse sections of the share on the lines g g and h h
SOCK-PLATE AND SOLE-SHOE.
157
in the respective figures, exhibiting the structure and relation of the shield and
the feather, as well as the position of the cutting edge of the feather in relation
to the base line of the plough represented by the line A'V', fig. 1, Plate I.,
where, as will be observed, the cutting edge, through its entire length, lies
within less than 1 of an inch of the base line.
4
9
C
α
Fig. 232.
Z
d
h
k
b
A SOCK-PLATE.
593. The share is always formed from a plate forged for the express purpose
at the iron-mills, and known in the
trade by the term sock-plate. Fig.
232 represents the form in which
these plates are manufactured, the
thickness being from to inch;
they are afterwards cut in two
through the line a b, each half
being capable of forming a share.
To do this, an incision c d is made on the short side to a depth of 2 inches, the
part a c d e is afterwards folded down to form the sole-flange, and the part
b f g is, in like manner, folded down to form the land-side flange. The point
h is strengthened, when requisite, to receive the proper form of the shield and
point, the latter being tipt with steel. The edge he is extended to the requisite
breadth to form the feather. In order to cut a sock-plate at the proper angle,
so as to secure a minimum expenditure of labour and material, let a central line
hh be drawn upon the plate, and bisect this line in the point k, the line upon
which the plate should be cut will form angles of 70° and 110° nearly, with
the line h h; or, mechanically, draw k l, equal to 5 inches, at right angles to
hh, and l a parallel to h h; mark off 2 inches from 7 to a, and through the
points a, k draw the line a b, which is the proper direction in which the plate
should be cut.
594. The Sole-shoe.-The figures 233-235 inclusive are illustrative of the sole-
Fig. 233.
L
a
b
Fig. 234.
b
a
b
a
α
Fig. 235.
ь
p
α
THE SOLE - SHOE.
shoe. Fig. 235 is a plan of the shoe, a a being the sole flange, and b b the land-
side flange. Fig. 234 is an elevation of the same, and fig. 233 a cross section,
showing the filling up of the internal angle opposed to where the greatest wear
takes place. The thickness of the sole-flange at the heel a is inch, dimin-
ishing forward to 3 inch at 3 inches from the point, and from thence it is
thinned off to prevent obstruction in its progress through the soil. The breadth
of the sole is 21 inches, and its extreme length 20 inches. The side-flange
is inch thick along the edge by which it is attached to the sole, diminishing
upwards to inch at the top edge, the height being 4 inches at the heel and
6 inches at the fore-end; weight about 14 lb. The upper land-side plate is
18 inches in length on the lower edge, being 1½ inches longer than the corre-
sponding edge of the sole-plate, the purpose of which will be seen in the figure
3
4
158
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
of the land-side at e, fig. 240; the length on the upper edge is 21 inches. The
breadth and the contour of the upper edge must be adapted to the form that
may have been given to the beam fg. The thickness at the lower edge must
agree with that of the sole-plate at c, and be diminished to inch at the upper
edge; weight 9 lb.
α
α
595. The Coulter.-Fig. 236 is an edge and 237 a side view of the coulter of
this plough, in which the same letters of reference are ap-
Fig. 236. Fig. 237.
plied. The neck a b, by which it is affixed in the coulter-box,
is about 10 inches long, though it may with all propriety be
extended to c; the neck is usually about 2 inches in breadth
and inch in thickness. The blade b c d varies in length
according to the variety of the plough to which it belongs,
from 18 to 22 inches. The breadth of the blade is usually
about 3 inches in the upper part, but is curved off behind,
and terminating in a point at d. The thickness of the back
at the shoulder bis 2 inch, and tapers gently downward to
where the curvature of the back begins; from thence it
diminishes towards the point to inch or less. It is formed
quite flat on the land-side, and on the furrow-side is bevelled
off towards the cutting edge, where it is about 1 inch in thick-
ness throughout the length of the edge.
b
с
b
C
3
4
596. The Bridle.—Fig. 239 is a plan, and fig. 238 a corre-
sponding elevation of the bridle, and the manner of its attach-
ment to the beam, where a is a part of the beam, b the cross-
head, and c c the tails of the bridle, with their arc-heads d
embracing the beam on the two sides; e is the joint-bolt on
which the bridle turns for adjustment to earthing; f is the
temper-pin or bolt, and by insertion of it into any one of the
holes in the arc-heads d, and passing through the beam, which
is here perforated for the purpose, the bridle is held in any
required position. The draught-shackle g is held in its place
d upon the cross-head b by the draught-bolt h passing through
both parts, and the cross-head being perforated with five or
more holes, the bolt and shackle can be shifted from right to left, or from left
α
d
THE COULTER.
d
*་ཌ།།!tab,་P
Fig. 238.
Fig. 239.
с
ILLATORJILUMITIALITIELE
α
Kolim
C
THE BRIDLE.
e
EL
to right, for the proper
adjustment of the landing
of the plough. To the
shackle is appended the
swivel-hook, to which
is attached the main
draught-bar, or swingle-
tree of the yoke.
597. The Land-side.-
Figs. 240 and 241 are
illustrations of the land-
side, fig. 240 being an
elevation of the body of
9 this plough, represented
in the working position,
but with the extremities
cut off. The point of the
share and the heel rest upon the base line at a and b, and the lines of the sole
LAND-SIDE OF THE EAST-LOTHIAN PLOUGH.
159
lying between these points form the very obtuse angle which obtains in the sole
of this plough; a c is the share, and db the sole-shoe; e is the land-side plate,
Fig. 240.
α
ત્ય
d
y
b
O
b
Fig. 241.
d
г
о
g
THE DETAILS OF THE LAND-SIDE.
foot scale.
and ƒg a part of the beam. The lines a d and d b, together with the base-line,
form the very low triangle a d b, whose altitude at d does not exceed & inch, or
by extending the sole-line b d to h, the depression h a of the point of the share
below this extended line will be inch nearly. Fig. 241 represents a horizontal
section of the body, as if cut off at the level of the upper edge of the sole-shoe.
Here a c is the share, b d the sole-flange of the body-frame, the bolt-hole at b
being that by which the palm of the right handle is fixed to the flange; e and
ƒ, the two arms of the frame, as cut across in the section gi, the land-side of
the sole-shoe coinciding with the land-side plane; the continuation of this
line, gi to h, exhibits the inclination of the share to the land-side, which in
this plough may be taken at inch.
598. The inclination downward given to the share is intended, and expe-
rience confirms the intention, to give steadiness of motion to the implement, by
giving it a lengthened base on which to stand. It is evident that if a base the
converse of this were given to it—convex instead of concave—so that it should
rest on the point d; when in motion, the smallest obstruction occurring at the
point of the share would give it a tendency to swerve from the horizontal line
of progression, and to lose either depth of furrow or be thrown out, thus ren-
dering the management of the plough very difficult and uncertain. Even a per-
fectly straight base is found not to give the requisite certainty of action, without
a greater amount of exertion, as well as closer attention on the part of the plough-
man. A like reason prevails for this inclination of the share landward as does
for its earthward inclination, and for the steady motion of the plough the earth-
ward is even more necessary than the landward; but there is another reason for
this landward inclination, which is, that as the plough is seldom held with its
land-side truly vertical, but inclining a little landward, and it being desirable to
cut the furrow-slice as near as possible rectangular, the coulter has always a slight
tendency landward at the point; hence it becomes necessary to give the share a
like bias. By this arrangement of the parts, the incision made by the coulter
will be nearly vertical. While it is admitted that these inclinations of the share
160
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
afford certain advantages in the action of the plough, it must not be concealed
that the practice is liable to abuse. It has been stated, that if a different
arrangement were followed, a greater degree of exertion and of attention on the
part of the ploughman would be called forth: thus, if the sole and land side of
the body were perfectly straight, the plough would present the least possible
resistance; but as it would thus be so delicately adjusted, the smallest extrane-
ous obstacle would tend to throw it out, unless a constant unceasing watch is
kept on its movements by the ploughman. To obviate this, he gets the share
set with a strong tendency to earth, for it is this tendency that has most effect,
and greater than is requisite; and to prevent the plough taking a too deep furrow,
he counteracts this by adjusting the draught-bolt to an opposite tendency; the
implement will thus be kept in equilibrium, but it is obtained at an additional
expenditure of horse-power. Under any such circumstances the plough is drawn.
at a disadvantage to the horses, by reason of an obliquity of the line of draught
to the direction of motion; and this disadvantage is augmented by every undue
tendency given to the parts by which the obliquity of their action is increased;
or, if not so increased, the prevention of the increase will induce a deterioration
in the work performed. All undue inclination given to the share, but espe-
cially in its earthing, will either produce an unnecessary resistance to the
draught, or it will deteriorate the quality of the ploughing.. It is therefore the
interest of the farmer to guard against, and to prevent as much as possible, every
attempt at giving any undue bias to this important member of the plough.
599. Dimensions of the Lanarkshire Plough.-For the purpose of comparison
betwixt the action of the two forms of mould-boards we have alluded to, the
concave and the convex, the general dimensions of the Lanarkshire plough are
as follows: From the zero-point to the extremity of the heel is 4 inches, and
from the zero-point forward to the point of the share is 29 inches, giving as
the entire length of sole 2 feet 9 inches. Again, from the zero-point backward
to the extremities of the handles, the distance is 5 feet 6 inches, and forward
to the draught-bolt 4 feet 4 inches, making the extreme length of the base-
line 9 feet 10 inches; but, following the sinuosities of the beam and handles,
the entire length is 10 feet 6 inches. In reference to the body of the plough,
the centre of the coulter-box is 15 inches, and the point of the breast-curve 61
inches from the zero-point, both as measured on the base-line; but, following
the rise of the beam, the distance from the junction of the mould-board with
the beam to the middle of the coulter-box is 10 inches.
600. The heights of the different points, as measured from the base-line to the
upper line of the beam and handle, are-at the helve of the left handle the
height is 3 feet 2 inches; at the same point in the right it is 3 feet; at the
middle stretcher the difference in height is only 1 inches, but it again increases
downward, till the right handle meets the sole-bar, to which it is bolted. The
height of the point of the beam is 18 inches, and at the centre of the draught-
bolt, at a medium of 17 inches. The lower edge of the mould-board behind is
usually set at inch above the plane of the base-line, and at its junction with
the share, is from 1 to 12 inches.
601. Of the Action of the Plough.-The coulter, the share, and the mould-
board, being the principal active parts of the plough, and those which supply
the chief characteristics to the implement, it may be useful to the agricultural
mechanic to enter into a more minute descriptive detail of the nature and
properties of these members, before entering upon the duties which each in
its turn has to perform in the action of cutting and turning over the furrow-
slice.
THE COULTER.
161
602. The Coulter.-The coulter, in its construction, as well as in the duties it
has to perform, is the simplest member of the plough. It is a simple bar, in
form as represented by figs. 236-237; varying in length, according to the variety
of the plough to which it belongs, from 18 to 22 inches. Simple though the form
and duties of the coulter may be, there is no member of the plough whereof such
a variety of opinions exist as to its position. We have shown that in practice
the rake or angle which its cutting edge makes with the base-line ranges from
45° to 80°, that of its land-side face from 4° to 8° with the vertical, and that the
same face, in the horizontal direction, varies from 0° to 4° with the land-side.
The objects of these variations are pointed out as mere matters of taste and con-
vention amongst ploughmen. Two points alone, in regard to position, should
be considered as standard and invariable. These are, 1st, that the land-side face
of the coulter shall be always parallel, in the horizontal direction, to the plane of the
land-side of the plough's body; and, 2d, that at the height of 7 inches, or of 6 inches,
according to the depth of furrow to which the plough is adapted, the land-side face of
the coulter shall be inch to landward, or to the left, of the plane of the land-side of
the body.
4
603. One other point in position is subject to a great diversity of opinion; that
is, the position in which the extreme point of the coulter should stand in
relation to the point of the share. In respect to landing, or that cause which
requires the point of the coulter to be placed to landward of the share, the range
of opinion is within moderate bounds, being from 0 to 2 inch; but in the vertical
direction, the range varies from inch to 2 inches; and in the longitudinal
direction a like difference of opinion exists. Thus Small recommends that the
point of the coulter should be 2 or 3 inches in advance of the point of the share,
and or 1 inch above the plane of the sole (base-line), while it should be ½ inch
or 1 inch to landward of the land-side plane.* The position in advance is
very much at fault; and the almost universal practice, also, of keeping the two
points nearly equal in advance, condemns the practice, and points out equality
as the rule. In regard to the position of the point landward, it is liable to con-
siderable variation, partly from the inclination that may be given to the share,
and likewise from the degree of obliquity between the coulter and the land-side.
This obliquity, indeed, combined with the rule laid down, from the position of
the coulter in relation to the land-side, at the height of 6 or 7 inches, is the true
source from which the landward relation of the points of the coulter and share
can be ascertained; hence, therefore, in whatever variety of the plough, the
coulter should have its position in regard to land determined first; and the point of
the share should take its position from the coulter. The distance to which the point
of the share stands to the right of the coulter should in no case exceed ½ inch,
but it were better to confine it to inch. In the vertical position, the advancing
of the point of the coulter to, or retiring from, the share, violates no principle in
the relation of the parts; but to place the coulter at an undue distance above
the share, leaves that portion of the slice uncut which extends between the two
points, and which must produce an undue resistance, from the part being
forcibly pressed asunder, by a process like clipping, through the inclined action
of the share upward. The nature of the soil, whether stony, or gravelly, or a
loam, will, however, always have an effect on this point of the trimming of the
plough; and as no principle is affected, there is no impropriety in giving a lati-
tude in this direction, though we conceive that a distance of 1 inch, between the
points of the share and coulter, ought to be the maximum, except in cases where
the nature of the soil may demand a deviation from that distance.
* SMALL'S Treatise on Ploughs, pp. 18 and 40.
L
162
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
604. The office which the coulter has to perform in the action of the plough
is simple and uniform, being merely to make an incision through the soil in the
direction of the furrow-slice that is to be raised. It is a remarkable fact, that in
doing this it neither increases nor decreases the resistance of the plough in
any appreciable degree. Its sole use, therefore, is to cut a smooth edge in the
slice which is to be raised, and an unbroken face for the land-side of the plough
to move against in its continued progress.
605. In the early works on the principles of the plough, some misconceptions.
appear to have been formed of the influence of the coulter, under the supposi-
tion that the coulter extending 3 inches in front of the share acted beneficially;
and that giving the coulter a great rake, or a low angle with the base, made it
cut the soil advantageously, and with less resistance. From a series of experi-
ments, we have satisfied ourselves that the far advanced position is erroneous,
and that the projection of the coulter before the share increases the resistance
in a very sensible degree. With regard to the angle, the resistance seems not
to be affected by the angle at which the edge of the coulter stands; and the
analogy of a common cutting instrument* does not hold in the case of the coulter
of the plough. With a razor or a knife in the hand, we make them pass through
any object by drawing their cutting edge over the surface to be cut, in the man-
ner as with a saw, which greatly increases the effect without any increase of
force; and this holds, in all proper cutting instruments: but let the edge of the
instrument be placed simply at an angle with the direction in which the stroke
or cut is to be made, and in making the cut let this oblique position be retained,
so that the cutting edge shall proceed paralled to its original position, without any
tendency to drawing the edge across the direction of the cut, no saving of force
is obtained. This process must be familiar to every one who uses a knife for
any purpose whatever. In slicing a loaf, the operator is at once sensible that,
by moving the knife gently backward or forward, he is required to exert less
force, while he at the same time makes a smoother cut, than he would do by
forcing the knife through the loaf, with its edge either at right angles or obliquely
to the direction in which the knife proceeds. The coulter of the plough acts in
the oblique direction, its cutting edge stands obliquely to the direction of motion,
but has no means of drawing or sliding, to cross the forward motion; it therefore
cuts by sheer force of pressure. Where elastic substances occur, an instrument
cutting in this manner has some advantages. In the case of fibrous roots, for
example, crossing the path of the coulter; the coulter, by passing under them,
sets their elasticity in action, by which they allow the edge to slide under them
to a small extent, and thus produces the sawing effect. In the non-elastic earths,
of which soils are chiefly composed, nothing of this kind, it is apprehended, can
occur; hence the angle of the coulter, as it affects the force requisite to move
the plough, is of little importance.
606. We have said that the projection of the coulter in front of the share
increases the resistance, and are borne out in this assertion from the result of
experiments not a little inexplicable. On a subject which has of late attracted
considerable attention, we were desirous of obtaining information, from experi-
ments alone, on the actual implement; and to attain this the more fully, we
determined on analysing the resistance as far as possible. With this view, a
plough was prepared whose coulter descended 7 inches below the line of the
sole, and fitted to stand at any required angle. This plough, with its sole upon
the surface of two-year-old lea, and the coulter alone in the soil, the bridle
having been adjusted to make it swim without any undue tendency, the force
* SMALL'S Treatise on Ploughs, p. 18.
THE COULTER.
163
required to draw this experimental instrument, as indicated by the dynamo-
meter, was 26 imperial stones, or 34 cwt., and no sensible difference was observed
in a range of angles varying from 45° to 70°. This coulter having been removed,
the plough was drawn along the surface of the field, when the dynamometer in-
dicated 8 stones, or 1 cwt., the usual draught of a plough on the surface. Another
well-trimmed plough was at work in the same ridge, taking a furrow 10 by 7
inches, and its draught was also 26 stones. On removing the coulter from this
plough, and making it take a furrow of the same dimensions, the draught was
still the same, namely 26 stones. The furrow thus taken produced, of course, a
slice of very rough ploughmanship; and though it exhibited by a negative the
essential use of the coulter-the clean cutting of the slice from the solid ground—
the whole question of the operation and working effects of the coulter is thus
placed in a very anomalous position. The question naturally arises, What
becomes of the force required to draw the coulter alone through the ground,
when, as it appears, the same amount of force is capable of drawing the entire
plough with or without a coulter? A definite and satisfactory answer, it is
feared, cannot at present be given to the question, and until experiments have
been repeated and varied in their mode of application, any explanation that can
be given is mere conjecture.
607. Since we have seen that the same force is required to draw the plough
without a coulter as with it, and as it has been observed that the work performed
without the coulter is very rough, by reason of the slice being in a great
measure torn from the solid ground, the breast of the plough being but indiffer-
ently adapted for cutting off the slice, it is more than probable that the tearing
asunder of the slice from the solid ground requires a certain amount of force
above what would be required were the slice previously severed by the vertical
incision of the coulter: and though we find that the force requisite to make
this incision, when taken alone, is equal to the whole draught, yet there appears
no improbability in the supposition that the minus quantity in the one may just
equal the plus in the other. Be this as it may, the discovery of the anomaly
presents at least a curious point for investigation, and one that may very pro-
bably, through a train of careful experiments, point out the medium through
which a minimum of draught is to be obtained.
608. Regarding the effect of change on the angle of the edge of the coulter,
though it does not directly affect the draught of the plough, it is capable of pro-
ducing practical effects that are of importance. In ploughing stubble-land, or
land that is very foul with weeds, the coulter should be trimmed to a long rake—
that is, set at a low angle, say from 45° to 55°; this will give it a tendency to
free itself of the roots and weeds that will collect upon it by their sliding
upward on the edge of the coulter, and, in general, will be ultimately thrown.
off without exertion on the part of the ploughman. The accumulation of masses
of such refuse on the coulter, greatly increases the labour of the horses. The
amount of this increased labour we have frequently ascertained by the dyna-
mometer, and have found it to increase the draught of the ploughs from 26
stones, their ordinary draught when clear, up to 36 stones, and immediately on
the removal of the obstruction the draught has fallen to an average force of 26
stones. It is unnecessary to add, that the prevention of such waste of muscular
exertion ought to be the care of the farmer, as far as the construction of his
machines will admit of.
609. To apply a plough, with its coulter set in the position above described,
to lea-land with a rough surface, would produce a kind of ploughmanship not
approved of; every furrow would be bristling with the withered stems of the
164
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
unconsumed grasses; for to plough such land with a coulter set in this way,
would cause its partially matted surface to present a ragged edge, from the
coulter, acting upon the elastic fibres and roots of the grasses, pressing them
upwards before they could be cut through. The ragged edge of the slice thus
produced gives, when turned over, that untidy appearance which is often
observable in lea-ploughing. To obviate this, the coulter should be set at a
higher angle, by which it will cut the mat without tearing it up with a bearded
edge. Crack ploughmen, when they are about to exhibit a specimen of fine
ploughing, are so guarded against this defect that they sometimes get their
coulter kneed forward under the beam so far as to bring the edge nearly per-
pendicular. The same cause induces the makers of the Lanarkshire plough to
set the coulter with its land-side face, not coincident with the land-side plane
horizontally, but at an angle with it of 4°, thus placing the right-hand face of
the coulter nearly parallel to the land-side plane, and thereby removing the
tendency, of the ordinary oblique position of the right-hand face, to produce a
rough-bearded edge on the rising slice.
610. The Share. We have seen that the coulter performs but a comparatively
small portion of the operation required in the turning a furrow-slice. The
share, however, takes a more important and much more extensive part in the
process on the functions of the share, in short, depends much of the character
of the plough. Its duty is very much akin to that of a spade, if pushed hori-
zontally into the soil with a view to lift a sod of earth; but as its action is con-
tinuous, its form must be modified to suit a continuous action; hence, instead
of the broad-cutting edge of the spade, which in the generality of soils would
be liable to be thrown out of its course by obstacles such as stones, the share
may be conceived as a spade wherein one of its angles has been cut off
obliquely, leaving only a narrow point remaining, adapted to make the first
impression on the slice. A narrow point being liable to meet obstruction only
in the ratio of its breadth to the breadth of the entire share, the chances of its
encountering stones are extremely few; and though the oblique edge, now
called the feather, has a like number of chances to come in contact with stones,
yet, from its form taking them always obliquely, and the direct resistance
which the body of the plough meets with on the land-side preventing any
swerving to the left, such stones as come in contact with the sloping edge of
the feather are easily pushed aside towards the open furrow on the right. The
share thus acts by the insertion of its point under the slice intended to be
raised, and this is followed up by the feather, which continues the operation
begun by the point, by separating the slice horizontally from the subsoil or the
sole of the furrow; and simultaneous with this, the coulter separates the slice
vertically from the still solid ground. Probably the most natural impression
that would occur, at the first thought of this operation, will be, that the feather
of the share should be of a breadth capable of producing the immediate and
entire separation of the slice from the sole; but experience teaches us that
such would not fulfil all the requisite conditions of good ploughing. The slice
must not only be separated, it must be gradually turned upon its edge, and
ultimately still farther turned over, until that which was the upper surface
becomes the lower, lying at an angle of about 45°. It is found that if the slice
were cut entirely off from the sole, the plough would frequently fail in turning it
over to the position just referred to; it might, in place of this, be only moved
a space to the right, and fall back, or, at most, it would be liable to remain
standing upon its edge; in either case the work would be very imperfect, and
it has therefore been found necessary to leave a portion, usually from to of
THE SHARE-RECTANGULAR FURROW-SLICE.
165
the slice, uncut by the feather of the share. This portion of the slice is left to
be torn asunder from the sole as it rises upon the mould-board, by which means
the slice retains longer its hold of the subsoil, and turning by that hold, as upon
a hinge, till brought to the vertical position, after which it is easily brought into
its ultimate place. The breadth of the share is thus of necessity limited to
the breadth of the slice at a maximum, though its minimum, as will appear,
may not exceed 1.
3
611. The disposition of the feather comes next under notice. The feather
having to perform the operation of cutting that part of the slice, below, that
lies between the point of the share and the extremity of the feather, it is formed
with a thin edge suited to cutting the soil; but the position of that cutting edge
forms a principal feature in distinguishing the varieties of the plough, as before
described. This distinguishing character is of two kinds; first, that which has
the cutting edge lying parallel or nearly so to the plane of the sole, as in the
East-Lothian plough; and, second, that which has this cutting edge elevated as it
retires from the point of the share, rising at an angle with the base-line, which
is found to vary from 4° to 8°, as in the Lanarkshire plough; and all the sub-
varieties of these ploughs have their shares coming under one or other of these
two divisions.
612. The share, in either of the forms above described, passes under the
furrow-slice, making a partial separation of it from the sole of the furrow, rising
as the share progresses the rise, however, being confined entirely to the land-
side edge of the slice, the furrow edge remaining still in connection with the
solid ground; and the shield and back of the share being a continuation of the
mould-board, the latter, in its progress forward, receives the slice from the
share and passes it onward; or, more properly speaking, the plough passes
under it.
a
Fig. 242.
α
a
613. One important consideration remains to be noticed regarding the prac-
tical effects of the two forms of feather. In the first, which has the cutting
edge nearly parallel with the plane of the sole, the furrow-slice being cut
below at one level over the
whole breadth of the share and
feather, the slice, when ex-
posed in section, will be per-
fectly rectangular, as a a a,
fig. 242, or very slightly
rhomboidal, and the sole of
the furrow b c will be perfectly
level across. Such a share,
then, will lift a slice of any given breadth and depth, which shall contain a
maximum quantity of soil, and this result can only be attained by a share
so constructed.
b
THE RECTANGULAR FURROW-SLICE.
C
614. In the second case, where the feather rises above the plane of the sole
at angles from 4° to 8°, the feather is found sometimes to attain a height
of 1 inch and 11 inches above that plane. In all such cases the feather is also
narrow, and, supposing that the part of the slice left uncut by it may be torn
asunder, in a continuation of the cut so made, the slice will have a depth at its
furrow edge less by about 1 inches or more than at its land-side edge, as cut by
the point of the share. A transverse section of this slice, therefore, fig. 243,
would exhibit not a rectangular parallelogram as before, but a trapezoid, whose
sides a b and c d might be each 9 inches, and its side b d 6 inches, and
its other side a c 41 inches. A slice of this form would therefore be deficient in
166
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
the quantity of soil lifted, by a quantity contained in the triangle d c e, or
d
C
C
α
~
Fig. 243.
¿
८
about part of the entire slice,
and this deficiency is left by the
share in the bottom of the furrow
as part of the solid subsoil. The
absolute quantity of soil thus left
unlifted by shares of this con-
struction, will be found to vary
with the elevation that is given
to the feather; but wherever this
form of share is adopted, results
similar to that here described will invariably follow, though they may differ in
degree; but the quantity left in the bottom of the furrow will seldom fall
short of 10 per cent of the whole slice. An indirect mode of removing this
defect is resorted to in practice, which will be noticed under the next head of
Mould-board.
a
THE ORESTED FURROW-SLICE
615. The rule which we would recommend to be followed in order to secure
the maximum of useful effect in the share, as founded on practice and observa-
tion, as well as combining the theory of the share and mould-board, is, that the
length from the tail of the feather to the point of the share should be from 10
to 11 inches; that the height of the shield-the surface of the share-on the
land-side, opposite to the tail of the feather, be 2 inches above the line of the
sole-shoe; that the point of the share be inch below the line of the sole-shoe,
and not exceeding inch to landward of the land-side plane, this last point
being more properly determinable from the coulter; and lastly, that no part of
the edge of the feather should be more than 3 inch above the plane of the sole-
shoe, that plane being always understood to be at right angles to the land-side
plane.
616. The Mould-board.—Since the time that Small achieved his great improve-
ment in the formation of the mould-board, that member has been generally held
as the leading point in the plough. This, in one sense, is no doubt true; for if
there is a spark of science required in the construction of the plough, it is cer-
tainly the mould-board that most requires it. Yet, for all this, we have seen a
plough making work apparently little inferior to the first-rate mould-board
ploughs, that had nothing to enable it to turn over the slice but a straight bar
of wood. In this case, however, the work was but apparently well done, there
being nothing to consolidate the slices upon each other as they fell over by their
own weight. The real state of the case seems to be this, that the share im-
presses the furrow-slice with its form and character, and the duty of the mould-
board is to transmit and deposit that slice in the best possible manner, and with
the least possible injury to the character previously stamped upon it by the
share. If this view is correct-and there appears no reason why it should be
questioned the mould-board is only a medium, through which the slice is con-
veyed from the share to its destined position. To do this, however, in the most
perfect manner, the mould-board has to perform several highly important func-
tions: 1st, The transmission of the slice; 2d, Depositing it in the proper
position; and, 3d, Performing both these operations with the least possible
resistance.
617. The raising and transmitting the slice have frequently been, described as
if consisting of three or more distinct movements. With all deference to former
writers, we conceive it may be viewed as having only two movements, namely,
cutting the slice by the share and coulter, and transmitting it to its appointed
THE MOULD-BOARD.
position through the medium of the mould-board.
167
The cutting of the slice by
the share and coulter has been already discussed; we now proceed to the trans-
mission of the slice by the mould-board.
618. The object of every mould-board is to transmit the slice in the best
manner, and with the least possible expenditure of force; but, as might have
been expected, we find considerable difference of opinion on both these points,
arising from the variations in the form of the mould-board. In a general way,
the transmission of the slice may be explained in the following manner.
a
Fig. 244.
h
b
a
2
THE TRANSMISSION OF THE FURROW-SLICE.
[
619. In fig. 244, a a represents a vertical section of part of an unbroken ridge
of land, and the parallelogram a b c d
also a transverse section of an in-
definitely short portion of a slice
which is proposed to be raised, the
breadth a b being 10 inches, and
depth a d 7 inches; the line d c
will be the bottom of the slice, or
the line on which it is separated
from the sole by the action of the
share. The points of the share and
coulter enter at d; and in progress-
ing forward, the slice will be gradually raised at d, the point c remaining at
rest while the parallelogram revolves upon c as a centre. When the share has
penetrated to the extent of the feather, the point d of the slice will have been
raised 2 to 3 inches. By the continued progress of the plough, the parallelo-
gram representing the slice will be found in the position c e sf, and again at
cghi. At the fourth stage, when the zero-point of the mould-board has reached
the supposed line of section, the slice will have attained the vertical position
cklm. During these stages of this uniform process, the slice has been turning
on the point c as on a pivot, which has retained its original position, while
the point d, in its successive transitions, has described the quadrant de
g k.
By the continued progress of the plough, the revolution of the slice will be con-
tinued, but it will be observed that at this stage it changes the centre of
revolution from c to m; when the point k will have described the arc k the
slice has then reached the position m n o p; and ultimately, when the posterior
extremity of the mould-board has reached the line of section, the slice will have
attained its final position mf qr, lying at an angle of 45°, and resting on the
previously-turned-up slice.
0,
620. The process of turning over the slice, therefore, approximates to a uniform
motion, provided the parts of the plough destined to perform the operation are
properly constructed. The uniformity, however, is not directly as the recti-
lineal progress of the plough, but must be deduced from a different function.
And though the process here described refers only to an indefinitely short slice,
it is only necessary to conceive a continuity of such short slices, going to form
an entire furrow-slice, extending to the whole length of the field; and the
lengthened furrow-slice, being possessed of sufficient tenacity to admit of the
requisite and temporary extension which it undergoes while the plough is
passing under and turning it over, is again compressed into its original length
when laid in its ultimate position. The furrow-slice, therefore, under this pro-
cess, may not inaptly be compared to the motion of a wave in the ocean, keeping
in mind that the wave of the slice is carried forward in a horizontal direction,
whereas the ocean-wave is vertical. But in both cases, though the wave travels
onward, there is no translation of parts in the direction in which it seems to
168
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
travel. In the case of the furrow-slice movement, it appears as in the annexed
a
g h
b
f
ん
​Fig. 245.
m
perspective view, fig.
245, where a b is the
edge of the land as cut
by the preceding furrow ;
c d the slice in the act
of turning over, but from
which the plough has
been removed; e f the
edge of the land from
which the slice c d is
being cut; g h the sole of.
the furrow, and i k, 1 m
slices previously laid up.
A consideration of this
figure will also show that
the extension of the slice
takes place along the land-side edge e d only, from e to where the backward flexure
is given to it when rising on the mould-board; and where it is again compressed
into its original length by the back parts of the mould-board in being laid down.
621. The Furrow-slice.-To accomplish efficient ploughing, the furrow-slice
should always be of such dimensions, and laid in such position, that the two
exposed faces in a series of slices shall be of equal breadth, whether the object
be a seed-furrow or intended for amelioration by exposure to the atmosphere.
Furrow-slices laid up agreeably to this rule will not only present the maximum
of surface to the atmosphere, but they will also contain the maximum of cubical
A VIEW OF THE MOVEMENT OF THE FURROW-SLICE.
Fig. 246.
i
C
f
α
$
2*
e
h
k
N
h
*
contents, both of which propositions may be illus-
trated thus by fig. 246: Let a b represent the
breadth of a 10-inch furrow-slice, and describe the
semicircle a c b upon it as a diameter. From
the well-known property of the circle, that the
angle in a semicircle is a right angle, every
angle formed upon the diameter, as a base, will be
m right-angled, and the only isosceles triangle that
can be formed within it will be that which has
g the greatest altitude. The triangle a c b pos-
sesses these properties, for produce cb to d,
making c d equal to a b-the breadth of the slice,
which must always be equal to the distance be-
tween the apices of two contiguous furrows.
Complete the parallelogram a c d e, which
will represent the transverse section of a rectan-
10 inches, and whose two exposed faces a c and
cb lie at angles of 45°, and their breadth, as well as the area of the triangle
C, will be a maximum. In order to prove this, let a section of another slice be
formed, whose exposed side a ƒ shall be greater than the corresponding side a c of
the first slice, and let this be taken at 8 inches. From f, through the point b, draw
ƒg, then will a fb be a right angle as before; f g being also made equal to 10
inches, complete the parallelogram a f g h, which will represent the transverse
section of a rectangular slice 10 inches by Sinches, occupying the same horizontal
breadth as before, and whose exposed faces will be a ƒ and fb. Draw the line
i c k parallel to a b, and passing through the apex c of the triangle a cb; and
EUCLID, 31, iii.
PROPORTIONAL AREAS OF THE FURROW-SLICE
IN DIFFERENT POSITIONS.
gular slice whose breadth is
α
b
THE FURROW-SLICE.
169
the line o p also parallel to a b, passing through the apex ƒ of the triangle af b.
Here the triangles a c b and a ƒ b stand on an equal basis a b; but a cb lies
between the parallels a b and i c k, and a ƒ b between those of a b and o p,
the altitude fr, therefore, of the triangle af b, is less than the altitude cs of the
triangle a c b. And triangles on equal bases being proportional to their altitudes,
it follows that the triangle af b is less than the triangle a c b, both in area and
periphery. Suppose, again, a slice whose side a l is less than the corresponding
side a c, and let it be 6 inches; from 1, through the point b, as before, draw 1 m,
and construct the parallelogram a l m n, we shall have a transverse section of a
third slice of 10 inches by 6 inches, whose exposed faces a 1, lb occupy the
same horizontal breadth as before. Here the triangle alb lies between the
parallels a b and o p, consequently equal to a fb and less than a c b.
a b
622. This simple geometrical demonstration, as applicable to the slice, may
be corroborated by the usual formula of the triangle. Thus the altitude of the
triangle a c b is 5 inches cb
=s c, and the side a c or c b is = √ a s² + c s²;
or a s and c s being each equal to 5 inches, a c or cb will = √√5² + 5² = 7.071
inches, which is the depth due to a slice of 10 inches in breadth, and the sum
of the two exposed faces will be 7.071 × 2 = 14.142 inches.
2
=
623. In the triangle a ƒ b, a b = 10 inches and a ƒ= 8 inches, then a b² – a ƒ²
=fb2, and the fb26 inches. The three sides, therefore, of this triangle
b²,
are 10, 8, and 6 inches, and the altitude rƒ is easily found by the principles of
similar triangles. Thus, in the similar triangles a fr, fbr, ab: af::fb:fr.
The perpendicular fr is therefore = 4.8 inches; hence the exposed surfaces are
as 14.142: 14, and the altitudes as 5: 4.8. Since it turns out that a l is equal
to ƒ b, and a b common to both, it follows that 7 b is equal to a f, and the peri-
phery and altitude also equal, and less, in all respects, than the triangle a c b.
And so of any other position or dimensions.
Fig. 247.
b
624. The slice which presents a rectangular section is not the only form which
is practised in modern ploughing. Of late years, and since the introduction
of the changes by Wilkie on the plough, a system of ploughing has been
revived* in which the great object seems to be that of raising a slice that shall
present a high shoulder, as it has been called, or which we have ventured to
denominate the crested furrow, fig. 243. The general impressions that prevail
as to the advantages of this mode of ploughing, are, that the crested furrow
affords a greater surface to the action of the
atmosphere, and a greater quantity of cover to
the seed in the case of a seed-furrow in lea.
As there appears to be some degree of fallacy
in the reasonings on this point amongst prac-
tical men, and as it does not appear to have
been hitherto sufficiently investigated, we shall
venture a few remarks, in the hope of leading
others to a more full consideration of the points
involved in the subject.
a
g
K
d
THE COMPARISON OF THE RECTANGULAR AND
CRESTED SLICES.
625. The crested slice, instead of the rectan-
gular section of the one already described in
fig. 242, presents a rhomboidal, but much more
frequently a trapezoidal section; indeed, the lat-
ter may be held as inseparable from the practice;
but, in comparing them, we shall first take the exposed surface. In fig. 247,
then, let a b c d represent a transverse section of a rectangular slice of 10 by
* BLITH'S English Improver Improved, p. 266, edit. 1652.
170
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
а е
2
་
7 inches, a e the base of the triangle, whose sides a b, b e represent the two
exposed surfaces of the slice when set up with the sides at angles of 45° to the
horizon, its angle at b being 90°,—its altitude bf will be as before, 5 inches.
Again, let g h be the base of the triangle whose sides g b, b h represent the
exposed surfaces of a crested slice—whose base g h, equal to g k, may be taken
at 9 inches, that being the breadth at which such ploughs take their furrow.
Supposing also that the cresting is such as to give an altitude, ƒ b, of 5 inches,
as in that of the rectangular slice, we shall have the sides g b, b h, from the
usual formula, g ƒ² +ƒ b² = g b², and gf being 4 inches, ƒ b = 5 inches; then the
√4.52+526.72 inches = g b or b h, being rather more than the best practical
authorities for cresting ploughs give to the depth of a slice; the dimensions
recommended being from 8 to 9 inches broad, and from 6 to 6 inches in depth.
It will therefore always fall short in perpendicular height of the rectangular
slice of 10 by 7 inches. But, allowing the height to be the same, we have two
triangles a b e and g b h of equal height, but of unequal bases; their areas will
therefore be unequal, and proportional to their bases.
626. In bringing these two systems, however, into practice over any extent
of surface, suppose a ridge of a field, the number of furrows of each required to
turn over such ridge will be exactly in proportion to the length of the base of
the triangle, or as 9 to 10. Hence, though the individual crested slices or
triangles have an area less than that of the rectangular slice in the proportion
of 9 to 10, yet the aggregate area of all the triangles, over any given breadth
of surface, wherever the number of slices of the one exceeds that of the other
in the proportion of 10 to 9, will be the same, but no more. The imaginary
advantage, therefore, of a greater cover to the seed with a crested furrow, fails,
provided the comparison is made with a plough that takes a furrow of 10 inches
wide by 7 inches deep, such as the East-Lothian plough.
2
2
627. It is to be admitted, that were cresting ploughs, that cut their slices
9 inches wide, to take them 7 inches deep, and still preserve the rhom-
boidal or trapezoidal section, they might in that case produce an increase of
cover to the seed, as compared with a rectangular slice of 9 by 7 inches. Let
us refer again to fig. 247, and suppose g b=7 inches, g f being, as before,
4½ inches, then g b²—g ƒ²—ƒb², or bf will be equal to 5.36 inches, while, by
the same method, the rectangular slice of 9 by 7 inches would give b ƒ equal to
only 4.39 inches, the crested slice in this case giving a difference of height of
.97 inch, and of this, or .48 inch, of greater cover of seed. But this is not a
practicable case, inasmuch as the cresting plough cannot be worked in a furrow
of 9 by 7 inches, and lay the furrow-slice at an angle that would give equal.
exposure to both sides of the slice, whether it possess a rectangular or rhom-
boidal section, the true depth being 6.36 inches nearly, for a slice whose breadth
is 9 inches; and the height bf of its triangle would be, if rectangular, only
4.5 inches. Compared with itself, therefore, the plough that takes a 9-inch
furrow rectangular yields inch less cover to the seed than when it raises the
crested slice; but, even with the advantage of the crest, it is not better than
the plough that takes a 10-inch furrow; while the former labours under other
disadvantages arising from that peculiarity of structure for which it is valued.
1
4
628. In order to exhibit the difference of effect of the rectangular and the
crested slices, as lifted and laid on each other by the plough, and as they
affect the real intentions of tillage, we shall consider them in separate detail.
Fig. 248 is an example of the rectangular slice of 10 by 7 inches: a b dc may
be taken as a transverse section of the body of the plough, the line a c being
RECTANGULAR AND CRESTED FURROW-SLICES.
171
the terminal outline of the mould-board, a ƒ a section of the furrow-slice which
is just being laid up, and g h a slice previously deposited. In the triangle i g k
Fig. 248.
Fig. 249.
k
a
b
n
k
b
m
P
THE EFFECTS OF A RECTANGULAR FURROW-SLICE.
9
THE EFFECTS OF A CRESIED FURROW SLICE.
the base i k is 10 inches, being always equal to the breadth of the slice, the
angle at g a right angle, and the sides ig, g k each equal to 7.071 inches, the per-
pendicular height g l being 5 inches, as demonstrated in par. 621. Fig. 249 is a
similar representation of a cresting plough, with its effects on the slice and the
subsoil; k n po is a section of the plough, k m a section of a slice in the act of
being deposited on the preceding slice c l. Here the slices are trapezoidal, as
they are always cut by this species of plough; and from this configuration of the
slice, the broader sides are not parallel, nor do the conterminous sides of the
adjacent slices lie parallel to each other in the transverse direction. The side
b c lying at an angle of 48° with the base a b, while the side bm makes the
opposite angle at b only 41°, the angle at c being 84°, and the triangle a b c
isosceles. The base a b of the triangle a b c is now supposed to be 8 inches-
the breadth recommended for a seed-furrow, and the side a c 6 inches, the
opposite side lh being 4 or 5 inches. The base a b, when bisected in d, gives
a d=4.25 inches, and since a c²—a d²—c d²,
=c d², c d will be 4.918 inches, which
is less than given by the former demonstration of the crested slice; but we
have observed cases still more extreme, where, still referring to fig. 249,
a b was only 7 inches, but the angle at c became so acute as 75°; yet with
these dimensions c d is still under 5 inches; hence in all practical cases, with
a furrow less than 9 inches in breadth, the result will be a reduction in the
quantity of cover for seed.
629. One other point remains to be noticed in reference to the two forms of
furrow-slice. We have seen that the rectangular slice necessarily implies that
the bottom of the furrow shall be cut upon a level in its transverse section,
fig. 242; while the slice that is cut by the cresting plough leaves the bottom of
the furrow with a sloping rise from the land-side towards the furrow-side at
every slice, and this rise may range from 1 to 1½ inches or more. Returning to
fig. 248, the serrated line fho exhibits a transverse section of the surface of
the subsoil from which the soil has been turned up by the cresting plough. The
triangular spaces e f g, g h i represent the quantity of soil left by such ploughs at
the lifting of each slice. These quantities may amount to of what the slice
ought to be, and are thus robbed from it, and left adhering to the subsoil,
except in so far as they may be rubbed down by the abrading action of the
lower edge of the mould-board, as at ƒ and h, and the portions of soil so rubbed
off are thrust into the spaces under the edge of the slices as they are suc-
cessively laid up. This last process may be readily observed at any time when
the plough is working in tough land or in lea. With a cresting plough the
spaces f, h, o will be seen more or less filled up with crumbling soil; while, with
172
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
the rectangular plough, the corresponding spaces will be left nearly void. We
should decidedly say that the filling-in of these voids cannot be as beneficial
to the land as if the 4th here left below had been turned up with the slice; and
what is thus left is more frequently left adhering to the subsoil than it is to be
found stuffed under the edge of the slice. Under any view, the system of the
crested furrow-ploughing is not unworthy the serious consideration of the farmer.
630. In considering this question, there are two points deserving attention.
1st, The immediate effects upon the labour of men and horses. It may be
asserted generally, that all ploughs adapted to form a crested furrow are heavier
in draught than those which produce the rectangular furrow. This seems a
natural inference from the manner in which they work-the tendency that they
all have to under-cut by the coulter; the narrow feather of the share leaves
more resistance to the body in raising and turning the slice; and not least, the
small ridge left adhering to the bottom of the furrow, if rubbed down and stuffed
under the slice, is performed by an unnecessary waste of power, seeing that the
mould-board is not adapted for removing such adhering obstructions. 2d, The
loss of time and labour arising from the breadth of furrow, compared with those
ploughs that take a 10-inch furrow. Thus, in ploughing an imperial acre with
a 10-inch furrow-leaving out of view the taking up of the closing of the open
furrows, the turnings, &c.—the distance walked over by the man and horses will
amount to 9.9 miles nearly; with a 9-inch furrow the distance will be 11 miles;
with 81-inch furrow it will be 11½ miles or thereby; and with a 7½-inch furrow
131 miles nearly.
631. It may, therefore, be of importance for the farmer to weigh these con-
siderations, and endeavour to ascertain whether it is more for his interest that
his ploughing should be essentially well done, and with the least expenditure
of power and time, or that it should be done more to please the eye, with a
high surface-finish, though this may perhaps be gained at a greater expenditure
of power and time; while the essentials may in some degree be imperfectly
formed. We would have no hesitation to prefer the well-done work, and the
saving of power and time, to mere external finish.
632. On this part of the subject we cannot refrain a passing remark on the
very laudable exertions that have been made all over the country in producing
that emulation amongst our ploughmen, which has been so successful in pro-
ducing excellence in their vocation amongst that useful class of agricultural
labourers, as to give them a pre-eminence over all others of their class in any
country—we mean the institution of ploughing-matches. While we offer our
ardent wishes for a continuance of the means which have raised the character
of the Scottish ploughmen, we cannot prevent doubts rising in our mind, that,
however good and beneficial these competitions are calculated to be, if the
exertions of the class are properly directed, yet the best exertions of both the
promoters and the actors may be frustrated by allowing a false taste to be
engendered amongst the operatives. That such a false taste has taken root,
we have no doubt; and the results of it are appearing in the spread of opinions
favourable to that kind of ploughing which to us appears not much deserving of
encouragement-the high-crested system. We have observed, at various plough-
ing-matches, that the prize was awarded to that kind of ploughmanship which
exhibited the highest surface-finish, without reference to the groundwork of it;
and we have compared by actual weight, all crumbs included, the quantities of
soil lifted by ploughs that gained prizes with others which did not, because
their work did not look so fine on the surface; and we have found that the
one to whom the prize was awarded had not lifted so much soil by as some
THE FORMATION OF THE MOULD-BOARD.
173
of those that were rejected. We are far from intending, by these remarks, to
throw discredit on ploughing-matches; on the contrary, we would wish to see
them meet with tenfold encouragement, and also to see many more than are
usually met with, of the good and the great of the land, assembled at those
meetings, to encourage and stimulate by their presence and liberality the
exertions of the competitors in such interesting and useful exhibitions.
633. The Principles and Formation of the Mould-board.—Of the various indi-
viduals who have written upon the plough and the formation of the mould-
board, Bailey of Chillingham and Small of Berwickshire are perhaps the only
two who have communicated their views in a practical shape; and even in
their descriptions there is somewhat of ambiguity and uncertainty, but such
may be inseparable from the subject. Many other nameless artisans have
varied the mould-board until almost every county has something peculiarly
its own, and each district claims for its favourite all the advantages due to
perfection.
634. We have been at great pains to analyse a considerable number of these
varieties; and as the subject is not unimportant in a work of this kind, we have
selected a few of the best known, and of highest character, as objects of com-
parison.
635. The method adopted to obtain a mechanical analysis of these mould-
boards has been simple, but perfectly correct; and as the principle may be
applied to the attainment of counterparts of other objects, perhaps more im-
portant than a mould-board, it may be deserving of a place here. As a matter
of justice also to the fabricators of the different mould-boards here exhibited,
we are desirous to show the principle on which these transcripts of their
works have been thus brought forward in a new form, and in contrast with
each other.
с
a
O
N
Fig. 250.
i
b
6
5
e
3
d
2
S
6
5
636. The instrument employed for this purpose is a double parallelogram or
parallel ruler, as repre-
sented in fig. 250, which is
a perspective of the appa-
ratus. The bars a b, c d,
ef, are slips of hardwood
about 3 feet long, or they
may be of any convenient
length, and 1½ inches broad
by inch thick, each of
which is perforated at a, b,
c, d, e, f, the perforations
being exactly equidistant
in all the bars. Four
similar bars, of about half
the length, are perforated
also at one uniform dis-
tance, and the seven bars
thus prepared are jointed together upon brass studs, and secured so as to move
freely at every point, but without shake on the studs. The form when con-
structed is that of the two parallelograms a b d c and c d f e. In the end of
the bar e ƒ a stout wire-pointerj is fixed, of about 6 inches in length, lying in
the plane of the instrument, and parallel to the edge of the bar. In a contin-
uation of this parallel upon the bar e f, a socket capable of retaining a pencil or
tracer is fixed anywhere at g. The instrument so formed is fixed upon a flat
N
D
î'
h
1
THE PARALLEL RULER.
3
Q
q
т
1
t
174
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
board h i, of about 3 feet square, by means of two screw-nails z z passing through
the bar a b, in a position parallel to the lower edge of the board; thus leaving
all the other bars at liberty to move upon their joints; which completes the
instrument. From the well-known properties of the parallelogram, as applied
to the pantograph and the eidograph, it is unnecessary to demonstrate that
whatever line or figure may be traced with the pointer j, will be faithfully
repeated by the tracing-pencil g upon any substance placed before it, and of
the same dimensions as the original.
637. Another board, or table, or a level platform, is now to be selected, and
a line 7 m, which may be called the fundamental or leading line drawn upon it.
This line, to an extent of 3 feet or more, is divided into any number of equal
parts, but in this case the divisions were 3 inches each; through these points
of division are drawn the straight lines ln, o p, qr, &c., indefinitely on each side
of the line 7 m, and at right angles to it. The board carrying the instrument
is provided with a foot behind, that keeps the face of the board always perpen-
dicular to the platform on which it stands. The plough with the mould-board
about to be analysed is now set upon the table or platform upon which the lead-
ing line and the divisions have been laid down, the land-side of the plough
being set parallel to the leading line, and at any convenient distance from it.
suited to the instrument; presenting the mould-board in the position s t, and
so placed in reference to the lines of division that the zero-line shall coincide
with one of them, provided the extremities do not overreach the divisions either
way, the land-side of the plough being at the same time perpendicular. The
instrument is now brought towards one extremity of the mould-board, and
placed upon that parallel of the divisions that come nearest to the extremity,
as No. 1, the edge of the instrument coinciding with the leading line
I m.
A sheet of paper having been now fixed upon the board h i of the instru-
ment, and a tracing-pencil inserted in the socket g, the operation of tracing
commences. The tracing-point j is passed in the vertical direction over the
surface of the mould-board, tracing along a line No. 1, the pencil g at the
same time tracing a corresponding line No. 1, on the paper, which will be an
exact outline of the face of the mould-board at that division, supposing the
mould-board to be cut by a transverse section in that line. The instrument
and board are now to be moved one division upon the leading line 7 m, the
coincidence of the edge li of the board with that line being still preserved.
The tracing-point j is again made to pass vertically over the face of the mould-
board at No. 2, when the pencil g will trace on the paper a second line No. 2.
This process, repeated at each successive division, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c., the correspond-
ing lines, 3, 4, 5, 6, &c. on the paper will be traced out, exhibiting a series
of perfect sectional lines of the mould-board, each line being that which would
arise from an imaginary vertical plane cutting the body of the plough at right
angles to its land-side at every 3 inches of its length. To prevent any inac-
curacy that might arise from a misapplication of the tracing-point j to the
oblique surface of the mould-board, a straight-edged ruler, in form of a car-
penter's
's square uv x, is applied to the mould-board. The stock u v of the
square being placed on the platform, and parallel to the line 7 m, which brings
the edge v x always into the vertical plane, and the tracing-rod j must be kept
in contact with this edge, while it traverses the face of the mould-board at each
successive section.
638. This mode of analysis, it is to be observed, has not been adopted from
its having any relation to the principles on which the different mould-boards
have been constructed, but because it presents an unerring method of comparing
SECTIONS OF MOULD-BOARD OF EAST-LOTHIAN PLOUGH. 175
a series of sectional lines of any one mould-board with those of any other;
hence it affords a correct system of comparison. But it is not merely a com-
parative view that is afforded by it, for a groundwork is thus afforded from
which the mechanic may, at any time or place, construct a fac-simile of any
mould-board, the analysis of which has been made after this manner.
639. The results of the analysis of the mould-boards of the ploughs we have
been speaking of, as taken by this method, are given in the following figures."
Plate II., fig. 1, is a geometrical elevation in a plane parallel to the land-side
of the mould-board of the East-Lothian plough, 7 m being its base-line. The
perpendicular lines of division, commencing from the lines o o the zero, and
extending right and left, are the lines of section. Those to the right or fore-
end of the mould-board, marked a a, bb, &c., and those to the left 1 1, 2 2, &c.
The curved line x y z represents the path described on the face of the mould-
board by the lower land-side edge of the furrow-slice, as the mould-board passes
under it; this line we shall call the line of transit. Fig. 2 is a front view in
elevation of the mould-board of the same plough, and corresponding to fig. 1;
k m is the base line of the plough; mg is the land-side plane in a vertical
position; m is also the place of the point of the share; and hi the line of junction
between the neck of the share and the mould-board; the remaining lines beyond
h i exhibit the outline of all the sections taken by the instrument in reference
to the lines in fig. 1. Thus, o o gm is the section of the entire body of the
plough in the plane of the zero-line, o y o being the outline of the mould-board
at this section, and y the zero-point; a a gm the first section forward from the
zero line, b b gm the second, and so on. In like manner 1 1 g m is the first
section backward from the zero, 2 2 g m the second, and so on; each section so
lettered and numbered having relation to the divisions carrying the corres-
ponding letters and numerals in fig. 1. The entire series of lines 1 1, 2 2, &c.,
and a a, b b, &c., thus form a series of profiles of the mould-board, supposing it
to be cut vertically by planes at right angles to the land-side of the plough.
In fig. 2, also, the dotted line m x y z represents the path of the slice or line of
transit, as in fig. 1, and z k represents a transverse section of the slice as finally
deposited by the mould-board.
640. Figs. 3 and 4 exhibit in the same manner the mould-board of the Lanark-
shire plough, the divisional and sectional lines being all laid off in the same
manner from the zero-line as in the example just described of the East-
Lothian plough, and the zero-point y in the line o y o, which is 9 inches from
the plane of the land-side. Fig. 4 bears also the same relation to fig. 3, and
the letters and numerals in these have the same relation and value as in figs. 1
and 2 of the East-Lothian plough.
641. With reference to the characters of these different mould-boards, it may
be remarked of the East-Lothian mould-board, fig. 2, Plate II., that those
portions of the sectional lines lying between the lower edge and the line of
transit are essentially straight, the two lines beyond the zero-line backward
excepted, these being slightly concave towards the lower edge; and although
the lines before the zero-line and above the line of transit are concave, that
part of the surface has no effect upon the furrow-slice. It is likewise to be
observed, that the parallelogram ky, which represents a section of the slice
when brought to the vertical position, has its upper angle y only touching the
zero-line, and no other part of the side of the parallelogram in contact with thei
zero-line of section o yo; hence the mould-board, by its pressure being exerted
chiefly against the upper edge of the furrow-slice, will always have a tendency to
abrade the crest of its rectangular slice in its progress over the mould-board.
176
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
642. The Lanarkshire mould-board, figs. 3 and 4, Plate II., has all its lines
convex, the terminal edge excepted, which is nearly straight below, but pre-
serves the convexity as it approaches the line of transit. Even above the line
of transit the convexity is continued, and though not affecting the furrow-slice,
it gives, in appearance, a still more decided character of convexity; and by
thus making the upper edge of the mould-board retire, gives a long rake to the
breast of the plough. It will be readily conceived that this mould-board, from
the convexity of all its sectional lines, is essentially formed for turning up a
crested furrow, more especially when the form of its share and the position of
its coulter are considered. These last, being formed for cutting the slice with
a very acute angle, will deliver it to the mould-board; and, from the form of
the latter, the slice will pass over it uninjured; for the pressure upon the mould-
board will be always greatest upon those parts of the surface of the slice lying
within the edge, preventing thereby the abrasion of that tender part. These
circumstances are clearly seen from the relation of the section of the furrow-
slice k y as applied to the zero-line o y o, the point of contact lying consider-
ably within the angle at y of the slice; and the same relation holds throughout
the entire transit, up to the delivery of the slice in the ultimate position k z.
643. With the foregoing mould-boards, it will be observed that the section of
the furrow-slice, in its ultimate position, seems to encroach upon the tail of the
mould-board; and this is to be understood as arising from the circumstance of
the slice being represented as incompressible, and unabraded below or above.
In practice, the slice is pressed downward on the angle at k, and pressed home
upon the preceding slice, so as to bring the face of the slice simply in contact
with the terminal line of the mould-board instead of the apparent mutual inter-
penetration exhibited in the figures.
644. From the examples here given of the forms of mould-boards, and the
effects which they produce when combined with any particular form of share
and position of coulter, it will be easy to draw a conclusion as to the kind of
work that will be performed by any plough that comes under our observation,
and that without any previous knowledge of its merits; keeping in mind that
the ultimate form of the furrow will always depend on the form of the share and
position of the coulter, that the passage of the furrow-slice over the mould-board
will have but a very partial effect on the form of the slice, and that this effect
will be greater or less according to the form of surface. Thus, a slight con-
vexity of surface, immediately below the line of transit, will with greater cer-
tainty secure the transit of the slice without injury to its edge, than may be
expected from a surface which has a concavity crossing the line of transit,
though it may be obtained, as in the East-Lothian plough, with a straight-lined
mould-board; but it will be more certainly obtained if the share is narrow, as
in the Lanarkshire; though this last expedient will induce disadvantages in
point of draught, and risk of losing the effect, by any undue placement of the
coulter. These disadvantages may arise from the coulter not being sufficiently
set to landward, thereby admitting the breast of the plough to scrape upon the
land, and send a small portion of earth along the mould-board, accompanying
the edge of the furrow-slice, which may have the effect of abrading it so much
as to injure the appearance of the work, though not, in fact, affecting its effi-
ciency.
645. Having thus endeavoured to establish some data by which the agricul-
tural mechanist, whether amateur or operative, may be assisted in determining
from observation what practical effects may be expected to result from any
form of mould-board and share, we proceed to mention some rules by which he
THEORETICAL MOULD-BOARD.
177
may form a mould-board on what we may conceive to be the true principle, but
upon which may be engrafted such deviations as taste or other circumstances
may require.
646. Those writers who contributed to the improvement of the plough in the
early stages of its modern history, laboured at a time when mould-boards of
wood only were employed. Hence, their instructions related to the formation
of that material alone, into mould-boards. Later writers have followed in nearly
the same course, and have given rules for forming a mould-board out of a block
of wood, of sufficient dimensions to contain all the extremities of the proposed
fabric. The change now pervading this branch of mechanics, wherein the
introduction of cast-iron has become universal, precludes the necessity of falling
back upon any of the old rules; what the agricultural mechanic is now required
to furnish being not a mould-board, but, in the language of the foundry, a
pattern, from which castings are to be obtained perfect fac-similes of the original
pattern, and which may be repeated ad libitum: from this last circumstance it
follows that the making of a pattern will be a comparatively rare occurrence,
and one which he will seldom be called upon to perform. It nevertheless appears
desirable that a knowledge of the construction of such a fabric should be com-
municated in a manner that may enable an ordinarily skilled mechanic to construct
a pattern when required, with accuracy and certainty of effect.
647. Very considerable discrepancies exist in the form given to mould-boards,
and there is no doubt that peculiarities of soil may demand variations in form;
but the propriety of such wide deviations may be called in question, and the
actually required deviation brought within very narrow limits. It appears,
indeed, that one form may be brought to answer all required purposes, if aided
by a properly adjusted share and coulter.
648. Theoretical Mould-board.—From a careful study of the foregoing analyti-
cal diagrams, and from comparison of numerous implements and their practical
effects, together with a consideration of the dynamical principles on which the
plough operates, we have been led to suggest a theoretical form of mould-board,
which seems to fulfil all the conditions required in the investigation, and which
is capable, by very simple modifications, of adaptation to the circumstances of
the medium on which it works. In the outset, it is assumed that the soil is
homogeneous, and that it possesses such a degree of tenacity and elasticity as
to yield to the passing form of the plough, and to resume, when laid in the due
position, that form which was first impressed upon the slice, by the action of the
share and coulter; the second consideration being the cutting of a slice from the
solid land. In a theoretical view, this must be an operation through its whole
depth and breadth; hence the share is conceived to be a cutting edge which
shall have a horizontal breadth equal to the breadth of the slice that is to be
raised, and that the face or land-side of the coulter shall stand at right angles
to this. Another consideration is, that the slice now supposed to be cut has to
be raised on one side, and turned over through an angle of 135°, the turning
over being performed on the lower right-hand edge, as on a hinge, through the
first 90°, the remaining 45° being performed on what was at first the upper
right-hand edge (figs. 244-245.) The slice, in going through this evolution, has
to undergo a twisting action, and be again returned to its original form of a right
prism. To accomplish this last process, it is evident that a wedge, twisted on its
upper surface, must be the agent; and to find the form and dimensions of this
wedge, is solving the problem that gives the surface of the mould-board required.
649. We have seen, fig. 244, that the slice, in passing through the first 90°,
describes the quadrant with its lower edge, and in doing so, we can conceive a
M
178
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
a
continued slice to form the solid of revolution a b c d e, fig. 251, which is a
7
--- a m
m
Fig. 251.
6
7
b
12
9
9 6 30
3
5
4
х
d
quarter of a cylinder, as shown here
in isometrical perspective; the radius
a b or a c being equal to the breadth of
the slice. We have next to consider
the angle of elevation of the twisted
wedge; and in doing this, we must
not only consider the least resistance,
but also the most convenient length
of the wedge. In taking a low angle,
which would present, of course, pro-
portionally little resistance, it would,
at the same time, require a length
of mould-board that would be highly
foot inconvenient, seeing that the generat-
ing point, in any section of the slice,
must ultimately reach the same height,
whether by a low or a higher angle. From experience we find that, from
the point of the share to that point in the plough's body where the slice arrives
at the perpendicular position, and which we have named the zero-point,
30 inches form a convenient length. The length c d of the solid is there-
fore made equal to 30 inches or more, and this being divided into ten equal
parts, the parallels 1 1, 2 2, 3 3, &c., are to be drawn upon the cylindrical
surface; and between the points b d, a curve has to be described that shall be
the line of transit of the slice. After investigating the application of various
curves to this purpose, we have found that a circular arc is the only one that
can be adopted. It presents the least attainable resistance in the first stages
of the ascent, where the force required to raise the slice is the greatest; and
in the last stages, where the force of raising has vanished, leaving only what
is necessary to turn the slice over, the resistance is at the greatest; and,
above all, the circle being of equal flexure throughout, it is in every way
THEORETICAL PRISM FOR THE GENERATION OF THE MOULD-BOARD.
d
Fig. 252.
e
1 2 3
4 5 6 7 8
У
9
h
י
m
2
p
DIAGRAM TO DETERMINE THE RADIUS OF
CURVATURE OF THE MOULD-BOARD.
best adapted to the objects here required.
e,
650. To determine the radius of curvature
of this arc, we must evolve the cylindrical sur-
face cb de, and from it construct the diagram,
fig. 252. Draw e b equal to c d of fig. 251;
e d equal to the length of the arc c b or d
and at right angles to e b; divide e b into
ten equal parts, and from the points of divi-
sion draw the ordinates 1f, 2 g, 3 h, &c.,
parallel to e d; from b set off 10 inches for
the length of the share along the line be, which will fall 1 inch beyond the division
7, and at this distance draw the line parallel to 7 m; upon this set off a dis-
tance 7 m of 21 inches; and through the three points, d, m, b, describe an arc of
a circle, whose radius will be found equal to the circumference of the cylinder of
which a b c, fig. 251, is a quadrant. The circular arc thus found is now to be
transferred to the cylindrical surface cb d e, fig. 251. The transfer may be per-
formed by drawing the arc on paper, and the paper then laid over the cylindrical
surface in such a manner that the points b, m, d, fig. 252, shall be brought to
coincide with the points b, m, d of the cylindrical surface, fig. 251; when the
remaining points f, g, h, i, or any number more, may be marked on the cylindri-
cal quadrant by pricking through the paper with a pointed instrument at short
THEORETICAL MOULD-BOARD.
179
intervals along the arc; or, the length of the ordinates 1 f, 2 g, 3 h of
fig. 252, may be transferred to the corresponding parallels of fig. 251, when
the lengths of the ordinates will cut the parallels in the points f, g, h, &c.
In either case, the curve can now be traced through the points b, P,
n, m, &c., on the cylindrical surface. Through the points b, p, n, m, &c.,
draw the dotted lines ff', g g', h h', &c., parallel to c d or be, and from the
centre a draw the radii a ƒ, a g', a h', &c.; the unequal divisions of the arc
cb will thus show the proportional angles of ascent of the slice along the
line of transit now found, b, p', n', &c.,
for each division of the length; while
the degree of flexure in the curve
or line of transit remains uniform by
the same, from any one point, to any
other equidistant point.
g
8
Fig. 253.
୪
5
en
71.
א
2
3
651. To convert the prism thus
prepared and lined off into that of the
twisted wedge, we have only to cut.
away that portion of it contained
within the boundaries a, b, c, d, x,
preserving the terminal edges a b, a x,
and d x; and the prism will thus be
resolved into a form represented by a
portion a b d x e, of fig. 253, also in
isometrical perspective. Of this fig-
ure, a b d x is the true theoretical
surface of the mould-board, from the
edge a b of the share to the zero-line
; a be x being the sole; the curve
n m 1, &c. the line of transit of the furrow-slice; and the triangles 1ƒ 1',
2 g 2′, 3 h 3', 4 i 4', &c. the vertical planes, supposed to cut the solid thus
reduced in the divisions 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. to the height of the line of transit, as
in the analytical sections of the mould-boards.
d x
b
P
a
9
-
7
8
9
THE TWISTED WEDGE OF THE MOULD-BOARD OUT OUT OF THE PRISM.
u
Fig. 254.
a
652. The surface now completed can only raise the slice to the perpendicular
position; and to complete the operation, we have to carry the twisted wedge
back till it shall place the slice at the angle of 45°. To do this we have to extend
the original prism, or suppose it to have been at first sufficiently elongated
towards d d', fig. 253, and to superimpose upon its flat side the portion d d', u x,
or a d' u of fig. 254. The part d d' u x is now to
be worked off into a part of a new cylindrical sur-
face, whose radius is y d'or y u, fig. 254, and
upon this surface, the line d'u, fig. 254, is to be
drawn a tangent to the curve b d'at d'. A continu-
ation of the divisions of 3 inches is to be made upon
the line d d', fig. 253, and the parallels a' q, b' r, and
u' d', continued on the cylindrical surfaces. What-
ever portion of the superimposed piece a d' u may
be found to fall within the small arc a t, fig. 254,
is to be cut away, forming a small portion of an
interior cylinder concentric to the point y, which being done, the remaining
portions of the superimposed piece are to be cut away to the dotted lines d x,
И, of fig. 253, or, what is the same thing, to the lines d'a, a' a, b' t,
and u t, of fig. 254, forming tangents to the curve a t, and which will complete
ď Yo
b' 29
ú
a.
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THEORETICAL
MOULD-BOARD.
in
n
p
'b
180
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
the surface of the twisted wedge through its entire length, and to the height of
the line of transit, producing what we conceive to be the true theoretical surface
of the mould-board.
653. Fig. 254 exhibits distinctly, in the quadrant a b d', the inequality of the
angles of ascent for the slice, where the radii a p', a n', a m', &c. represent the
ascents to the corresponding divisions of length in the transit of the slice
through the curve b d' u, which represents the periphery of the cylindrical
surfaces at the line of transit. The parts of the figure lying above that line
represent those that must be superimposed above the quadrantal portion of
the cylinder, to complete the upper regions of the mould-board: these parts,
acting merely as a preventive against the overfall of soil into the waste of
the plough, are of less importance as to form than those just described, but are
quite necessary in the practice of ploughing. The parallelogram y d' exhibits
the relation in which the furrow-slice stands to this form of mould-board, when
the slice has been raised to the perpendicular, and y u in its ultimate position.
654. Although we hold this to be a true theoretical form, it is not in this
state fit to be employed as a practical mould-board, but the steps to render it
so are very simple. The broad shovel-mouth a b, fig. 253, would meet with
obstructions too numerous to admit for a moment of its adoption in practice; but
we have only to remove the left-hand portion of the edge a b, in the direc-
tion b q, making the breadth qm, 61 to 7 inches broad; that portion also con-
tained within qr 3' is to be cut away, leaving mr about 4 inches broad;
bqrm will then represent the share; the mould-board being thus of the pro-
longed form in the fore-part. And though this form has no peculiar advantage
over the truncated, in respect to working, it is better adapted to admit of the
body being constructed of malleable iron, a practice which, though more
expensive, is certainly the preferable, by reason of its greater durability, and
being less liable to fracture through the effect of shocks, when stones or other
obstructions are encountered.
655. Besides the removal of these parts of the theoretical mould-board, other
slight modifications are admissible. When the parts have been cut away as
described, the edge b q of the share will be found too thick for a cutting edge. If
brought to a proper thinness, by removing the parts below, making the edge to
coincide with the curved surface, the share so prepared would have the character
that belongs to the cresting ploughs (par. 614.) The lower edge of the mould-
board from r to 2' would be also rather high, and would present unnecessary
resistance to the lower side of the slice; both parts, therefore, require to be
reduced. The surface of the feather bq is to be sloped down till it becomes
straight between the points b and q, q not being more than inch above the
plane of the sole, as at the dotted lines m' z in fig. 254. The lower edge of the
mould-board is also to be rounded off, as shown by the dotted lines along the
lower edge from h to o in fig. 256. To prevent the abrasion of the edge of the
slice in passing over the mould-board, it will also be expedient to make the
lines from d' to u, in fig. 254, fall in, from below the line of transit upwards,
as shown by the dotted lines at d', a', b', u.
4
656. Other modifications may, if required by peculiar taste or otherwise, be
given to this form of mould-board. After the points b p n m, &c. have been
determined upon the cylindrical surface, fig. 251 or 253, if, in cutting away
the parts above a b, fig. 253, instead of reducing the surface to the straight lines
8 Ng
7 m, &c. we leave the surface slightly convex upon all these lines, a
surface will be produced as represented by the dotted sectional lines at d', a', b',
and u, of fig. 254, and by becoming slightly either recurved above the line of
9
P,
THE MOULD-BOARD PATTERN.
181
transit, as at 1, 2, z, in fig. 256, or with continued convexity, as in fig. 4,
Plate II., the surface so produced would deliver the slice without risk of injury
to the edge; which, though not of vital importance, is always an object in
the estimation of the ploughman who performs his work with taste. The
same modification would also, in the opinion of many agricultural machine-
makers, render the mould-board more efficacious in the working of stiff clay-soils.
657. Fig. 255 represents an elevation of the new mould-board, and fig. 256
a
Fig. 255.
Ъ
Fig. 256.
a
N
2
?
a
e
फै
a
f
a
3 6
9 12
1 foot
ELEVATION OF THEORETICAL MOULD-BOARD.
XC
Z
k
d
x
0
f
d
h
m
SECTION OF THEORETICAL MOULD-BOARD-
SCALE AS IN FIG 255.
the analytical section of the same, taken in the same manner as described for
those on Plate II., and having the same letters of reference. In the present
case, the sectional lines are all straight to the height of the line of transit x y;
above that line and before the zero-line they are slightly concave, though this is
not imperative; but behind the zero-line they are convex from a little below the
line of transit, as shown by the dotted portions of the lines from 1, 2, z. The
parallelogram k y, being a section of the furrow-slice when in a vertical position,
will be seen to coincide exactly with the zero-line at y, as it will do through
the whole passage of the slice from Y to z 2.
658. Judging from the trials that have been made of this mould-board,
and from the uniform brightening of its surface after a few hours' work, it
promises to possess a very uniform resistance over its whole surface, which is a
principal object to be aimed at in the formation of this member of the plough.
659. The Mould-board Pattern.-The instructions thus given refer solely to the
formation of the theoretical surface of the mould-board, including that of the share;
but in the construction of a pattern, from which mould-boards are to be cast, the
process is somewhat different, though based on the principles above laid down.
660. In proceeding with this, therefore, the quadrant of the cylinder upon
which the whole problem is grounded may or may not be prepared. If it
is to be employed, then the first process is exactly as before described in refer-
ence to the quadrant, fig. 251, which must be formed and lined as there
described; but the same process may be pursued from lines alone, without the
intervention of the solid, and in the following manner :-Having described the
quadrant of a circle, as a b c, fig. 251, of 10 inches radius, construct the diagram
fig. 252, as before directed in par. 650, the entire length e b being 30 inches,
divided into equal parts of 3 inches each. The arc b d is then to be drawn
through the points bp n m, &c. which points, instead of being a transfer, as before
described, from the quadrant, may here be drawn at once with a beam-compass
touching the three leading points b m d, as before, which will intersect all the
divisions, converting them into ordinates, 1 f, 2 g, 3 h, &c. to the curve b d. The
length of these ordinates, from the base-line e b, are now to be carefully trans-
182
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
•
ferred to the quadrant of the circle b d of fig. 254, and set off in the circum-
ference thereof: thus the point b, in fig. 251, corresponds to the termination b of
the base-line in fig. 254. The first ordinate, 9 p, is to be set off on the quadrant
from b to p'; the second ordinate, 8 n, is set off from b to n'; the third, 7 m, from b
to m'; and so on through the entire quadrant of the circle. The radii a b, a p',
a n', &c. fig. 254, being now drawn, will furnish the successive angles of eleva-
tion, with the sole-plane, for each division of the length throughout the quadrant.
661. In applying these to the mould-board, it is to be observed that the first
three radii belong to the share, if it is a prolonged mould-board, or the first five if
it is truncated. The quadrant, b d', fig. 254, with its radii, being thus completely
drawn out at full size upon a board, produce the line b a to y, and on y as a
centre, with a radius of 7 inches, describe the arc a t, and concentric to it the
arc d'u, from the zero-point d'. At an angle of 45° draw t u a tangent to the
arc a t, and the point of intersection of this tangent with the arc d' u will fix
the extreme point u of the mould-board at the height of the line of transit;
which point will be 19 inches from the land-side plane b c, and 12 inches above
the plane of the sole, or base line y b. From d' lay off divisions of equal parts
on the arc d'u, each equal to 4 inches-the diagonal of a square of 3 inches-
which completes the lines for the fabrication of the pattern.
་
0
m
Ic
h
Fig. 257.
a
e
p
n
THE BUILDING OF THE BLOCK FOR THE MOuld-
BOARD PATTERN.
d
g
662. The next step in the operation is that of building a block out of which
the pattern is to be shaped. Provide
a deal-board of 31 feet or thereby in
length, with a breadth of 10 inches; have
it dressed of uniform thickness, and at
least one edge and end straight, and
right angled, as at a b c, fig. 257, form-
ing a basement to the block, a being
the right angle, and the continuation
of the board being hid from view
under the superimposed block.
Let
the edge a c of the board be marked off
in equal divisions of 3 inches, agreeing
exactly with those of the diagram, fig.
252, marking the divisions with letters
or numerals corresponding to the radii of
the quadrant, b d', fig. 254, the end a b of the board corresponding to the radius a m'
of the quadrant, and to the ordinate, 7 m, of the figs. 252 or 253. Provide also a
suit-stock or bevel of the form represented by d e f, fig. 257, the stock de being
a straight bar with a head-piece at e, fixed at right angles to the stock, and into
this the blade a ƒ is to be jointed in such a manner that, when the blade and
stock are set parallel to each other, they shall just receive the thickness of the
basement-board betwixt them-the length of the blade being equal to the breadth
of the board. Five or more pieces of well-seasoned, clean, 3-inch Memel or
yellow-pine deal are now to be prepared, each about 30 inches in length, and from
6 to 4 inches in breadth. Set the bevel to the angle b a m', fig. 254, and applying
it at the end of the board, as in fig. 257, it will point out the position in which
the first block g h must be placed on the board, in order that it may fill the lines
of the pattern. The further end of the block, being set in like manner to fall
within the lines, it is to be firmly attached to the board with screw-nails. The
second block i k is to be joined to the first by the ordinary method of gluing,
being set, in the same manner as the first, to fill the lines of the pattern at both
ends, and this requires its being set obliquely to the first. The third block 7 m
THE MOULD-BOARD PATTERN.
183
is set in like manner, and so on with n o and p q. The setting of the different
blocks will be much facilitated by having the ends, g i l n p, cut off to the plane
of the land-side—that is, to coincide vertically with the land-side edge of the
board, and by keeping in view that the terminal line c q lies at an angle of 45°.
663. The block being thus prepared, the process of working it off is plain and
easily performed in this way: Having set the bevel at the angle b a m', fig. 254,
which answers to the end a b of the block, fig. 257, the bevel is applied as in
the figure, and the surplus wood is cut away to a short distance within the end
a b of the board, until the blade of the bevel lies evenly upon the surface, and
the kneed head-piece touching the edge of the board. Set the bevel now at the
angle b a l', fig. 254, and applying it at the first division on the edge of the board,
fig. 257, cut away the surplus wood with a gouge or other tool, in a line parallel
to the end of the board, or at right angles to its edge, until the edge of the blade
a ƒ lie evenly on the surface, and the head of the stock touch the edge of the
board as before. Repeating this operation at each successive division with the
bevel, setting it to the corresponding angle up to the vertical or zero-line, and
we have a series of leading lines or draughts, each occupying its true position
in the surface of the mould-board to the height of the line of transit. By con-
tinuing these lines, each in the direction already given it, until they terminate
in the breast, or in the upper edge of the pattern, we have a corresponding
series of points now determined, in the breast and upper edge, and by removing
the surplus wood still remaining in the spaces between the lines, and reducing
the surface to coincide with them, we have the finished surface from the neck
of the share up to the zero-line.
664. To complete the after portion of the pattern, we have to form a temporary
bevel with a curved blade, adapted to the small arc a t, fig. 254, which blade
is prolonged in a tangent t u at the angle of 45°. With the guidance of this
bevel, its stock being still applied to the board, as in fig. 257, cut away all the
wood that occurs to interrupt it behind the zero-line, until it applies every-
where behind that line without obstruction. At the third division, beyond the
zero-line, the pattern may be cut off in a right vertical, though this is not
imperative, as the mould-board may be made considerably longer, and even a
little shorter, without at all affecting its operation. At whatever distance in
length its terminal edge may be fixed, that portion of the line of transit which
lies between the zero-line and the terminus must leave the original curve bm d,
fig. 252, at a tangent, and it will reach the terminus as such, or it will gradually
fall into a re-entering curve, according as the terminus is fixed nearer to or
farther from the zero-line; the terminus of the line of transit being always 19
inches distant from the land-side plane. That portion of the surface which now
remains unfinished between the arcs a t and d' u, fig. 254, is to be worked off
in tangents, applied vertically to the arc a t, and terminating in that part of
the line of transit that lies between d' and u. Such portions of the interior
cylindrical surface as may have been formed under the application of the tem-
porary bevel to the arc a t, are now to be also cut away by a line passing
through the junction of the tangents t a', t b', t u, with the cylindrical arc a t,
forming a curved termination in the lower part behind-as seen in fig. 256 from
y to z-which completes the surface as proposed.
665. The modifications formerly pointed out, paragraphs 654, 655, 656, may now
be made upon the lower and the upper parts of the pattern. The breast-curve
and the form of the upper edge will now have assumed their proper curvature ;
and there only remains to have the whole pattern reduced to its due thicknesses.
This, in the fore part, is usually about inch, increasing backward below to
184
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
about 1 inch, and the whole becoming gradually thinner towards the top edge,
where it may be inch. The perpendicular height behind is usually about
12 inches, and at the fore part 14 inches.
. 666. Howard's Patent P. P. Plough.-Having thus described the best known,
and what we consider the most useful of Scotch or swing ploughs, we shall
now direct attention to the construction and arrangement of their rival imple-
ment, the English or wheel plough, selecting for illustration and description
that form so well, and, we may say, favourably known, as "Howard's Patent
P. P. Plough." This plough is shown in elevation and plan in Plate III. We
have prepared these drawings on the same principle as adopted in the Scotch
ploughs, giving a zero-line from which to compute measurements, and to
institute comparative observations. The zero-line in the elevation, fig. 1, Plate
III., is taken at a part where the width of the mould-board, at a height of
9 inches from the base-line, is also 9 inches from the line of the land-side of
the body. It should here be noted that, as the mould-board of this plough,
unlike that of many others, has a lateral adjustment, the zero-line is liable to
be changed in position in proportion to the change of mould-board. This
change of position of the zero-line does not, however, affect that of the various
parts and their dimensions-of the plough.
667. The plough may be generally described as being constructed with a
beam a b, Plate III., and two stilts c c. These are forged in one piece, and
are bolted to the cast-iron body d; this carries the breast or mould-board e, the
share or sock ƒ, and the slade or sole g. The coulter h, the skim-coulter i, the
land-side and furrow-wheel j and k, and the bridle l, are fixed to the beam in
the manner hereafter to be described. The bridle I supports the draught-chain
m m, the fast extremity of which is attached to the beam near the coulter. The
following is a detailed description of the construction of the principal parts.
42
668. Before describing the details of Howard's plough, it may be interesting
to compare the contour of the upper line in relation to the base-line of the best
English plough with that of the best Scotch plough-the East-Lothian. On
the zero-line, fig. 1, Plate III., the height of Howard's plough above the base
line is 1 foot 1 inch. At a foot distance from the zero-point, towards the stilts,
the height is 1 foot 4 inches; at two feet, it is 1 foot 11 inches; at three feet,
2 feet 6 inches; at four feet, 2 feet 10 inches, and at five feet at the handle of the
stilts also 2 feet 10 inches. Counting one foot from the zero-point towards the
beam, the height is 1 foot 3 inches; at two feet, at the coulter-head, 1 foot
10 inches; at three feet, in front of the skim-coulter, it is 1 foot 10 inches;
at four feet, at the land-wheel, it is 1 foot 101 inches, and at five feet it is 1 foot
11 inches. The length of the plough from the zero-point to the end of the
stilts is 5 feet 3 inches, and from the zero-point to the point of the bridle, 5
feet 6 inches, the entire length being 10 feet 9 inches. The comparison will
be most easily made by contrasting Plate III. with Plate I.
669. The Beam.-The beam, a b, Plate III., is simpler in construction
than in the Scotch ploughs, inasmuch as a coulter-box is dispensed with. This
allows it to be made quite plain; the only exceptions to this being at the
points where two small ears or snags n o, fig. 2, are provided, on which
to support the two wheels j and k, and where the end is forked to support the
bridle l. The exact length of the beam a b is 5 feet 6 inches, extending
from the zero-line to the outside of the segmental ends at the bridle. In the
plan the land-side of the beam is 1 inches within or toward the furrow-side
of the line of sole at o; from this point it runs straight to where it is forked for
the bridle, this point being coincident with the sole-line. The dimensions of
BODY OF HOWARD'S PLOUGH.
185
the beam are as follows: at o, 2 inches deep; at the coulter, 2 inches; and
at the joint of the bridle, 23 inches deep; the thickness at these points being
the same—namely, ? of an inch.
670. The Stilts.-These, c c, fig. 2, Plate III., at their junction at the zero-
line with the beam, open out quickly to a width of 4 inches; this affords space to
place a tin box p with hinged cover, useful to hold any extra materials required
during the working of the plough. From this point the stilts gradually widen
to the extreme ends, where the distance from centre to centre is 2 feet 1 inch,
the length of the stilts from the zero-line being 5 feet 3 inches of this dis-
tance 71 inches are taken up by the wooden handles q r, through which the
reduced extremities of the stilts pass. Unlike the East-Lothian plough in
Plate I., where the little stilt or right-hand one alone branches out, the width
between the two stilts of Howard's plough increases equally on both sides of
the centre-line of the beam. They are braced and connected together by three
stretchers s t u, and one bow v v. The dimensions of the stilts are as follows:
at bottom, where they join the beam at zero-line, 1 inches deep and § inch
thick, tapering off to where they join the wooden handles, to 1½ inches deep,
and g of an inch thick.
671. The Body is shown in detail in figs. 258 and 259, of which the fig. 258
Fig. 258.
TROTAATRINATION
a
k
n
Fig. 259.
b
In
PLAN AND ELEVATION OF BODY OF HOWARD'S PLOUGE-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
is an elevation, and fig. 259 a plan, partly in section. The upper edge has a
cheek a b, fig. 258, to receive the beam, which is secured by three bolts, as
shown by the bolt-holes in the cut. At bottom the body extends in front of
the zero-line 2 feet, and 1 inch behind it. The sole or slade, c, is fixed to the
under-side of the body by two bolts, one of which is shown by dotted lines in
fig. 258; it covers, as usual, a portion of the land-side of the body. The depth
of the sole is 2 inches; this increases, however, to 31 inches near the front
186
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
end, decreasing again, along with the body, to 2 inches at the front, as shown
by the dotted lines in fig. 258. The length of the sole is greater than that of
the body, being 2 feet 7 inches. The thickness of the lower flange at the front
end is of an inch, and at the back of an inch. The front of the body at d, for
3
about 7 inches in length, is made 21 to 2 inches broad; the upper side being
twisted to fit the curve of the mould-board, and the lower side hollowed. This
hollow recess receives and supports the bar e. This bar, which carries the share,
is of wrought-iron, 14 inches deep and § of an inch thick on the body. It is
provided with a tapered point, grooved in the upper side, which fits into the
socket of the share, the construction of which will be hereafter described.
Immediately behind this tapered point, the bar e is provided with small curved
projections, one on each side; these fit into and rest in corresponding recesses
made in the hollow point of the part d of the body. These afford joints or
fulcra in which the bar e is supported, and by which a vertical adjustment,
through a small space, can be given to it. The other end of the bar e is
furnished with a screwed bolt, which passes through a slot formed by a recess
in the head, and a small bracket ƒ bolted on in front. The back edges of the
head at this point and of the bracket ƒ are provided with a number of transverse
notches, or angular indentations; these fit into similar notches on the edge of
a block or washer g. The screwed end of the bar e is passed through this
washer 9, and the nut k tightens against it. These notches tend to keep the
washer g firmly fixed in any desired position when the nut m is screwed up.
Immediately above and parallel with the bar e, a small rod h is placed; the
upper extremity of this is formed into a screw-bolt, and passes through the
washer g, and is provided with a nut, as shown in fig. 258. The lower extremity
is turned up at right angles, as shown at i in fig. 258, and m in 259, and rests
in the groove j, fig. 258, and l of the tapered point of the bar e, fig. 259. The
office of this rod h, fig. 259, is to fix the share, the point i passing through a
hole made on the top of the share. As the rod h is tightened up by the nut at
its upper end, it draws the share tightly to its seat on the bar e.
The share may
be raised at the point or lowered as desired, by the vertical adjustment of the
bar e, formerly described. The land-side of the body is only partially covered
in by a plate o, fig. 259, 6 inches deep, supported in a simple manner by two
small hooks at bottom, which catch on the upper edge of the sole c, fig. 258,
and are secured at top by a pin passed through an eye formed in the inside of
the body, and another in the side-plate.
672. The Mould-board, e, Plate III.-This is made either of cast-iron or of
steel-plate. The extreme length is 3 feet 5 inches, and its greatest height
1 foot 1 inch. Unlike the mould-board of the Scotch ploughs, it does not cover
in the whole of the front edge of body up to the beam; but, as is commonly
done in English ploughs, it is curved on the front edge by a line approximating
in outline to that described by the furrow-slice in its passage along the face of
the mould-board, as in fig. 5, Plate II. The mould-board is fixed to the head by
a bolt at its point; by a second bolt w, fig. 2, Plate III., one end of which is con-
nected with a small angled bracket near the middle, and the other with the
bracket f, fig. 258, on the body; a third bolt x, fig. 2, Plate III., near the back end,
connecting it with a wrought-iron stay supported by the right-hand stilt. The
bolt which attaches the point of the mould-board to the head, serves as a joint on
which the mould-board turns, when its width behind is required to be altered.
To allow of this movement the other bolts w x have adjustments in their sup-
ports. The lower edge of the mould-board is furnished with a cast-iron strap
called a rest, 1 foot 3 inches in length. As the principal wear takes place
SOCK AND COULTER OF HOWARD'S PLOUGH.
187
at this part, it is attached by two bolts, this admitting of its removal when
necessary.
Fig. 260.
Fig. 261.
- ZoomBankah TRULLIMUS
673. The Sock or Share, f, Plate III., is made either of cast or wrought iron.
Cast-iron, however, is most frequently used;
and being run into a metal-mould or chill, the
sock is rendered extremely hard. In fig.
260 we give a plan, and in fig. 261 an end
view of the cast-iron share. Its length and
extreme breadth are equal, being 82 inches,
its thickness varying from g of an inch at
the land-side to of an inch at the cutting
edge. The under-side is provided with a box
or socket to fit the point j of the bar e,
fig. 258.
DETAILS OF SOCK OF HOWARD'S PLOUGH—
SCALE, 1 INCH EQUAL TO 1 FOOT.
674. The Coulter, h, Plate III.—Of the coulter we give in fig. 262 an ele-
vation, and in figs. 263 and 264 details of the fixtures. The cutting part of the
coulter is 1 foot 3 inches
Fig. 262.
in length, in the breadth
b
C
C
Fig. 263.
d
2 inches; it is of an
inch thick at the back, and
is thinned away to the
front in a cutting edge.
It is fixed to the beam by
a rounded stem, the length
of which is 1 foot 2 inches,
and its diameter 13 or 12
inches. Unlike the coul-
ters of the majority of
other ploughs, this one is
not fixed rigidly to any
particular angle with the
sole-line, but can be varied
in position within a range
of 5 inches, by moving its
supports along the beam.
To the land-side of the
beam, at the point where
the coulter is attached, a
half-round rib a, figs. 262,
263, 51 inches long, is
fixed. The stem of the
coulter is driven forcibly in contact with this rib, which forms the fulcrum on
which the coulter moves laterally when required, by two eye-bolts c c, fig.
263, one of which is shown detached in fig. 264, a being the aperture through
which the coulter stem passes, b the nut. One of those eye-bolts is placed
above and the other below the beam, their screwed ends passing through a
plate e, fig. 263, in the opposite side of the beam; which plate is provided
with knees above and below, and is notched to embrace the coulter. When
this plate is tightened up by the nuts bb, the parts are all firmly bound
together. The office of the plate is to steady the coulter, and prevent its lower
point being forced back when the implement is at work. Near the front edge of
the upper knee of the plate e, a screw d passes through it, and, resting on the
Fig. 264.
a
b
DETAILS OF COULTER OF HOWARD'S PLOUGH-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
188
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
beam, keeps the coulter firm. Perfect adjustment of the cutting edge of the
coulter to the furrow - slice is attained by the round stem with which it is
provided.
675. The Drag-chain, y, fig. 1, Plate III.—To the back edge of the blade of
the coulter a light chain, termed the drag-chain, is attached. Its length is 2 feet
3 inches, and it is provided with a small weight or roller at its outer extremity.
It lies across the furrow-slice while it is being turned over, and its office is to
drag off all grass, stubble, &c. from the edge of the slice, and to bury them
underneath, thus preventing all vegetation in the hollows. This arrangement.
finishes the work performed by the plough in such a way as to present to the
eye nothing but the freshly-cut surfaces.
676. The Skim-coulter, i, Plate III.-The drag-chain just described acts
most properly in conjunction with the skim-coulter i. This skim-coulter is in
fact a miniature plough, set at a short distance in front of the principal coulter,
and its office is to pare off the top of the furrow-slice before it is turned over, when
lea or stubble is ploughing. By this arrangement the grass and stubble are
cut away, to prevent them being seen when the ploughing is completed, and are
buried by the action of the drag-chain, as already explained. The skim-coulter
consists of a small mould-board and share, supported by a stem 12 inches broad
and inch thick. It is attached to the land-side of the beam by a wrought-iron
strap z, having screwed tails, which pass through a plate on the opposite side of
the beam. The lower tail has a screw which jams against the beam, and keeps
the skim-coulter steady. The skim-coulter is not a feature peculiar to Howard's
plough alone, but has long been in use in other forms of English implements.
3
4
677. The Land-wheel. The land-wheel, j, Plate III., for regulating the depth
of the furrow-slice, is attached to the beam in advance of the skim-coulter.
The diameter of the wheel, which is of cast-iron, is 13 inches, the breadth of
rim being of an inch. Its axle has its bearing in a light stem o, 1 foot 7 inches.
long, and 7 of an inch square, the upper end of which passes through the square
eye of an eye-bolt attached to the land-side of the beam. The office of this
eye-bolt is to draw the stem against two notched ears or snags projecting
from the upper and lower edges of the beam, one of which is shown at n, fig. 2,
fixing the wheel at any required height. To keep the axle of the wheel clear
of earth, weeds, &c., both ends are protected by light cast-iron shields or
covers; the periphery of the wheel is kept clear of adhering soil by means of a
light scraper which has an attachment at the top of the stem o.
678. The Furrow-wheel, k, Plate III., which regulates the breadth of the
furrow-slice, is placed about 8 inches in advance of the land-wheel, and is
attached by a vertical stem o, fig. 1, to the beam in a similar manner. Unlike
the land-wheel, which, as it regulates depth, has only a vertical adjustment, the
furrow-wheel has to regulate breadth, and has therefore two adjustments, verti-
cal and horizontal. To provide for the horizontal adjustment, the axle has a
square tail p, fig. 2, which slides longitudinally in, and is secured by an eye-
bolt attached to the foot of the vertical stem. The diameter of the wheel is
1 foot 9 inches, the breadth being of an inch.
3
A scraper for the rim, and
covers for the ends of the axles, are provided for this as for the land-wheel.
679. Chain-rod, m m, fig. 1, Plate III.-The plough is drawn by a chain-rod
an inch in diameter, attached by a shackle to the beam near the body. A
vertical bar, 9 inches long, 1 inch broad, and g of an inch thick, is provided
with an eye at its lower end, through which the chain-rod passes. This bar is
fixed near the point of the beam, and is adjusted to any required height by an
eye-bolt and nut 1, fig. 1, in front of the bridle.
14
4
TRENCH AND SUBSOIL PLOUGHS.
189
680. The Bridle, 1 l, fig. 2, Plate III.-The bridle consists of a light doubled
iron strap, about 12 inches long. The links, in thickness of an inch, embrace
the beam above and below, and turn on a vertical pin in the beam. The end
of the beam, from this joint-pin forward, is reduced in depth both above and
below to receive the bridle; the two light segmental plates are riveted to the
forked ends. These plates are pierced with a number of holes, and as a hole
is made to correspond in the bridle, a light pin dropped through all keeps the
bridle and the drawing chain in any required position nearer to or farther from
the land.
681. In Plate II. we give analytical sections of the mould-board of Howard's
plough, fig. 5 being a side-elevation, and fig. 6 a fore-end view. Fig 5 is a
geometrical elevation in a plane parallel to the land-side of the mould-board, 1 m
being the base line. The perpendicular lines of division commencing at o o,
the zero, and extending right and left, are the lines of section corresponding
to those of the East Lothian plough mould - board, fig. 1, Plate II., and
described in par. 639. The line of transit of the furrow-slice is represented by
the dotted line x y z. Fig. 6 is a front view of the elevation corresponding to
fig. 5; m i is the base line of the plough, g i is the land-side of the plane
in a vertical position; i is the place of the point of the share, and k h the
line of junction between the neck of the share and the mould - board; the
remaining lines beyond k h exhibit the outlines of all the sections taken by
the parallel ruler, fig. 250, in reference to the lines in fig. 5. Thus o ogg is
the entire body of the plough forward in the plane of the zero line, o y o being
the outline of the mould-board at this section, and y the zero point; a agg the
first section forwards from the zero line, and so of all the other lines to g g. In
like manner o o 11 is the first section backwards from the zero line, and so of all
the other lines to 5, 5. The entire series of lines backward and forward from
zero o o form a series of profiles of the mould-board, supposing it to be cut
vertically by planes at right angles on the land-side of the plough. The
dotted lines i y represent the passage of the furrow-slice from its first motion
from the fulcrum 7 to its perpendicular position in lyn m; and m szr represent
a transverse section of the same furrow-slice in its progress to be finally deposited
by the mould-board. The line of transit of the furrow-slice is the dotted line
x y z, corresponding to the dotted line x y z in fig. 5.
682. Trench and Subsoil Ploughs. Since the general draining of the soil
received the assent of the agricultural community, deep ploughing has presented
itself to the attention of the farmer in a favourable light. Various forms of
implements have been devised to descend as far into the soil as to stir the
subsoil effectually, and they have obtained the name of subsoil and trench
ploughs, according as they affect the subsoil. The subsoil-ploughs stir the
subsoil lying under the active soil, without affecting their relative positions,
whereas the trench-ploughs bring up more or less of the subsoil over the
active soil of the surface.
683. In the subsoil ploughs formerly in use it is more than probable that
the furrow-slice was uneven, both in the direction of the length of the furrow
and in the relation which the sole of one furrow bears to that of another. It is
evident that, if the furrow-sole in its length is undulating, and that one furrow-
sole, in its breadth, is higher and lower than the contiguous ones, the plane of
the furrow-sole across the ridges will be so irregular that the water, descending
the inclination of the ground, will be interrupted in its progress to the drains.
To give the plane of the sole a uniform depth, it is only necessary to introduce
wheels upon the beam of the subsoil ploughs, which will cause its furrow-sole
190
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
to preserve a parallelism with the furrow-sole left by the preceding common
plough. This obvious means of steadying the action of the subsoil plough
was introduced into a subsoil-plough invented by Mr Read, which is represented
in fig. 265 as improved by Mr Slight, and where the alteration converted the
Fig. 265.
b
་ ་ན་ ་
n..."
d
h
JENU..
e
ང་
α
¿
READ'S SUBSOIL PLOUGH, AS IMPROVED BY MR SLIGHT.
plough into the form of a grubber. The implement consists of a malleable-iron
beam bf, to which at one end, f, are attached two handles a. To the other
end is welded an iron slot, b, placed perpendicularly, and punched with holes,
into any one of which the bridle g may be fastened by means of a bolt and
cotrel. The bridle g is winged to the land-side, in order that the two or four
horses which are employed to draw the plough may walk upon the hard ground;
and to sustain their lateral draught, one end of a chain is fixed to the extre-
mity of the wing of the bridle carrying the draught-hook, and the other is
attached to the beam at h. The wheels d and c, coupled in pairs on axles, are
attached to shanks which pass through boxes in the beam, the same as the
coulter-head in the common plough. The shank of the double-feathered share
e is affixed in the same manner as the wheels to the beam. The dotted line
below the wheels c d shows the line of the furrow-sole made by the plough
which preceded this implement in the work of subsoiling; and it should never
be less than 8 or 9 inches below the surface of the ground. The dotted line e i
behind the share e shows its line of motion, and the distance between these
lines is regulated by the depth given to the axles of the wheels c and d below
the beam bf, which may vary from 6 to 9 inches. The beam resting on the
two pairs of wheels c and d, and the ploughman in the bottom of the furrow
made by the preceding plough, with a hold of the handles a, afford so steady a
motion to the share e that it may be regarded as uniform, and its work will be
much better performed than by the older subsoil-ploughs.
684. In 1849 the Marquess of Tweeddale effected an important improvement
on Read's subsoil-plough, that, while its useful form was retained, its action was
altered from a simple subsoiler, which merely stirs the subsoil and leaves it
where it found it, to a trenching subsoiler, which effects a mixture of the sub-
soil with a portion of the surface-soil. The implement is represented in Plate V.,
by which it will be seen that the beam and stilts of the implement are preserved
exactly according to Read's form, as improved by Mr Slight, and the important
alteration is exhibited in the share and its appendages. These consist of the
share fg, with its tail-board or elevator h h, attached to a shank e e passing
through a mortise d in the beam a b. The shank e e is a bar of the best scrap-
iron, and at bottom is forged with a club end, fitted to receive the attachment
of the body of the share f g by welding or by riveting; and to the hind part
of the share the tail-board h h is strongly fixed by bolts.
BODY OF THE TWEEDDALE PLOUGH.
191
685. The Tweeddale subsoil trench-plough having a share 14 inches in width,
a common plough is inadequate to go before it, to open a sufficient furrow for
its passage. Lord Tweeddale supplied the want by the true philosophical mode
of induction, with numerous and untiring experiments on a large scale. By
these he constructed a plough having its mould-board formed upon a new
system of lines and of dimensions that render the plough capable of taking a
furrow-slice 12 inches wide and 13 inches deep in the most effective manner. This
plough, named the "Tweeddale Plough," leaves a clean and flat-soled furrow;
but the furrow-slice taken by it, in place of being turned over in an entire form,
in the manner effected by our fine-working ploughs, is only so far turned, and
at the same time broken up, as serves to present the soil in the best possible
state to the ameliorating effects of atmospheric influences. In this respect the
plough seems to stand unrivalled; and since the extinction of the old Scottish
wooden plough, no implement has approached the point to which this has
attained, for enlarging the extent of surface exposed to the atmosphere.
686. The Tweeddale Plough.-The Tweeddale plough is represented in eleva-
tion in fig. 1, and in plan, fig. 2, Plate IV. The principal details of construc-
tion are given in figs. 266, 267, and 268, these being drawn to a scale of 1
In
Fig. 266.
Fig. 267.
g
1
i
а
O
k
j
j
g
α
e
α
α
DETAILS OF THE BODY OF THE TWEEDDALE PLOUGH-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
inch to the foot. Fig. 266 is an elevation of the body, with the mould-board
and right-hand stilt removed; fig. 267 a front elevation of the cast-iron head,
&c.; and fig. 268 an elevation of the land-side of the body. The material
of which the beam, stilts, and part of the body are constructed, is either ash
or oak, selected so that the natural curve of the wood will coincide as nearly
as possible with the finished form of the parts. Wood was preferred to iron,
partly on account of its stiffness, but chiefly on account of its elasticity, recover-
ing its form quickly even after a severe strain. The head, sole, side-plates,
and mould-board, are of cast-iron; the sock, coulter, bridle, and some minor
parts, of wrought-iron.
687. The beam, a a, fig. 266, supports the framework of the body as follows:
The head b is provided with a tenon at its upper extremities, which passes
through a mortise made in the beam, and is secured thereto by the two bolts
as shown. These bolts serve also to strengthen the beam, and prevent its
splitting when subjected to any severe twisting strain. The connection of the
head to the beam is further secured by an iron strap c, bolted on to the
face of the head at e, and passing upwards through the beam in front of the
mortise, a nut on the upper edge of the beam being used to tighten the strap
as required. To support and fix the front part of the mould-board, a blocking
192
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
of wood, shown by the dotted lines a a in fig. 267, is secured to the face or
mould-board side of the head by strong wooden pins passing through holes in
the cast-iron head. To enable the stilts to be easily fitted to them, this block-
ing and the hinder edge of the head are flush with one another.
688. The left-hand stilt, g g, fig. 266, is connected to the beam by a shallow
mortise-and-tenon joint, and secured by a bolt h. The line of the land-side of
the beam and stilt is made slightly to the right of the line of the sole, as shown
in fig. 2, Plate IV. Packing-pieces, i andjj, fig. 266, of the same thickness
of the stilt, are nailed to its under-side, and to receive the sole-shoe, are
finished level with the under-side of the head b. To strengthen the frame-
work of the body, a bolt, shown in dotted lines at k, passes upwards from the
lower packing jj, and is tightened by a nut at top 7; the upper end of this bolt
passing through the eye of the stay-rod m, which connects the upper part of
the stilt and beam, as shown by e of fig. 1, Plate IV. This arrangement adds
materially to the security of the stilt.
689. The right-hand stilt, d f, fig. 2, Plate IV., is fixed to the bottom of the
left-hand stilt, and to the packing-piece jj, fig. 266, attached to the head, by
bevelling off its inner side and end, the two stilts being secured together partly
by nailing, and partly by a strong wooden pin passed through both near the bot-
tom. Their upper extremities near the handles are connected together by a
single stretcher of iron, as shown in fig. 2, Plate IV. To the face of the right-
hand stilt, wood-blockings f-shown in the plan, fig. 2, Plate IV.—are nailed;
these assist in supporting and fixing the mould-board. After the frame-work
is put together, to enable the mould-board to lie perfectly solid and in its
exact position, with the front edge resting firmly on the enlarged end of the
head, these blocking-pieces, and the packing-piece jj, fig. 266, attached to the
head, are cut away, till the exact adjustment is obtained.
690. To enable the beam to resist the great strains to which it is subjected,
a plate of iron is secured by nails driven in at short intervals along the whole
length of its under-side. The cross section of this plate being curved, so as to
fit the rounded lower edge of the beam, considerable stiffness is attained with
little weight of material. To secure this plate at the end of the beam, a
stout rivet passes through both; this also prevents the splitting of the beam
at this point, a tendency to splitting being created by the oblique action of
the bridle.
691. The mould-board, j j, Plate IV., is fixed near its front edge to the
packing-piece jj, fig. 266, attached to the head, by three nails driven through
countersunk holes made in the mould-board, and through coincident holes in
the packing-piece. A little behind the centre of the mould-board a countersunk
bolt-hole is provided; through this, and through the right-hand stilt and its
blockings ƒ a bolt passes, and is tightened up by a nut inside the stilt. This
second attachment of the mould-board serves to stiffen the framework by
connecting, through the intervention of the mould-board, the right-hand stilt
with the head.
692. The coulter, i, fig. 1, Plate IV., is fixed by wedges in a mortise made in
the beam, and is supported below by the strengthening plate which passes.
along its under-side, and above by another plate of iron, in which the aperture
is made slightly longer than the head of the coulter. To give strength
and depth to this plate to hold the wedges, the hole is thickened round its
edges.
693. The sock or share, e, Plate IV., is similar in construction to that of
the East-Lothian plough, illustrated in figs. 227 to 231 inclusive. To meet
LAND-SIDE OF THE TWEEDDALE PLOUGH.
193
the greater strain to which it is subjected, it is, however, made larger and
stronger.
694. The bridle, k k, fig. 2, Plate IV., is also similar to that of the East-
Lothian plough, figs. 238 and 239, but stronger, to resist the greater strain
to which it is subjected. The width between the sides is also greater, the
beam being of wood in place of iron, and consequently thicker. It is secured
by two bolts passing through the beam, one of which forms a joint or centre
on which the bridle turns when the line of draught is to be raised or lowered.
The other bolt passes through one of the pairs of holes in the segmental ends
of the bridle, and secures it in the required position. To prevent the chafing
of the wood of the beam by the action of these bolts, small iron plates are sunk
flush with the surface into the beam in each side near the holes.
695. The land-side of the body, fig. 268, up to the lower edge of the beam
Fig. 268..
C
О
1 O
о
a
о
О
O
оо
Ο
О с
O
d
LAND-SIDE OF THE BODY OF THE TWEEDDALE PLOUGH-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
a a, is covered in by the sole-shoe bb, and two cast-iron plates c c and
d d, fixed by countersunk nails to the left-hand stilt, and to the wooden pins
which pass through the head. Above these a thin sheet of iron is nailed on
to protect the beam at a a.
696. The general dimensions of the plough are given in Plate IV., the figures
of which are constructed on the same principle as those of the other ploughs we
have selected for illustration. The perpendicular lines, and the dimensions
marked at each, indicate the height to the upper side of the beam and stilt at
every 12 inches on either side of the zero-line. This line is taken at the
point where the width of the mould-board is 14 inches from the land-side.
697. The beam extends forwards from the zero-line 5 feet 2 inches from a
to b, and backward from a to c 1 foot 7 inches, giving a total length of 6 feet
101 inches. The stilts extend backwards from the zero-line a to d 6 feet 5½
inches, so that the length from the end of the stilts d to the front of the beam
at b is 11 feet 8 inches. The obliquity of the line of the beam and stilt to
the land-side of the sole amounts to 2 inches at the point of the beam at b to the
right or furrow side of the sole-line, and at the extreme end of the stilt at d
it amounts to the left of the furrow-side of the line to 14 inch.
698. The depth of the beam at the point where the head, fig. 268, is inserted
at a is 5 inches, the breadth or thickness being 4 inches; these dimensions
gradually tapering to the point at b, fig. 1, Plate IV., to 31 inches deep and
3 inches thick. The under-side is rounded a little, the corners of the upper
side being bevelled or splayed off on each side of the centre line.
N
194
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
699. The depth of the left-hand stilt at its insertion in the body is 4 inches,
the thickness being 3 inches, those at the right-hand stilt at the same point
being 32 inches by 24 inches. Both of the stilts taper off to 12 inches deep and
11 inches thick at the upper ends d d, fig. 2, Plate IV. They are each dressed
off to an oval section behind the body, not pointed above.
3
4
700. The point e, figs. 1 and 2, Plate IV., of the sock is 3 feet in front of the
zero-line, and the back end ƒ of the sole-shoe 6 inches behind, making the total
length of the sole 3 feet 6 inches.
701. The lower part of the coulter i is 3 inches broad and of an inch thick at
the back, and thinned off to the front edge. Where the coulter is fixed to the
beam, the upper part is 21 inches broad and 2 of an inch thick.
702. The front edge g of the mould-board under the beam is 1 foot 21 inches
in front of the zero-line, and at bottom 1 foot 8 inches. The upper edge h
extends backwards from the zero-line 1 foot, the height at this point being 1 foot
51 inches. The width from the land-side is 1 foot 6 inches, increasing a little
below the top edge to 1 foot 8 inches.
703. The analytical section of the mould-board of this plough is given in figs. 7
and 8, Plate II. Fig. 7 is a geometrical elevation in a plane parallel to the land-
side of the mould-board, I m being the base-line. The perpendicular lines of divi-
sion, commencing from the lines o o the zero, and extending right and left, are the
lines of section corresponding to those already described in the East-Lothian
plough at figs. 1 and 2 of Plate II. and par. 639. Fig. 8 is a front view of the
elevation of the Tweeddale plough corresponding to fig. 7; q l is the base-line of
the plough, fl is the land-side plane in a vertical position; b is the place of the
point of the share, and ii the line of junction between the neck of the share
and the mould-board; the remaining lines beyond i i exhibit the outline of all
the sections taken by the parallel ruler, fig. 250, in reference to the lines in fig. 7.
Thus, o oflis the section of the entire body of the plough forwards in the plane
of the zero-line, o yo being the outline of the mould-board at this section, and y
the zero-point; a afl the first section forwards from the zero-line, and so of
all the other lines to ii. In like manner o o 11 is the first section backwards
from the zero, and so of the other lines to 3, 3. The entire series of lines back-
ward and forward, from zero o o, form a series of profiles of the mould-board,
supposing it is to be cut vertically by planes at right angles to the land-side of
the plough. The dotted line 7 y represents the passage of the furrow-slice, from
its first motion upon the fulcrum h to its perpendicular position in ryjq; and
k z m represents a transverse section of the same furrow-slice as finally
deposited by the mould-board. The dotted line x y z is the line of transit of
the furrow-slice corresponding to the dotted line x y z in fig. 7.
q
704. On comparing the action of the mould-board of the rectangular-furrow
plough, the East-Lothian, the high-crested furrow plough, the Lanarkshire,
Howard's English, and the Tweeddale plough, upon the last position of the
furrow-slice, it will be observed that the mould-board of the East-Lothian,
from 3 to 2, fig. 2, Plate II., presses upon almost the entire side zs of the furrow-
slice k s z n, thereby compressing the soil, while the furrow-slice is laid over at
an angle of 45°. The mould-board z 2, 1 of the Lanarkshire plough, fig. 4,
presses still more upon the side z t of the furrow-slice k tzr, which is only
laid over at an angle of 40°, thereby flattening and compressing the slice at the
same time. The mould-board 5, o, of Howard's plough, fig. 6, merely presses on
the angle s of the furrow-slice m s z r, which is laid over at about the angle of
44°, thereby leaving the furrow-slice a little compressed on the lower edge.
The mould-board of the Tweeddale plough 3, 3, fig. 8, just rubs off the projecting
THE TWEEDDALE SUBSOIL-TRENCH-PLOUGH.
195
angle n p k of the furrow-slice q k z m, which is laid over at an angle of 45°,
thereby compressing the furrow-slice scarcely at all.
705. The extreme length of the mould-board of the East-Lothian plough, fig. 1,
Plate II., is 1 foot 10 inches; that of the Lanarkshire plough, 2 feet 2 inches;
that of Howard's English P. P. plough, 3 feet 5 inches; and that of the Tweed-
dale plough, 2 feet 8 inches.
4
;
706. The measurements of the height of the upper line of the Tweeddale plough,
fig. 1, Plate IV., above the base-line, are as follow: At the zero-line it is
1 foot 4 inches; at 1 foot forward from the zero-line it is 1 foot 72 inches
at 2 feet, at the coulter-box, it is 1 foot 11 inches; at 3 feet it is 1 foot 111
inches; at 4 feet, at the segmental end of the bridle, it is 1 foot 91 inches;
and at 5 feet, near the joint of the beam, it is 1 foot 7 inches. At 1 foot
backward from the zero-line, the height is 1 foot 3 inches; at 2 feet it is
1 foot 44 inches; at 3 feet it is 1 foot 8 inches; at 4 feet it is 2 feet 12 inches;
at 5 feet it is 2 feet 7 inches; and at 6 feet, near the end of the stilts, it is
3 feet inch.
4
4
707. The Tweeddale Subsoil-Trench - Plough.—We now come to describe the
Tweeddale subsoil-trench-plough, the elevation of which we give in fig. 1,
Plate V., fig. 2 being a plan. The plough is constructed entirely of iron-
with the exception of the handles-having a straight beam a b and a pair of
stilts c c.
The sock f g, which is supported by the stem e e, in a mortise d
near the back end of the beam, consists of a broad triangular plate ƒƒ g, fig. 2,
with steel wings or cutters ff at the side. A plate h h, which is called the
tail-board or elevator, is fixed to the back of the sock, and slopes upward. A
bridle i i is provided at the end of the beam to allow of the adjustment of the
line of draught towards the right or left, the vertical adjustment being obtained
by the wheels jj attached to the beam a short distance from the extremity.
The depth to which the sock penetrates is regulated by raising or lowering
these wheels.
708. The following are the dimensions of the principal parts of the plough:
The extreme length of the beam over all is 7 feet 4 inches; the length from the
centre of the draught-bolt r to the front of the coulter or sock stem e e being 5 feet
2 inches. At the coulter-mortise d, fig. 1, where the thickness is 1 inches, the
depth of the beam is 4 inches, tapering gradually to the extremity to 2 inches,
the thickness at this point being of an inch. To admit of the coulter-
mortise, the part of the beam surrounding it suddenly swells out to a thickness
of 3 inches, and a depth of 5 inches, the dimensions of the mortise being
4 by 11 inches. Immediately behind this part the beam is reduced, and
tapers to the back extremity, where the depth is 2 inches and the thickness &
of an inch.
3
4
4
behind the coulter-mortise
The bolt near the end of
which fill up the spaces
709. The stilts c c, fig. 2, are attached to the beam
by two bolts, the distance between which is 11 inches.
the beam passes through two tubes or distance-pieces,
7 7 between the beam and the stilts. The stilts behind these distance-pieces are
connected and stiffened by two stretchers m and n, and a bow o o, the ends
being finished off with wooden handles pp in the usual manner. Not including
the handles, the extreme length of the stilts in a horizontal direction is 5 feet,
the extreme length from the draught-bolt r over the wooden handles being 11 feet
8 inches. At the lower end of the stilts the thickness of the iron is of an inch,
the depth being 24 inches, these dimensions decreasing at the point near the
From
handle-sockets to a depth of 12 inches, and a thickness of an inch.
the under-side of the sole the height of the front of the beam is 1 foot 2 inches,
196
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
at the point above the coulter-mortise it is 1 foot, and to the top of the handles
3 feet.
710. In fig. 269 we give an elevation; in fig. 270 a plan of the under-side;
and in fig. 271 a cross section at the widest part of the sock of the plough. The
Fig. 269.
~
d
с
d
Fig. 271.
α
Fig. 270.
с
V
e
α
d
g
e
b
DETAILS OF THE SOOK OF THE TWEEDDALE SUBSOIL-TRENCH-PLOUGH.
feet.
sock is made of a plate an inch thick, 1½ inches broad at the point a, fig. 270,
12 inches broad at b c, and reduced suddenly at the point d to 8 inches. The
length from a to b or c is 1 foot 10 inches or 2 feet. Along the under-side of the
edges a rib is forged, and steeled below to the length of 10 or 12 inches from the
point, the remainder of the length being checked to receive the movable steel
cutters e e. These are 3 inches broad and an inch thick, and are secured to
the edges of the sock by rivets as shown. The total depth of the body thus
formed is 12 inches, but it is thinned down at the point to of an inch.
711. The tail-board or elevator f, fig. 270, extends behind b and c 1 foot 8
inches; it is provided at its lower extremity with a plate riveted on its under-
side, this plate being connected to the back end of the sock by three screws, as
shown in the figure. The angle at which the tail-board is fixed is such as to
make the upper extremity e 8 inches above the level of the point of the sock;
the sole of the sock, as will be observed from fig. 269, being also inclined
upwards 1 inches from a to b. The length of the tail-board ff, fig. 270, is
1 foot 4 inches, its breadth 8 inches, and its thickness of an inch; it is hollowed
to the extent of an inch on the upper-side.
712. The stem, dd, fig. 269, of the sock is 1 foot 11 inches long above the
sock, 3 inches broad, and 11 inches thick. The lower end is passed through
34
a mortise in the sock-plate, and the broad end of d d, fig. 269, secured to the
under-side of the plate by three countersunk screws, as shown at g in fig. 270.
THE TWEEDDALE SUBSOIL-TRENCH-PLOUGHING.
197
The stem is secured in the mortise of the beam by a wedge in front, and by a
pin behind, as at e, fig. 1, Plate V. This pin is driven into a circular check,
one half of which is formed in the mortise of the beam, and the other in the
stem of the sock; by this arrangement the sock is kept firmly in its place.
The stem between the beam and the sock is covered by two cast-iron boxes
or shields, fixed by screw-bolts as at h. To facilitate the passage of these
shields through the soil, they are pointed in front.
713. The wheels jj, Plate V., for regulating the depth to which the sock
penetrates, are attached to the beam a b at a distance of about 1 foot 9 inches
behind the draught-bolt r by means of a simple buckle and pinching-screws, the
screws drawing the stem of the wheels against the beam. The diameter of the
wheels is 1 foot 4 inches, and they are mounted, 6 inches apart, fig. 2, on axles
attached to the stems; the diameter of the axles where they pass through the
wheel being 1 inch, the thickness of the stems being of an inch, and the
breadth 21 inches.
714. The bridle, ii, Plate V., is supported by the draught-bolt r at the
point of the beam, and is simply a plate 1 foot 2 inches long, having ears at
one end, by which the connection with the beam is secured. A number of holes
are provided for attaching a shackle and draught-hook. The projection of the
bridle is principally on the land-side of the beam, and it is stayed at its outer
end by a chain-bar k k, fig. 2, attached to the beam by an eye screwed near to
the coulter-mortise.
715. Like all subsoil-ploughs, the Tweeddale subsoil-trench-plough is only
used in co-operation with another plough, which, as its coadjutor, is always
the Tweeddale plough, the two being purposely made to act together when the
soil is to be trench-subsoiled. An elevation of both these ploughs, as they
appear in actual operation, is represented in fig. 272, where the Tweeddale
Fig. 272.
a
b
d
THE TWEEDDALE SUBSOIL-TRENCH-PLOUGH AND THE TWEEDDALE PLOUGH IN CONJOINT OPERATION.
plough b is taking its furrow of 13 inches in depth below the surface d, followed
by the trenching subsoil-plough a going 6 inches deeper, below the sole of
the Tweeddale plough, making the trench-subsoiling 19 inches deep. The
wheels of the subsoil-plough a are seen resting upon the sole of the furrow just
taken out by the Tweeddale plough b, while the tail-board c appears doing its
office of elevating the slice of subsoil 8 inches, and thus forming a continuous
succession of a void space under its extremity, and again filling up the void
with a mixture of the surface-soil and subsoil. The compound action of both
ploughs is not a mere ripping through the subsoil, as is the case with ordinary
subsoil-ploughs, but is a complete mixing of a part of the surface-soil with the
stirred-up subsoil-more complete than trenching with the spade.
716. Such is the pulverised state of the soil and subsoil after being thus
trench-subsoiled, and such is the easy action of the Tweeddale plough, that we
have seen two horses turn over a furrow 12 inches deep, on ploughing a seed-
furrow for wheat after potatoes, with as much ease as they would have turned
over a furrow of 7 inches deep, in the same circumstances, with the East-
Lothian plough.
717. The Small Plough.-Fig. 273 is a view in perspective of an iron small
198
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
plough, which, as is evident from the figure, is exactly similar in construction
to the common East-Lothian plough, Plate I., but in such smaller dimensions
and lightness that a single horse can work it with ease. A single swing-bar
b
Fig. 273.
а
L
THE SMALL PLOUGH.
a attached to the bridle is all the means of attachment required for the use of
the horse. To afford the stilts the means of resisting any cross-strain upon
them, an iron rod b is fixed at one end to the inside of the land-side of the
plough, and on being brought diagonally across the stilts, is fastened at the
other end to the right-hand or little stilt, a little below the handle. The other
parts of the implement require no particular description.
718. A species of ploughing executed with the small plough, in the same
manner as drilling in the single method with the common plough, and in form
exactly resembling it on a diminished scale, is named ribbing. This plough
was once used for paring away the earth along the sides of turnip-drills; but
the operation is now performed by means of scufflers and drill-harrows.
719. The Double Mould-Board Plough, fig. 274, is a representation of a
9
Fig. 274.
(1
d
THE DOUBLE MOTLD-BOARD PLOUGH.
common double-mould-board iron plough equipped for the purpose of earthing-up
the turnip crop, for which it is much employed. The framework of it is pretty
much in form of the common plough, except that the beam a lies right in the
central line of the whole plough. The bridle b is variously formed, according
to the taste of the maker, but always possessing the properties of varying the
point of draught upward and downward, as well as right and left. The
breast d is a shield forming part of the cast-iron body-frame. The share e
is plain on both sides, spear-pointed, and set upon the head of the cast-
iron body-frame. The right and left mould-boards ƒƒ are hinged to the edge
of the shield d with drawing hinge-pins, and they are supported behind by
a jointed iron-strap affixed to the back of each mould-board, and which slide
through a socket in the body-frame, where the tails of both straps are secured
by means of a pinching-screw, setting the mould-boards at any required width
behind. The handles g are bolted on each side of the beam, as seen atƒƒ,
and are supported near the helves by the usual stretcher and bow. The dimen-
199
DOUBLE MOULD-BOARD PLOUGH FOR DRILLING LAND.
sions of this plough are-from the breast d to the point of the beam b, 3 feet
6 inches; from d to extremity of mould-board f, 2 feet 6 inches; and from d to
end of helve, 6 feet 6 inches, the extreme length of the plough being 10 feet.
The height of the mould-board, where it joins the shield, is 12 inches, and at
the point ƒ 10 inches; length of share, 16 inches. The mould-boards of such
ploughs are liable to great variation in their form; some of them have little or
no twist, and others variously contorted. Those of the present figure have been
selected as possessing all the requisite qualifications for an earthing-up plough.
At the fore-edge, where they join the shield, the surface of the mould-boards is
nearly in a straight line, and along the upper edge they are slightly convex;
from these two lines they twist gradually, rounding away below towards the
tail, so as to leave the furrow of a round-bottomed trough shape. This plough
being only employed in pulverised soil, no coulter is required.
720. Such a double mould-board plough as has just been described in fig.
274, would make drills as wide as are required; but when its mould-boards are
set to make 27-inch drills, it is found that they are too wide below to allow the
plough to go as deep as to give the drills their proper elevation of 13 inches.
721. A drill is the triangular ridglet of earth upon which turnips and potatoes
are now generally cultivated.
722. The Double Mould-Board Plough for Drilling Land.-Where the double
mould-board plough is used for forming drills, it is made as large as the com-
mon plough, and the mould-board is made to fit the shield a, fig. 275; it then
Fig. 275.
TEL
Ъ
a
KATALULIT TARUNGA
1
THE DOUBLE MOULD-BOARD PLOUGH, FOR MAKING DRILLS.
stretches away to a length of 2 feet 6 inches along the upper edge, the point
b being at a height varying from 11 to 14 inches above the sole-line. At this
point the depth of the mould-board is only 6 inches, so that the lower edge runs
off at a considerable elevation; and the surface having not more than 3 inches
of twist, it is the lower edge only of the board that effects the purpose of
laying up the earth to form the drill. The sock c should be double-tenoned,
to take a firm hold of the ground. No coulter is required in forming drills
with a double mould-board plough.
723. In working the double mould-board plough for the purpose of forming
drills, there is frequently a marking-bar jointed to the beam immediately before
the breast a, fig. 275; the bar folds to either side, and having an adjustable
double-edged scraper fitted to it, a rut is drawn on the surface of the ground
at the proper distance for the centre of the next furrow.
724. This form of double mould-board plough is a most efficient implement
in drilling land, for it not only makes drills as fast again as the common plough,
but it makes both shoulders of the drill equal, and thereby promotes undisturbed
the upright growth of the germ of the potato and bean plants.
725. The Ribbing Coulters. As the small plough, fig. 273, only makes
-
200
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
one rib at a landing, and as only two small ploughs are to be found on
most farms, and as it may be desirable in some seasons, and particularly in
α
Fig. 276.
d
b
ล
12
6
0
1
THE RIBBING-COULTERS.
d
fect
a
a late season, and on heavy land, to
rib a considerable extent of ground in
a short time, instead of ploughing up the
waxy cloddy soil from below, an imple-
ment that will do more work in the same
time, and in the same manner, should
be preferred to the small plough. Such
an implement may be found in the rib-
bing coulters, fig. 276, which may be
drawn by one or two horses, according to
the nature of the soil, and which makes
5 drills at a time, of a sufficient depth to
cover the seed. It consists of a frame
a a, bearing 5 coulters b b, c c c, which
divide the surface-soil exactly as the
double mould - board plough for drill-
ing, fig. 275, into two furrows, but on
a much smaller scale. Two coulters, b b,
are placed in the foremost part of the
frame, and three, c c c, in the hindmost
part, at intermediate distances, and
forming 5 drills, embracing four spaces
of 12 inches each in width. The horse
is attached by the hooks of the plough-
chains to the eyes in the bar d d, which
is fastened to the frame a a by the chains
e e, which are 2 feet long, and by their weight, together with that of the
bar d d, give steadiness to the draught.
726. This implement might be rendered more important, if requisite, by
attaching to it, by a shackle at f, the swing-trees of the common plough, with
two horses; and the framing might also be mounted on an axle and wheels.
727. Wilkie's Turn-wrist Plough.-The only implement which can turn over
the furrows in one direction is the turn-wrist plough: the one invented
by the late Mr Wilkie, Uddingston, is considered the best, and is represented
in perspective in fig. 277. It has two mould - boards d d, whose inside
Fig. 277.
d
с
α
d
ས
b
b
WILKIE'S TURN WRIST PLOUGH.
faces are attached together by means of two iron bars b b, so as when one
mould-board is in operation the other is elevated in the air. These bars are
attached at right angles to an iron spindle a, which at one end c is seated in a
PLOUGHS FOR LIFTING POTATOES.
201
plummer-block, and furnished with a crank-handle, and at the other terminates
in the coulter-box e. To the crank-handle c is attached a spring which falls.
into a notch on each side of a semicircle, as the spindle a is turned round to
place either mould-board in its position for ploughing; and while doing this it
also acts upon the head of the coulter so as to cause its point to stand over the
point of the sock, which in this implement is attached to the mould-board
instead of the head. This plough acts in the same manner as the common
plough, when the mould-board is set, as seen in the figure, the furrow-slice
being turned over to the right hand; and on coming to the land's end, the other
mould-board is brought down on the left-hand side of the plough, and by it the
furrow-slice is turned over to the left hand-which is still placed in the same
direction as when the ploughing was turning over the furrow-slice to the right
hand, in moving in the opposite direction. The ploughman requires some
practice to become acquainted with the working of this plough, as he does not
at first feel at home when the furrow-slice is turning over to the left hand.
728. In this form of turn-wrist plough, the method of effecting the adjustment
of the coulter simultaneously with that of the mould-board is simple and
ingenious. The slot or coulter-mortise in the beam, instead of being made of
uniform width throughout its depth, is considerably wider at the top than at
the bottom, the taper or slope being equal on each side: this allows the upper
part of the coulter-stem a considerable play in its mortise; so that it can be
moved from side to side within a certain range, corresponding to the difference
between the widths of the top and bottom of the coulter-mortise. At the end
of the coulter-box e, fig. 277, nearest the stilts, a small recess or groove is cut.
To the end of the spindle a a small eccentric is attached, which fits into this
groove in the coulter-box. As the crank-handle is turned round, adjusting the
mould-board as required, the eccentric acts on the side of the groove in the
coulter-box, and moves with it the coulter-stem from one side of the mortise-
slot to the other.
729. The turn-wrist plough has long been in use in the south of England,
principally in Kent, but it seems to possess no particular advantage over the
common plough in flat grounds. On steep sloping ground, however, it is useful
in maintaining the furrow-slice up-hill by ploughing such soil diagonally or
across the slope, and thereby preventing the baring of the surface at the upper
part of the sloping ground by the descent of the soil toward the lower part,
which in time the common ploughing of the land on ridges up and down the
slope would probably effect.
Fig. 278.
730. Ploughs for lifting Potatoes.-The ordinary plough is sometimes used for
taking up potatoes; but to prevent the coulter cutting them, it is recom-
mended to take it out, the sock lifting the
potatoes from the bottom of the drill, and the
mould-board turning them out upon the surface
of the ground.
731. The double mould-board plough, fig.
275, acts better for taking up potatoes than
the common plough.
α
e
d
732. Lawson's Brander Potato-Lifter. - A
simple instrument, which may be substituted
in the plough for the mould-board, and for
turning the potatoes out of the ground, was
contrived by Mr Lawson of Elgin. It consists of six malleable-iron bars,
fig. 278, the outer ones of an inch square, the inner ones an inch in dia-
LAWSON'S BRANDER FOR LIFTING POTATOES.
202
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
1
meter, joined together in the form of a brander or gridiron, 26 inches long from
a to b, 5 inches broad from 6 to c, the bars being attached at this end to a
plate of iron; the length from c to d is 27 inches, the breadth from a to d
18 inches. This arrangement gives an opening between the rods at the widest
end of rather more than 3 inches in width. The brander or gridiron thus con-
structed is attached to the right side of the head and stilt of a plough, in lieu
of the mould-board, by the screws e e.
733. As shown in fig. 279, the fore-end, b c, fig. 278, of the brander is placed
Fig. 279.
•
α
ъ
PLOUGH WITH LAWSON'S BRANDER ATTACHED
close behind the sock a, fig. 279, and the plane of its face is so bent down, that
while its upper angle e is 8 inches, its lower angle b is only 4 inches above the
sole-line of the plough.
734. The mode of operation of the brander is, that while the earth partly
passes through it, and is partly pushed aside by it, the potatoes are left exposed
upon the surface of the ground on the right hand of the ploughman.
735. Plough-Graip for lifting Potatoes.-In fig. 280 we give a new form of
а
Fig. 280.
с
PLOUGH-GRAIP FOR LIFTING POTATOES.
potato-plough. The peculiarity of this implement consists in the adaptation
to the double mould-board plough, fig. 275, of a graip a b, which is attached
to the sole, and the bars of which incline upwards, so that their longest.
extremities shall be 9 inches above the sole-line of the plough.
736. In fig. 281 is the graip on a larger scale. The two outer ribs a b, a b
are flat, rounded at the edges; their length, from the neck a, where they join
the flat sole c, being 2 feet 4 inches, and their breadth 1½ inches. The two
central bars d e are round, with the exception of the parts near the point where
they join the sole c, their length being, from the point to d or e, 1 foot 7 inches.
Fig. 282 gives a side-view of the bars, showing their attachment to the plough.
at a c, the hooked points of the bars at b and e, and the angle of inclination bƒ
of the bars, 9 inches above the sole of the plough.
737. The mode of operation of the plough-graip is, that while the long sock
e of the double mould-board plough, fig. 280, is passing under the drill of pota-
toes, the drill is divided in the middle by the mould-boards d d, which, being
HANSON'S POTATO - DIGGER.
ს
d
Fig. 281.
203
α
• o
a
C
cut off in their lower part, permits the plough to penetrate the drill to the bottom.
The earth, when thus divid-
ed, passes partly up the
short inclined inside bars
c, and in falling through
them leaves the potatoes
exposed on the surface, and
partly is lifted up and cut.
through by the long out-
side bars ab, ab, leaving the
potatoes exposed on each
side of the tail of the mould-
boards. The hooked ends
of the bars b e, fig. 282,
serve to rake to the surface
such potatoes as may have
remained concealed in the
ground. This simple im-
plement brings almost every
potato to the surface, and
the passing of harrows
b
f
feet
Fig. 282.
DETAILS OF THE PLOUGH-GRAIP.
a
afterwards over the ground as completely exposes the crop as perhaps can be
done by mechanical means.
738. Hanson's Potato-Digger.—In fig. 283 we give a perspective view of a
Fig. 283.
α
d
C
ויוי
h
h
HANSON'S POTATO - DIGGER.
66
""
potato-digger invented by Mr Hanson, and manufactured by Mr Coleman of
Chelmsford. It is highly spoken of by practical men who have tested its use
in the field. The essential parts of the machine consist of a flat broad
share and revolving forks. The share g is attached by a stem k, capable
of adjustment, to the framing; this share goes under the potatoes, effectu-
ally breaking up and pulverising the soil, and freeing the potatoes from the
drill. In close contact with the upper surface of the share, a series of two-
pronged forks h h revolves. These forks, eight in number, project from the peri-
phery of a disc, which receives motion from the driving-wheels bb of the machine.
The shaft of the digger-disc is placed transversely to the length of the share.
As the tendency of the revolving forks hh is to throw up or scatter the potatoes
to a considerable distance laterally, a strong netting, not shown in the figure;
204
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
cc
is attached to the side opposite to that at which the stem k of the share is fixed.
The potatoes, as they are thrown up, are arrested by this netting, and are laid
along the drills in regular rows. Not the least important feature of the machine is
said to be the ease with which the unexhausted manure is mixed with the soil, and
the weeds left on the surface. We should, however, dread injury to the potatoes
themselves by this mode of lifting them, by such a violent action of the forks.
739. In fig. 283 a is the framing; b b the main carrying or driving wheels,
which embrace a drill of potatoes; c c the fore-wheels, supported by a screwed
stem d, which is raised or lowered in its seat through the medium of the pinion
e, the teeth of which engage with the threads of the screw on d. Motion is
given to the pinion e by the handle f. The depth to which the share g penetrates
the soil is thus regulated. The revolving forks are shown at h h; the work-
man guides the implement by the handles i. The machinery, consisting of an
assortment of wheels giving motion to the disc carrying the forks h h by
one of the driving-wheels b, is contained in the casing suspended between
the wheels bb.
740. Paring Ploughs.-The share of the common plough cuts a furrow-slice at
most 10 inches broad, and its depth is 4 or 5 inches in lea. As the turf in paring
requires to be no thicker than will remove the herbage, it need never exceed 3
inches in thickness, and the plough will scarcely be held steady at less depth;
and as that depth would be easy work for the horses, a greater breadth of slice
Fig. 284.
may be turned over than a share of the ordinary
form can do. The only mode of causing the share
to do more work is by extending the feather out-
wards to 12 or 15 inches, as desired for the breadth
of the turf. Fig. 284 represents the share of the
common plough, where at a the breadth of the
common feather is 10 inches, but on welding a
wing 3 inches in breadth, and having a sharp edge
upon the outer point a of the feather, the paring-face may be increased to 15
inches in breadth, from c to the land-side of the share. When the paring has
been accomplished the wing c can be cut off, and the share is again fit for ordi-
nary use.
a
THE PARING-SOCK.
741. The paring-plough used in parts of England in the fens, pares the turf by
means of two angular shares with the wings facing each other, and just cross-
ing the centre line, one being a little before the other; and they are attached
to shanks, placed in front of the mould-board, upon which the turf is raised in a
manner similar to the furrow-slice in ordinary ploughing, and is set on its edge
upon the pared ground, ready to be dried, as neatly as if done by the hand.
742. Leicester Paring-Plough.—A better paring-plough, fig. 285, is manufac-
Fig. 285.
с
с
THE LEICESTER PARING-PLOUGH.
tured by Mr Thomas Johnson, engineer, Leicester. Its peculiar parts consist
LEVELLING-BOX OR SCOOP.
205
of a small wheel a, attached to near the heel, to support the sole along the
pared ground. The near wheel b moves in front of the coulter d upon the
unpared surface, while the off wheel c moves upon the pared surface. By the
adjustment of these two large wheels, the thickness of the turf to be pared is
determined. The coulter d, sloped at a low angle, 28°, cuts the turf, and the
mould-board e sets it upon its edge, curled up to be dried. The plough cuts
the turf 14 inches in breadth, and from 1 to 2 inches in thickness. The cost
of the implement is £5, 10s.
743. Levelling-Box or Scoop.-In fig. 286 we give a sketch of the levelling-
C
C
b
Fig. 286.
b
a
MAN
a
d
THE LEVELLING-BOX OR SCOOP.
box used to reduce the inequalities of ploughed land. The inequalities
alluded to are slight hollows, low heights running across several ridges, making
one side or part of a ridge higher than the other, or part of the head-ridge higher
than the ridges, and suchlike blemishes. The figure represents one to be
worked by two horses, furnished with fixed handles and draught-chains. The
two sides b a, b a, having the same depth where they join the back, are curved
off to nothing at the front. It is requisite for strength that it be made of hard-
wood; but the common willow, from its toughness and lightness, is perhaps
better adapted than any other wood for this purpose. The sole of the scoop is
armed with a strong shoeing of iron, terminating in a sharp cutting edge. Two
skeds or bolsters are fixed on the lower side of the sole, thinned off forward to
give facility of entrance in the soil to the cutting edge of the scoop, and upon
which it runs like a sledge when filled. All the corners are strongly bound
with iron plates, and the skeds upon which it runs are covered with strong
sheet or hoop iron. The handles b c, b c are bolted to the sides, and so fitted as
to bring the extremities c c to a convenient distance for being held in the hands
of the conductor. The draught-chains, with their stretcher d, are attached
to an eye-bolt or a staple on either side of the scoop.
744. The levelling-scoop is frequently fitted up in a manner somewhat
different in the mode of attaching the handles. A strong gudgeon is fixed
in each side at the place of attachment of the chains; and the terminations
of the chains being an eye-bolt or link, it is passed upon the gudgeon. The
handles, in place of being fixed to the sides, have an eye formed in their end
and strengthened with iron, which passes also upon the gudgeon, and are
held there by a washer and cotrel. A second pair of gudgeons are strongly
fixed, one upon each corner of the box at the back, in a position that will pass
through the handles when they are at a proper height. The handles are here
206
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
also pierced and defended with iron, so as to slide freely off and on upon these
second gudgeons, and their extremities brought, as before, to a convenient.
width.
745. The mode of using the levelling-box is this: After the part of the ground
intended to be made lower has been ploughed by the common plough, the driver
of the levelling-box brings his horses over the ploughed land, and raises the
handles c so as the sharp front a a of the box enters the ground and scoops as
much earth into the box as to fill it, when the driver presses upon the handles
and causes the loaded box to slide upon its hind part until he comes to the
spot which has to be raised up. He then lets go the handles, and the sharp
front edge catching the ground upsets the box with its contents, the horses
walking on while the handles strike against and remain upon the stretcher d.
A short stout piece of rope being attached to one of the handles, the driver,
while the horses are returning to the ploughed ground, again suddenly, by a jerk
of the rope, replaces the box on its bottom, when it is again ready for use.
746. The levelling-box produces its effect relatively very quickly, for while
it is lowering a height by taking away the superfluous earth, it is filling up a
hollow with the same material.
747. In the form of handles described in par. 744, the box recovers its work-
ing position by turning over of itself after the earth is emptied out of it; this it
effects by means of the gudgeons on the corners catching hold of the ground.
748. Hepburn's Mountain Turn-wrist Snow-Plough." To enable the plough to
clear tracks for the sheep along the hill-sides, it is necessary it should be
made to throw the snow wholly to the lower side. To effect this," says Mr
Hepburn of Colquhalzie, the inventor, "I caused to be fitted to the plough a,
α
Fig. 287.
a
h
HEPBURN'S MOUNTAIN TURN-WRIST SNOW-PLOUGH.
g
fig. 287 (the body of which forms
an isosceles triangle whose sides
are 7 feet, and its base 6 feet in
length, the depth of the sides being
15 inches), a shifting head b c d
with unequal sides, one, b c, being
18 inches, the other, b d, 30 inches
long, fixed by iron pins passing
through two pairs of eyes, as at
c, attached to the head and to the sides of the plough respectively, so as to
bring the point of the attached head of the plough nearly into the line of its
upper side, or next the hill. The stilt g at the same time was made movable by a
hinge-joint at its anterior extremity, fixed to the bottom of the head from the
post f, so as to be capable of being fixed to the cross-bar or stretcher e, either
in the line bisecting the angle, as at e, which is the position for level ground,
or in the line, alternately, of either of the sides b a or b c, when to be used
on a declivity. The draught-chain is fixed, not to the shifting head, but to
the upright frame-post f, in the nose of the plough, which rises 10 or 12 inches
above the mould-boards. When the plough so constructed is to be worked
along a declivity, with the left hand towards the hill, the shorter limb of the
shifting head is fixed on the left side of the plough, near the point, and the
longer limb on the right side, towards the middle; and the stilt g being fixed
in the left extremity of the cross-bar e, nearly in a line with the temporary point,
the plough is necessarily drawn in the direction of its left side, so as to throw
the snow wholly to the right down the hill. When the plough is to return
across the declivity, with its right side to the hill, the movable head is
detached by drawing out the pins at c, is turned upside down, and fixed in the
SWING-TREES.
.207
reverse position; the shorter limb being attached to the right side, and the
longer to the left side of the plough, while the stilt g is brought to the right
extremity h of the cross-bar. The plough is then drawn in the direction of
the right side, and the snow is thrown wholly to the left, near the lower side.
Should the lower side of the plough show a tendency to rise, it may either be
held down by a second movable stilt, fixed to the middle e of the cross-bar, or
a block of wood or other ballast-weight may be placed on that side of the
plough. The plough will be found to remove considerably more than its own
depth of snow. When a plough of 1 foot high passes through snow 18 inches
or 2 feet deep, very little of the snow falls back into the track, and what does
so fall is easily cleared out by the plough in returning."*
749. Such a snow-plough is eminently useful in breaking up deep-crusted
snow upon hill-pasture late in spring, to the dissolving influences of the sun
and wind.
750. Swing-trees.-The swingle or swing-trees, whipple-trees, draught-bars, or
simply bars, for by all these names are they known, are those bars by which
horses are yoked to the plough, harrows, and other implements. In the plough-
yoke a set of swing-trees consists of three, as represented in fig. 288, where a
Fig. 288.
g
α
d
с
e
12 6 0
1
feet
a
Ga
b
h
C
THE SWING - TREES FOR TWO HORSES.
points out the bridle of the plough, b b the main swing-tree attached immediately
to the bridle, c c the furrow or off-side little swing-tree, and d d the land or
nigh-side little swing-tree, arranged in the position in which they are employed
in working. The length of the main-tree, between the points of attachment for
the small trees, is generally 3 feet, but this may be varied more or less; the
length of the little trees is usually 3 feet between the points of attachment of the
trace-chain, but this also is subject to variation.
751. Swing-trees are, for the most part, made of wood, oak or ash being most
generally used; but the former, if sound English oak, is by much the most
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p. 191.
208
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
durable, though good Scotch ash is the strongest so long as it remains sound,
but it is liable, by long exposure, to a species of decay resembling dry-rot.
752. Rules for ascertaining the Strength of Swing-trees.-As it is always of
importance to know the why and wherefore of everything, we shall here point
out how it may be known when a swing-tree is of a proper degree of strength.
A swing-tree, when in the yoke, undergoes a strain similar in practice to that
of a beam supported at both ends and loaded at the middle, and the strength
of beams or of swing-trees in this state is proportional to their breadths.
multiplied into the square of their depths and divided by their lengths.
753. It is to be understood that the depth here expressed is that dimension
of the swing-tree that lies in the direction of the strain, or what, in the language
of agricultural mechanics, is called the breadth of the swing-tree.
but whose length is 6 feet, then in the case of the first we have
= 4.5; and in the second we have
1.5 × 3 × 3
6
754. To apply the above expression to practice, suppose a swing-tree of 3
feet in length between the points of attachment for the draught, that its breadth
is 1½ inches and depth 3 inches, and another of the same breadth and depth,
1.5 x 3 x 3
3 feet
=2.25, the strength of these two
being as 2 to 1; and to make the 6-feet swing-tree of equal strength to the
3-feet ones, the breadth must be increased directly as the length, that is to say,
doubled, or the depth increased, so that its square shall be doubled also.
Hence, a swing-tree of 6 feet long, and having a breadth of 1½ inches and depth
44 inches, will be equal in strength to the 3-feet swing-tree with a breadth of
11 inches and depth of 3 inches; but the depth remaining equal, the breadth
is required to be doubled, or made 3 inches for the 6-feet swing-tree.
755. To find the absolute strength of a bar or beam, situate as above described,
we have this rule: Multiply the breadth in inches by the square of the depth
in inches, divide the product by the length in feet, and multiply the quotient
by the constant 660 if for oak, or by 740 if for ash, the product will be the
force in pounds that would break the swing-tree or the beam. Here, then,
1.5+ 32 × 740
3
taking the former dimensions as of a small swing-tree,
=
3330 lb.
the absolute force that would break the tree; but taking into account the defect
that all woods are liable to break from crossing the fibres, and other contingent
defects, we may allow to go for security against such contingencies, leaving a
disposable strength equal to 1665 lb. The usual force exerted by a horse in the
plough does not exceed 168 lb.; but it occasionally rises to 300 lb., and on
accidental occasions even to 600 lb.; but this is not much beyond of the dis-
posable strength of the 3-feet swing-tree when its breadth and depth are 14 inches
and 3 inches. The depth of such trees may therefore be safely reduced to 21
inches, and still retain a sufficient degree of strength to resist any possible
force that can come upon it.
756. In the large swing-tree the same rule applies: Suppose its length between
the points of attachment to be 3 feet 9 inches, its breadth 12 inches, and depth
1.75 × 3.52 × 740
3 inches, the material being ash as before, then
3.75
= 4233 lb. ;
reducing this for security, there remain 2116 lb., but the greatest force that
TREDGOLD'S Carpentry, art. 110.
SWING-TREES FOR TWO HORSES.
209
may be calculated upon from 2 horses is 1200 lb.: we have, therefore, nearly
double security in this size of large swing-tree.
757. In proportioning the strength of swing-trees to any particular draught,
let the greatest possible amount of force be calculated that can be applied to
each end of the tree; the sum of these will be the opposing force as applied at
the middle, and this may be taken, as in par. 755, at 600 lb. for each horse;
but for security let it be 3 times, or 1800 lb. each horse h, any number of
horses being m h; and having fixed upon a breadth b for the tree, and 7 the
length, c being the constant as before, then the depth d will be found thus,
l x m h
b x c
= d²; or, in words, multiply the length into as many times 1800 lb. as
there are to be horses applied to the tree, divide the product by the constant
-740 for ash, or 660 for oak-multiplied into the breadth, the quotient will be
the square of the depth, and the square root of this will be the depth of the
swing-tree, with ample allowance for assurance of strength. In all cases the
depth at the ends may be reduced to of that of the middle.
16
4
758. Swing-Trees for Two Horses.-Wooden swing-trees ought always to be
fitted up with clasp-and-eye mounting of the best wrought-iron from 2 to 24 inches
broad, about 3 inch thick in the middle parts, and worked off to a thin edge at
the sides; the part forming the eye may range from inch diameter in the centre
eye of the large tree to g of an inch in the end clasps of the small trees; and they
are applied to the wood in a hot state, which, by cooling, makes them take a firm
seat. In the main tree, the middle clasp has usually a ring or a link e, fig. 288,
welded into it, by which the set is attached to the hook of the plough's bridle ;
the two end-clasps have their eyes on the opposite edge of the swing-trees, with
sufficient opening in the eyes to receive the S hooks of the small tree. The small
trees are furnished with the S hooks, by which they are appended to the ends of
the main-trees; and end-clasps are adapted to receive the hooks of the trace-
chains ƒ ƒ, 9 g, a small part only of which is shown in the figure. The detached
figure h is a transverse section of a tree showing the form of the clasps, the scale
of which is double the size of the principal figure in the cut.
759. Though wood has hitherto been the material chiefly used for swing-
trees, there have been some successful trials of malleable-iron for the purpose.
These have been variously constructed, in some cases entirely of sheet-iron
turned round into a form somewhat resembling the wooden trees; but in this
form, either the iron must be thin, or the bar must be inconveniently heavy; if
thin, durability becomes limited, by reason of the oxidation of the iron acting
over a large surface, and soon destroying the fabric.
760. Another method has been tried, consisting of a straight welded tube of
Fig. 289.
TRUSSED IRON SWING - TREE
malleable-iron, about 3 feet long and 2 inch diameter. In this tube, acting
as a strut, a tension-rod, also of malleable iron, is applied with a deflection of 4
inches, the extremities of the tension-rod being brought into contact by welding
210
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
or riveting with the ends of the tubular strut, and eyes formed at the ends and
middle, for the attachment of the hooks and chains. A tree thus formed, fig.
289, is sufficiently strong for every purpose to which it is applied, while its
weight does not exceed 7 lb.; and the weight of a wooden tree, with its mounting,
is frequently 8 lb. The structure, however, seems rather clumsy to the eye.
761. A third method has been to form a diamond-shaped truss of solid-iron
rods, the diamond being very much elongated, its length being 3 feet, and its
breadth about 4 inches, with a stretcher between the obtuse angles.
762. The price of a set of common wooden trees, with the iron mounting, is
12s., and of the iron trees, 18s.
763. Another form of trussed whipple-trees is given in fig. 290, which repre-
sents that introduced by Messrs Ransome and Sims, Ipswich. This form has a
high character for strength and lightness. It is made entirely of malleable-
α
ს
Fig. 290.
b
α
b
α
RANSOME AND SIMS' TRUSSED IRON WHIPPLE-TREES.
3
iron; the larger bars or struts a a a are usually of tubular iron from 1 inch to 11
inch in diameter; the tension-rods b b b of rod-iron from inch to 2 inch in
diameter.
4
764. Swing-trees for Three Horses.-The foregoing remarks apply, so far as
arrangement goes, to the common two-horse swing-trees; but the various
modes of applying horse-power, both as regards number and position of the
horses, require further illustration. The next we shall notice, therefore, is the
three-horse yoke, of which there are various modes, the simplest of which is,
first, a pair, working in the common trees, fig. 288; and for the third horse, a
light chain is attached by a shackle to the middle of the main bar b b. To this
chain the third horse is yoked, taking his place in front of the other two, in
unicorn fashion. This yoke is defective, inasmuch as there are no means of
equalising the draught of the third horse.
765. Perhaps the most perfect method of yoking a three-horse team, whether
abreast or unicorn fashion, is that by the compensation-levers, fig. 291-a
statical combination, which is at once correct in its equalisation, scientific in its
principles, and elegant in its arrangement; and we have to regret our inability
to single out the person who first applied it. The apparatus in the figure is
represented as applied to the subsoil-plough, a being the bridle of that plough;
b is a main swing-tree, 5 feet in length, and of strength proportioned to the
draught of three horses; and c, d, e are three small common trees, one for each
horse. The trace-chains are here broken off at f, g respectively, but are to be
conceived as extending forward to the shoulders of the horses. Between the
main swing-tree and the three small ones the compensating apparatus is placed,
as in the figure, consisting of three levers, usually constructed of iron. Two of
these, hi and hi, are levers of the first order, but with unequal arms, the fulcrum
k being fixed at of the entire length from the outward end of each; the arms
of these levers are therefore in the proportion of 2 to 1, and the entire length of
each between the points of attachment is 27 inches. A connecting lever l, of
equal arms, and 20 inches in length, is jointed to the longer arms i, i of the for-
उ
SWING-TREES FOR THREE HORSES.
mer, by means of the double short links m, n.
g
Fig. 291.
g
211
The two levers hi, hi are
g
0
C
h
k
m
tubot bat
feet
d
q
p
e
q
2
i
b
α
k
n
h
THE COMPENSATION-LEVER SWING-TREES FOR THREE HORSES.
hooked by means of their shackles at k to the main swing-tree b; and the
three small swing-trees c, d, e are hooked to the compensation-levers at h, h
and l.
766. From the mechanical arrangement of these levers, if the whole resistance
at a be taken at 600 lb., k and k will each require an exertion of 300 lb. to over-
come the resistance. But these two forces fall to be subdivided in the proportion
of the arms of the levers h i, of each, or 200 lb., being allotted to the arms h, h,
and the remaining, 100 lb., to the arms i, i, which brings the system to an
equilibrium. The two forces i, i being conjoined by means of the connecting-
lever m n, their union produces a force of 200 lb., thus equalising the three
ultimate forces h, l, h to 200 lb. each, and these three combined are equal to the
whole resistance a; and the three horses that are yoked to the swing-tree c, d, e
are subjected to equal exertion, whatever may be the amount of resistance at a
which has to be overcome.
767. The judicious farmer will frequently see the propriety of lightening the
labour of some individual horse; and this is easily accomplished by the compen-
sation apparatus. For this purpose, one or more holes are perforated in the levers
hi, on each side of the true fulcrum k, to receive the bolt of the small shackles
k. By shifting the shackle and bolt, the relation of the forces h and i are
changed, and that in any proportion that may be desired; but it is necessary to
observe that the distance of the additional holes, on either side of the central hole
or fulcrum of equilibrium in the system, should be in the same proportion as the
length of the arms in which the holes are perforated. Thus, if the distance
between those in the short arm is half an inch, those in the longer arm should
be an inch. By such arrangement, every increase to the exertion of the power,
whether on the long or the short arm, would be equal.
768. The same principle of compensation has been applied to various ways of
yoking, one of which is a complicated form of that just described. The main
swing-tree and the compensation levers are the same, except that they may be
a few inches shorter in all the arms, and the middle one of the three small swing-
trees also shorter. The yoking is performed in this manner: the nigh trace-
chain of the nigh horse is hooked to the end o of the swing-tree c, fig. 291, and his
212
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
off-side trace-chain to the end o of the swing-tree d. The middle horse has his
nigh-side chain hooked to the end p of the swing-tree c; while his off-side chain
goes to the end p of the swing-tree e. The off-side horse has his nigh-side chain
attached to the end q of the middle swing-tree d, and his off-side chain to q of the
swing-tree e. This system of yoking is complicated, and though in principle it
equalises the forces so long as all the horses keep equally ahead, yet it is in
some degree faulty. Whenever the middle horse gets either behind or before
his proper station-or out of that position which keeps all the swing-trees paral-
lel to each other-the outside horses have a larger share of the draught upon
one shoulder than upon the other; and as this produces an unnecessary fatigue
to the animal, it should be avoided. Such irregularity cannot occur with the
simple mode of giving each horse his own swing-tree.
769. A modification of this compensation-yoke has been contrived, as we are
informed, by Mr Bauchop, Bogend, Stirlingshire. The compensation-levers are
formed of wood, and in place of the connecting-lever l, fig. 291, a chain, 2 feet
in length, connects the ends ii of the levers hi, hi; and in the bight of the
chain, as at l, a pulley and strap are placed, to which a soam-chain is hooked;
the pulley from it, oscillating in the bight of the chain, serves the same pur-
pose as the connecting-lever . In this mode of yoking, the horses work in
unicorn-team, the middle horse pulling by the soam-chain, instead of the swing-
tree d.
770. Swing-trees for Four Horses.—In the yoking of four horses, various modes
are also adopted. The old and simple method is for the plough-horses to draw by
a set of common swing-trees, fig. 288; and to the centre of the main swing-tree
at e a soam-chain is hooked by means of a shackle or otherwise. The leading
horses are thus yoked by a second set of common swing-trees to the end of the
soam. This is now seldom employed, but an improved method of applying the
soam has been adopted in its place, which is represented by fig. 292, where a is
the bridle of the plough, with its swivel hook. A pulley b of cast-iron, 6 inches
diameter, mounted in an iron frame, of which an edge-view is given at m, is
attached to the hook of the bridle. A link-chain c is rove through the frame of the
pulley, and to the short end of it is hooked the main swing-tree d of a set of common
swing-trees hh, ii for the plough-horses. The other end of the chain passes forward
to a sufficient distance to allow the leading horses room to work; and to it is hooked
the second set of common swing-trees kk, ll at e for the leaders. In the figure, a
part of the chain, from ƒ to g, is broken off; but the full length is about 11 feet.
In this yoke, the trace-chains of the nigh-side hind horse are hooked to the swing-
trees at h h, and those of the off-side horse at i i, the leaders being yoked at k k
and 7 7 respectively. In this arrangement, the balance of forces is perfectly
preserved; for the hind horses and the leaders, as they pull at opposing ends
of the chain passing round a pulley, which must inevitably be always in
equilibrium, each pair of horses has an equal share of the draught; and from
the principles of the common swing-trees through which each pair acts, the
individual horses must have an equally perfect division of the labour, unless
this equilibrium has been removed for the purpose of easing a weaker horse.
In order to prevent either the hind horses or the leaders from slipping too much
ahead, it is common to apply a light check-chain o, of about 15 inches long,
connecting the two parts of the main-chain, so as to allow only a short oscilla-
tion round the pulley, which is limited by the check-chain. When this is
adopted, care should be taken never to allow the check-chain to remain upon
the stretch; for if it do so, the advantage of equalisation in the yoke is
lost, and it becomes no better than the simple soam. In all cases of using a
SWING-TREES FOR FOUR HORSES.
213
long chain, that part of it which passes forward between the hind horses
must be borne up by means of attachment to their back-bands, or suspended
from their collars.
k
k
h
feet
Fig. 292.
e
d
C
f
α
i
b
m
THE CROSS-BALANCE YOKE FOR FOUR HORSES.
771. Mr Stirling of Glenbervie, Stirlingshire, recommends a method of yoking
a team of four horses in pairs, the arrangements of which are represented in fig.
293 a is part of a main swing-tree of the common length, b a small swing-tree
about 4 inches longer than the usual length, but both mounted in the usual
form, except that, at each end of the small swing-trees, cast-iron pulleys c c,
of 3 or 4 inches diameter, and set in an iron frame, are hooked on to the eyes of
the swing-tree. The common trace-chains are rove through the frames of these
pulleys, as in the figure; the ends d d of the chains are prolonged forward to the
proper length for the nigh hind-horse, and the ends e e are extended to the nigh
leader. At the opposite end of the main swing-tree, which in this figure is cut
off, the same arrangement is repeated for the off-side horses. The principle of
action in this yoke is simple and effective, though different in effect from fig. 292.
In fig. 292 the two hind-horses are equalised through the medium of one set
of common swing-trees d, h h, ii. The leading horses are alike equalised by
their set e, kk, ll, and thus the two pairs balance each other through the
214
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
medium of the soam-chain fƒ g. In fig. 293, on the other hand, the two
e
d
b
Fig. 293.
а
THE RUNNING-BALANOF YOKE FOR FOUR HORSES.
e
d
nigh-side horses have their
forces equalised through
the trace-chains d e,
d e,
which are common to both,
by passing over the pulleys
cc; and the same holds in
respect of the two off-side
horses. The couple of nigh-
side and of off-side horses,
again, are equalised through
the medium of one set of
swing-trees. In both, there-
fore, the principle of equali-
sation is complete, but there
is a trifling difference in
their economy.
772. In the yoke, fig. 292,
which we call the Cross-
balance yoke, the soam-chain.
and pulley are the only
articles required in addition
to the everyday gear. In that of fig. 293, which we call the Running-balance
yoke, there is first the set of swing-trees, which, as they have to resist the
force of four horses, must in all their parts be made stronger than the common
set, agreeably to the rules we have already given, and to which is added the four
pulleys-all of which are only applicable to this yoke. The trace-chain, though
not necessarily stronger than those for common use, is required about three
times longer than single-horse chains-that is to say, four horses will require
the chains of six; but, on the other hand, the chains of the leaders are more
conveniently supported when they pass along the sides of the hind-horses, and
it is free of the set of swing-trees which dangle behind the leaders of the
method, fig. 292.
773. Swing-trees for Six or more Horses.—In cases where six or more horses
are required, as for subsoiling or draining by the plough, the yoking is accom-
plished by modifications and extension of the principles here laid down: for
example, a team of six can be very conveniently applied with equalised effect
by employing the compensation-levers of fig. 292, along with three single
swing-trees, with pulleys at each end, and running trace-chains, as in fig. 293.
774. Of the Draught of Ploughs. From the complicated structure of the
plough, and the oblique direction in which circumstances oblige us to apply the
draught to the implement, some misconceptions have arisen as to the true
nature and direction in which the draught may be applied. The great improver
of the plough has fallen into this error, and has in some measure been followed
by others.* He asserts,
"that were a rope attached to the point of the share,
and the plough drawn forward on a level with the bottom of the furrow, it
would infallibly sink at the point." Were this really the case, it would prove
that the centre of resistance of the plough in the furrow must be somewhere
below the level of the sole, which is impossible. As the centre of gravity of
any body suspended from a point at, or anywhere near, the surface of that body,
will always be found in a continuation of the suspending line, supposing it to
* SMALL'S Treatise on Ploughs.
•
DRAUGHT OF PLOUGHS.
215
be a flexible cord; so, in like manner, the centre of resistance of the plough
will be always found in the direction of the line of draught. Now, if with a
horizontal line of draught from the point of the share, it were found that the
point of the share had a tendency to sink deeper into the soil, it would be a
clear proof that the plough was accommodating itself to the general law, and
that the centre of resistance is below the line of the sole. The fallacy of this
conclusion is so palpable, that it would be an act of supererogation to refute it
by demonstration, more especially as it never can be of any utility in a practical
point of view. We have thought it necessary, however, to advert to it, as it
appears to have aided in throwing a mystery over the mode of applying the
line or angle of draught, which in itself is a sufficiently simple problem.
775. The reasoning hitherto adopted on this branch of the theory of the
plough seems to be grounded on the two following data-the height, on an
average, of a horse's shoulder, or that point in his collar where the yoke is
applied; and the length of the draught-chains that will give him ample free-
dom to walk. It falls out fortunately, too, that the angle of elevation thus
produced crosses the plane of the collar as it lies on the shoulders of the
horse when in draught, nearly at right angles. It is our purpose, however, to
show that (keeping out of view some practical difficulties) the plough may be
drawn at any angle, from the horizontal up to a little short of 90°, and that it
would require less and less force to draw it as the direction of the line of draught
approached the horizontal line. It would in all cases be required that the
point of the beam, or rather the draught-bolt, should be exactly in the straight
line from the centre of resistance to the point where the motive force would be
applied. If this force could be applied in the horizontal direction, we should
have the plough drawn by the minimum of force. This position, however, is
impracticable, as the line of draught would, in such a case, pass through
the solid land of the furrow about to be raised; but it is within the limits
of practicability to draw the plough at an angle of 12°, and, as will be demon-
strated, the motive force required at this angle would be 14 lb. less than is
required by drawing at the angle of 20°, which may be held as the average in
the ordinary practice of ploughing. A plough drawn at this low angle, namely,
12°, would have its beam (if of the ordinary length) so low, that the draught-
bolt would be only 10 inches above the base-line; and this is not an impracti-
cable height, though the traces might be required inconveniently long. On
the same principle, the angle of draught might be elevated to 60° or 70°, pro-
vided a motive power could be applied at such high angles. In this, as before,
the beam and draught-bolt would have to fall into the line of draught as emanat-
ing from the centre of resistance. The whole plough, also, under this supposi-
tion, would require an almost indefinite increase of weight; and the motive force
required to draw the plough at an angle of 60° would be nearly twice that
required in the horizontal direction, or 11 times that of the present practice,
exclusive of what might arise from increased weight. We may therefore con-
clude, that to draw the plough at any angle higher than the present practice is
impracticable, and, though rendered practicable, would still be highly inexpe-
dient, by reason of the disadvantage of increased force being thus rendered
necessary; unless we can suppose that the application of steam or other
inanimate power might require it. Neither would it be very expedient to adopt
a lower angle, since it involves a greater length of trace-chains, which at
best would be rather cumbrous; and it would produce a saving of force of only
14 lb. on the draught of a pair of horses. Yet it is worthy of being borne.
in mind, that in all cases there is some saving of labour to the horses, when-
6
216
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
ever they are, by any means, allowed to draw by a chain of increased length,
provided the draught-bolt of the plough is brought into the line of draught, and
the draught-chains are not of such undue weight as to produce a sensible.
curvature; in other words, to insure the change of angle at the horse's shoulder,
due to the increased length of the draught-chain.
776. In illustration of these changes in the direction of the draught, fig.
1, Plate VI., will render the subject more intelligible. Let a represent the
body of a plough, b the point of the beam, and c the centre of resistance of the
plough, which may be assumed at a height of 2 inches above the plane of the
sole de, though it is liable to change within short limits. The average length
of the draught-chains being 10 feet, including draught-bars, hooks, and all that
intervenes between the draught-bolt of the plough and the horse's shoulders ;
let that distance be set off in the direction bf, and the average height of the
horse's shoulders where the chains are attached being 4 feet 2 inches, let the
point ƒ be fixed at that height above the base-line d e. Draw the line ƒ c, which
is the direction of the line of draught acting upon the centre of resistance c;
and if the plough is in proper temper, it will coincide also with the draught-bolt
of the beam; e cƒ being the angle of draught, and equal to 20°. It will be
easily perceived that, with the same horses and the same length of yoke, the
angle e cf is invariable; and if the plough has a tendency to dip at the point of
the share under this arrangement, it indicates that the draught-bolt b is too
high in the bridle. Shifting the bolt one or more holes downward will bring the
plough to swim evenly upon its sole. On the other hand, if the plough has a
tendency to rise at the point of the share, the indication from this is, that the
draught-bolt b is too low, and the rectification must be made by raising it one or
more holes in the bridle. Suppose, again, that a pair of taller horses were
yoked in the plough, the draught-chains, depth of furrow, and soil—and, by
consequence, the point of resistance c-remaining the same, we should then
have the point f raised suppose to f'; by drawing the line fc, we have e cf' as
the angle of draught, which will now be 22°; and in this new arrangement the
draught-bolt is found to be below the line of draught f' c; and if the draught-
chains were applied at b, in the direction of f' b, the plough would have a
tendency to rise at the point of the share, by the action of that law of forces
which obliges the line of draught to coincide with the line which passes through
the centre of resistance; hence the draught-bolt b would be found to rise to b'
which would raise the point of the share out of its proper direction. To rectify
this, then, the draught-bolt must be raised in the bridle by a space equal to b b′,
causing it to coincide with the true line of draught, which would again bring the
plough to swim evenly on its sole.
777. Regarding the relative forces required to overcome the resistance of the
plough, when drawn at different angles of draught, we have first to consider the
nature of the form of those parts through which the motive force is brought to
bear upon the plough. It has been shown that the tendency of the motive force
acts in a direct line from the shoulder of the animal of draught to the centre of
resistance; and referring again to fig. 1, Plate VI., were it not for considerations
of convenience, a straight bar or beam lying in the direction c b, and attached
firmly to the plough's body anywhere between c and g, would answer all the
purposes of draught perhaps better than the present beam. But the draught
not being the end in view, but merely the means by which that end is accom-
plished, the former is made to subserve the latter; and as the beam, if placed
in the direction c b, would obstruct the proper working of the plough, we are
constrained to resort to another indirect action to arrive at the desired effect.
EFFECT OF WHEEL ON PLOUGHS.
217
This indirect action is accomplished through the medium of a system of rigid
ångular framework, consisting of the beam and the body of the plough, or those
parts of them comprehended between the points b, h, c, the beam being so con-
nected to the body a h as to form a rigid mass. The effect of the motive force
applied to this rigid system of parts at the point b, and in the direction bf,
produces the same results as if cb were firmly connected by a bar in the position
of the line c b, or as if that bar alone were employed, as in the case before
supposed, and to the exclusion of the beam b h.
778. Effect of the Wheel on the Draught.-Having thus endeavoured to
illustrate the causes of the oblique action of the plough, showing that the
obliquity is a concomitant following the considerations of convenience and
fitness in working the implement, we proceed to show the relative measure
of the effects of the oblique action. It is well known that the force of
draught required to impel the plough, when exerted in the direction bf, may
be taken at an average of 24 stones, or 3 cwt., or 336 lb. Analysing this
force by means of the parallelogram of forces, if we make the line b ƒ to repre-
sent 336 lb., the motive force; and complete the parallelogram b if k, we have
the force bf held in equilibrium by the two forces ib and k b, the first act-
ing in the horizontal direction to draw the plough forward, the second acting
vertically, to prevent the point of the beam from sinking, which it would do were
a horizontal force only applied to the point of the beam. The relation of these
forces i b and k b to the oblique force will be as the length of the lines ib and k b to
the line bf, or the line i b will represent 322 lb., while the oblique force is 336 lb.,
and the force k b 95 lb. This last force is represented as lifting the beam
vertically by suspension, but the same result would follow if the beam were
supported by a wheel under the point b; the wheel would then bear up the
beam with the same force as that by which it was supposed to be suspended,
95 lb. But to carry out the supposition, let the draught now found be applied
horizontally from the point c. As the plough would then have no tendency
either to dip or rise, the force k b vanishes, leaving only the direct horizontal
force ce; hence, were it possible to apply the draught in a horizontal direction
from the point of resistance c, the resistance of the plough would be 322 lb.,
instead of 336 lb.
779. But to return to the previous position of the draught, and still sup-
posing it to be in the horizontal direction, and thereby requiring that the
point of the beam have a support to prevent its sinking too low. This support
may be supposed either a foot, as seen in many both ancient and modern ploughs,
or in the shape of a wheel or wheels, so much employed in many of the English
ploughs. We see at once, under this consideration, the office that a wheel per-
forms in the action of a plough. It has been shown, that, whether the plough
be drawn in the ordinary direction of draught bf, in which one oblique propel-
ling force only is exerted, or with two antagonist forces, bi, in the horizontal
direction, and the upholding force b k in the vertical, we find that, in the vertical,
the difference in favour of the motive force is only of the usual resistance;
but the upholding force is equal to %, while none of these variations has pro-
duced any change in the absolute resistance of the plough. The impelling force
is theoretically less in the latter case; but since the wheel has to carry a load
of 95 lb., we have to consider the effect of this load upon a small wheel, arising
from friction and the resistance it will encounter by sinking less or more into
the subsoil. We have ascertained, from experiment, that the difference of
force required to draw a wheel of 12 inches diameter, loaded as above described,
and again when unloaded, over a tolerably firm soil, is equal to 22 lb., a quantity
2
24
218
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
i
24
exceeding 11 times the amount of saving that would accrue by adopting this
supposed horizontal draught with a wheel. Having thus found the amount of
draught at two extremities of a scale, the one, being the oblique draught, in
common use, at an angle of 20°, the other deduced from this through the medium
of the established principles of oblique forces, and the oblique force producing a
saving of only of the motive force, while it is encumbered with an additional
resistance arising from the support or wheel, it necessarily follows that
at all intermediate angles of draught, or at any angle whatever, where the
principle of the parallelogram of forces finds place-and it will find place in
all cases where wheels yielding any support are applied to the plough under the
beam-there must necessarily be an increase in the amount of resistance to the
motive force.
780. This being a question of some importance, the diagram, fig. 294, will
Fig. 294.
k
α
m
Z
g
i
d
THE THEORY OF THE DRAUGHT OF WHEEL-PLOUGHS.
render it more evident. Let a be the point of resistance of a plough's body,
b the point of the beam, c the position of the horse's shoulder, and a d the
horizontal line; then will e a d be the angle of draught equal to 20°. Let the
circle e represent a wheel placed under the beam, which is supported by a stem
or shears, here represented by the line e b. In this position, the point of the
beam, which is also the point of draught, lies in the line of draught; the wheel,
therefore, bears no load, but is simply in place, and has no effect on thẹ draught;
the motive force, therefore, continues to be 336 lb. Suppose now the point of
the beam to be raised to g, so that the line of draught g c may be horizontal;
and since the line of draught lies now out of the original line a b c, and has
assumed that of a gc (g being now supported on the produced stem b g of the
wheel), draw gi perpendicular to a c, and complete the parallelogram a ig k;
the side a i will still represent the original motive force of 336 lb., but, by the
change of direction of the line of draught, the required force will now be
represented by the diagonal a g of the parallelogram, equal to about 351 lb. ;;
and 9
c is a continuation of this force in a horizontal direction. The draught is
therefore increased by 15 lb. Complete also the parallelogram a 1 g m, and as
the diagonal a g—the line of draught last found-is equal to 351 lb., the side
1 g of the parallelogram will represent the vertical pressure of the beam upon the
wheel e, equal to about 200 lb., which, from experiments (par. 779) may be valued
at 40 lb. of additional resistance, making the whole resistance to the motive force
391 lb., and being a total increase arising from the introduction of a wheel in this posi-
tion of 55 lb. Having here derived a maximum-no doubt an extreme case—
and the usual angle of 20° as the minimum, we can predicate that, at any
angle intermediate to lab and lag, the resistance can never be reduced to the
minimum of 336 lb. Hence it follows, as a corollary, that wheels placed under
SWING AND WHEEL PLOUGHS.
219
the beam can never lessen the resistance of the plough; but, on the contrary,
must in all cases increase the resistance to the motive force more or less,
according to the degree of pressure that is brought upon the wheel, and this will
be proportional to the sine of the angle in the resultant a g of the line of draught.
781. The application of a wheel in the heel of a plough does not come under
the same mode of reasoning as that under the beam, the wheel under the heel
becoming a part of the body, from which all the natural resistance flows; but
in viewing it as a part of that body only, we can arrive at certain conclusions
which are quite compatible with careful experiments.
782. The breadth of the whole rubbing surface in the body of a plough, when
turning a furrow, is on an average about 17 inches, and supposing that surface
to be pressed nearly equal in all parts, we shall have the sole-shoe, which is
about 2 inches broad, occupying part of the surface; and taking the entire
average resistance of the plough's body, as before, at 336 lb., we have of this,
equal to 48 lb., as the greatest amount of resistance produced by the sole of the
plough. But this is under the supposition that the resistance arises from a
uniform degree of friction spread over the whole rubbing surface of the body;
while we have seen, on the contrary, that the coulter, when acting alone, pre-
sents a resistance equal to the entire plough. It is only reasonable, therefore,
in absence of further experiments, to conclude that the fore-parts of the body,
-the coulter and share-yield a large proportion of the resistance when turning
the furrow-slice; but since we cannot appreciate this with any degree of exact-
ness, let the sole have its full share of the resistance before stated—namely, 48 lb.
If a wheel is applied at or near the heel of the plough, it can only bear up the
hind part of the sole, and prevent its ordinary friction, which, at the very
utmost, cannot be more than of the entire friction due to the entire sole. A
wheel, therefore, placed here, and acting under every favouring circumstance,
even to the supposed extinction of its own friction, could not reduce the resist-
ance by more than 24 lb., being the half of that due to the entire sole, or it is
of the entire resistance. But we cannot imagine a wheel so placed to
continue any length of time, without becoming clogged in all directions,
thereby greatly increasing its own friction, seeing the necessarily small
portion of any wheel that can be so applied will sink into the subsoil to an
extent that will still bring the sole of the plough into contact with the sole
of the furrow. It will thus be found that the amount of reduction of the
general resistance will be very much abridged, certainly not less than one-
half, which reduces the whole saving of draught to a quantity not exceeding
12 lb., and even this will be always doubtful, from the difficulty of keeping such
wheels in good working condition. This view of a wheel placed at the heel
has been confirmed by actual experiments, carefully conducted, wherein Palmer's
patent plough with a wheel in the heel (as patented many years ago—but in
this case it was applied on the best principles), gave indications of increased resist-
ance from the use of the wheel, as compared with the same plough when the wheel
was removed; the difference having been 12 stone, or 21 lb., in favour of no
wheel. We hesitate not, therefore, to say, that in no case can wheels be of
service towards reducing the resistance of the plough, whether they be placed
before or behind, or in both positions, and the chances are numerous that they
shall act injuriously.
1
14
783. Swing and Wheel Ploughs.—Such may be taken as an exposition of what
we deem correct theoretical principles, by which to test the utility or otherwise
of wheels as an addition to ploughs. But the vexed question as to which is the
best-the wheel or swing plough-is not, we conceive, to be decided simply on
220
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
theoretical grounds; considerations of economy and expediency must be taken
into account. It seems to be conceded, even by the most energetic advocate of
the swing-plough, that the wheel-plough will enable an inexperienced workman
to perform work of tolerably useful character, while the swing-plough would in
his hands be almost entirely useless; again, that while an experienced workman
has "no great difficulty"--we quote the words of a well-known Scotch agricul-
turist-"in making straight furrow-slices with swing-ploughs," he has "very
great difficulty indeed in making them of uniform depth:" with wheel-ploughs
this uniformity of depth is insured.
784. Here, then, we have an obvious distinction between the two forms of
ploughs, the swing having more of the character of an implement; the
wheel, more of the character of a machine. The distinction here pointed out
is important, and should not be lost sight of while attempting to decide which
is the best form of plough. Let us pursue the matter a little further. A
machine operating upon a substance which varies little from its normal con-
dition, may be constructed so as to be nearly in all things self-acting, requiring
from man little more attention than is necessary to supply it with the material
upon which it is designed to operate. An implement, on the contrary, required
in an agricultural operation, may, and often does, demand the exercise of skill
on the part of the worker to enable it to meet the peculiarities of a soil or crop
constantly varying in character. The more completely, therefore, we can make a
machine do its own work, and adjust itself to its own requirements, the more com-
pletely are we freed from the necessity of employing skilled labour, and the
cheaper, consequently, can we do our work. Provided we can get work enough
for our machine to do, it is cheaper to construct an expensive machine to do its
work with only unskilled, than to employ less perfect mechanism necessitating
the employment of skilled labour, which is always found more difficult to be
obtained than unskilled. Our manufacturers know the truth of this, and care
little for the expense of a machine so that it enables them to employ unskilled
labour. The more fully this is carried out, the lower do we find the scale of the
wages of the workpeople employed; while the nearer the mechanism obtains
the character of an "implement," the wages of the attendant increases.
785. We thus take it for granted, what doubtless will be by all conceded, that
the "wheel" possesses more of the characteristics of a machine than the swing-
plough; and further, that in many districts-this holding more especially true.
of England—soils are met with possessing that uniformity of character which
best aids the operation of a machine adjusted to do a specific kind of work.
Such being the case, it is obvious that the work of ploughing will be more
cheaply done when it can be performed by unskilled than by skilled labour;
and with such a soil as we here suppose, no one will deny that the work will be
as well done as with the swing-plough.
"the
786. We find this consideration enforced very clearly by Mr Handley in his
Essay on Swing and Wheel-Ploughs. "I cannot but consider," he says,
fact of the wheel-plough demanding less skill in the ploughman to be a con-
siderable advantage on its side, though it receives but little favour among first-
rate swing-ploughmen, who are accustomed to estimate highly their own manual
dexterity, from the circumstance of the quality of their work depending on
dexterity alone. Undoubtedly there are many men who will make as good work
with a swing as with a wheel-plough; but if we take a district (and it need not
be a large one) in which a hundred ploughmen are required, it is more than
probable that not ten such will be found. This of itself appears to me to be a
strong argument in favour of the wheel-ploughs. It has been objected that they
SWING AND WHEEL PLOUGHS.
221
create a nursery of bad ploughmen, inasmuch as it is in the power of any one
to make a good furrow with a wheel-plough, while it tests the abilities of a man
to produce the same effect with a swing-plough. When, however, it is called
to mind that boys can be instructed at an earlier age in the use of the plough,
and enabled to come into better earnings than they could do otherwise, as well
as that a boy at 10d. per diem wages may benefit his master by making as good
work with the one implement as a man at 2s. can execute with the other; and
that the advantage shall be obtained of an even furrow throughout the field,
rarely effected by a gang of swing-ploughs, with depth, width, and angle of
inclination performed with almost mathematical precision, thereby producing an
unvarying bed for the seed and a regular edge for the harrows, the advantage
of the wheel-plough can scarcely be estimated too highly, and marks a decided
preference.'
""
787. So much, then, for the question of economy with reference to the employ-
ment of skilled and unskilled labour. The advocates of wheel-ploughs, however,
go further, and point to a wide experience in evidence of economy in draught.
Mr Handley, whose practical experiments with wheel and swing-ploughs resulted
in showing that a diminished force was required by the wheel as compared with
the swing-plough, states that it appears to him that this diminished force of
draught is "principally, if not fully, explained by the more uniform horizontal
motion communicated to the share and sole of the wheel-plough, through
the regulating medium of the wheels at the fore part of the beam, which
diminish the shocks arising from the continual vibrations of the implement when
balanced between the hand of the ploughman and the back and shoulders of the
horse. It is not contended that the wheels so situated act the part of lessening
the friction between the sole and soil, but they keep the rubbing part more
truly to its depth, and maintain its horizontal action more correctly; whereas
the horses affect a swing-plough at every step by the irregularity of their proper
movement, which has to be counteracted by the effort of the man at the opposite
end. Thus conflicting forces are momentarily produced, and continual elevations
and depressions of the point of the share take place, together with deviations
from the flat position of the sole, which should be retained at right angles to the
perpendicular, and to remedy which, unskilful ploughmen bear unequally on the
stilts, which produces a lateral pressure landwards, and consequently a great
amount of friction along the whole of the left-side plane of the plough. How-
ever small may be the efforts of the ploughman to keep his plough 'swimming
fair,' those efforts must be attended with increased resistance, and consequently
with increased exertion of the horses."
788. We have deemed it right thus to give both sides of the question, not so
much with a view to decide which of the two forms of ploughs is best adapted
for work, but mainly to show that, as there is a distinct difference of character
between them, so there must necessarily be a class of soil in which one is better
fitted to do the work than the other. This compromise of opinion, we take it,
must be made by the advocates of the two forms. Wherever a soil approaches
the character of uniformity (which we have shown is necessary for the operation
of a machine), the more closely we can bring this machine to the condition where
it is self-adjusting and requires little exercise of mind on the part of its attend-
ant, the more economically, and, cæteris paribus, the more perfectly, will it do its
work. In such cases the balance of circumstances is in favour of wheel-ploughs.
On the other hand, it must be conceded that in some districts, and in Scotland
generally, the soil is so crude, unsteady, and unequal, that some exercise of skill
and forethought on the part of the attendant is imperatively demanded before
1
222
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
the plough can do its work well: in such cases the balance of circumstances
is in favour of the swing-plough.
789. Now, it will be pretty generally admitted that, as a rule, the soil possess-
ing a uniformity of character is more frequently met with in England than it is
in Scotland, where the unequal soil is prevalent. May not this circumstance
give us somewhat of a clue to the reason why in England wheel-ploughs are
such favourites—the swing an equal favourite in Scotland? It certainly seems
to us that this is a more philosophical way of accounting for the difference of
opinion than that generally received, which attributes it to mere prejudice—one
mutually held by English and Scotch agriculturists. Prejudice may sustain its
power for some time, but when its maintenance is found to be at the expense
of time and money, it soon loses its force and influence. A statement may be
here permitted, and one which is pregnant with meaning, namely, that the
opinion of Scotch agriculturists, long and almost universally inimical to wheel-
ploughs, is fast becoming modified, and that they are being introduced success-
fully into practice. May not this arise from the circumstance that some soils,
through superior culture, have assumed that uniformity of character which
enables the wheel-plough to be worked where, in times gone by, it would have
been found almost inoperative. Indeed, we may state it without hesitation, that
as long as the soil contains a large proportion of loose though even small stones,
there the use of the wheel - plough is impracticable, and the swing-plough
implement is required to wend its way through them by skill, and not by mere
force. On the other hand, smooth soils are just the medium for the exercise of
the wheel-plough machine.
790. Yester Experiments on the Draught of the Plough.-As the comparatively
easy draught of the plough is an essential facility to the quick ploughing of the
land, it may interest our readers to learn the method adopted by the Marquess
of Tweeddale of reducing the draught of the East - Lothian plough, Plate I.
The experiments were conducted in the following manner: Whenever it was
attempted to penetrate the soil to the depth of 12 or 14 inches with the East-
Lothian plough with four horses, it was found that the strain upon the arms of
the ploughman was much more than he could bear, and that the mould-board
could not clear itself of the furrow-slice without such an over-strain upon the
horses as to endanger the integrity of the harness. It required no dynamometer
to indicate the great weight of the draught, it being too plainly indicated by
the exhausted state of the men and horses. It was therefore clear that as long
as the form of that mould-board was what it is, it would be subjected to an upward
pressure from the furrow-slice whenever the plough was wanted to go to the
depth of 14 inches into the soil; that the plough was thereby raised towards
the surface of the ground, and that the furrow-slice did not fall away of its own
gravity from the ear of the mould-board. To obviate these difficulties, it was
determined to experiment, and the conjecture was formed that a mould-board
convex in front would in the first place clear the furrow-slice, and then allow the
plough to go down. A mould-board was accordingly made of wood of a convex
form.
A model furrow and furrow-slice were at the same time made in the ground
with the spade, and the plough with the wooden mould-board fitted into it and
worked. Wherever the mould-board was found to be too full, it was cut away; and
where too lean, a veneer of wood was nailed upon it. Thus, one modification
after another was made in the mould-board by the suggested practical ideas of
the farm-steward, ploughman, and carpenters, and each suggested modification
was made in the forenoon and tried in practice in the land in the afternoon.
When, by a repetition of this process, the wooden mould-board had acquired the
shape that gained the end desired, a piece of sheet-lead was beaten upon it to
STEAM-PLOUGHING.
223
take a mould of its shape, and from that mould a pattern was constructed, from
which a casting was made of an iron mould-board. This method of trial and
error is clearly the sound practical way of arriving at results which cannot be
attained in any other by theory or deduction.
791. The result of these interesting and now proved to be important experi-
ments has been the forming of a mould-board, as represented in figs. 5 and 6,
Plate II., which allows a plough drawn by four horses to go to a depth of 15
inches in any soil with as much ease as any common plough goes to the depth of
10 inches with two horses. Thus originated the "Tweeddale Plough." The
secret of its success is, that the mould-board, instead of pressing against the
furrow-slice along its entire length, gets quit of it at once by its convex breast,
and causes it to slip along in a straight line till it reaches near its ear, where
the furrow-slice assumes its proper position by its own gravity. The action
of the mould-boards may be easily compared by inspecting figs. 5 and 6 in
Plate II., with figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4. Friction of the furrow-slice is thus practi-
cally avoided.*
792. A remarkable coincidence of form between the mould-board of the
Tweeddale plough and the hull of a ship built on the most recent scientific
principles, may here be mentioned. Were a similar section of the mould-board
of the Tweeddale plough to that represented in fig. 6, Plate II., added to it
on its other side, a section would be produced which would be a fac-simile
of the transverse section of the hull of the frigate Vernon. Thus the form of
the easiest-going plough in land has been practically brought to be identical
with the scientific form of the hull of the fastest-sailing frigate on the sea.
793. Having considered the power of the horse in its connection with the
plough, we shall now turn our attention to that of steam as a substitute.
794. Steam-Ploughing.-" Steam-Culture" and "Steam-Ploughing” are terms
which, though used synonymously, differ widely in their signification: steam-
ploughing is precise and defined, steam-culture is vague and indefinite. Steam-
culture may include a variety of implements, or may apply only to one;
steam-ploughing refers to one implement only. By steam-ploughing we under-
stand at once that the plough, in its ordinary form, is accepted as the imple-
ment best calculated to prepare the soil for the after processes; the term steam-
culture, on the contrary, leaves the question an open one as to what really con-
stitutes the best method of preparing the soil. While by no means denying
that there may be a method by which the soil will be prepared in a more econo-
mical and philosophical manner than that obtainable by the plough, still we
think it will be admitted that, with the majority of practical men, the plough
is considered the best implement which has yet been introduced, and that for
many years to come it will be the only one which will be employed. Certainly,
of the many plans proposed to prepare the soil by means other than the plough,
none have taken that position which would induce practical men widely to intro-
duce them. The whole question is in a transition state, and the experience of a
few years may show that steam-ploughing—that is, applying the power of steam
to drag the ordinary plough-is a mere necessity of a particular implement,
and that it will be more economical to adapt a new implement to the new power;
while, on the other hand, experience may tend to fix the plough more firmly in
the estimation of practical men, and prove that what is really wanted is the appli-
cation of a new power to the old implement. The general adoption of deep cul-
ture would necessitate the adoption of steam-power. Taking this view, then,
that steam-ploughing is a thing accomplished-apart altogether, however, from
the question of commercial success-and that all other methods of cultivation,
Yester Deep Land-Culture, p. 30-2.
224
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
as "rotatory" or
or "steam digging," are but little removed, if any, from the
field of speculation and conjecture, we propose to direct attention to the prac-
tical details of those plans of steam-ploughing which have been successful in
practice; and the two we take as examples are the plan of the Marquess of
Tweeddale and that of Mr John Fowler, C.E.
795. While, however, holding this view, we deem it right briefly to sketch
the plans proposed to prepare the soil by "rotatory cultivation," that being the
direction in which the majority of those who hold that the plough is not the best
implement which can be used, are at present looking.
796. Rotatory Cultivators.-In this class of projects the engine passes over the
land, working rotatory cultivators-those forming part of the machine.
best known of this class are those of Usher and Romaine, the first of these
being earliest in point of date.
797. Usher's Steam-Plough.-Mr Usher's machine is generally designated a
steam-plough; but although the parts effecting the stirring of the soil are
h
Fig. 295.
C
b
e
d
d
a
b
h
d
$
MECHANISM OF USHER'S STEAM-PLOUGH.
$
formed like the plough, still their
action is rotatory, and partakes
little of the peculiar method by
which the ordinary plough lays
over the furrow-slice at a certain
definite angle. We therefore class
it as a rotatory cultivator.
798. The invention consists of
two parts: First, the mounting
a series of ploughs in the same
plane round an axis or shaft, in
fig. 295. To this shaft are at-
tached a series of plates or discs,
fixed at equal distances. To these the ploughs are attached, the under edge
of the mould-board and share of each of which is struck to a curve from the
centre of revolution a. These ploughs, in revolving, penetrate the soil, and
by their mould-boards turn it over. Each of these discs has attached to it three
arms or projections, as b b b, terminating in the radial direction as shown in
the figure from ɑ. To these arms the tilling parts are affixed. These consist
of the parts c c c-acting as the mould-board in the common plough. To the
fore-part of the mould-board a wrought-iron bar is affixed, forming a head or share
bearer; to this the shares s s s are adapted and fixed by its socket. Adjust-
able coulters d d d are affixed in front of each share. By this arrangement
each plough in one disc follows successively into action; and the ploughs on
the other discs are so arranged that no two of them will come into action at the
same moment. The plough-shaft a has its bearings at the end of an adjustable
or swing-carriage, which vibrates on the centre at e, and the extremity of which
at ƒ is formed into a rack, which is operated upon by a small pinion, worked
by the loose handles g. In this way the ploughs can be taken up out of contact
with the ground at the pleasure of the attendant.
799. The second part of the invention consists in applying the power of a
steam-engine to give motion to the shaft, with ploughs attached, in such a
manner that “the resistance of the earth to the ploughs or instruments as they
enter and travel through the earth shall cause the machine to be propelled, thus
making the ploughs act in the earth in the same way as paddle-wheels do in
the water, by which the vessel is moved along."
800. The movable frame fe d, fig. 295, supporting the rotatory ploughs, is
ROMAINE'S ROTATORY CULTIVATOR.
225
connected with the carriage-frame, which carries the steam-engine and boiler-
the former being of the horizontal species. To the front of this carriage-frame
a pair of running-wheels are provided; these are mounted in bearings, attached
to a horizontal swivel-frame, part of which is provided with a circular rack, into
which a pinion works; by turning a handle connected with this, the swivel-
frame is turned round in any direction required, and the machine is thus made
capable of being turned at the headlands in a comparatively small space.
801. The following are the movements by which the machine progresses, and
the rotatory cultivators are worked. To the crank-shaft of the steam-engine a
pinion is keyed; this takes into a spur-wheel h h, fig. 295, carrying a second
pinion ¿ ¿, which again takes into a spur-wheel e fixed on the shaft of the cylinder
roller, bearing on the soil. By this arrangement a slow progressive motion is
given to the machine. The spur-wheel h h, taking into a pinion on the shaft a
of the rotatory cultivator, shown by the dotted lines, gives, at a slightly-increased
speed, revolution to the plough-shaft.
802. Although the part of Usher's steam-plough which immediately affects the
soil is like the mould-board of the common plough, yet its effect upon the soil is
very unlike the action of the plough. Instead of the effect of a mould-board, it is
liker the effect of a large sharp hoe passed with much force through the surface-
soil to the depth of several inches, scattering it in a dispersed manner imme-
diately behind the machine. From the closeness of the discs, and their consecu-
tive action, friable soil is completely pulverised, and this is the only sort of soil
upon which we have seen the machine operate; but upon clay not over-dry
we suspect that it will be thrown up into lumps, which will soon harden into
clods in dry weather.
803. Romaine's Rotatory Cultivator.-Next in point of date is the rotatory
cultivator of Mr Romaine of Canada. The engines are horizontal, and are sup-
ported, one on each side of the boiler, by an open framework, between the sides
of which the vertical boiler is centrally placed. The framework is supported
by two large loose running wheels, the axle of which is bent so as to pass under
the boiler; these running-wheels are very broad in the tire. The framework is
extended forwards in front of the boiler to a considerable length, and supports at.
its further extremity a bearing, in which revolves the horizontal shaft of a land-
roller, which is used to relieve the framework of a portion of its weight when in
action. About midway between the axle of this roller and that of the large
running-wheels, the frame is made to extend downwards to provide a bearing
for the horizontal axle of the cultivators or cutting implement. The depth to
which the cutters operate is simply effected by making the framework vibrate on
the axle of the main driving-wheels, and "tipping" it up to any desired elevation
by means of a rope and small windlass fixed at the end of the machine opposite
to that at which the cutters work.
804. The mechanism for driving the cutters is as follows: On each end of
the shaft of the revolving cutter a bevel-wheel is keyed. These are concealed
in the open ends of the revolving cylinder, so that this can work quite close to
the ground without disturbing the action of the gearing. Smaller bevel-wheels
are keyed on to the foot of vertical shafts, to the upper end of which cranks
revolving horizontally are keyed, and to which the connecting-rods of the hori
zontal engines, one at each side of the framing, are connected. The vertical
shafts have their bearing in the framing.
805. A progressive motion is given to the whole machine, and the cutters are
kept well up to their work by the following means: Parallel to the axle of the
main running-wheels a shaft is made to revolve in bearings on each side of the
P
226
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
framing. This carries at each end a pulley or rollers made of India-rubber or
other elastic material. The length of these pulleys a little exceeds the breadth
of the tire of the main running-wheels, and against which they revolve in close
contact. The friction of the rollers against the periphery of the running-wheels
causes these to revolve and make the machine move forward. The rollers are
also capable of revolving in the opposite direction, causing the machine to go
backwards, and release the cutters from the soil by the following mechanism :
To the vertical shafts a bevel-wheel is keyed horizontally; this takes into a
vertical bevel-wheel keyed on to a horizontal shaft, having its bearings in
vertical "hangers" fixed to the side-framing. A movable "clutch" is attached
to the horizontal shaft, and is provided with a bevel-wheel at one end, and a
corresponding one at the other. These take into a bevel-wheel fixed at one end
of the shaft bearing the elastic rollers, according as the clutch is moved back-
α
b
Fig. 296.
b
d
DETAIL OF DIGGING-CYLINDER OF ROMAINE's
Fig. 297.
CULTIVATOR.
wards and forwards. The clutch is operated
upon by levers, the handle of which is placed at
the front of the machine. This system of driving-
gear may be easily disengaged by means of a
quick screw - movement, which shall draw the
elastic rollers out of contact with the peripheries
of the running-wheels. The inventor, in the
drawings he has published, has shown a pair of
screw-spindles fitted with foot-levers, by means
of which the attendant can keep the rollers hard
pressed up against the wheels; or, by reversing
the screw, can release them altogether.
806. The following is a description of the
digging apparatus: The shaft carries a cylinder,
part of which, a a, fig. 296, is shown, provided
with a set of radiating arms b b, c c, to which the
knives or cutters d are attached. These arms are set at equal distances apart
upon the cylinder, and the knives or bars are screwed or riveted to their outer
ends. Fig. 297 gives a transverse section of the cutting-knives or
bars. The edges of these bars, which may be either plain or ser-
rated, are so set, that on the revolution of the cylinder they are
the most favourably disposed for entering and cutting the ground;
and they are made either parallel with the axle, or set spirally or
inclined thereto; or the bars may be formed of double angular lengths,
so as to present points and angular surfaces during working. Curved
picks may also be attached to the digging cylinder.
JUTTING-KNIFE
OF ROMAINE'S
CULTIVATOR.
•
807. It may interest our readers to know that this machine is the
one aided by funds voted by the Canadian Legislature, which is
"taking the lead in promoting cultivation by steam." Mr Romaine fully
anticipated a public display of the powers of the apparatus at the Agricultural
Exhibition at Paris in 1856, but a variety of difficulties which arose in per-
fecting its details prevented this. Mr J. Evelyn Denison, M.P., who, at the
request of our Government, drew up a Report of the Exhibition, thus speaks
of the machine: "Still it is just to Mr Romaine that I should bear testi-
mony to what I saw, and to the point which he had attained. I saw, in a
field near Paris, Mr Romaine's machine, carrying its own boiler and engine,
travel by its own locomotive power 100 yards up one field, and break up
and cultivate the land in its course. The manufacture of this machine has
been taken up by Mr Crosskill of Beverley, and a recent trial of one manu-
""
HEATHCOAT'S STEAM- PLOUGH.
227
factured by him has been attended, according to a newspaper report, with satis-
factory results.
808. Heathcoat's Steam-Plough.-First in point of date is the Steam-Plough of
John Heathcoat, Esq., M.P., introduced in 1833, specially for the reclamation of
bogs or mosses, a species of soil offering, perhaps, the greatest natural obstacles to
improvement by mechanical means. The machine embraced three distinct parts
—(1) the steam-engine, and mechanism capable of moving along the field; (2)
the two auxiliary carriages, placed at the distance of 220 yards on either side of
the steam-engine, and each of which is capable of being moved along the field in
a direction parallel to the line of movement of the steam-engine; (3) the ploughs,
which traverse between the steam-engine and auxiliary carriages. In fields of
limited dimensions only one plough and one auxiliary carriage is used.
809. For the matter of the following description of the parts of mechanism and
the method of ploughing, we are indebted to an article in the Transactions of the
Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 75: "The parts forming the medium
of locomotion consisted of two pairs of skeleton drums, one placed at each end of
the apparatus. These pair of drums were 26 feet apart, and are 9 or 10 feet
in diameter. Their position resembled that of the wheels of a four-wheeled
waggon. They were formed individually by the combination of three wheels of
equal diameter, placed parallel to each other, and connected by a common axle.
The two drums on each side of the machine, being one of each pair, were
embraced by a great endless band of about 7½ feet in breadth, composed of
planks and iron hoops so arranged as to form a flexible driving-band. The
axles of the drums were supported in the extremities of a strong frame, which
was again supported by a number of small friction-rollers upon the lower part of
the great bands. These wheels or friction-rollers were arranged in rows, so
placed that they fell upon the lines of hoop, while at the same time they turned
upon axles fixed to the frame or platform, and thus afforded an easy smooth
motion to the platform, even when loaded with its machinery. In this manner
the great bands formed a perfectly portable and smooth road for the platform,
so that whatever was the onward velocity of the whole apparatus, the continually
succeeding parts of the bands laid themselves down under and before the fore-
most drums; while the bands, with their broad surface on the moss, gave an
evident stability to the whole. On the platform thus described, the steam-engine
with all its appliances was placed. The engine resembled an ordinary locomo-
tive of the period, the speed being reduced to the necessary rate by a combina-
tion of gearing which branched off to each side of the engine, and ended in a
large spur-wheel fixed on the axle of each of the drums situated towards the
left of the machine. Another branch of gearing was led off to each side of the
engine to give motion to a set of pulleys. On these pulleys the flat iron band
was coiled which dragged the ploughs. The auxiliary carriages already adverted
to were furnished with the requisite gearing, by which they could be moved
forward as desired. Each carriage was also furnished with a plain pulley, round
which the flat band above alluded to was passed. This band proceeded from
and returned to the principal machine, and was coiled by the power of the
engine round the pulley thereto attached. The plough was connected with the
band. Each of the carriages moved upon two lines of planks, one line being
laid on the natural surface of the moss, the other, to resist the drag of the plough,
was laid in a shallow trench cut in it. Three lengths of plank were all
that were necessary, the one behind being brought up and laid in before the
others in regular succession as the work proceeded. The plough was double—
that is, had two sets of stilts, one set at each end, and each set had four handles,
228
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
it being found necessary sometimes to employ two men to guide the plough.
There were also two shares, coulters, and mould-boards; these being both on
one side, set tail to tail. The plough acted to and from the machine without
turning round. The form of the mould-boards was such that the furrow-slice
was laid completely over, with its heath surface downwards.
810. "The auxiliary carriages, as before mentioned, moved in lines parallel to
the roadway of the principal machine, and at a distance of 220 yards therefrom.
The flat iron bands, each of 660 yards in length, passed out from each side of
the machine, where the ends were secured to one of the machine pulleys on the
respective sides; they were then passed round the large pulleys of the carriages,
and returned to the machine. At this point the plough was attached to the
band, while as much more band was coiled round the other machine pulleys
respectively as was equal in length to the distance between the machine and
the carriages. The steam-engine being put in motion, the action was as
follows: The second branch of gearing was adjusted to act upon the pulley,
to which the end of first band was attached; this pulley coiled up the band,
caused the plough to advance towards the carriage at the same time the other
pulley, which was free to uncoil, delivered off its portion of band. When the
plough reached the auxiliary, the motion was stopped, the plough was set to
the next furrow; the action of the steam-engine on the pulleys was changed
by shifting a clutch from the one to the other; and the pulleys reversed their
duty, that which had been uncoiling now being the coiler, and so on alternately."
811. The machine and its auxiliaries had, according to the statement of the
inventor, to be moved only 11 yards for every 51 miles travelled by the plough,
and for every statute acre worked. The principal machine weighed, with a six-
ton load of fuel, about 30 tons; it had a superficial bearing of 390 square feet,
and exercised a pressure of 178 lb. on each square foot of moss.
This buoyancy
would have enabled it to have traversed much softer soil than flow-moss. The
two steam-engines had cylinders of 10 inches diameter and 24 inches stroke,
making 60 strokes per minute. The machine travelled 1 inch for every stroke
of the engine—the pressure to allow this velocity being 4 lb. on the inch. The
flat iron band used for dragging the plough was 21 inches broad and of an
inch thick. The friction of the band with the empty plough required a pressure
of 8 lb. to overcome it; but when the plough had hold of the furrow-slice, the
pressure required was 13 lb. The force required to work one plough, moving
at the rate of two miles an hour, turning over a furrow-slice 18 inches by 9
inches, was equal to fifteen horses. From 1 to 2 tons of coal were consumed
per day.
16
812. The weight of the plough was 124 cwt. The number of men required
to work the plough was as follows: two to conduct a plough, one to attend to
the movement of the auxiliary carriage, and one to prepare the end of the furrow
next to the machine for the entrance of the plough in the succeeding bout. The
full complement of men for two ploughs was reckoned at eight labourers, one
engine-man, and a boy to assist at the machine. Although this machine "proved
itself," in the words of the report, "in ploughing wet bog-land," for some cause
or other it was not carried practically out, and is now superseded by other
arrangements more perfect in mechanical details.
813. Lord Willoughby d'Eresby's Steam-Plough.-We have now to notice the
steam-plough introduced by Lord Willoughby d'Eresby. In general arrange-
ment, and in its principle of working, the plan resembles somewhat that of Mr
Heathcoat's, just described, with this difference, that in place of the engine-
and-pulley mechanism being placed in the centre of the field, with an auxiliary
THE TWEEDDALE STEAM- PLOUGH.
229
carriage on one side, or on each side of it, two engines are used, one placed at
each side of the field, a double plough working parallel to each other being
drawn from and to each engine, two furrow-slices being turned over at the same
time. Each engine is provided with a capstan or chain-barrel, on which the
chain is wound, and from which it is unwound alternately. Only one engine,
therefore, is occupied in hauling the ploughs across the fields, winding up on its
barrel the chain to which the ploughs are attached; the other end of the chain,
attached to the non-working end of the plough-frame, being at the same time
unwound from the capstan of the opposite engine. Each engine as it is alter-
nately at rest—so far as working the plough is concerned-is moved along a
tramway of planks. There are also two sets of ploughs in the frame, one at
each end, and looking in opposite directions, each set being easily lifted up out
of contact with the ground by means of racks and pinions. By this arrangement
the necessity for turning the ploughs is obviated; they are simply moved along
the field a distance equal to the width of two furrows, where the one set which
has just finished the furrows is lifted up, while the other set is placed in contact
with the ground. The engine in the opposite side of the field is then put to
work, when the ploughs are drawn across the field. The double plough in the
centre of the frame has shares at both ends, the mould-board being fixed on a
bearing, so that it can be turned to suit the direction in which the plough is
going. The wheels on which the plough-frame runs are easily adjusted to suit
the depth of ploughing.
814. The plough is capable of ploughing two 9-inch-deep furrows, 163 yards
long, in two minutes, or, allowing for shifting forward and altering the position of
the plough, gives five minutes for the double journey. This rate gives 4 acres
a-day as the result. The cylinders are 8 inches diameter and 12 inches stroke,
and the engines make 120 revolutions per minute. The pressure required is
40 lb. to the inch.
815. The Marquess of Tweeddale's Steam-Plough.—We now proceed to con-
sider the two plans which we have selected as examples of the present position
of the question of steam-ploughing, the first of which is that of the Marquess
of Tweeddale, and the second that of Mr Fowler. Although the extent and the
practical value of the Marquess's labours have not been so widely known, or so
fully appreciated by those who have been aware of them, as they undoubtedly
deserve to be, no one has contributed so much towards the practical solution
of the question of steam-ploughing as this nobleman. We are glad, therefore,
to avail ourselves of this opportunity to express our deep sense of the obligation
under which the agricultural world lies to the Marquess, for the time, research,
and large pecuniary expenditure he has devoted to this most important point
of agricultural economics.
816. In commencing his experiments on steam-ploughing, the Marquess soon
became satisfied, that before working the land with steam-power, whether by
ploughing or digging, it would be necessary to loosen the soil and subsoil, and
to reduce them to a state of pulverisation, at the same time to remove all set-
fast stones and other impediments, so that the machinery of the steam-engine
and the ploughs or digging-apparatus should not be subject to any sudden
concussion.
817. To insure this, the first step taken was to plough the land as deep as
one set of four horses yoked to a plough, and another set of four horses
yoked to a subsoil-plough, would enable to be done, the depth the land being
stirred to an average of 19 or 20 inches, and all stones being removed which
were found within that depth. (See fig. 272.)
230
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
66
818. With reference to this preliminary operation, the Marquess states that
the more he investigates the subject, the more fully is he convinced of its neces-
sity. The soil should be rendered as friable as possible, and every impediment
removed which would check the speed at which the engine can work. We are
well aware that this will by many be objected to, as involving unnecessary labour;
but it will be obvious on consideration that the more uniform in character we
can obtain the material upon which any machine we employ is to operate, the
more uniform will be the result, and by consequence the more economically and
certainly will it be obtained. Take, for instance, the various processes involved
in the manufacture of cotton. No objection is made by the manufacturer to the
preliminary processes by which the material is prepared to undergo the finishing
operations. On the contrary, every exertion is made to secure mechanism by which
these can be best accomplished, manufacturers being well aware that the more
completely what is called the "preparation" is effected, the more satisfactory
will be the after process, or spinning." It would be, to say the least of it, a
roundabout way of proceeding to take the crude cotton and spin it as best they
could, and, thereafter have machines to rectify all the defects brought about by
want of attention to those preliminary processes calculated to bring the material
into the best condition fitted for the final ones. And yet something of this sort
is done every day in farming. We see processes carried on at great expense of
time and trouble, and complicated mechanism to aid them withal, which are
in fact the mere necessities of an unphilosophical mode of culture, that neglects
the preliminary process which, if effected, would leave the soil in the condition
best calculated to produce the crop, and obviate all necessity for after proceed-
ings; these after proceedings being in fact simply attempts to get rid of
peculiarities which could have been prevented more quickly and certainly
at the first. It is in truth a much more reasonable way to prevent weeds
from growing, than to invent and use an elaborate machine to pluck them
up when grown; to pick out boulders from the path of a steam-plough than
to spend time and money in repairs of accidents which their presence has
brought about, or to stop the progress of the machine till the impediment hast
been removed. It is by far the most philosophical way, as it certainly would
be the most economical, to bring the material on which any machine is to operate
to that condition which will enable the machine to perform its work with as little
variation as possible. The more any piece of agricultural mechanism departs
from the character of an implement and approaches to that of a machine, the
greater is the necessity for the preparation of the material. A close investi-
gation of the agricultural inventions of some years back has shown us that more,
or at least as much, attention has been paid to the bringing out of what may
be called "preventive" than "preparative" mechanism.
819. To return to the description of the Marquess of Tweeddale's system of
steam - ploughing, after this, we hope, not altogether useless digression.
After fully considering the three methods of preparing the land—(1) by means
of mechanism calculated to dig the land spade fashion; (2) that of rotatory
motion; and (3) by the plough-the Marquess decided upon the latter as the best
calculated for the work to be done. To suit this implement, however, to the new
power to be employed in its traction, important alterations were made in the form
of the mould-board. (See par. 703, and Plate II., fig. 8, on the Tweeddale plough.)
820. The next consideration was, whether the engine should move over the
land to be cultivated, and drag the plough after it, or whether two engines should
remain stationary, one on each side of the land to be ploughed, having a wire
rope to draw the ploughs from the one engine to the other. The wear and tear
THE TWEEDDALE STEAM-PLOUGH.
231
of the rope dragging on the ground was considered, and the expense of replenish-
ing it calculated, as also the power required to drag the rope either on pulleys
or subject to the friction on the rough land. The result of these considerations
and calculations was in favour of allowing the rope to be drawn along the ground,
the power required to do which was found to be that of one horse.
821. This mode of traction was preferred in consequence of so much power
being required to propel the engine itself over the different conditions of soil to
be cultivated, and obviating that poaching of the soil which the wheels of the
engine would bring about, especially when the soil was not thoroughly dry.
Indeed, it is evident that in plans where the engine passes over the land to be
ploughed, whether provided with the endless railway or not, the great advantage
of steam-ploughing is lost-namely, the prevention of consolidation.
822. In some conditions of the atmosphere, and in some positions where the
engine was at work, delay was caused by failing to keep up the full amount of
the power necessary to perform the work required. To obviate this, two engines
were employed; when the one was working, the other was getting up the steam
and pumping water into the boilers. This arrangement enabled smaller boilers
to be employed, and the weight of the engines to be greatly reduced.
823. Much consideration was given to various modes of using a capstan
anchored on the side of the field opposite to the engine which performed the
work, also to diminish the friction by allowing the rope to run on pulleys placed
on movable frames. All the appliances of this nature experimented on were
found to cause either additional labour or loss of time, so they were ultimately
set aside. Another plan was frequently recommended, namely, to give the
drag-rope the velocity used in the circular saw it was thought that by this
means the weight of the rope would be reduced, and additional speed given to
the ploughs. This principle did not appear to the Marquess to be applicable to
steam-ploughing, as the length of the rope moving over the pulleys would cause
great additional expense in replacing by manual labour the number of pulleys
necessary to preserve the rapid motion contemplated.
824. The first attempt to plough by steam-power was with a single plough
taking a furrow 15 inches deep by 14 broad. The power of the engines was
soon found competent to drag two ploughs capable of making two furrows of the
above-named depth and breadth. The engines were of 14-horse power each
they propelled themselves on the roads in the neighbourhood at the rate of 4
miles an hour, and at this rate they could ascend rising ground of 1 in 11. When
they were working in a field, they travelled on movable rails, which were removed
to the front as soon as the engine passed over them. Though the winding
drums of the engines were so constructed as to give way to any impediment
that would injure the machinery by resistance, the precaution became unneces-
sary from the pulverised state of the soil.
825. The engines had two speeds, the one 3 miles, the other 5 miles an
hour. When in working trim, with a full supply of water and coke, they weighed
8 tons each, and it required them to weigh as much on a broad gauge, to enable
them to give sufficient resistance to the drag of the plough. Where the engines
are lighter, they must be anchored to afford this resistance.
826. On first commencing operations, the Marquess ploughed with a deep and
wide furrow. No statistical information is now obtainable showing the ratio of
the increase of power with that of depth, commencing at 6 inches, and ending
at 15, increasing an inch at each time. The Marquess, however, is satisfied
that the increase of power required must not be measured by arithmetical pro-
portions—so much so, that he states that he would undertake to plough 70 inches
232
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
broad and 8 inches deep with less money than 28 inches broad by 15 inches deep,
which is a ratio of 4 to 3 in favour of shallow ploughing as regards expense. Where
the preliminary process of pulverising the soil is gone through, the Marquess.
states that he would not plough deeper than 8 or 10 inches at most, as it is only the
surface that becomes hard and crusted, while the soil below remains quite tender.
827. The following is a description of the working of the ploughs in the frame
contrived for that purpose: When the ploughs are working, the two left-hand
wheels travel on the unploughed land-the right-hand wheel in front, which
guides the frame, goes in the furrows, and regulates the operation of ploughing,
both as to depth and breadth of furrows; the hind wheel on the right side is
raised above the frame so as not to press on the right-hand furrow-slice just
turned. To prevent any delay in the ploughs returning to the other side of the
field and making a contiguous furrow, there are two sets of ploughs, one set
above the other, with right and left-hand mould-boards attached to the frame by
an axle, and on which they are turned to suit the following furrow, in the form
of a turn-wrist plough, but with the mould-boards looking different ways. (Com-
pare fig. 277 with fig. 1, Plate VII). On the plough coming close to the engine,
the frame is raised by the engine on a crank shaft; this is attached to a beam
projecting from the engine, high enough to allow the plough to turn on the axle.
The ploughs are then lowered by the turning of the crank-shaft-the throw of
which is equal to the breadth of two furrows-into the exact position for com-
mencing the return furrow. After this operation is concluded, the steam-engine
is moved forward 56 inches-that is, the width of four furrows of 14 inches each,
and a signal is made to the engine-driver at the other side of the field to start
the engine and draw the plough across. This operation at each end of the
furrows is performed as quickly as a ploughman could turn a pair of horses
in the ordinary mode of ploughing.
828. In Plate VII. we give illustrations of the steam-engine and plough-
carriage—fig. 1 being in elevation, and fig. 2 a plan. The engine consists of
a tubular boiler at a, fig. 2, with a cylinder b b, one on each side, driving a
cross-shaft c at the end of the boiler. This shaft is connected by mitre-wheels
with a longitudinal one d. This shaft carries two loose spur-pinions of unequal
sizes. Between those a sliding clutch e is placed, by means of which either of
the spur-wheels can be connected with the shaft. Below the shaft d another
is placed which carries the winding-barrel c, fig. 1; a wheel is keyed on at each
end of the shaft, and gears into one of the pinions on the shaft d, fig. 2. Ac-
cording as the small or large pinion on the shaft d gears with the spur-wheel
on the barrel-shaft, is the speed of the latter fast or slow. A wire-rope is wound
or unwound on the barrel c, fig. 1, according to the direction in which it is made
to revolve. The power of the engine is used to make the apparatus locomo-
tive, as follows: On the crank-shaft a mitre-wheel is fixed, which takes into
another wheel fixed on the main driving-axle of the engine-carriage. A clutch
is used to place these wheels in and out of gear as required. The barrel c, fig. 1,
is not permanently fixed on its shaft, but can be disengaged from it when
necessary. This is done when the bevel-wheels above mentioned are in gear,
and the power of the engine working the carriage. When it is wished to work
the barrel, and the engine to be stationary, the bevel-wheels are thrown out of
gear, and the barrel fixed in its shaft. By this arrangement, when the engine is
working the carriage wheels, the barrel is stationary, and vice versa. The
bearing or carriage wheels are broad in their periphery or tire, and rest
on temporary wooden rails or planks to prevent them sinking into the ground
when working. When the engine is travelling on ordinary roads, it is
THE TWEEDDALE STEAM- PLOUGH.
233
guided by means of the front wheels, which are smaller in diameter than the
others; these are fitted to a swivel-carriage provided with a segmental toothed
rack. A pinion fixed to a vertical spindle, provided with a cross handle at top,
gears with the teeth of this rack, and as the cross handle is moved from right to
left, the segmental rack and swivel carriage is moved correspondingly.
829. The plough-carriage consists of two main bars g g, fig. 2, connected at the
ends by cross pieces, and intermediately by two stretchers or distance-pieces.
These are adjustable, so that the distance between them can be varied according
to the breadth of the furrow-slice. The cross ends of the frame move in gudgeons
or journals, in cast-iron blocks or beams, pedestals fixed to the bars h h. The
frame can thus be turned upside-down when required, it being held in any posi-
tion by a small catch at each end, and connected with the axle-bars. The
carriage is supported by four wheels; those on the land-side have short axles
fixed by pinching-screws to the upturned ends of the axle-bars h h. Of the two
on the furrow-side a peculiar adjustment is necessary, inasmuch as the one
which goes first in the bottom of the furrow, while the plough is going in one
direction, runs on the ploughed land when the plough is going in the opposite
direction, and becomes the last; the other wheel, which was previously the land,
now becoming the furrow-wheel. To effect this change in the relative position
of the wheels, the following arrangement is adopted: Near the end of the axle-
bars h h, fig. 2, a crank is fitted, the pin of which projects sufficiently to carry
the bearing-wheel. This crank is allowed to make a half revolution only, on the
axle-bar, a block or projecting stop being so fixed as to stop it when it arrives
at the highest and lowest points. The bearing-wheel on the pin of the crank
has attached to its eye a pinion which gears into a wheel keyed on to the bar h.
At the upper and lower ends of its diameter a few teeth are removed from the
wheel. The parts thus deprived of teeth correspond to the high and low posi-
tion of the crank; so that, when the pinion or the eye of the bearing-wheel by
the half revolution of the crank is placed in either the high or low position, it is
at liberty to revolve without coming in contact with the teeth of the wheel.
When the crank is in its low position, the bearing-wheel is running in the
bottom of the furrow-slice; but when in this position the toothed wheel is
caused to revolve, and at the same time the crank moved a little out of the ver-
tical position, the teeth of the pinion catch those of the wheel, and cause it, as
it were, to climb round it. When the crank reaches its high position, the block
or stop arrests its movement, and the teeth of the pinion coming, at the same
time, to that part of the wheel deprived of teeth, it is free to revolve. The
bearing-wheel is thus raised from a low position in the furrow to a high position
on the land. In lowering the wheel, the reverse of the movement above described
takes place; the forced revolution of the carriage-wheel and its pinion, by con-
tact with the toothed wheel, checking its otherwise rapid descent.
all
830. The two pairs of ploughs ii, jj, of complete plough-bodies, are mounted
on the main bars g g. The two which act when the carriage is moved in one
direction are marked in fig. 2, Plate VII., by the letters ii; those which act
while the carriage is moved in the opposite direction being marked by the letters
jj. These two sets of ploughs are made to work to opposite sides, one set
throwing the furrow to the right and the other to the left side; in this way
furrow-slices are made to lie over in one direction. When the plough-frame
reaches one end of the open furrow, the furrow-wheel runs up a light inclined
plane made of wood, and which is placed near the engine; the ploughs are thus
lifted out of the soil, the engine is stopped, and the plough-frame reversed, to
bring the other set of ploughs into action. The other engine on the opposite
234
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
side of the field is then put in motion, and the plough-carriage is dragged across
the field. When the double journey is thus completed, the carriage requires to
be moved along the field at the headlands a space equal to the breadth of two
furrows.
831. This lateral movement of the plough-carriage along the field is effected
in a very simple manner, thus: A beam ƒfƒƒ, fig. 1, is permanently fixed overhead
to the engine-frame, and extends at right angles to it a distance equal to the
extreme length of the plough-carriage. Its outer end is temporarily supported
during the operation of lifting the ploughs by a light wooden pole g, which
catches on a pin on the end of the beam. This beam ƒƒƒ carries brackets
or hangers, in which a shaft e e works; to this a screw-wheel d is keyed,
which is arched in by an endless screw on the light shaft o, fig. 2. This shaft o
is driven, when required, by clutched gearing from the shaft d. Two cranks p p,
fig. 1, are fitted to the shaft e, and have suspended to their extremities forked
chains, which are attached to the two ends of the plough-carriage. The throw
of the cranks p p is equal to the breadth of two furrows, that is, from 24 to 28
inches, according to the breadth of the furrow-slice. At the completion of the
double journey, when the carriage is required to be moved, the suspending-
chains are attached, and the shaft e made to revolve, and the cranks p p,
making half a revolution, lift the carriage through a space equal to the breadth
of two furrows, as required.
832. In working this steam-plough no exact account was kept of the coals
consumed, but every one acquainted with the duty performed by steam-engines
can easily estimate this particular.
833. Two men were required at each engine, and another man to follow the
plough to assist at the turnings at the ends of the landings, but the plough itself
required no guidance.
834. The work actually done was this: The length of the rope was 350 yards,
and the two ploughs turning over a breadth of furrow of 28 inches, and turning
at the land's end, sometimes in a minute, but say in two minutes, and going at
the minimum rate of 34 miles per hour, there were 5 imperial acres ploughed
in ten hours, 14 and 15 inches deep, in a soft clayey soil. The ploughs could
travel 5 miles per hour if required, and could thus have ploughed fully 7 acres
in ten hours.
835. Fowler's Steam-Plough.-We now notice the second kind of steam-
plough, that of Mr John Fowler, who has paid much attention to, and devoted a
large expenditure of money on, this department of agricultural mechanism.
836. The diagram in fig. 298 will illustrate the disposition of the machinery
used in Mr Fowler's plan, and the mode of operation. The engine and windlass
combined are placed at a a, and moved along the field in the direction of the
arrows as the ploughing progresses. There are two drums or windlasses
worked by the engine, which alternately wind up the rope which works the
plough b; while one is being driven by the engine, the other runs free, and is
giving out its rope. The rope passes round a pulley or sheave in the anchor c.
The fixed anchor and snatch-block are at d, and serve as a point of resistance
by which the engine winds itself forward. The self-adjusting anchor c is placed
opposite the engine a a, at the extremity of the furrow-line. This is moved
along the field coincidently with the engine a a as the ploughing progresses.
This movement or self-adjustment of the anchor c is a recent improvement, and
is effected by the passing of the wire-rope ff over the drum of the anchor,
working, by means of a worm-wheel and screw, a barrel, round which a second
wire-rope h h is coiled, the end of this being fixed in the anchor e to afford a
FOWLER'S STEAM- PLOUGH.
Fig. 298.
f
235
point of resistance. This wire-rope h h is slackened out by the attendant-as
each bout is performed—a length equal to the breadth of 4 furrows: this rope
is gradually taken up by the
drum of the anchor c bring-
ing it nearer to the anchor
e. The anchor c is mounted
on sharp edged discs or
wheels, which slowly cut
their way along the ground.
-
The plough - carriage b tra-
verses the space between
the engine a a and the
movable anchor C. The
whole arrangement forms a
parallelogram, the breadth
of which is equal to the
distance between the engine
and anchor C, which are
placed on the headlands, and
the length equal to the dis-
tance between the engine a a
and the fixed anchor d. The
wire - rope ƒ ƒ is prevented
from dragging on the land,
by being passed over a
C
2
b
a
HURSEDHITALY
DISTRIBUTION OF APPARATUS OF FOWLER'S STEAM-PLOUGE-
SCALE, 20 FEIT TO THE INCH.
9
Ρ
a
series of grooved pulleys or wheels, placed at intervals along the line of draught.
Each wheel is supported in a light wooden frame with handles, and as the
plough-carriage b approaches a frame, a boy removes it out of its path, and, after
the plough has passed, places the return rope, which is attached to the hinder end
of the plough-frame, on the wheel or pulley. On the plough-frame reaching the
headland, it is moved a little beyond the end of the furrow and tilted up, thus
taking the ploughs which have been last in action out of the soil, and placing
the others in contact with it. The engine a a and anchor c have at this point
moved along the field in the direction of the arrows, a distance equal to one
breadth of four furrows. The wire-rope ƒƒ being already placed on the pulleys
of the light wooden frames above mentioned, the engine starts. The drum
which previously was giving out the wire-rope winds it up, and the plough-
carriage is drawn across the field. Eight furrow-slices have thus been turned
over in two journeys of the plough-frame b.
837. The plough, of which we give in fig. 299 a perspective view, and in
Plate VIII. a plan, fig. 2, and elevation, fig. 1, consists of a series of mould-boards
a a a, shares bb, and d d the coulters, carried on the beams c c.
These beams are
curved, as shown in fig. 1, so that when the mould-boards attached to one
beam are in action, those attached to the other are at some distance above the
ground. The beam is mounted at its centre on an axle carrying two wheels ef,
one of which, e, runs in the furrow, the other, f, on the land: two smaller
wheels are at g g.
The plough is steered when at work by the wheels hh,
which act through the medium of levers iiii; and an endless screw on the
leverj, shown in dotted lines in fig. 2, which is fixed at j to the centre of the
axle of the two wheels ef. The turning of the wheel h carries the lever j,
and with it the axle of the two wheels ef, from right to left, or from left to
right, as desired. The attendant, while steering, sits on the seat 1. The depth
236
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
to which the shares cut is regulated by the land and furrow wheels e and ƒ, which
are capable of vertical adjustment by the handles kk, fixed to vertical screws,
the lower extremities of which work in the bearings of the axle of the two
Fig. 299
W. WILLIAMS_ Sc
FOWLER'S STEAM-PLOUGH CARRIAGE IN PERSPECTIVE.
wheels e and f. As the screws are made to rise or fall by turning the handles
kk, they raise or depress the bearings of the axle of the two wheels correspond-
ingly.
838. Of the engine and windlasses attached we give an elevation, fig. 1,
and a plan, fig. 2, in Plate IX. The engine, in its general construction, is
similar to an ordinary portable engine. There are two drums, a a, b b,
placed below the boiler, and as near the ground as possible. These drums
alternately wind and unwind the wire-rope which drags the plough across the
field. While one is winding up the rope the other is paying out, the rope
passing round the sheave or pulley in the movable anchor c, fig. 298, and attached
to the end of the plough-carriage opposite to that to which the dragging-rope is
connected. Motion is alternately given to the drums a a, b b, Plate IX., by mechan-
ism, as follows: Through the medium of the bevel-gearing c d, fig. 2, which is
driven by the crank-shaft of the engine, motion is given to a vertical shaft e e, fig,
1, to the lower extremity of which a pinion fis keyed. To the lower extremity of the
vertical shaft e, as a centre, a swing-lever i i, fig. 2, is connected, capable of being
moved from right to left, or vice versa, by the attendant standing on the firing
platform of the engine 2, through the medium of the hand-lever o o. This
swing-lever i i, fig. 2, which works horizontally, affords a bearing for a carrier-
wheel f, fig. 2, which gears into the pinion d d. To the upper side of the drums
a b spur-wheels g g, h h, fig. 1, are fixed. When the swing-lever i i, fig. 2, is
placed at right angles to the side of the engine, the carrier-wheel ƒ works freely
in the space between the two spur-wheels on the drums a b, as shown by the
dotted lines in fig. 2; but when the swing-lever i i, fig. 2, is moved by the
handle o o, fig. 1, either to the right or left, its extremity embracing and working
round on the vertical shaft e e, fig. 1, as a centre, the carrier-wheel ƒ gears
either with the spur-wheel of the left or the right-hand drum, leaving the other
drum free to rotate on its axis. Whatever be the position of the swing-lever
i i, fig. 1, the carrier-wheel f, fig. 2, always gears with the pinion d, which
receives its motion directly from the engine.
839. The engine is also furnished with gearing, by means of which it can be
made to traverse slowly along the field as the plough gradually works across it.
The wire-rope g g, fig. 298, is wound upon the drum or barrel m m, Plate IX.,
this receiving motion as follows:-To the vertical shaft e e, fig. 1, an eccentric,

FOWLER'S STEAM-PLOUGH.
237
upper end
i, is keyed on; the extremity of the eccentric rod jj is jointed to the
of a lever k, which works on a stud at its lower extremity. As will be seen
from the plan, fig. 2, this lever is double, and carries a cross-head, having clicks,
which take into notched teeth made on the peripheries of the flanges of the
drum m m.
As the eccentric rod works to and fro, the clicks take into the teeth
of the drum-flanges which work the drum slowly round. This apparatus is
capable of being thrown in and out of gear by the handle n.
840. In addition to the apparatus above described, the engine is furnished
with gearing to enable it to travel on common roads. This consists of a pinion,
o o, fig. 2, keyed on the crank-shaft of the engine xx. This pinion engages the
spur-wheel p p, which is made in one with the pinion q, the shaft of these
being supported by a stud on the side of the boiler.
The pinion q engages
the spur-wheel r, which can be connected or disconnected at pleasure with the
road-wheel v. The whole system of wheels can be thrown out of gear, when
locomotion is not required, by the handle t actuating the clutch s.
841. The self-adjusting locomotive anchor (c in plan, fig. 298) is shown in
perspective in fig. 300,
and in side elevation
in fig. 2; in end eleva-
tion fig. 3, and in plan
fig. 1, in Plate X. The
anchor consists of a
box of wood or species
of truck a a mounted
on two wooden roll-
ers bb, the axes of
which are furnished at
each end with discs of
plate-iron c; d is the
pulley round which the
winding rope passes,
being one of the road-
Fig. 300.
WILLIAMS SC
SELF-ADJUSTING ANCHOR OF FOWLER'S STEAM-PLOUGH IN PERSPECTIVE.
wheels on which the anchor is mounted when it is required to be moved from
place to place. The motion of the pulley is made to draw, by means as
described in par. 836, the anchor along the headland, so as to keep it constantly
in the line of furrows opposite the engine. The box or body of the truck a is
kept loaded with earth, so as to press the discs c into the ground, in order to
give sufficient resistance to the strain on the snatch-block. As the anchor
is drawn along the headland, the discs cut themselves into the ground to the
requisite depth. The wire rope, as it works the plough, passes over the fric-
tion pulley e e.
842. We here present our readers with some suggestive remarks, kindly
furnished to us by Mr Fowler, on the economy of steam cultivation as compared
with horse: "In our experiments we have used engines of from eight to ten
horse-power-that is, marketable horse-power, giving off more than double the
horse-power they are sold by. The first thing to be ascertained was the speed
at which the plough should travel, as of course the higher the speed the less the
strain upon the tackle; and our experience has shown that a speed of about 300
feet per minute, or something less than 3 miles per hour, is about the best
speed for general purposes. At this pace every effective horse-power gives off
110 lb., say 1 cwt. draught. When we consider that in ploughing the different
classes of land a draught of from 2 cwt., as in Norfolk, up to 8 and even 10 cwt,
238
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
4
in the clay land of Kent, is required for each furrow, it will be seen that it is
impossible to form deductions from the mere fact of ploughing an acre of land;
but assuming what experience has proved, that a horse in good condition will
travel the eleven miles required to plough one acre, giving off a draught varying
from 12 to 2 cwt., and that if we increase the draught we must decrease the
number of miles travelled, we have some clue to guide our comparison. The
experiments show that, at the speed of 3½ miles per hour, 1 acres can be done by
each furrow in a day of ten hours, in a field of 250 yards long, and 2 acres in a
field of 400 yards long, allowing for hindrances. Now, if we assume the use of
an engine giving off not less than 24 nominal horse-power, of which about 4
horse-power is consumed in friction, the remaining 20 being given off in work.
in the plough equal to 20 cwt. draught-thus drawing 3 furrows or shares, 4-horse
work each, 4 furrows 3-horse work—we shall then get over from 41 acres to 6 acres
of the heavier work, and from 6 to 8 acres of the lighter work. If the land is
lighter than either of these, less horse-power will be used, and in consequence
of less hindrance, and the engine running always at top speed, an acre an hour
can be easily accomplished.
843. The daily expenses are as follows:-
Two men at 3s.,
Two men at 2s. 3d.,
One boy at ls.,
Coals, from 10 to 14 cwt.,
Water, one horse and man,
Shifting, 24s. per week, or
•
is co
S.
D.
6
0
4
6
1
0
14
0
6
0
4
0
35
6
4 Acres.
6 Acres.
8 Acres.
Cost per acre, exclusive of wear and tear,
7s. 11d.
6s.
4s.
respectively,
As against
16s.
12s.
9s. by horse labour.
844. A six-furrow plough might be made for light land, or a five-furrow driven
faster, which would increase the quantity of work without increasing the cost
materially; but reducing the cost forms but a small part of the advantages
offered by steam cultivation. It is found that heavy land ploughed by steam
is left in an almost perfect state of tilth, as it is not the plough but the
weight of the horses trampling on the land that causes that solidity of the
furrow-slice of which the advocates of rotatory cultivation complain.
845. This was exemplified in Wiltshire in 1857, where a piece of land
ploughed by horses lay side by side with a piece of land ploughed by steam;
the steam-ploughed was harrowed down and sown in perfect tilth after two days'
dry weather, when the horse-ploughed more resembled a mass of boulders than
a friable soil, and would require a fortnight's dry weather to render it workable.
Any one who has watched the impression of his foot on the sand of the sea-shore,
and has seen the distance to which the water is disturbed by his weight, as
shown by the colour of the sand, will appreciate the effect of horse-weight on
wet clay-soil. The increased speed of the plough tends also to produce a
quicker tilth.
*
* This is the turning-point in regard to the ploughing clay-soil. No doubt, horses' feet pene-
trate and consolidate when ploughing wet clay-soil; but there is as little doubt that horses'
feet do not penetrate and consolidate dry clay-soil. The conclusion is, that clay, when wet,
ought not to be ploughed with horses; but this naturally gives rise to the question, whether wet
clay may
be ploughed by steam? We answer in the negative, because wet clay-soil ought not to
be ploughed at all, but left alone until it becomes dry by draining or evaporation.-EDITOR.
GRUBBERS.
239
846. SECTION SECOND-Grubbers.-The grubber, or, as it is frequently, but
erroneously, styled, the cultivator, is a comparatively modern implement, and
seems to have sprung from the more ancient prototype, the brake-harrow, which
it has now to a considerable extent superseded. It is in principle a member of
the harrow tribe of implements; but while the harrow, or even the brake, acts
superficially or to a very small depth in the soil, the grubber, from its greater
weight, and from the form of its tines, penetrates the ground to any required.
depth. In respect to penetration, therefore, it approaches the plough, but its
effects are simply to stir the soil, tearing up roots of plants at the same time,
but produces no effect towards turning it up like the plough. It has been
supposed that the grubber may be traced as far back as the days of Roman
agriculture, but there is good reason for assuming that the instrument used by
the Romans partook more of the brake than the grubber, and so far as has been
traced in modern works, its application, in Scotland at least, goes no farther
back than the year 1784, at which period an implement, then styled an edgit,
of the grubber family, was in use by several agriculturists in the neighbour-
hood of North Berwick, East Lothian.*
847. From this period the grubber appears to have lain comparatively
dormant till 1811, when the late Sir John Sinclair, Bart. of Ulbster, brought it
in a tangible shape before the Dalkeith Farming Club. Sir John at that time
described it as being known in England by the name of the scarifier. As might
naturally be expected, therefore, it seems to have been an importation from
England, but, like other implements and machinery already noticed, it came to
a higher degree of perfection here than in its original soil, and it is only very
recently that the newest forms of the grubber have appeared in England.
848. Many years after, Finlayson, Kirkwood, and others, cleared the way,
and brought out those essential characters of the implement which have not
yet been superseded except in minor details.
849. The original Scotch form of the grubber of 1784 appears to have been
a wooden frame, in which, Mr Shirreff says, "the tines were fixed, standing
perpendicular, the point not dipping, but forming a right angle with the tines.
The wheels were only two; these stood in front of the machine, and being
movable upwards and downwards, regulated the depth to which the tines were
intended to work."+
+
+
850. The improved form of 1811 is figured in the Transactions of the Highland
and Agricultural Society and other works of the period, but still constructed in
wooden framework; and having now four wheels, immediately supporting an
external frame, to which was jointed another and internal frame carrying the
chief part of the tines, it became better adapted to being raised out of the
ground at pleasure.
851. The next great step in the improvement of the grubber was made by
Mr John Finlayson, farmer at Kaims, in the parish of Muirkirk, Ayrshire, who,
about the year 1820, brought out his patent self-cleaning harrow or grubber; but
it does not appear that he actually procured a patent for the improvement. It
was now made entirely of iron, and became a very effective implement, though
cumbrous, and attended with some inconveniences arising from a deficiency in
the means of raising the tines out of the ground.
852. Subsequent to the improvement by Mr Finlayson, Mr James Kirkwood,
Tranent, East-Lothian, made some further improvements on the patent self-
cleaning harrow of Finlayson, and ultimately, in 1830, brought out a grubber
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p. 359-370.
‡ Ibid.
+ Ibid.
240
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
differing materially from the former, and possessing properties that placed it
superior to the other, the chief of which was the easy and perfect manner in
which the whole of the tines could be raised from the ground.
853. Various other modifications were soon after brought out by different
makers, among which we cannot omit mentioning that of the late Mr Wilkie, the
well-known ploughmaker at Uddingston. Mr Wilkie's grubber is a very elegantly-
constructed machine, possessing the self-cleaning principle in the tines; but,
from its elaborate construction, its necessarily high price has probably been a
bar to its more extensive introduction. Amongst these modifications, Finlay-
son's original grubber again underwent a marked improvement, in which, though
the original shape has been preserved, a perfect mode of raising the tines
from the ground has been engrafted upon it.
854. While these later improvements have been going on in Scotland upon
this implement, corresponding exertions have been successfully made in Eng-
land, where the improvements above alluded to have not only been followed,
but are in some measure surpassed, under the names of Cultivators and
Scarifiers. Amongst these, that of Richard Coleman is the most celebrated.
855. Such are a few leading points in the history of the grubber, and its
progress to the present improved state. It is, and will continue to be, an
important implement, whether for the working of summer fallow, the preparing
of rough or foul land for green fallow, or for the purifying of land that has been
suffered to become so foul as to be incapable of producing a crop in the ordinary
mode of cultivation. Soils in the last-mentioned condition, by passing through
a course of grubbing that may be done in a few days or weeks at most, may
be brought into a crop-bearing state. The grubber, like many other novelties,
was, on its reintroduction about 1811, held up as an implement capable of
producing an entire revolution in the cultivation of the soil,* and was spoken
of as something above human invention, superseding even the plough; it has
now settled down into its proper sphere of usefulness, ranking at least next to
the plough.
856. It will be unnecessary to attempt going into details of all the forms
of the grubber, more especially of those early forms which are now entirely
exploded; even the original of Finlayson's may be passed over as now obsolete,
but which may be seen figured in the works of the day. We shall therefore
only describe some of those which have attained a character they are likely to
retain; and of these, though it may not be in exact chronological order, Kirk-
wood's may be taken as the first in the order of description.
857. Kirkwood's Grubber. In this machine the ingenious apparatus for
elevating the tine-frame was, we believe, first brought out, and from it has been
deduced all the various forms in which this effect is now produced, though, as
we shall see, some of them are so much changed from the original as hardly
to be recognisable; still the elements of the original are there, obtained in
some cases at a greater, in others at a smaller, expense. The present form, as
figured here, differs in some minor points from the original, but not so much
as at all to alter the character of the implement, which is still essentially
Kirkwood's, though the figure is taken from those manufactured by A. and
G. H. Slight of Edinburgh. The chief points of difference are in the length
of the axle of the hind-wheels; this, in the original, was so short as to bring
the wheels close to the levers: now, the axle is extended so far as to place
the wheels on the outside of the extreme tines. This extension of the axle
See, for example, BEATSON's New System of Cultivation.
*
+ Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 846.
KIRKWOOD'S GRUBBER.
241
gives the machine a broader base, and thereby a greater steadiness of motion;
and to compensate for, and give support to, the extremities of the axle thus
extended, it is supported by a trussed tie with king-posts.
858. Fig. 2, Plate XI., is a view in perspective of this grubber: it may be
considered as consisting of two parts, the tine-frame, and the carriage with its
wheels and handles, the two being connected by means of the apparatus for ele-
vating the tine-frame, and by a joint-rod which is common to both, the whole
being constructed of malleable iron, except the wheels. The tine-frame is of
an irregular triangular figure, composed of two sides a a a; these are
forged to the peculiar form represented in the figure, and to the following
dimensions: from extreme a to b' in the oblique straight line, the distance is
25 inches, b' to c 21 inches, and c to a″ 39 inches; and the lengths on the
opposite side correspond exactly with these; but the central distance from
extreme a to a" is 6 feet 6 inches. The breadths, measuring from centre to
centre of the tines, are at extreme a 4 feet 2 inches; b' to b' 2 feet 10 inches,
and c' to c' 17 inches; the fore-part of the bars, forming the neck, approach to
within inch of each other, between the points d' and m, and at a" they come
in contact, and are fixed by the bolt at a"; the muzzle a" z is simply a pro-
longation of the bars, and is provided with several holes in which the draught-
shackle and hook can be attached to regulate in some degree the tendency to
earth. That part of the frame d' to m, forming the neck, is raised 9 inches
above the line of the body, measuring from the upper surface of the one to that
of the other, and lies parallel with the body of the frame. The side-bars here
described are 24 inches in depth and 1 inch in breadth, till they approach d',
when they are diminished in breadth to 2 inch, and go on diminishing to inch
at a". The slot-holes for the tines are 21 inches by & inch. Besides the con-
nection at the point a", the side-bars are connected by the joint-rod g, which ie
1 inches square at the middle, tapering and rounded towards the end, whers.
it terminates in a screw and nut of about 1 inch diameter; and a light
stretcher a' is also inserted as a further support to the frame. The beam b b is
21 inches by 1 inch from b to u, and diminishes from u to d to 2 inch; it is kneed
at extreme b, so as to leave space sufficient to receive the slot-hole for the middle
tine, and it is bent upward at u to the height of 10 inches above the frame as
before, for the purpose of receiving the bridle u u'; the end b of the beam ist
notched into the middle of the joint-rod g (which is here spread out to 2 inches
in depth), and fixed by a screw-bolt, tapped into the end of the beam, while its
fore-end is secured between the side-bars by a through bolt at d. The tines,
of which this form of the implement contains seven, hh, &c., are 12 inch by 2
inch, bent at the point as in the figure, with a slight tendency to earth, and are
flattened out at the point to a breadth of 11 to 1 inch; their length from the
level of the point to the top is 20 inches, and they are secured at any required
degree of earth by one iron wedge to each tine.
3
4
3
4
859. The carriage consists of the axle dd, on which are mounted the two
handles or levers c c c, the axle passing through these, and fixed with cotterels
on each side. At the distance of 13 inches from the centre of the axle, the
levers are also perforated for the joint-rod g, the position of which in the tine-
frame is such as just to allow the extremities to pass the axle when the frame
is being raised or depressed. A third perforation is formed in the fore-end of
the lever at o, 2 inches forward of the joint-rod, for the attachment of the stays.
The levers extend backward to a length of 4 feet, and terminate in sockets
into which wooden helves are inserted; and they are further supported by the
stay-rod and bow c'. The carriage is now supported on the hind-wheels ff, of
242
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
22 inches diameter; and the fore-part of the frame on the castor-wheel i, of
13 inches diameter, with its sheers k l, and crank-lever 7 m n.
860. The connections between the carriage and frame, and which also form
the elevating apparatus, are arranged in the following manner: The right and
left stay-rods o p q and rps are bolted to the levers at qo and rs, the perpen-
dicular distance g p being 12 inches, and the like distance from the centre of
the axle d to p 18 inches, the two stays being brought together upon a
stretcher-bolt at p, of 1 inch in length, having a screw and nut at each end.
The connecting-rod p t n is 5 feet 2 inches in length, & inch diameter, and is
jointed to the carriage by the short stretcher-bolt at p, and to the crank-lever
of the front-wheel at n, which completes the arrangement by which the tine-
frame is moved up and down in positions always parallel to the horizon.
3
861. Fig. 1 is a geometrical elevation of this grubber, showing in a more
distinct manner the relation and the action of the elevating apparatus. In this
the solid lines represent the machine as with the tines in the ground, the
surface being represented by the line x'x"; and the repetition of the figure in
dotted lines represents it as when the tines are elevated, and the machine in a
travelling condition, the same letters applying in both positions, but in elevation
with an accent. In the first position, applying the same letters as in the
former figure, a a is the tine-frame, b the beam, c the handles or levers, d the
axle of the carriage, f the hind-wheels, g the position of the joint-rod of the tine-
frame, and h h are the tines. The front-wheel is shown in the sheers k l, and
1 m n is the crank-lever, g p r the stays, and t the connecting-rod.
862. In the apparatus of the front-wheel, the distance from the sole of the
wheel, where it touches the line x'x", to the centre at m, is 23 inches, and from
m to n 114 inches; and as the carriage-lever, though in a complicated form, is
resolvable into a more simple one, which has the same proportions as the
former, the point where the wheel touches the line x'x" is the fulcrum, and a
line drawn from the point x' to the joint at p will be parallel with, and equal to,
x" m, and g p will be equal to m n; and the point pn acting simultaneously
by means of the connecting-rod t, rises by turning round the fulcrum x', while
m rises through the same space by the point x" turning round the point m in the
opposite direction. By these motions the tine-frame will rise and fall through
equal spaces before and behind, and thus preserve the parallelism of the frame
in any position.
863. In working the machine it is requisite that the conductor have it in his
power to regulate and preserve a uniform depth for the tines, and be able to
withdraw the tines from the earth. To accomplish this part, the connecting-
rod t, fig. 2, has small mortises punched in it, to the number of 6 or 8, at very
close intervals between u and p, the rod being square at this place. A nut
or slide-box y' is fitted to slide easily upon it; and having also a mortise punched
through it corresponding to those in the rod, it can be fixed at any point by
dropping a pin through this and any required mortise. The bridle u uconsists
of two similar parts bolted one on each side of the beam; and having the
middle parts of its stay widened to admit the passage of the nut, it receives the
folding-link v upon the bolt, on which the link turns freely. The handle v x w
is made of such length as will bring the eye w within reach of the conductor;
it is furnished with a cross-head x, and the end v being screwed into the link
v, the handle can be shortened or lengthened at pleasure; and this is done to
make the cross-head x fall in behind the end of the connecting-rod when the
tines are in the ground, which thus lock them that they cannot rise out of the
ground, although, from any malformation of the tines, they might have a ten-
TENNANT'S GRUBBER.
243
dency to do so were this lock not applied; but while the tines preserve their
due form, the lock is not required. A prolonged screw-nut at p is also put upon
the handle; it is forked in the prolonged part; and when the tine-frame is
raised out of the ground for travelling, the nut is adjusted to fall in before the
checks of the stays at p, and thus, keeps up the tine-frame without the continued
aid of the conductor.
864. Tennant's Grubber.-In construction, this implement, as shown in fig. 301,
is of the simplest form. The beam a has an eye formed at its hinder extremity,
Fig. 301.
g
d
C
TENNANT'S GRUBBER.
a
through which a square bar b is passed, and near it a similar eye carrying a
second but shorter bar c. On the ends of this short bar are fixed the extremi-
ties of the stilts or handles d d, which also embrace the hinder bar b, by means
of eyes similar to, but lighter, than those on the beam. Each of these cross-bars,
b and c, carries two tines, formed with eyes to embrace the bar, and allow
them to be shifted along it if necessary: pinching-screws are provided to
secure them to the cross-bars in any desired position. The fifth and foremost
tine is fixed in a mortise in the beam at e; and in another mortise, at the point
of the beam at f, is inserted the stem of the wheel which regulates the depth
to which the tines penetrate.
865. The dimensions of the different parts are as follow: The length of the
beam, from the centre of the wheel at ƒ to the front of the foremost tine at e, is
1 foot 10 inches; from ƒ to the centre of the bar c, 3 feet 5 inches; and from
centre to centre of the bars b and c, 1 foot 1 inch. The length from ƒ to the
end of the stilts at g is 7 feet 6 inches, beyond which the wooden handles project
8 inches. The beam immediately behind ƒ is 12 inch deep and 1 inch thick;
at e 2 inches or 24 inches deep and 1½ inch thick; and from this it decreases to
1½ inch square, or 1 by 14 inch at the back end. The square eyes are 21
inches each way, with holes just sufficient to allow the cross-bars of 1½ inch
square to pass through, and each furnished with a pinching-screw inch
diameter. The iron of the stilts is 1 by 3 inch, swelled out where they
embrace the bars b and c, eyes 14 inch thick being formed for securing them to
b, and give sufficient metal to carry a pinching-screw in each; but the eyes for
securing them to the bar c are kept to the ordinary thickness of the stilt, inch.
Behind the bar b the stilts are connected and stiffened by two stretchers ğ inch
in diameter. The hinder bar b is 3 feet 3 inches long, which allows its tines to
be fixed at 36 inches between centres, and the front bar, 1 foot 10 inches long,
244
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
over all, with its ends reduced a little, to form shoulders for the eyes of the
stilts to rest against, a small pin through the bar at each end keeping the stilt
up to the shoulder: the width between the stilts at this point is 1 foot 8 inches,
to allow of the two middle tines being set to 18 inches between centres. When
the grubber is standing level, the point of the beam to the underside is 1 foot
9 inches high, and the cross-bars 1 foot, and the height to the upper side of the
handles 3 feet 6 inches.
Fig. 302.
a
ს
866. With the exception of the first, all the tines are alike, and one is
represented in fig. 302, to a scale of
1½ inch to a foot. The body is 12 inch
square, set diagonally, or with a corner in
front, as shown in section at a. It is bent
so as to form about a quarter circle in side-
elevation, the upper end terminating in a
cubical bead or eye 21 inches square, pierced
with a hole 1 inch square, and furnished
with a pinching-screw at the back. The
point is steeled and drawn out thin to a
breadth of 3 inches, and pointed as at b. The front tine is similar to the
others, except in having a tenon at top, for fitting into the beam in place of the
large eye.
TINE OF TENNANT'S GRUBBER-SCALE, 1 INCH
TO THE FOOT.
867. Fig. 303 is a form of tine introduced by the late James Slight, and
Fig. 303.
α
usually called the swan-neck tine. It
has been found very useful where the
land is foul, and where Tennant's form
would be liable to choke at the top.
The difference consists in making it
rise about 3½ inches at the eye before
bending downwards, so as to carry weeds
over the top of the supporting bar when
forced upwards on the tine. In section
it is as represented at a, being in the
central part 2 inches broad, 11 inch
thick at the back, and inch at the
front, which is rounded: it deepens a little at the top, where it has an eye like
the other, and is finished at bottom with an angular point also like Tennant's.
SWAN-NECK TINE OF TENNANT'S GRUBBER-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
8
868. The wheel, as registered by Mr Tennant, is an ingenious contrivance,
intended to obviate the wearing-out of the eye from a want of oil. Instead of
running on a simple pin, it runs on a tube furnished with ends or cups, which
project inward, and partially cover the eye of the wheel. One or both of these
ends must be loose, for getting the parts put together, and also for taking them
separate for the purpose of oiling, which is done by filling a chamber formed in
the eye for containing a supply of oil. The tubular pin and its ends are held in
their places by a screw-bolt, which passes through all, and binds the tube to
the sheers carrying the wheel. The ends of the eye are turned so as nearly to
fit inside the cups.
869. Coleman's Cultivator.-This implement, manufactured by Mr Richard
Coleman of Chelmsford, and which enjoys a high reputation in England, is
represented in fig. 304, where a a is the frame, b b the two hind-wheels, c the
front wheel. The tines d d are supported by the central bar e e, which is
easily moved on its centres by the handle ƒ (part only of which is shown in the
drawing.) The handle ƒ adjusts the depth to which the tines work, or lifts
COLEMAN'S CULTIVATOR.
245
them altogether out of contact with the ground: it moves in the slot of the
semicircular guard g, and can be retained therein in any desired position by
Fig. 304.
9
b
b
al
d
εί
d
COLEMAN'S CULTIVATOR.
WALL
passing a pin through corresponding holes made in the guard g, and an aperture
in the handle ƒ. The adjustment of the tines d d is remarkably easy in this
implement, and the whole mechanical details are well arranged, and adapted to
the work to be done.
870. In fig. 305 is a view of the wrought-iron frame; the extreme length from
Fig. 305.
b
a
d
e
FRAME OF COLEMAN'S CULTIVATOR.
4
b to fis 6 feet, its width from a to c being 2 feet 10 inches. Five prongs are
swung at the points a b c d e on bolts or studs 3 inch in diameter. The front
wheel c, fig. 304, is 16 inches in
diameter, and the two hind-
wheels bb, 2 feet 4 inches.
871. The barrel-spindle in fig.
306 is 2 feet 10 inches long, and
works in sockets, one of which is
shown at a, attached to the
framing. The barrel-spindle is
made hollow, which gives con-
siderable strength with com-
b
C
Fig. 306.
J
e
BARREL-SPINDLE OF COLEMAN'S CULTIVATOK
"
parative lightness, and has snugs or projecting parts cast on its upper side,
as bcdef. The upper ends of the connecting-rods which move the prongs
carrying the tines d, fig. 304, are inserted into the slots or mortise-holes of
246
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
the snugs b c d e, fig. 306, and secured by pins passing through correspond-
a
b
Fig. 307.
ing apertures. The lower ends of the connect-
ing-rods are inserted in the mortise made in the
upper part a of the tine, of which a view is given
in fig. 307, and secured by pins passing through
holes. The prongs are swung to the frame by
bolts or pins passing through one of the holes at
the part b. The length of the prongs is 2 feet
10 inches; they are made of wrought-iron, 21
inches broad by 1 inch thick. They are curved
as shown, and are notched at the extremity as at
c, to fit into the mortise of the shares or tines,
these being secured by pins passing through the
holes shown in the figure. The shares, spuds,
or points are made at intermediate widths be-
tween 1 and 12 inches, for the various purposes
for which this implement is applicable, whether
for paring, breaking up hard land, working fallows, &c. Several forms are
PRONGS OF COLEMAN'S CULTIVATOR.
с
Fig. 308.
b
いい
​d
C
Fig. 309.
VARIOUS FORMS OF TINES FOR COLEMAN'S CULTIVATOR.
shown in fig. 308, at a b c d e. To regulate the height of the implement
from the ground, the axle of the hind-wheels b b, fig. 304, is sup-
ported in the square hole of the boss b of the suspension-rack,
fig. 309. This rack is connected with the frame, and held in its
place by a swivel-bolt and collar a, which is made to fit the notches
in the rack. The price of this implement is £6, 15s.
#11:
a
SUSPENSION-RACK
FOR WHEELS
OF COLEMAN'S
CULTIVATOR.
872. The thickness of the turf removed with this spade depends
much on the strength and skill of the workman, but it seldom
exceeds 2 inches even in the softest parts of the ground, and
more often 1 inch on ordinary surfaces.
873. Bentall's Broadshare. This implement, invented and manu-
factured by Mr E. R. Bentall of Heybridge, near Maldon, Essex,
has a high reputation, and is most extensively used for the purpose of destroy-
ing weeds and loosening the soil after harvest. We give a perspective view
d
а
Fig. 310.
BENTALL'S BROADSHARE PLOUGH.
i
W.WILLIAMS
Se
h
h
COMMON DRILL-GRUBBER.
Fig. 311.
Fig. 312.
247
of it in fig. 310, where a represents the beam of wrought angle-iron; to this is
bolted the cross-arm b, which carries the two wheels c c; d is the small fore-
wheel. The centre tine e is placed in advance of the two hind-tines ƒg: the
stilts h h are secured by a bolt to an iron stay, secured to the cross-arm carry-
ing the tines ƒ g; ii are scrapers to keep the tire of the wheels clean of earth.
874. The following illustrations, drawn to a scale of inch to the foot,
represent various of the details
of this implement. Fig. 311 is
the centre tine; fig. 312 the
side tine; fig. 313 is the centre-
tine point-it penetrates the
soil, and enables the share to
enter the soil easily; fig. 314
the tine-point; fig. 315 is the
broad-share, principally used for
flat and stetch land.
875. Stirring the soil with
grubbers, cultivators, or broad-
shares, should not be regarded
as an equivalent to ploughing
it; but grubbing is an excellent
process when surface weeds are
יד היו לה.
CENTRE TINE OF BENTALL'S BROADSHARE.
Fig. 313.
CENTRE-TINE
POINT.
Fig. 314.
TINE-POINT.
Fig. 815.
\-D
BIDE-TINE.
BROAD-SHARE.
desired to be destroyed, and the dry warm pulverised soil to be retained at
the surface in spring, instead of the raw cloddy earth which would in that
season be brought up by the plough.
876. Drill-Grubber.-The common drill-grubber, fig. 316, is a light and con-
venient implement drawn by one horse. It consists of a central beam a b C, the
neck part of which, a b, is 18 inches long, the body part, b c, 3 feet 6 inches; and of
Fig. 316.
f
a
b
g
d
THE COMMON DRILL-GRUBBER.
C
е
the two wings b d, which are extended to e e, forming the handles, the length
from d to e is 3 feet 4 inches; the extreme length from a to e thus being 8 feet
4 inches. The neck part of the beam is 14 inch square, and peened or rounded,
and this strength is carried past the first tine; the remainder of this bar, as
well as of the wings, is 14 inch deep by inch thick, the handles becoming
lighter backward. The beam is punched at the front for the passage of the stem a
of the wheel, and also at b for the fixing of the two joint plates for the wings,
as well as for the front tine; and it is also perforated horizontally at the end c
248
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
for the quadrants of the wings. The wing-bars require to be very neatly forged
in forming the swells, in which the tine-holes are to be punched, and also for
the joint at b, where they are hinged to the beam, between the two joint-plates,
which, being riveted dead upon the beam, leave a chamber on each side for the
reception of the ends of the wing-bars, and through these their joint-bolts are
passed. The wing-bars are each furnished with a quadrant-bar riveted into the
wings at dd; the tail of the quadrants passing through the mortise at c are
secured by a pinching-screw fixing the wings at any required width. To the
point of the beam is affixed a simple bridle f with a cross-web and shackle,
giving a small range of yoke right and left; the rise of this point is 10 inches
above the line of the body of the beam. The front-wheel, whose office is to
regulate the depth of the grubbing, is usually 8 or 9 inches diameter, set in
the sheers of the stem, which may be 20 inches long, and is 1½ inch broad by
1 inch thick. The tines g are 15 inches long, the body being 14 inch broad by
inch thick, forged with duck-feet not exceeding 21 inches broad, and pointing
slightly forward.
877. In many localities this implement is used for all the purposes of horse-
hoeing among turnips and potatoes, but it is not suited for paring or earthing-up;
and having cheapness as well as utility as a recommendation, it is very gene-
rally approved of. It is, however, subject to variety in the different districts
where it is employed; in some it is shortened to five tines, in others length-
ened out to nine, and in many cases the tines are plain-pointed, or not exceeding
1 inch broad. It is frequently also made with the tines standing in zigzag
position; but except in the second pair of tines, this is of little importance,
as those behind the second are sufficiently far apart to prevent them getting
choked with weeds.
878. SECTION THIRD.-Harrows.-Land-rollers.—Clod-crushers.-Press-wheels.
The Harrow. Considering the operation the harrow has to perform, in
covering the seeds that have been cast upon the surface of the soil, it is an
implement of no small importance; and yet its effects are apparently rude and
uncertain, while its construction is of the simplest order. So simple, indeed, is
this construction, that at a very remote period it appears to have taken that
form which, in so far as the simple principles of its action are concerned, is
almost incapable of further improvement. Variations in size, in weight, in
materials, and slight changes of form, have from time to time been proposed
and effected; but yet no important change has been made in the action of the
implement, though amongst these changes a more uniform distribution of its
effects over the surface of the soil has been attained. The only important
improvement on the harrow of which we have any historical data, was achieved
about fifty years ago by, we believe, the late Mr Low, Gordonbank, Berwick-
shire, father of Professor Low, who, till lately, honourably occupied the chair
of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh; and this improvement lay chiefly
in the form, though it also afforded a more uniform distribution of effect.
879. Rectangular Harrows.-Previous to the period just alluded to, the seed-
harrow was always constructed in the form of a rectangular frame of wood, con-
sisting, as it still does, of four longitudinal bars, known, in the language of the
agricultural mechanic, by the term bulls, which are framed together by mor-
tising, with four lighter transverse bars, or slots. The dimensions of the rect-
angular harrows are, on an average, 3 feet 9 inches in breadth, measuring over
the bulls, and 3 feet 10 inches in length over the slots.
The bulls are
generally about 4 feet 6 inches of extreme length, 3 inches in breadth, and 3
to 3 inches in depth; the slots are 3 inches in breadth, and to 1 inch in
RHOMBOIDAL WOODEN HARROWS.
249
depth. Each bull is armed with 5 tines or teeth of malleable iron, about 10
inches in length. They are fixed in the bull by being driven into an auger-
hole bored through it, and project downward from 6 to 7 inches.
880. Rectangular harrows are yoked three in number together, at the second
bull and fore slot, to a long master swing-tree. Being loose, they are much agi-
tated; and although their action is correct enough, they do little execution on
rough and cloddy ground; and yet it is on the strong soils they are chiefly
used. They are apt to ride on one another, especially at the turnings, though
this defect has been partially remedied by the use of a bar, named a rider.
Three horses are usually yoked abreast to them, and the middle horse seems
much oppressed in warm close weather.
881. Rhomboidal Wooden Harrows. The improved form given to the
harrow, as alluded to in par. 878, changes the rectangle into a rhom-
boid, and this, when duly proportioned, gives to the implement, as has been
supposed, as high a degree of perfection, in point of form, as it appears
capable of attaining. Fig. 317 represents a pair of the rhomboidal harrows
k
Fig. 317.
h
g
Ρ
lo
g
a
m
3
b
C
α
0
Q
b
a
i
O
Q
h
α
1
a
Q
Q
о
21.
I
с
Q
O
Q
Q
"
1
RHOMBOIDAL WOODEN HARROWS, WITH THEIR YOKE OF SWING-IREES.
in the working position.
The frame of these harrows consists of the same
number of parts as the common sort, already alluded to. Four bulls a a a a,
and four slots bb bb, the breadth of the frame over the bulls, at right
angles to them, is 3 feet 6 inches; and in the same manner, over the slots
the length is the same, but the bulls extend at each end 4 inches beyond the
slots, making their entire length, including the obliquity, about 4 feet 6 inches.
The dimensions of the parts vary a little, according to the quality of the
material employed, from 2 to 3 inches in breadth by 3 to 34 inches in depth, for
the bull. The slots are from 2 to 3 inches in breadth, and from 2 to 1 inch
in depth, the bulls being mortised, and, when the slots have been inserted, are
fixed with wooden pegs driven through the bulls. In each harrow an iron bar
3
4
250
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
c c, having a number of holes punched in it, is likewise fixed into mortises in
the two outer bulls on the left side, for the attachment of the yoke. Each bull
is divided into four equal parts, the extreme division being about 1 inch clear of
the mortise of the slot, and at each division the bulls are bored with an auger
for the reception of the tines, and in thus boring, a slight inclination forward
below is given to the tines, though this, it must be admitted, is not of very great
importance. The length of the tine is about 10 inches, of which 6 or 7 inches
project below the bulls; and it has been recommended that the front row should
be 7 inches, the succeeding rows diminishing gradually to 6 inches, to compen-
sate for the effect of draught of the horses tending to elevate the fore-parts of
the harrows. This tendency to rise in front is not so great as has been sup-
posed, for the weight of the swing-trees and whole yoke will nearly compensate
for the effect of the angle of draught. In all cases of this kind, the yoke
consisting of chains, hooks, and swing-trees-of which the latter, in the harrows-
yoke, form a portion of considerable weight—the system resolves itself into a
catenarian curve, more or less perfect, of which the point c, where the yoke is
attached to the harrow, will approximate to the apex of the curve, and con-
sequently to a horizontal line, thereby neutralising the tendency to rise in the
front of the harrows.
882. There is one point in the improvement of this harrow that appears to us
of even more importance than the rhomboidal shape; it is the joints or hinges d d.
In the one harrow, fig. 317, the tail of the double joints of the hinge is pro-
longed into a bolt d e, de, passing through all the bulls, and secured with
screw-nuts e e. In the other the single joints are in like manner prolonged
into the bolts fg, fg, thus serving to add greatly to the strength as well as to
the efficiency of the harrows. The loose joints d f, d f have been found to
answer their purposes much better than the well-fitted joints originally given
to them, by their allowing of a great freedom of action, and the double joints
d d are therefore now usually made as in the figure, the span of the bow d being
about 6 inches, with a small eye at each end to fit the joint-bolt. The eye of
the single joint ƒ is about 1½ inch or 2 inches diameter, having thus great
freedom to play upon the joint-bolt.
883. From the figure of the rhomboidal harrow, when duly constructed, it
can only perform its maximum of effect when drawn forward with its slots at
right angles to the direction of its motion, and this is effected by the master
swing-tree h. This tree, for harrows of the dimensions here described, requires
to be 4 feet 8 inches in length between the points of attachment, and it is
connected to the harrows by means of the S hooks and shackles at c c. The
balance of draught of the harrows is adjusted by shifting the shackles into the
different holes of the bars c c, until the harrows are found to lie at right angles
to the draught when in motion; and this, be it observed, is not attained by
having an equal number of tines on each side of the centre of the swing-tree h,
for there is found to be a greater resistance to the forward motion of the imple-
ment on the left than there is upon the right side, arising, it is supposed, from
the tines presenting a broader surface to resistance on that side than on the other.
The other parts of the yoke, i, k, l, are the common plough swing-trees, fig. 288.
884. The objects to be attained on the construction of the rhomboidal
harrow are chiefly uniformity and equal distribution of effect from the tines,
and to cover the greatest breadth of surface, with such effects. In these respects
it has been supposed that the rhomboidal affords advantages over the rectan-
gular form, but such advantages seem to fall only within certain limits; for
the rectangular harrow, if due attention is paid to its construction and position
RULE FOR CONSTRUCTING RECTANGULAR HARROWS.
251
4
of yoking, and if mounted with the hinge-joints, will perform all the functions
ascribed to the rhomboidal harrow with equal effect. Though the rectangular
form presents no advantage in point of expense, there would be this advantage
in construction, that, by keeping simply to one dimension of breadth, no mistake
could occur with the maker to mar the attainment of the objects in view;
whereas we find rhomboidal harrows made at all angles of obliquity, though
the length and breadth may be the same in all; and such being the case, many
of them must be defective in some, if not in all the points sought for. To
exhibit this more clearly, and to render the basis of construction of this simple
implement practically intelligible, let us suppose that a pair of harrows carrying
forty tines are to be so constructed as to cover 9 feet in breadth, we shall have
39 spaces between the extreme tines, which are to form equal intervals. Draw
a base-line r s, fig. 317, and having set off from a scale, or at full size, a
distance r s equal to 9 feet, divide this into 39 equal parts, and from the points
of division draw the dotted lines at right angles to r s, the distance between
the divisions will be 2.76 inches, or say 22 inches, which represents the distance
at which the tines will pass through the ground. Having determined, also, the
distance between the tines as they stand in the bulls to be 94 inches, set off,
on the first dotted line 1, any distance r m, which last point m will be the place
of the first tine. With a length of 38 inches, or 4 tine spaces as before fixed,
set off from the point m a distance m n, cutting the fifth dotted line in n, which
last point will be the place of the fifth tine, or the foremost in the first bull. If a
line is then drawn through the points m n, it will cut the divisions 2, 3, 4 in the
points o a p, indicating the three intermediate tines of the first bull, and the
line mn is the true position of the central line of the bull, forming an angle of
73° nearly with the base-line. A line drawn through m to q, and parallel to
rs, will determine the position of the first tine on each succeeding bull, where
the line intersects the 6th, 11th, 16th, 21st, &c., of the dotted lines of division;
and lines drawn through those last points of intersection parallel to the first
line m n, will determine the central line of all the bulls in the pair of harrows.
It is then only necessary to extend the length of the bull requisite to contain
the mortise for the slot, with a sufficient extent beyond to prevent the bursting
of the wood this, as already stated, may be about 4 inches, or the bulls will be
about 4 feet in length.
:
885. Were it desired to have the tines so placed as to follow in the ground
at equal distances of 2 inches instead of 23 inches, in this case the distance
between the extreme tines would be 39 times 24 inches, or 8 feet 1 inch. The
liner s, fig. 317, would now be made 8 feet 11 inch, and being divided into
39 equal parts, and the lines of division drawn as before, a repetition of the pro-
cess described (par. 884) will give the true form of the rhomb for this particular
breadth, and so of any others; and it should be particularly observed, that in
any case where the rhomb has been correctly laid down, the harrows should
progress with the front row of tines at right angles to the line of direction in
which they are drawn forward. Attention to this will insure the best possible
effects from the harrow, and at the same time cover the greatest breadth of
surface that it is capable of harrowing, to the best advantage.
886. Rule for Constructing Rectangular Harrows.-We have said that the
common rectangular harrow is capable of producing equal effects with those
of the rhomboidal; and though this cannot be said of all common harrows,
the construction of such as will do this is not more difficult, while it is,
perhaps, a little less expensive. The chief difference lies in the mode of
applying this harrow, for, when duly constructed, it is only necessary, in
252
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
order to produce equal intervals of the tines, to yoke the harrows in such
position as will make the bulls lie upon the ridge with the same degree of
obliquity that those of the rhomboidal shape occupy when they are drawn in the
position due to the angle of their respective rhomb. It is necessary, however, in
order to secure the due performance of the rectangular harrow, to pay attention
to its construction as regards the distance between the bulls, and the rule is
simply this: Whatever breadth the pair of harrows are intended to cover, divide
the whole breadth into a number of divisions, one less than the whole number of
tines in the pair, and the distance from centre to centre of the bulls must be
made equal to as many of these divisions as there are tines in each bull. Thus,
taking the first case of the rhomboidal harrow (par. 884) we have 5 times 22 inches
nearly, or 132 inches for the distance between the centres of the bulls, or 3 feet
8 inches in breadth over all. To complete the arrangement, the harrows must
be jointed as in the rhomboidal form, and mounted with iron draught-bars, as at
cc, fig. 317, so that the point of draught can be adjusted to bring the harrows
to their proper position; and here it may be remarked that they should never
be drawn by the extreme angle; but if not hinge-jointed, the angle with the
second bull, and the fore-slot, will be tolerably near to the true point of draught.
A common and a very useful practice has long existed of coupling two harrows
together by a bar of wood or iron, called a rider. This bar falls loosely at each
end upon a stud projecting upward from the second bull of each harrow, and the
bar being adjusted to that length which keeps the two harrows at their proper
distance, serves to prevent them from riding over one another, and to make
them cover their full extent of surface. The introduction of the rider was an
evident approach to the more perfect modern improvement of the hinge-joints.
887. Rhomboidal Iron Harrows.-The extensive application of iron has of
late years brought the use of that material to the formation of the harrow as
well as of the plough, and iron harrows are now coming very generally into
use, both in the rectangular and the rhomboidal form. Fig. 318 represents the
malleable-iron rhomboidal harrow, as commonly constructed, and its dimensions
are the same as already given for those of wood. The arrangement of the parts
is somewhat different, and, from the nature of the materials, the dimensions of
the parts differ also more materially. Thus, the bulls a a a a are inch in
breadth and 1 inch in depth, swelled out where the mortises for the slots are
formed, and also for the tines, their ends projecting only 2 inches beyond the
slot. The slots b b b are 2 inches in breadth, & inch in depth, and there being
only three of them, the middle one is so placed as to be free of the middle row
of tines; while the end slots are elongated towards the meeting sides of the
pair, and are there formed into the hinge-joints d d, as formerly described for
the wooden harrows. The draught-bars c c are inserted in the projecting ends
of the first and second bulls, and retained in round pivot-holes; the swing-
trees h i k l are the same as described for the wooden harrows.
888. The construction of the iron harrow is so similar to the others that it is
unnecessary to enter into further details regarding it; but it may be remarked,
that, from the almost imperishable nature of the materials, as compared with
wood, there seems every reason to expect the iron implement will entirely
supersede the wooden; and though the price of the iron harrows is considerably
above that of wood, the additional first cost is more than repaid by the greater
durability of the iron. There is good reason also to believe that, by a construc-
tion more adapted than the present to the nature of the material, the price may
yet be considerably reduced.
889. The form of the tines of the harrow, as regards their effects in stirring
RHOMBOIDAL IRON HARROWS.
253
the soil and covering the seed, is deserving of inquiry. In the wooden imple-
ment, we are, from the nature of the material, confined to one form of tine; that
a
k
~
b
α
i
b
h
α
0
Fig. 318.
1
d
C
2
3
feet
2
IRON RHOMBOIDAL HARROWS, WITH THEIR YOKE OF SWING-TREES,
3
which has for its horizontal section an oblong square, the tines in these cases
being inch broad by ğ inch thick, must, for the safety of the wood, have the
greatest dimension lying in the direction of the fibres of the wood. Another
and a better form, for the purpose of stirring the soil, is that which has its cross
section forming an exact square of inch on each side, and inserted in the bull
with its diagonal pointing in the direction of the progressive motion. This form
and position of the tine, however well adapted to the soil, cannot, with propriety
or safety to the implement, be used in the wooden harrow, from the powerful
tendency it has to split the wood. In the iron implement this difficulty does
not exist; and as this form of tine is in every respect best adapted to the
intended purpose, it should never be omitted in the iron harrow. Whatever be
the cross section of the tine, in that part which passes through the bull, the
projecting part is tapered towards the point, not uniformly but a little barrelled,
and terminates in an obtuse point. In all wooden harrows the tines are simply
driven firmly into the wood after it has been bored. In most iron harrows they
are fixed in the same manner; but as the tines are sometimes liable to become
loose, when simply inserted and driven down by the hammer, they are, when a
more perfect construction is followed, fixed by being driven from below, and
secured by a screw-nut above.
890. Grass-seed Harrows, or those that are employed for giving a light cover-
ing to grass-seeds when sown, differ from the common harrow in no respect
except in dimensions and weight. They have generally the same number of
tines, bulls, and slots. The breadth over all is about 3 feet, or from that down
254
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
to 33 inches, and the distance between the tines about 7 inches, giving a length
of bull 3 feet; and the tines vary from 5 to 6 inches in length. Fig. 319
Fig. 319.
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GRASS-SEED IRON KHOMBOIDAL HARROWS, WITH WINGS AND SWING-TREES
shows, at a b in the centre parts, harrows exactly in form to the iron harrows,
fig. 318; but grass-seed harrows ought always to have wings attached to them,
as are c and d, in order to cover a ridge at once, as grass seeds only require one
turn of the harrow to cover them sufficiently with soil. The extreme angles of
the wings are cut off to allow the harrows to turn more quickly and easily.
Grass-seed harrows may be made of wood or iron. The swing-trees may be
of wood, fig. 288, or of trussed iron, as shown in the figure.
891. Grass-seed harrows are not so generally used by farmers as they should
be, the common ones being usually employed to cover in the grass seeds; but these
are apt to bury the seeds too deep, to the injury of the succeeding grass crop.
892. The Iron-web or Disc-Harrow is a late invention by the ingenious and
indefatigable Mr Smith, late of Deanston, for the purpose of covering-in grass
seeds. It was formed of an assemblage of annular discs of cast-iron, of the size
а
d
Fig. 320.
e
d
d
b
and shape of the common playing - quoit,
and these were interweaved with iron-wire
of about 1-inch diameter in a certain regu-
lar form, until the whole formed a flexible
web, in which the discs had liberty to
play and roll about within small limits.
The web was 6 feet in length by 3 in
breadth, and was simply dragged over the
ground, when it gave the surface a finish
superior to anything hitherto attempted, on
the correct principle that grass - seeds
should be as lightly covered as possible.
893. In fig. 320 is a form of disc-harrow
as manufactured by Messrs Richmond and
Chandler, Salford. The discs e e in this form
are of cast-iron 3 inches diameter, about
an inch thick in the centre, and gradually tapering off to a thin-edged peri-
phery, which is serrated or notched, as shown in the cut. The connecting-
IRON DISC OR WEB - HARROW.
BRAKE AND DRILL HARROWS.
255
links d d d d are of malleable rod-iron about 3ths of an inch diameter; the
length of the links is 3 inches; the breadth 1½ inch. This makes the distance
between the discs 6 inches from centre to centre, the lateral or side distance
being 3 inches. The side-rods a bare 1 inch diameter, and are connected
together by means of screws, as shown at b.
894. The Brake-Harrow is only an enlargement of the common implement,
wherein every part is increased in size and weight for the purpose of breaking
down and pulverising rough and stubborn land. Brakes are made of various.
forms, such as rectangular, rhomboidal, and triangular; and every form has its
advocates, the preference being given frequently to that which accident had
thrown in the way of the experimenter; and without taking measures to com-
pare its effects with those of other forms, the implement is marked as the most
perfect of its kind. There appears no good reason for concluding that any one
of the above forms is better than another, provided proper weight is put in the
implement, and the tines of proper length and number, and disposed in a
manner that, with a duly-applied draught, will make an equal distribution of its
pulverising effects over the surface which it covers. The extended application
of draining, and the increasing employment of the grubber, appear to be super-
seding the brake-harrow.
895. The Drill-Harrow is another implement of recent introduction; like the
other members of its tribe, it is of extremely simple construction, and from its
having been first applied to potato-culture, it is frequently styled the potato-
harrow. This harrow is always worked in pairs; and to render it applicable to
its intended purpose, it is made of an arch form, partially embracing the curva-
ture of the ridglet or drill. The two leaves of the pair are connected by two
coupling-rods, which are formed to expand or contract to any required width of
drills; and each leaf is furnished with a chain, to which a draught-bar or swing-
tree is attached, and to which again the horse is yoked; the bar and chains, in
this mode of yoking, serve by their weight to produce such a catenarian curva-
ture as to make the vertical line of traction leave the harrows nearly in a
horizontal line, giving them thus the full effect on the drill. Simple though
the construction of this implement be, we frequently see a malformation in the
placement of its tines; its breadth does not exceed 26 inches, and therefore
the number of its tines need not exceed 18, though a streak at every 12 inch
should be required: notwithstanding this, we frequently see these harrows with
as many as 24 tines, and with such a number, unless a very careful division is
made in their placement, many of them will follow in the track of others, and
are hence of no use. In laying out this simple harrow, if the rule laid down in
(884) applicable to all harrows is attended to, such useless waste of labour
and materials might be saved, and the work for which the implement is intended
will be equally well done.
:
896. Fig. 321 is a geometrical plan of a pair of the rectangular drill-harrows,
in which a regular division of the tines is observed; and as the harrows are 26
inches from centre to centre of the outside bars or bulls, and the number of
tines 15, they will draw streaks on the surface at equal distances of 17 inch
nearly the three bulls a b c, and the three cross-bars def, form the body
of the harrow; the breadth over all is 27 inches, and the length 33 inches;
the bulls and bars are all 14 by 3 inch. There is no slotting, as in the common
harrow, but the bulls and bars are simply crossed, and secured by a small bolt
and nut; or they may be riveted together, except where a tine falls in the cross-
ing, when it is secured by the nut of the tine itself. The bulls and cross-bars
are simply punched for the tines, which are each secured by a screw-nut. The
256
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
middle bull of each harrow is prolonged a little forward at g, and punched for
the shackle of the draught-chain ii, which is affixed thereto by a bolt. The tines
Fig. 321.
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​THE POTATO - HARROWS.
are about 4 inches in length below the bars, and are inch square at the
shoulder, tapering to a blunt point. The streaks of the tines may be easily
traced by following the order of the numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 in the left-
hand division of the left-hand harrow, and they will be found to be at regular
distances.
897. Fig. 322 is a cross-section, at the front bar, of both the leaves of the
harrow, showing the arched form and direction of the tines. The rise of the arch
Fig. 322.
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CROSS-SECTION OF THE POTATO-HARROW3
is 5 inches, but this may be varied; and if the arching is flat, the tines towards.
the apex should be shorter than those towards the sides of the harrow, to prevent
injury to the young potato-plants. In the front bar the right-hand tine d may be
DRILL, ZIGZAG, AND EXPANDING HARROWS.
257
left out, as its place may be taken up by that of the third bar, leaving 5 tines.
In the second cross-bar there are also 5 tines, and 5 in the third. The two
leaves are connected and kept at due distance by the coupling-rods k l, fig.
321, and k, fig. 322, which are §-inch diameter, and flattened at the ends to
the extent of 5 inches, and have three perforations made at each end, at
1½-inch pitch, or closer if thought necessary; this construction of the coupling-
rods affords the means of adapting the harrows to any width of drills. The
fastening of the coupling-rods is shown at g g, fig. 322. The draught-chains
ii, fig. 321, are about 2 feet long, and are shackled to the draught-bar n, to
which the horse is yoked by the eyes at h h. The pair of harrows are drawn
by one horse, walking between the drills; the weight of the pair, with the
mounting, is about 90 lb., and the price from 30s. to 35s. complete.
898. Triangular Drill - Harrows are considered by some agriculturists as
superior in effect to the rectangular form: with due attention to the division
and placement of the tines, they may no doubt be rendered equally effective,
and probably more so, but the advantages are not prominently marked.
899. As in the forming of a drill or ridglet for green crops, one side has more
earth upon it than the other, the germ of the seed enclosed within the drill, on
making its way to the day between the joinings of the two furrows of which
the drill is composed, must necessarily appear at one side of the drill the
top of the drill is usually levelled with the common harrows, but, as these are
flat, the top of the drill becomes too much levelled down. Both the rectangu-
lar and triangular drill-harrow, having the form of the drill, are implements
better suited for the purpose than the common harrows. In turnip culture
the sowing-machine itself levels the drills, but in potato and bean culture the
drill-harrow is the best implement for levelling the drills.
900. Howard's Zigzag or Diagonal Harrow.—This form of harrow has a high
reputation in England, and is extensively used. It is made entirely of iron.
Each portion of a harrow is composed of eight rhomboidal frames affording
twenty tines, which are fixed at the angles of each rhomboid by means of stops
or guards which keep the nuts from shaking loose. Four of the rhomboidal
frames are placed together, end to end-the two in the middle in line, and one
at each end at a reverse angle with the middle one— the whole four forming a
figure not unlike the letter Z, or zigzag form. Each harrow is composed of
two portions of four rhomboids or zigzags placed parallel to one another, at a
distance equal to the breadth of a rhomboid, and are coupled together at both
ends by rods jointed in the centre. Three of these harrows supporting 60 tines
are coupled together, and connected to a long master whipple-tree by six bolts,
two to each harrow, with hooks and staples. The whole presents a series of
zigzag frames, six in number, and equidistant from each other; their entire
breadth occupying 9 feet or 10 feet, according to the size of harrow. A 91-
feet harrow costs £3, 14s.; a 10 feet, £4, 4s.
901. Coleman's Expanding Harrow. The object of this implement is to
combine in one the advantages of a wide and a narrow, or a coarse with a fine
harrow. This is effected by having the tine-beams jointed in the principle of
the parallel ruler. There are five longitudinal beams placed in the direction
in which the harrow works; each pair are connected by four diagonal bars, the
ends of the two adjoining sets meeting at an angle. The ends of all the dia-
gonal bars are jointed to the main beams. The whole is connected to the
whipple-tree by five chains; and by allowing the points of attachment by which
the longitudinal beams are brought nearer to, or placed further from each other,
the relative distances of the trees from each other are retained in all the
R
258
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
adjustments. To cover a space 9 feet wide, the price of this form of harrow is
£4; for heavy work, £4, 15s. To cover 12 feet wide, light work, £5; heavy
work, £5, 15s.
902. Ross's Moss-Extirpating Harrow.—In fig. 323 we give a perspective view
of an implement for extirpating moss out of old pasture, invented by Mr Alex-
Fig. 323.
B
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ROSS'S MOSS-EXTIRPATING HARKOW.
It consists of a
feet 6 inches in
ander Ross, late land-steward at Corehouse in Lanarkshire.
malleable-iron frame a a, 5 feet 6 inches in length, and 4
breadth, mounted on two wheels bb, 1 foot 9 inches in diameter. The fore-part of
the frame a a is produced forward and slopes inwards until its two sides approach
as near as to admit a bar of iron, which connects the end of the frame a,
and a
parallel axle which turns on gudgeons in the framing, and which supports a
castor-wheel c, the shank of which is prolonged upwards into a crank, and
which wheel supports the front part of the frame a a. The entire frame a a
is capable of being raised and lowered by a system of leverage similar to
that used in the common grubber, as in fig. 2, Plate XI.; this is effected by the
lever d, through the means of the rod h, connecting the cranks of the lever d and
the castor-wheel c; and which lever is retained in any position desired by the
notches in the side of the curved guide e. A semicircular guard is secured
in front to support a vertical bar f provided with three holes for attaching
the draught-shackle; the diagonal stays i i strengthen the semicircular guard
by connecting it with the frame a a. The body of the frame a a is filled up
with three rows of tines, each containing 15 tines-or 45 in all, and 3 inches
apart—each tine having an independent motion from a bar having an attach-
ment at each end to the frame a a. The tines are 7 inches long, 5 inches
below the frame, and an inch above it, and are driven through an eye in the
outer extremity of each of the bars, which are alternately short and long. Above
each row of tines, at the height of 3 inches above the frame, is a bar of iron,
to which are attached springs which press individually upon the extremities
of the tine-bars. Under the tine-bars are placed rods, stretching across from
side to side of the frame a a, to prevent the tines falling down when the imple-
ment is turning round in the field or conveyed along a road; and these rods
are so adjusted as to admit of being shifted backward and forward to keep
the tines up at any given height; and the nearer these rods are to the outer
extremities of the tine-bars, the less fall will the tines have. A rake g g is
suspended behind by joint-bolts to the ends of the frame a a, so that it can be
lifted up at pleasure by a bow-handle and hooked on to a small iron rod sus-
pended from the curved guide e. Cleaning-rods are placed between each
alternate tooth of the rake, the office of which is to collect the moss as it is
passed from the tines. Care should be taken to depress the lever d to the
BUSH-HARROW-SNOW-HARROW-LAND-ROLLER.
259
lowest notch of the guide e before turning the machine, in order to elevate the
tines at the highest point above the ground.
903. This machine requires three horses yoked abreast, with equalising
draught-bars such as fig. 291 to work it easily. It goes over 7 acres in 10 hours.
The best time for using it is in spring, before the grass begins to grow.
Once going over the pasture will generally suffice for the extirpation of the moss,
but should it be abundant, a second going over, at right angles to the first, will
accomplish the end. In one instance, at its first use, at Corehouse, the machine
scratched up forty-nine cart-loads of moss over 10 acres of grass on the lawn.
904. This machine will be found a valuable implement for scratching the
surface of any pasture before top-dressing is applied to it, and then the bush-
harrow sends the top-dressing to the roots of the grass, after which a roller
is passed over the top-dressing. Where much moss has been scratched off, a
little grass-seed should be sown over the surface and rolled in, whether top-
dressing has been applied or not.
905. The Bush-Harrow.-Fig. 324 represents a bush-harrow which is useful
for scratching-in top-dressing on pas-
ture - land.
It consists simply of a
frame of wood, a a, having two strong
end-bars 3 feet long, and three con-
necting-bars 7 feet long; the middle
one, b, being also strong like the end-
bars. The three bars are interwoven
with the smaller branches or croppings
of trees c, which scratch the ground
as the harrow is drawn forward by a
horse attached by a swing-tree to the
hook d.
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Fig. 324.
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THE BUSH-HARROW.
Fig. 325.
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906. Snow-Harrow.—In par. 748 we gave an illustration of the snow-plough ;
as a companion implement, we here give the snow-harrow in fig. 325. It con-
sists of a single bull, a b, 4 inches
square, 6 feet long, and in the middle of
which, on the under-side, a piece of 11
inch plank, c, 3 feet long, is sunk flush
transversely for the attachment of the
draught-hook c and the stilt d, to steady
the motion of the implement. In the
bull a b are fixed, by screw-nuts, at in-
tervals of 10 inches, 7 cutters, e e, &c.,
9 inches long and 13 inch broad, sabre-pointed, with the points turned back-
wards, so as to be less liable to be arrested by obstacles on the surface of the
ground. Between these cutters are fixed 6 shorter ones, f, &c., 3 inches long,
having their points turned forwards. This implement, dragged by one horse,
ridden by a boy, and the stilt held by a man, cuts the frozen snow into strips
of 5 or 6 inches in breadth, and exposes it to the air.
THE MOUNTAIN SNOW-HARROW.
907. While the snow-plough, fig. 287, is used for disturbing deep snow in
spring on hill pasture, the snow-harrow is best suited when the snow is thin
and hardened on the surface.
908. The Land-Roller.—The common land-roller is an implement of great
simplicity of construction, the acting part of it being a cylinder of wood, of
stone, or of cast-iron, and in many cases its only appendage is a rectangular
frame of wood, consisting of two strong end-bars, selected for having a curva-
260
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
ture to keep clear of the ground. In these the gudgeons of the roller are
borne, and which are connected by two transverse rails, to one of which the
horses are yoked.
909. Simple as this implement appears, there is hardly an article of the estab-
lishment in which the farmer is more liable to fall into error in his selection.
From the nature of its action, and its intended effects on the soil, there are two
elements that should be particularly kept in view-weight and diameter of the
cylinder. By the weight alone can the desired effects be produced in the highest
degree, but these will be always modified by the diameter. Thus, a cylinder of any
given weight will produce a greater pulverising effect if its diameter is one foot,
than the same weight would produce if the diameter were 2 feet; but then the
one of lesser diameter will be much worse to draw; hence it becomes necessary
to choose a mean of these opposing principles. In doing this, the material of
the cylinder comes to be considered. In the first place, wood, which is fre-
quently employed for the formation of land-rollers, may be considered as least
adapted of all materials for the purpose; its deficiency of weight and liability
to decay renders it the most objectionable of all others. Second, stone, though
not deficient in weight, possesses one marked disadvantage, liability to fracture,
which of itself is sufficient to place stone rollers in a doubtful position as to fit-
ness. This brings us to cast-iron, which is undoubtedly the most appropriate
of all materials for this purpose. It is unnecessary here to enter into the
inquiry as to the most advantageous diameter for a land-roller; the subject has
already been elaborately discussed:* let it suffice to say, that experience has
proved that a diameter of 2 feet is, in any circumstances, the one that will pro-
duce the best effects with a minimum of labour from the animals of draught; the
weight being of course proportioned to the force usually applied, which is in
general two horses. The weight of roller, including the frame corresponding to
this, is from 12 cwt. to 15 cwt.; but it is better that the roller itself be rather
under the weight, and that the carriage be fitted up with a box, in which a load-
ing of stones can be stowed, to bring the machine up to any desired weight.
910. In a large and heavy roller, in one entire cylinder, the inconvenience of
turning at the headlands is very considerable, and has given rise to the improve-
ment of having the cylinder in two lengths; this, with a properly-constructed
carriage, produces the land-roller in its most perfect form.
α
Fig. 326.
a
d
α
b
THE LAND - ROLLER.
911. Fig. 326 is a perspective of the land-roller constructed on the fore-
going principles: a a is the carriage-frame, consisting of two semicircular ends.
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 700.
4
THE PRESSER - ROLLER.
261
of cast-iron, connected by two transverse bars of hardwood, and these last are
crossed by the horse-shafts b. The cylinder c is in two lengths of 3 feet to 3
feet 3 inches each, and 2 feet in diameter; the thickness of the metal is from
of an inch to 1 inch, according to the weight required; and each half-length
of the cylinder has a cross fitted into each end, through the centres of which
the axle passes. The axle, in consequence of the cylinder being in two lengths,
requires to be of considerable strength, usually 24 inches diameter, and of malle-
able iron; upon this the two sections of the cylinder revolve freely, and the
extremities of the axle are supported in bushes formed in the lower part of the
semicircular end-frames. Two iron stay-rods d d pass from the end-frames to
the shafts as an additional support to the latter.
912. The price of the land-roller, fitted up as here represented and described,
is, according to weight, from £10 to £14.
913. The smooth land-roller is more suited to compress light soil, and to make
even the surface of new grass in spring, than to crush down large hard clods
on clay land.
914. Ransome and Sims' Barley-Roller. The barley-roller manufactured
by Messrs Ransome and Sims, Ipswich, consists of two separate 10-inch cylinder
rollers 5 feet long, of cast-iron, mounted on a wooden framing: when rolling
the land, one cylinder is a little in advance of the other, but in a parallel
line, the two inner ends crossing one inch, or two, so as to leave no part of
the land unrolled; the rollers, being joined by a hook and eye loosely, adapt
themselves to an uneven surface. Price £10, 10s.
915. The Presser-Roller.-This is an implement of comparatively recent intro-
duction to the operations of the farm, and, like many others of the useful class of
agricultural machines, its origin is to be traced to England. Although the presser
does not take its place in the first rank, yet it possesses qualities whose effects
on the soil give it a position by no means low in the scale of usefulness. The
chief object of its application is to produce consolidation in the soil over a nar-
row space, in which space the seeds of plants are to have root; hence its effects
are applicable only to the drill system of culture, and that only under particular
circumstances, namely, consolidating soils whose texture is too loose and friable
for the continued support of wheat plants, and to produce close contact in the
furrow-slices of lea when ploughed for a seed-furrow. With the use of this im-
plement wheat has been grown in some parts of Scotland successfully after lea.
916. The Presser-roller is represented in its most common form by fig. 327,
Fig. 327.
a
THE PRESSER - KOLLER.
which is a view of the machine in perspective, and is of extremely simple con-
struction. The carriage consists of a rectangular frame a a, its length over the
front and back bars is 3 feet 8 inches, and its breadth over the sides 4 feet
262
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
8 inches; a third longitudinal bar is introduced between those of the back and
front solely to increase the rigidity of the carriage-frame. A pair of horse-
shafts bare bolted upon the frame, the nigh-side shaft being laid upon the side-
rail, and the other at the usual distance, to afford space for a horse to travel.
A cast-iron bracket is appended by bolting to each side-rail: one of these is seen
at c; its eye or centre descends to a distance of 8 inches below the bottom of
the rail; an axle of 2 inches square extends between, and is supported in the
eye of the bracket in which it turns upon its journals; this axle carries the two
pressing-wheels d d, which are fitted to turn with the axle, but are movable in
the transverse direction, and provided with the means of being fixed at any
desired distance apart, though 9 to 10 inches is the usual space. The axle car-
ries also the light carriage-wheel e of 2 feet 10 inches diameter, which may be
placed either outside or inside of the carriage-frame, and is usually made of
cast-iron, turning upon the axle, this being requisite for the more convenient
turning round of the machine. The off-side shaft b, having but an imperfect
connection to the carriage-frame, is supported by the iron stay-rod ƒ; and two
iron-scrapers g are attached to the hind-bar for the purpose of throwing off any
soil that may adhere to the wheels d d.
917. Fig. 328 is an edge-view of the two pressing-wheels detached from the
Fig. 328.
h
H
carriage, in which a a is the axle broken off, b b
are the two pressing-wheels as they appear edge-
ways; they are 2 feet 10 inches of extreme dia-
meter, and their breadth 54 inches, their weight
being about 2 cwt. each; the rim or periphery of
the wheel is sloped off on both sides to an angle
of about 70°, forming two opposite conical frustræ,
but a cylindrical band is left in the middle, of
about 1 inch in breadth. The pressing-wheels
are held at the required distance by the square
collars c c c fitting round the axle and sliding
upon it to the proposed distance apart, where they
are fixed by the pinching-screws c c c d d re-
presents a transverse section of ground undergoing
the pressing process; the shaded part of the section exhibits the state of a
soft loose soil when pressed by the roller, and the dotted lines ef, e f, that
of newly-ploughed lea undergoing the operation of consolidation.
f
f
f
EDGE-VIEW OF THE PRESSING-WHEELS.
2
918. With reference again to fig. 327, the pressing-wheels d d are to be under-
stood as running always upon the last turned-up furrows but one; while the
carriage-wheel e runs always upon the solid land, where the horse also walks,
the shafts being placed at that side. The most convenient method of using the
presser-roller is for it to follow two ploughs, and to operate as every two
furrow-slices are laid over.
919. But the presser is now being more advantageously used as to time, in
the consolidation of soft soils, by being constructed with four, six, or more
pressing-wheels; and in this form the carriage-wheel is not required. In using
the presser of this construction, the field must be ploughed for the seed-furrow
all over, either entirely or in part, before the pressing is begun; and the field
is regularly gone over by the presser, which, from its now increased weight,
will require two horses. In this form, with six pressing-wheels, and with the
two horses, the machine will press-roll from 8 to 9 acres in a day.
920. There remains to be observed, in regard to the larger number of wheels,
that, in order to secure facility of turning about, the wheels must either be
CROSSKILL'S CLOD-CRUSHER.
263
all set upon a round axle, or they must be set upon an axle in two lengths, if
it is continued in a square form; and there is consequently required a middle
bearing for the meeting ends of the axle. For this purpose a third bracket
is suspended to the middle rail of the frame, a a, fig. 327.
921. The price of the two-wheeled presser is £6, 10s.; and for each additional
wheel, with its mounting, £1, 12s.
922. Crosskill's Clod-Crusher.-This is one of the most efficient implements of
its class, and is represented in perspective in fig. 329, where a a is the roller,
α
Fig. 329.
CROSSKILL'S CLOD-CRUSHER.
a
e
6 feet in length and 30 inches in diameter; b a cast-iron end-frame at each end
of the roller, bolted to the wooden frame e, to which are bolted the horse-
shafts d d. The frame-ends b are placed upon the axle c, the ends of which
are prolonged to form arms on which wheels are placed, and kept on by
means of coterels, for the removal of the roller from one field to another.
When the wheels are to be placed or removed, a hole is dug in the ground under
each wheel, while the roller rests on the ground.
Fig. 330.
923. The roller consists of a number of toothed wheels, supported on four-
feathered arms, and an eye formed in the centre fitted to move easily on the
axle c of the roller. Fig. 330 shows a side-view of one of those wheels, by
which its action upon the soil may be easily under-
stood. When such a great number of angles, acting
like so many wedges, are brought into contact with
the indurated clods, they infallibly split them into
numerous fragments, and the repetition of the process
produces a well-pulverised surface. The effect is quite
different from that of the plain roller, fig. 326, with
which, if a clod does not crumble down at once with
its pressure, it is forced into the soil in a solid state.
924. The price of this roller, 5 feet 6 inches long,
and 30 inches diameter, is £18 with, and £16 with-
out, travelling-wheels.
SIDE-VIEW OF ONE WHEEL OF THE
CLOD-CRUSHER.
925. This roller is a very efficient implement for
compressing the surface of light soil after it has been sown with barley and
grass-seeds, and the effects are equivalent to the action of the grass-seed har-
rows, fig. 319, and the smooth roller, fig. 326, both of which implements may
be dispensed with when this roller is employed for this particular purpose.
926. Cambridge's Patent Press-wheel Roller.-In fig. 331 this implement
is used as
a self-cleansing clod-crusher, and also for rolling meadow or
pasture land infested with the wire-worm or grub. The length of the imple-
ment varies from 5 feet to 8 feet, and the diameter from 15 to 26 inches.
264
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
The number of discs or wheels in one form of this roller is 25; of these 12
are large, and 13 of small diameter. The small ones begin and end the
A WILLIAMS
Fig. 331.
CAMBRIDGE'S PRESS-WHEEL ROLLER.
Fig. 332.
4
series. The interior diameter of the small discs is 1 foot 5 inches, the
exterior diameter 1 foot 8 inches. The interior diameter of the large discs
is 1 foot 7 inches, the exterior diameter 1 foot 9 inches. The face of
the disc is 3 inches broad. The periphery of the disc is not parallel-faced
like the tire of a wheel, but is provided with a central rib or projection a quarter
of an inch in breadth, a curve being hollowed out
on each side of this, extending to the sides of
the disc. The breadth of the projection is thus
made to increase gradually from a of an inch to 3
inches, the breadth of the face of the press-wheel.
Fig. 332 is a section of the rim of the press-wheel.
The press-wheels are placed eccentrically on the
main axle, so that one is always in advance of the
other; they are thus continually crossing each
other in their revolutions; a grinding action on the
SECTION OF THE RIM OF THE PRESS-WHEEL clods on which they operate being produced; and a
self-cleansing action insured. The price, from £10 to £20.
927. Norwegian Harrow. This implement, manufactured by Mr James Kirk-
wood of Tranent, is formed entirely of iron, and consists of a frame carrying
Fig. 333.
a
e
2
г
PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE NORWEGIAN HARROW.
N
112
h
NORWEGIAN HARROW.
265
three axles fitted with star-shaped wheels, and mounted on three supporting
wheels with a lever-purchase and connections acting on all simultaneously for
raising or lowering the body as in some of the grubbers. Fig. 333 is a perspec-
tive view, fig. 334 a side-elevation of the implement. The letters refer to
both figures.
928. The frame consists of two side-bars a a, fig. 334, 21 inches deep and
inch thick, parallel for a distance of 3 feet 6 inches from the back end, thence
Fig. 334.
d
O
b
a
C
C
e
a
k
22
i
0 c 0
A LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE NORWEGIAN HARROW.
feet
O
O
о
У
i
h
3
4
sloping inwards until they nearly meet at the front, where they embrace, and form
a support for the jointed crank-arm bb, which carries the front castor-wheel c c.
In front of this they come into close contact, and are held together by a bolt,
which also serves to support a shackle d for attaching the horses. Two cross-bars
connect the parallel portion of the frame, the hind one 2 inches by gths, and
the front one 21 inches by inch, with the ends kneed inwards about 5 inches,
and fixed to the sides by two screwed bolts in each knee. These cross-bars are
connected by a bar o, 1 inch by & inch along the centre of the machine, kneed
and fixed by bolts at each end. The frame thus formed is 4 feet 6 inches
wide over the sides, and 3 feet 6 inches in length over the cross-bars. From
the foremost of these to the bolt on which the lever of the front wheel is jointed
is 3 feet, and from that to the extreme point 6 inches; thus making the total
length of the frame 7 feet. The axles of the star-wheels e e e are supported in
a cast-iron frame ƒ at each side, formed of a kneed bar 3 inches by inches,
feathered on the outside, with bosses for the axles to run in, and bolted to the
side-bars of the main frame, the centres of the three axles being 6 inches below
the frame. The distance from the back end of the frame to the hind axle is
10 inches, and the axles are 11 inches apart between centres; they are each 14
inch square, turned at the ends for running in the cast-iron supports; the
fore and hind ones each carry 13 star-wheels, and the middle one 12-thus
allowing the teeth of the middle star-wheels partially to interlace with and
revolve between the spaces of the other two sets. Each star-wheel is 13
inches diameter over the point; the teeth, 6 in nu mber, about 1 inch square at
the bottom, and tapered to a blunt point; the eye is 4 inches deep and 2½ inches
diameter at the ends, and cast with a hole full 11 inch square, to slip easily on
to the axle. Half the number of the star-wheels are put on the axle with the
points standing in the same direction, and the other half, occupying the alter-
This
nate spaces, are placed a quarter of a revolution from this position.
arrangement breaks the line of the teeth of the star-wheels, and allows each
set to revolve coincidently like a roller when the teeth catch the ground. The
266
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
1
two hind carriage-wheels g g are 1 foot 10 inches in diameter and 2 inches
broad, and are supported by cranks 10 inches long, attached to a shaft 12
inch diameter, supported by a small bracket at each end bolted to the frame;
the centre of the shaft being 12 inch above the frame, and 1 foot 4 inches
from the hind cross-bar. On the middle of the shaft is fixed a lever h, 6 feet
6 inches long, 2 inches by 1 inch at the neck, and tapered to 12 inch by
inch at the extreme end. At the point where it passes the hind bar of the
frame it is swelled and mortised to embrace a curved arm ii about 1 foot 10
inches long, 1 inch broad, and 1 inch thick, and which is secured to the hind
bar by two bolts. A number of holes are made in the arm at various points, and
a hole of corresponding size in both sides of the mortise of the lever h. By
lifting the lever h to any point in the height of the curved arm ii till the
apertures coincide, and passing a pin through them, the lever h is supported at
any desired point. This pin is attached to the end of a light lever n m, fig.
333, which is carried nearly the whole length of the side of the main lever h,
to which it is jointed, and has a spring provided to it which keeps the end m
pressed, and retains the pin in the apertures of the mortise of the lever h and
of the curved arm i i. To withdraw the pin, the end m of the lever is pressed
out; this disconnects the lever h and the curved arm i i, and allows the lever
h to be moved up or down as desired. Where the end of the lever h joins the
axle of the hind-wheels g g, it is kneed or bent upwards, and furnished at the
upper extremity with an eye, the centre of which is 7 inches from the centre
of the axle. To this eye the forked end of a connecting-rod 7 7, 4 feet 11 inches
long, and inch diameter, is jointed by a bolt; the other extremity of the rod
11 being similarly jointed to the end of the crank-lever b b 12 inches long, the
centre of which works in a bolt in the end of the frame at a, and is continued
downwards to support the front castor-wheel by a double-swivelling arm, the
diameter of which is 15 inches, the breadth of bore being 24 inches: the distance
of joint-bolt of lever b b, from centre of wheel c c, is 1 foot 8 inches.
3
929. This implement is very efficient in its effects. Its action is to reduce
large clods into very small ones by the insertion of the points of the star
rays e into them, to split them into pieces by their reiterated action. The
larger clods are split into pieces by the first row of rays; the second row
splits these into smaller ones, and the third row splits these again into still
smaller pieces.
930. SECTION FOURTH.-Horse-Hoes.-Wheat sown in rows is weeded with the
hand-hoe, and also with horse-hoes. Where the extent of drilled crops is
considerable, hand-hoers are unable to clear the ground of weeds before the
crops advance to a state in which it is improper to go amongst them. Hence
the need of assistance from the more expeditious horse-hoe.
931. Smith's Steerage Horse-Hoe.-There are many forms of horse-hoes for clean-
ing the ground between the rows of corn. A very ingenious and simple form
is the steerage horse-hoe contrived by Mr William Smith, Northampton. It is
shown in perspective in fig. 335, where a a is the framing, which also constitutes.
the horse-shafts, supported on iron brackets, which in their turn are supported on
an iron axle b, as high as to permit the crop hoed to pass under it. The axle, bent
down at both ends, works in the wheels c c. These form the carriage portion of
the machine. The hoe consists of a bar d, which bears the shanks e, of six
triangular duck-footed hoes or shares, made to embrace as many rows of corn, at
the ordinary breadth of 7 inches asunder. The handles ff, by which the driver
guides the hoes along the centres of the rows, are attached to the bar d. The
SMITH'S STEERAGE HORSE-HOE.
267
carriage and hoe are connected by means of the rods g g, which, at one end, are
attached to the handles ƒƒ, and at the other linked on by eyes to hooks in the
hind part of the brackets, which support the framing or shafts a a. The rods g g are
Fig. 335.
J
e
/
g
a
SMITH'S STEERAGE HORSE-HOE.
a
Fig. 336.
strengthened by curved rods passing under the bar d, and welded at both ends to
the under part of g g. When the rows are placed wider than 7 inches, the axle of
the frame a a is expanded to the requisite width by being slipped outwards
through the collar, and fixed at any given width by the pinching-screw at b.
932. Fig. 336 represents two different sorts of shares used in this hoe, one, a,
being the ordinary one for narrow rows of 7
inches; the other, b, to answer the broadest
width of 18 inches. The share b consists of
a long rectangular feather attached to each
shank placed in a diagonal direction across,
and meeting in the centre of the drill. The
inclination of their edges allows the shares
to clear themselves of the soil while they
are cutting the weeds under the surface.
竹​竹
​LONG AND SHORT SHARES FOR SMITH'S HORSE-HOE.
Having the bar d, fig. 335, as long as the width to which the axle b may be
expanded, the requisite shares might then be affixed to it, required to hoe the
number of rows determined on-and thus the hoes may be increased in number
from 6 to 12, and the breadth hoed from 3 to 7 feet; but from 4 to 5 feet in
width is the best one for doing the work quickest and most effectually. To
obtain that distance, 8 hoes at 7 inches wide give 4 feet 8 inches; 6 hoes at 9
inches wide give 4 feet 6 inches; and 6 hoes set at three doubles as b, at 18
inches wide, give 4 feet 6 inches.
933. The prices of this horse-hoe, at these respective widths, are—with 6
hoes, £4; 8 hoes, £4, 10s. ; and 12 hoes, £5, 10s.
934. In using this hoe, the horse is put into the shafts a, fig. 335. The
driver holds on by the handles ff, and steers the hoes along the centre of the
rows h, which he is enabled to do by the movement of the rods g g upon the hooks
attached to the brackets at a a. Should the horse swerve from the row he walks
in, the driver directs the hoes in their proper rows, until the horse regains his
former track. A steady horse will not leave the row he is placed in, from one
end of the landing to the other, and only a steady one should be employed
in such work as horse-hoeing. A steady man, to steer the hoes, is as requisite
as a steady horse, otherwise carelessness will send the hoes through the rows of
corn-plants, and cut them through as well as the weeds.
268
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
935. Garrett's Horse-Hoe.-In Plate XII. we give two views of this imple-
ment, of which fig. 1 is an end and fig. 2 a back elevation. The following is
a description of the various parts, and the mode of operation. Similar letters
are shown on the similar parts in both figures; a a, fig. 2, is the wood sill, 7 feet
2 inches long, 4 inches deep, which carries the different working parts of the
machine; b b the cast-iron brackets bolted on to the sill, to support the axles
cc of the travelling wheels d d, 4 feet in diameter. To the main sill a a
brackets e e are bolted, on the upper end of which are bearings, in which the
horizontal shaft ƒf works. On this shaft are keyed eccentric wheels, g g, 10
inches in diameter, with V or grooved peripheries. A lever h, 2 feet 4 inches
long, is fixed to the shaft ff, by which the eccentrics g g can be moved through
any desired portion of their revolutions. They can be maintained in any posi-
tion by the pawl of the ratchet-wheel i, fig. 2, attached to the bracket e, going
into the teeth of the ratchet-wheel i fixed on the end of the shaft f; jj are pro-
jecting parts at each end of the main sill a a, supporting arms or brackets
kk, to which are jointed at the lower extremities swing-irons or levers 7 l.
These swing-levers 7 l are jointed at their lower extremities to the ends of a
horizontal bar, to which the levers m m m, fig. 1, are jointed as at n; these
levers carrying the wrought-iron coulter-bars or stalks o o, to which the blades
or hoes p p are connected. To the centre of the sill a a an iron bearing q
is bolted on, to carry the spindle r placed at right angles to the sill a a; at
the extremity of this a cross-handle ss is fixed. The spindler is extended
forwards, and provided at its extremity with a suspending lever or arm t; to the
end of which a lever u u is jointed, the other extremity of which is jointed to
the left-hand swing-lever 7. The coulter-stalks o o are kept in position by four
spring guards x x x x, two at each end of the mortise-bar ww. To keep the
two outside levers out of work when required, springs attached to these guards
are used. The hoe-guards on the outside are shown with weights y y, these
being used on very hard soil. The remaining guards z zz are without springs;
part of these guards are shown in the drawing with weights attached; 1, 1 are
boxes in which to keep an extra supply of hoes; 2, fig. 1, a wrought-iron
stay for supporting the guards; 3, 3, chains attached at one end to the bar w w,
and at the other end to the wheels g g.
936. In working the implement, the blades or hoes must be adjusted to the
breadth between the rows, allowing a little on each side to spare. The coulter-
bar w w must then be lowered, and with it the stalks o o, so that the blades
p p shall penetrate the soil to the depth required. This lowering of the coulters
is effected by depressing the handle h slightly, so as to ease the pawl of the
ratchet-wheel i; this being released, the shaft ƒ is allowed partially to revolve,
and with it the grooved eccentric-wheels g g; this slackens the chain 3, 3, and the
bar w w, and the coulters and weights y y are allowed to fall. On the adjust-
ment of the hoes in the soil being effected, the implement is drawn carefully
across the field, so as to keep the hoes as nearly as possible in the direct lines
of the drills. Any deviation from this is compensated for, by the attendant
who, following behind, by means of the cross-handles s s, gives a lateral move-
ment to the bar w w, and the coulter-stalks o o and blades p p. According as
the one end of the cross-handle s s is raised or depressed, the end of the suspen-
sion-lever t, fig. 2, is moved to the right or left-describing a curve, as shown
by the dotted arrow curve-acting on the lever u u. This lever being jointed
to the swing-levers 7 l connected with the coulter-bar w w, a lateral movement
from right to left, or vice versa, is imparted to it, and, through its agency, to all
the coulter-stalks o o and blades p p.
GARRETT'S HORSE - HOE.
269
937. Fig. 337 gives a perspective view of this machine, bearing the same
letters of reference. The price of it varies from £19 to £21.
J
Fig. 337.
พ
d
U
WI WILLIAMS SC
PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF GARRETT'S HORSE HOE.
938. Just recently the Messrs Garrett have invented certain improvements in
the construction of the horse-hoe described above, which consists in an improved
mode of suspending the mortise-bar, to which the hoe-levers are connected;
with the view of facilitating the raising and lowering of the bar for the purpose.
of adjusting the hoes to the proper angle of working, according to the nature of
the ground for which the machine is to be used.
939. In the Illustrated Inventor of the 13th February 1858 is given a per-
spective drawing and longitudinal section of the modified horse-hoe, accom-
panied with a description of its construction, which we extract as follows:
“At the opposite sides of the ordinary framing of the implement is mounted
one of a pair of screw-shafts, so as to be capable of being turned on their bear-
ings without receiving an endway motion; they are each provided with a right
and left-hand screw-thread, to which are fitted travelling-nuts, tapped to work
on the screw-threads, and move (as the shafts are turned) towards or from each
other, according to the direction of the rotation of the screw-shafts. Jointed to
and pendent from these nuts are rods or levers which are jointed in pairs at
their lower ends to the extremities of the mortise-bar, and serve to support that
bar in a horizontal or other desired position. The rotation of the screw-shafts
is effected by means of winch-handles applied to their squared heads, which
project beyond and in rear of the framing. Mounted loosely upon a plain
portion of each of the screw-shafts, and at about the middle of their length, is
a swinging-guide, intended to receive one of a pair of guide-bars or rods, which
are jointed to the opposite ends of the mortise-bar. These swinging-guides and
guide-bars are employed to steady the mortise-bar in its upward and downward
movements; but it should be stated that they are not absolutely necessary for
the efficient action of the implement. The hoe-levers are connected as usual to
the mortise-bar, and are supported and raised in the ordinary manner at their
hinder ends.
940. “From the above explanation it will be understood that when it is
required to raise or lower the mortise-bar, it is only necessary to turn the
270
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
screw-shafts, the rotation of which will cause the nuts of each pair of pendent
rods or levers to approach or recede from each other, and thereby increase or
diminish the space between the mortise-bar and the framing of the implement,
according to the direction of rotation imparted to the screw-shafts; by which
means (the level of the hind ends of the hoe-levers being at the same time
unaltered) the angle of the inclination of the hoes to the ground will be changed
as desired.
In order to effect the endway movement of the mortise-bar,
which movement is requisite to bring the hoes into a line with their work,
a steering-iron is connected to the mortise-bar without any intermediate line
or other contrivance, which arrangement gives the attendant increased command
over the implement."
941. Scufflers.-A scuffler was an implement which was used not only to cut
the ground under the roots of surface-weeds between the drills of a green crop,
but to pare away at the same time a portion of the sides of the drills. Those
effects were produced-the eradication of the weeds, by means of a broad share ;
the paring of the drills, by means of two flattened curved tines, supported on
wings which could be expanded or contracted on a quadrant, and fixed with a
pinching-screw, according to the width of the drills. Such a scuffler was some-
thing of the form, of the drill-grubber, fig. 316, but having the handles attached
to the middle bar, at c, and with no front wheel. This was a very efficient
and pleasant-working implement, but it has somehow of late got out of use.
942. Another species of scuffler, for the same purpose as the one above, was
formed of the double mould-board plough, fig. 274. The mould-boards were
removed and wings attached in their place, movable on a quadrant, and a broad
share affixed instead of the narrow-pointed one. The wings supported either
curved tines, as in the implement described in 941, or such as are represented
at b, fig. 336. This scuffler was abandoned upon the correct principle of avoid-
ing the use of the same implement for performing two very different sorts of
work, such as double mould-board ploughing and scuffling.
943. SECTION FIFTH.-Sowing Machines and Manure-Distributors-The Broad-
cast Sowing Machine. This machine has now come into pretty general use,
especially in those districts where the arable system is under the best manage-
ment, and on large farms is nearly superseding the process of hand-sowing. It not
only sows all the white grains, wheat, barley, oats, when sown broadcast, in a very
uniform manner, and with any desired allowance per acre, but it serves in a superior
manner for grass-seeds, in point of distribution, and, in the case of windy weather,
is greatly superior to hand-sowing. This last advantage arises chiefly from the
low position of the discharging orifices, as compared with the height of the hand
in sowing; but partly also from the more direct discharge of the seed from the
machine; its velocity of discharge likewise, and the distance it has to fall, being
always uniform. The nice gradation of the discharge is one of its chief qualifi-
cations, for it may be adjusted to sow any required quantity per acre, between
the lowest and the highest, that may be judged expedient, and in all cases,
from the uniformity of the distribution, a considerable saving in seed may be
effected.
944. We have had occasionally to notice the rather curious facts of the intro-
duction of certain practices from England into the Scottish system of farming.
Such practices have either remained stationary in the former country, or have
been but partially extended, whereas the practices thus borrowed by the latter
have been improved on, and widely extended. The machine now under con-
sideration is another example of this; for though it appears to have been origin-
THE BROADCAST SOWING-MACHINE.
271
ally brought into Scotland from Yorkshire, we believe it is even now but spar-
ingly used in England, while in Scotland it is in extensive use in the best
arable districts, and still rapidly extending. In the course of some inquiries as to
the period when this machine was first adopted in Scotland, we have been.
enabled, through the kindness of Mr Scouler, late of Haddington, to fix the time of
its introduction to the year 1817, and the first machine so made appears to have
been by Mr Robert Lowrie, Edington, who makes the following statement:-
"The first broad-cast sowing-machine that came into this county (Berwickshire)
was ordered by myself from England from Mr Short of Chiverton by Hackhill;
it was a smart thing, wheeled by a man, and was about 8 feet long; it is still in
the possession of Mr Wilson, Edington Mains. I got that machine in 1816,
and in the following year I made one from it for Mr Wright, late tenant in Pren-
derguest, which was 15 feet long, and was drawn by one horse. So far as I
know, this was the first sowing-machine made in Scotland; and after it had
sown Mr Wright's crop of that season, I exhibited the machine at the agricul-
tural shows of Coldstream and Kelso, and received premiums for it at both
places; this was in 1817; and in the following year I made one of the same
dimensions for Mr Wilson's father, the late Mr Abraham Wilson." From Ber-
wickshire the machine made its way immediately into East-Lothian, where
the manufacture of it was taken up by the late Mr Adam Scouler after the
machines of Mr Lowrie above referred to, and was successfully carried on by his
successors, Messrs Scouler and Company of Haddington. The machine here
referred to as having been brought from Chiverton, is the same as those yet to be
found in the northern and eastern counties of England, and used chiefly for
sowing grass-seeds; its application to the sowing of grain having made little
progress, or it may rather be considered as having been superseded by the drill-
system of sowing, so much practised in these counties.
945. In the early application of the broad-cast machine, it was mounted on
two wheels; but a few years' experience pointed out the advantages of a third
wheel, which was applied to it by Messrs Scouler about the year 1830, the third
wheel being applied as a swivel or fore-carriage. The carriage is still subject
to considerable variety of construction, but these varieties are not of a nature to
alter its general character. A carriage of a nearly triangular form is very
generally adopted, the apex being in front over the swivel-bar. A rectangular
carriage is also very much employed, and this is the most workmanlike construc-
tion, though perhaps not the cheapest, but it is withal the most convenient and
useful form. As regards the general construction, an important improvement
has been introduced within the last six years; this is, the cutting of the seed-
chest into sections. The chest is usually made 18 feet long, which being far
beyond the width of any field-gate, produced a necessity for changing the posi-
tion of the chest when passing through a gateway. It was therefore the prac-
tice to lift the chest from its working position parallel to the axle of the machine,
and deposit it parallel to the horse-shafts until it had passed through the gate.
This was clearly both imperfect and inconvenient, and these defects gave rise
to the cutting into sections, the middle part being 9 feet, and the extremes each
4 feet, so that when the latter are folded up, the extreme length of chest is 9
feet.
946. In many parts of the country, ridges are made only 15 feet in width
instead of 18; but in that case the difficulty of finding access through a field-
gate is as great as in the other, so that the division of the seed-chest into
compartments is a convenience appreciable by all who use the machine.
947. The illustrations of this machine which we have here given in Plate
272
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
4
XIII. are taken from those manufactured by A. & G. H. Slight of Edinburgh,
and they exhibit the machine in its most complete state, embracing the chest in
sections, with the mode of supporting the same; this last improvement having,
it is believed, been first introduced by the late Mr Slight. In Plate XIII.,
fig. 1 is a view in perspective of the entire machine as it appears when
in work, and fig. 2 a section, on a scale of an inch to a foot, taking the
chest transversely through its centre, the carriage being cut in the same line,
or parallel to the horse-shafts. In these two figures the same letters mark cor-
responding parts. The carriage is marked a ba, fig. 1, and is a frame of
hardwood, the bars of which are from 4 inches to 5 inches in depth, and 21
inches in thickness; the dimension of the frame being 7 feet in breadth over all
and 4 feet in length over the rails, of which there are three, as seen at b b. The
hind wheels c c are 34 inches in height, generally formed with cast-iron naves,
wooden spokes and fellies; or, as in the figure, the fellies are superseded by a
simple hoop of malleable iron 24 inches by of an inch, which, for light carriages
of this description that never travel on hard roads, is found sufficiently service-
able. The axle of these wheels is 1 inch diameter, seen at d in fig. 2, and
is in two lengths supported in pillow-blocks bolted to the lower edge of the bars
a a a, fig. 1, of the frame, and meeting in the middle bearing. The nigh-side
wheel is fixed dead upon the axle, carrying the axle round with it to give
motion to the pitch-chain d e of fig. 2, and which is seen also at a in fig. 1,
where it is seen as entering the chest. The off-side wheel may in this case
be also fixed dead upon the other half of the axle, or it may run loose. But the
axle may also be made in one piece, the off-side wheel being left loose, which
is necessary for the convenience of turning round, this wheel being disengaged
from turning with the other. The front wheel ƒ, fig. 2, and seen also partially
in fig. 1, is 24 inches diameter, usually of cast-iron, and is supported on the cast-
iron sheers g, which are 4 inches wide between the arms, and terminates upward
in the lower half of the swivel-plate h, and this again is furnished with a strong
pivot, passing upward through the head i of the cast-iron fore-beam i k. The
head of the fore-beam is formed into a swivel-plate corresponding to that of the
sheers g, and is bolted to the two foremost bars b b of the carriage. Two small
pillars l, are cast upon projecting ears of the swivel-plate of the sheers I, and
bolts passing through these pillars and the splinter-bar m, bind these parts
firmly together, producing an effective swivel-carriage. The horse-shafts n,
fig. 1, broken off in fig. 2, are attached to the splinter-bar m by means of a long
draught-bolt passing through the ends of the shafts, and through eyes fixed in
the splinter-bar.
948. The seed-chest o o, fig. 1, Plate XIII., is 18 feet in length, formed of
7-inch deal. The breadth of the bottom board is 6 inches, projecting on one side
2 inches, forming an apron on which the seed falls from the orifices. The
sides of the chest are 10 inches in depth, and the cover 14 inches in breadth,
9 inches of which forms a hinged flap, as seen in the figure. The chest is
bound together upon ends and partitions of hardwood 1 inch thick; when
in sections as here described, each section has two such ends, and the middle
section has two partitions in the middle, set at 24 inches apart. When the
chest is in one length, two ends and the two middle partitions only are required.
The joints or hinges of the sections are formed of the iron straps p p, two of
which are securely riveted on each side of the chest, having eyes formed at
the apex q q, and through these eyes a small bolt q passes from side to side,
which completes the hinge; and by withdrawing the bolt the parts of the chest
are at once disengaged. For the better connection of the segments, however,
THE BROADCAST SOWING-MACHINE.
273
when the machine is in action, the contiguous ends are held in contact by a bolt
and nut, as seen at c' in fig. 3, which, together with fig. 4, is on a scale of 1
inch to a foot. The two extreme segments also are supported by the light
tension-chain i" i' i'′ i", fig. 1, which passes over the two upright iron stanchions
k k', the tops of which i form the suspending fulcra for the chain, while its
extremities are secured at the points i" i" with adjusting nuts.
949. The sowing-gear of the machine consists of the following parts: The
main axle of the carriage is mounted with a pitch chain-wheel 4 inches dia-
meter, placed upon the axle close to the middle bar a of fig. 1, Plate XIII.,
and seen in full at d e, fig. 2; a corresponding wheel r is placed upon a
short axle within the seed-chest, and between the two middle partitions of the
chest. In this way motion is communicated from the carriage wheels c, and
their axle to the axle of the small wheel r, fig. 2. A light shaft, inch square,
is coupled to the ends of the axle of the wheel r, extending to each end of
the chest: when the chest is entire, each of these shafts is also entire; but
in the present case each shaft is in two pieces, coupled at the junction of
the segments of the chest by means of small clutch couplings attached to
the ends of the shaft, and these engage or disengage of themselves when the
segments of the chest are let down or folded up. These last-mentioned
shafts are supported in bearings of hardwood laid in the bottom of the chest,
at distances of from 2 feet to 24 feet, and the journals, which are 14 inch
long, covered with straps of stout hoop-iron. The shafts are armed with the
seed-wheels of the form shown at r in fig. 3, which are placed upon it at
distances of 6 inches, 32 wheels being required for an 18-feet chest.
950. The sowing-gear of this machine has undergone a variety of changes.
In the example before us, the pitch-chain is employed to communicate motion
from the first mover-the carriage-axle-to the seed-wheels. It has the pro-
perty of great simplicity, but has been objected to on the score of its keeping
the seed-wheels constantly in motion, whether sowing or not, which has been
supposed to have a tendency to injure the grain that lies in contact with the
wheels. Perhaps there may be grounds for this supposition; but if it do
exist, the deterioration must be very trifling. Be these surmises what they may,
they have given rise to the means of prevention, by employing a gearing that
disengages the seed-wheels from the first mover when the machine is being
moved, and no discharge of seed required. Fig. 5, Plate XIII., represents a
very perfect and convenient arrangement of this kind, and which has been very
successfully employed, but is a little more expensive than the chain-gearing :
a is the seed-chest, b b a part of the carriage, and o o the middle and back
transverse-bars of the same (corresponding to b b, fig. 1). The bar ƒ e, fig. 5,
forming one side of light cast-iron sheers, is bolted to the bars o o (stand-
ing in place of the middle longitudinal bar a of fig. 1); and the three
equal wheels c c c, fig. 5, are set in the sheers-the first of the three being upon
the carriage-axle, and the meeting-ends supported on the sheers. The last of
the three wheels c takes into the wheel h, mounted on the central portion of the
seed-wheel shaft, as before described in (949); and d is a fourth wheel, of equal
size with c c, mounted on the lever g, which is forked to receive the wheel d,
and to embrace the sheers parallel to the bar ƒ e at e, upon which last point
the lever turns as a fulcrum. It will be evident that, by lifting the lever g,
and throwing it forward upon the seed-chest, the wheel d will be ungeared
from the first wheel c; and though it remains in contact with the middle wheel
c, no motion will be communicated to the seed-wheels, until the lever is returned
to its original position.
S
274
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
951. The seed-wheels have suffered a variety of changes: originally, circular
brushes were employed; then came wooden naves, of about 3 inches in length
and 24 inches in diameter; and into these were inserted leaves or teeth of hoop-
iron, about 1 inch broad and 1 inch long, and this form of wheel is still much
employed. In the progressive stages of the machine, it was furnished with
one set of these small shafts carrying brushes, and another set carrying wheels,
as above described; the former being then thought necessary for sowing grass-
seeds, and the latter were employed for grains: observation shortly pointed
out that the toothed wheels were equally well adapted for either grass-
seeds or grain, and the brushes have consequently been laid aside. The
wheels represented by r, fig. 3, are of cast-iron, of very light fabric; they
are ten-toothed, and are 44 inches diameter, measuring to the extreme points
in the cross section; the points of the teeth are slightly rounded to adapt them
to the concave groove or cup that is formed in the back of the chest around
each discharging orifice; the wheels are cast with a square eye, and fixed
upon the shaft by barbing the angles of the shaft round the eye of the wheel.
16
952. Corresponding to each seed-wheel, a discharging orifice, s, fig. 3, Plate
XIII., is formed in the back of the chest; these are inch diameter, and
their centre is 1 inch above the apron-board f u. On the inside of the
back-board, oval excavations are made in the wood around the orifices, leaving
the bottom of the cups or edges of the orifice not exceeding inch thick;
and in this oval cup the seed-wheel sinks until the point of the teeth are
only inch clear of the bottom of the cup or the edges of the orifice as seen
at s, fig. 3. The position of the seed-wheels in relation to the bottom ƒ u of
the chest, is such as to make the teeth turn at about 1 inch clear of the
bottom. The seed orifices are defended by the iron plates d', fig. 4, of a
triangular form, the apices d' are driven into the apron which secures that
point of the plates, and the other two points are fixed by nailing. The fixing
of the plates requires some attention, in order that the orifices may exactly
coincide with those of the slide tt: without perfect coincidence in these two
parts the sowing will be unequal.
4
953. The slide is a bar of hoop-iron 2 inches in breadth, and about inch
in thickness; it is perforated at the regular distance by means of a punching
instrument, and gauged to determine the precise intervals. In the entire chest,
the slide is in two lengths, but in that now described each half is again cut in
two at the junction of the sections, and connected by a slip hinge-joint. The
slide is held in its place by the small clasps e' e', fig. 4, Plate XIII., and a clamp
ƒ is riveted upon it at any convenient point; the short arm of the lever w enters
an opening in this clamp, while its fulcrum lies in the plate b', which carries
a perforated stud, and is fixed on the back of the chest, as in fig. 3, form-
ing the fulcrum of the lever, by means of which the slide is moved over the
seed-orifices. To effect the precise adjustment of the orifices, the slide is
made in two halves, and at each end of the chest an adjusting-screw v, fig. 1,
acts in a nut attached to the end of the chest, the point of each screw being
brought to bear against the end of the slide, which is here thickened to meet
the point of the screw. The adjustment will be understood by reference to
fig 4, which represents a portion of the slide of the left-hand half of the chest.
The slide is here supposed to have been pushed towards the right hand by
means of the adjusting-screw v, fig. 1, till the orifices have been reduced
to the desired size, as here shown in fig. 4, about half shut; in this state
the machine is supposed to be fit for sowing, and that it has reached the end
of the field, when it becomes necessary to shut while turning: the shutting
THE BROADCAST SOWING-MACHINE.
275
is effected by moving the slide still further to the right hand, by means of
the lever w, until the orifices are entirely closed. Both ends of the chest having
undergone this operation, which is done in an instant, but in reverse directions,
the machine may go to any distance without discharging a grain; but when-
ever it has been turned into the next ridge, the lever w is thrown in the opposite
direction, moving the slide towards the adjusting-screw v, fig. 1, and this being
done at both ends, the orifices will have attained precisely the same area as
before, and thus the shutting and opening again to the same area; and of course
the same discharge is effected for any number of turns without the smallest
variation, so long as the screw v remains unaltered.
954. For the purpose of equalising the distribution of the seed over the
surface of the ground after it has left the discharging orifice, the bottom-board
ƒ u, fig. 3, Plate XIII., of the seed-chest is made to project beyond the back of
the chest about 2 inches, as at u, forming an apron on which the seed is first
received from the orifice, and being thus checked in its descent, is thereby
more uniformly scattered over the surface. Another precaution is taken, the
better to secure a uniform discharge, in the case of sowing on ground that has
a high inclination. In sowing up-hill, in such situations, the weight of the
seed is thrown more upon that side of the chest from which it is discharged,
tending thereby to increase the discharge. On sowing down-hill, on the other
hand, the effect of pressure is reversed, and the discharge will be less. To
obviate these inconveniences, Messrs Scouler, amongst their other improvements
in this machine, introduced a tilting motion to the seed-chest in the following
manner: on the two outward bearers a a of the carriage-bolsters y y, fig. 1,
having a semicircular seat of about 8 inches diameter, and corresponding to
these, on the bottom of the chest, are formed two circular bearings or journals
y y, fig. 2, on the bottom of the chest and concentric with the shaft of the seed-
wheels r, fig. 3. Upon these journals the chest can be tilted to a certain extent
backward or forward, and this is effected by the lever z, figs. 1 and 2, which
may be variously attached to the chest. In the present case it is a fork thrust
into two apertures in the chest, forming a lever, whose arm is retained in the
sheers of the quadrant a', fig. 2, and by raising or depressing the lever z, the
chest is tilted backward or forward as the sower sees it necessary; the lever
being retained in the required position by a bolt passed through the lever and
the then corresponding hole in the quadrant.
955. As the seed-chest is 18 feet in length, and it may sometimes be desir-
able to reduce its breadth of sowing to 16 or to 15 feet, suiting ridges of these
breadths, the reduction is effected by stopping two, three, or more of the seed-
orifices at each end. For this purpose, the orifices intended to be stopt are
provided with a flat swing-clasp, turning upon a pin to which it is riveted, and
having a flat tail which is brought over the orifice that is to be stopt. Two of
these clasps are seen at each end of fig. 1, Plate XIII., under x, where they are
in the position that leaves the orifice open.
956. In using the broad-cast machine, it is frequently drawn by one horse ;
but it forms a rather heavy draught, and is, therefore, more frequently the work
of two horses. The chest is filled from end to end with the seed-corn, and, the
horses walking in the furrow, the machine sows the half-ridge on either side.
When the chest has been filled, and the machine brought to that position which
places the horses in the furrow-the sower having previously determined the
degree of opening in the orifices that will deliver the desired quantity per acre—
he throws each slide outward against its graduating screw, which will produce
the proper opening (953); and this done, the horses are driven forward. On
276
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
arriving at the farther end of the ridge, and before entering upon the head-ridge,
the slides are withdrawn towards the centre, closing up the vents; the machine
is then turned round on the head-ridge, and takes up a position on the next
furrow, when the process is repeated, and so on till the field is sown all over,
the head-ridges being the last portion of the work; and here the blindings of
the extreme orifices come frequently into play, if the head-ridges are of less
breadth than those of the field. One horse is sufficient in this machine for
sowing grass-seeds.
957. It has often been suggested that a register screw or index would be a
useful appendage to the machine, by which the sower could at once fix upon
the extent of opening in the seed-vents. This addition, however well it may
appear in theory, appears, in the practical application of the machine, to be of
little value; for the eye of an experienced sower will, on passing over a few
yards with the machine, by simple ocular inspection be able to judge of the
quantity of seed he is bestowing upon the soil. If experimental accuracy is
required, the sower may then put into the chest as much grain as will just
cover the seed-wheels, and then measure in, one or two bushels, and proceed to
sow this until as much remains as will just cover the wheels again, so that the
measured quantity is found to have been discharged. By now measuring the
number of yards in length that have been sown with two bushels, he will
ascertain by calculation the proportional quantity required for an acre. Thus,
let the intended quantity to be sown upon an acre be 5 bushels, and that 1
bushel has been sown in the experiment which has covered 140 yards of the
18-feet ridge, or 2 half-ridges equal to 18 feet, or 6 yards. The imperial acre
contains 4840 square yards, and this divided by 6, the yards in the breadth of
the ridge, we have 806% as the number of lineal yards in length of an 18-feet
ridge to make up an acre; and of this, or 161.2 lineal yards, is the extent that
should have been covered by 1 bushel of seed-corn. The machine having, as
supposed, covered only 140 yards, it follows that the sowing is about part of
the bushel too thick: the graduating-screws, therefore, must be turned forward
about half a turn, and the experiment repeated if thought necessary. It is
seldom, however, that such experiments will be required in the hands of a
practical sower.
1
958. With reference to the inconvenience attending the great length of seed-
chest, as already taken notice of, when it is one length, there remains to be
observed that the method by which it is shifted is this: in its working state the
chest is kept in its roll-bolster by means of two quadrants attached to the
lower part of the chest-one being on each side of the carriage. These are
formed concentric with the curvature of the bolster y y, fig. 2., Plate XIII., and
a bolt over which the quadrant slides is screwed into the side of the carriage,
and this retains the chest in its place. When it is found necessary to move the
chest, the two bolts are unscrewed, which sets the chest at liberty; it is then
lifted from its bolsters and laid longitudinally on the carriage.. In this opera-
tion the pitch-chain, when that medium of power is employed, has to be disen-
gaged by withdrawing a coupling-link from the chain; but where the medium,
fig. 5, is employed, there is nothing required but the unscrewing of the quad-
rant-bolts to set the chest at liberty, after which it is lifted and laid longitu-
dinally on the carriage. The price of these machines varies from £10 to £12.
959. Smaller, and of course lighter, machines than the one just described for
sowing grass-seeds and grain, might be made to move upon two wheels, and be
drawn by a man or two men, for the use of small farms.
960. Grain Drilling-Machines.-The introduction of the drill-system into the
EAST-LOTHIAN DRILL SOWING-MACHINE.
277
agricultural practice of any country, will always form an era in the annals of
its agriculture; but it is often a difficult matter to define the precise time of its
introduction, more especially when we find that, by tracing the history of
man in his social capacities, the practice of drilling grain extends backward
to the most remote antiquity. A curious and interesting example of this,
in an antiquarian point of view, is to be seen in the series of Hindoo models of
agricultural implements that was, until lately, in the Museum of the High-
land and Agricultural Society at Edinburgh, but now in that of the Techno-
logical Museum. Amongst them is to be seen a correct model of a rudely-
constructed drill-machine, possessing all the essential points of the more ela-
borate modern implement; and amongst a people so little liable to change,
there can be no doubt that the machine is of very remote origin, compared
with which the earliest of our modern drills are but things of the moment; and
all of them, of whatever degree of merit, are but improvements on the Hindoo
original.
961. Amongst the early notices of the introduction of the drill system in
England, we find Amos* recommending it as early as 1783 as the result of
numerous comparative experiments; and the figures which he gives of the
drill sowing-machine, which he recommends not as an original invention, but
an amplification of that given by Duhamel, is almost identical in every essential
point with the most approved drill sowing-machine used in the present day in
England, and which may be held as the most perfect machine of its kind; but
from the excessive elaboration employed in its construction, its high price lays
an interdict upon its introduction into the economical practice of Scotch farming.
962. The mode of distributing the seed adopted in the broadcast sowing-
machine, from the simplicity of the principle, opened a ready means of acquiring
a drill sowing-machine at a moderate price: this accordingly quickly followed
the introduction of the broadcast-machine, and until very lately no change of
importance has been made upon the common Scotch drill. Slight modifica-
tions, however, had been effected occasionally, such as varying the distance.
between the rows, the machine always covering the same breadth, but varying
in the number of coulters. Thus, a machine to cover 7½ feet in breadth could
change the number of its coulters from 11 to 10, 9 to 8, the spaces between
the rows being respectively, 8, 9, 10, and 11 inches, or thereby.
963. The Common or East-Lothian Drill Sowing-Machine.—This has been here
taken to illustrate the principles of the machine. Though it may be deficient in
some points as compared with those of Berwickshire and Roxburghshire, yet
its extreme simplicity and cheapness have brought it into very extensive
adoption, not only in East-Lothian, but in other districts where the drill-
system is followed. Fig. 1, Plate XIV., is a view in perspective of this
machine, and for the better elucidation of its construction, fig. 338, shows
the arrangement of the parts in longitudinal section, and for convenience
of reference the letters mark corresponding parts in both figures. The figures
represent a machine of six rows, which is the size most generally used, chiefly
because it can be drawn by one horse; but also in the event of its being em-
ployed along swelling ridges, its covering but a small breadth secures a nearly
equal depth for the deposition of the seed, which cannot be easily done under
the same circumstances if the machine is mounted with a greater number of
coulters. But it follows from the peculiarity of structure, the coulters being
permanently fixed in position for the depth to which they penetrate the soil,
that the machine is best adapted for sowing across the ridges, and hence it is
Theory and Practice of Drill-Husbandry. By WILLIAM AMOS. 1802.
*
278
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL
almost invariably worked in that direction, though when worked in the direction
of the ridge the breadth covered by the machine is equal to one-fourth of an
18-feet ridge.
Fig. 338.
k
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f
b
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SECTION OF THE COMMON DRILL-SOWING MACHINE.
3
feet
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​p
964. In the construction, a is a bed-plank, 5 feet 1 inch in length, 14 inches
in breadth, and 2 inches in thickness. Across the ends of this are bolted the
two side-bars b, each 33 inches in length, 22 inches in depth, and 21 inches
in breadth. These last are crossed by the bar m m, bolted to the side-bars,
serving a special purpose, to be afterwards noticed; and these four parts form
the simple framework of the machine. The seed-chest c is 4 feet 8 inches in
length, placed between the side-bars b, and attached to these and the bed-plank.
The chest may be about 10 inches in depth, 2½ inches wide at bottom, and 15
inches at top, with a hinged cover. The chest, so mounted with the seed-
wheels and axle g, and with side-plate, lever, and adjusting-screw, is in all respects
similar to the broadcast machine, fig. 3, Plate XIII., except that, in place of the
apron on which the seed falls in the broadcast, the orifices deliver the seed
directly into a small hopper-shaped aperture formed in the bed-plank, immedi-
ately under the orifice i, fig. 338. The carriage-wheels d are 3 feet 1 inch in
diameter; the axle of one of them is seated in a strong bush or plummer-block,
and coupled to the small shaft of the seed-wheels, thereby giving them the requi-
site motion, their revolution coinciding with that of the wheels, and the opposite
carriage-wheel turns upon an axle fixed permanently upon the bed-frame. The
horse-shafts e are jointed to the bed-plank at h, and appear broken off at e,
by strap-and-hook hinges, and the handles ƒfƒ are bolted to the lower side of
the bed-plank. The coulters k k consist of an iron shank inch square, fur-
nished at the lower end with a pointed sheath of sheet-iron about inch thick;
the sides of this sheath being about 3 inches broad and 5 inches or more in
height riveted upon the bottom of the shank, which at this place is forged into
a wedge shape to receive the sheath. The coulters are fixed at top in mortises
cut in the bed-plank, and fenced with plates of iron above and below, where
they are secured by means of wedges; and they are further supported by
the coulter-bar o, seen in section. This bar is bolted under the heel of the
handles ff, and to it the coulters are attached by eye-bolts. The seed, on
leaving the orifices, falls into the funnel-shaped receptacle i in the upper side
of the bed-plank, from which it passes down the tube i into the sheath of the
coulter k, by which it is deposited into the rut formed by the sheath.
4
EAST-LOTHIAN DRILL SOWING-MACHINE.
279
965. From the construction and action of this machine, and the resistance of
the soil to the passage of the coulters through it, there is a constant tendency
produced by the traction of the horse, when the machine is in action, to elevate
the extremity of the handles; and by thus swinging upon the axle of the
wheels, the coulters are withdrawn from their action on the soil, and from
forming the rut for the reception of the seed. The tendency thus produced,
being greater than a man is capable of continuing to contend with, is counter-
acted by the application of the balance-chain 77, as shown in fig. 338, producing
a change of direction in the line of draught, and of the point of attachment of
the draught. In this machine, the true point of attachment is in the hinge h,
fig. 338; and the tendency of the draught, when applied simply to this point,
is to cause the point h to approach an imaginary straight line lying between
the horse's shoulder and the point of resistance at lower k in the figure, and the
effect of this is to bring h forward and downward, or to throw lower k back-
ward till it lose hold of the soil, thereby destroying the intended effect of the
coulter. The counteraction of this is effected by the position of the balance-
chain, and its attachments to the machine. The first part of it is a simple rod,
fixed to the shafts at l, and to the extremity of a pendant attached to the hind
bar of the shafts at h; the chain then passes under the coulter-bar o, and on to
the cross-bar of the handles ƒƒ, as seen in fig. 1, Plate XIV., where it terminates
in a handle furnished with a spring-catch, by which it can be hooked under
tension, to the cross-bar of the handles f; or, by disengaging the catch, the chain
hangs loose. When the chain is brought under tension, and the shafts borne
up by the horse, the resistance to the coulters is transferred to the back of the
horse, through the medium of the chain acting on the shaft at the point 7 and
on the pendant h, the point of which being below the plane of the shaft, changes
the direction of the tractive force from e h to e middle l, and leaves the handles f
in a nearly quiescent state. The marker, m n, is another appendage to the
machine, which, although not so necessary as the balance-chain, is yet gene-
rally applied to this drill-machine, especially when sowing across the ridges.
It consists of the bar m m, and the marking-rod m n.
m, and the marking-rod m n. The latter is swing-
jointed on a stud fixed in the ends of the bar m m, and having a stop on the
joint, by which either of the markers can be retained in the position of that
on the further side of fig. 1, Plate XIV., or let down, as in that of the nigh
side. The use of the marker is to trace a line on the surface of the ground
parallel to the direction in which the machine travels, and at a distance from
the middle point of the surface covered by the machine equal to the entire
breadth so covered; hence, on returning to sow the next breadth, the horse
should walk exactly upon the line drawn by the marker. In sowing with the
machine here described, the distance from line to line will be 4 feet 6 inches;
the distance between the rows being 9 inches. The wheels are usually set
54 inches apart, measuring at the point where they rest on the ground; or their
distance in any machine may be found by multiplying the number of coulters
by the number of inches given to the interval between the rows or coulters;
thus six coulters, at 9 inches of interval, give 6 x 9-54 inches. From the
construction of the machine it is found, that when the balance-chain is under
tension, the coulters are drawn to the ground, and the handles also drawn
downward; but on releasing the chain, which is done at the land-ends and
turnings, the conductor must support the handles to keep the coulter from the
ground, and in this state, if the handles are let go when the machine is stand-
ing, the coulter will pass forward, and the handles will fall to the ground. To
prevent this last inconvenience, a crutch is usually appended to the marker-bar m,
280
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
which, on stopping, is allowed to drop to a perpendicular position, resting on the
ground, and thus keeps the machine upon a level. This appendage not being of
much importance, is left out of the figure. The line p p is the surface of the ground
upon which the wheels d move. This machine requires two horses to work it.
966. This sowing-machine was long and successfully manufactured by the
late Scouler and Company, and is now by their successors Kemp, Murray, and
Nicholson, of Haddington; and with slight variations by various other imple-
ment-makers, as Morton, Leith Walk, Edinburgh; A. and G. H. Slight, Leith
Walk, Edinburgh, &c.
967. The price of the common drill-machine varies, according to the number
of coulters, from £6 to £10.
968. New Lever-Drill Sowing-Machine.-Fig. 2, Plate XIV., represents a drill
sowing-machine, introduced by the late Mr James Slight. Mr Slight having
been impressed with the superiority of the improved English lever-drills, but
seeing at the same time the difficulty, or impossibility, of introducing such an
expensive machine into the Scotch practice, was induced to make the attempt
of engrafting what appeared the better parts of the English machine upon the
more simple machinery of the Scotch, thus producing a machine little, if any-
thing, inferior to the original, at one-third of the price. The results appear to
justify the expectations, for the new lever-drill has now been tested in the
hands of a number of practical judges, and found to give entire satisfaction,
either in sowing grain alone, or in depositing the granulated manures along with
the seed in any required proportion. The figures here given of the machine
represent it without the manure-chest, which, when adopted, is placed imme-
diately before the seed-chest, making very little change in the appearance, and
adding little to the apparatus, except the chest itself.
969. While fig. 2, Plate XIV., exhibits the machine in perspective, the
annexed cut, fig. 339, shows more distinctly the arrangement and construction
Fig. 339.
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12
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TUS TICOM MENN OGUNDI
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1
2
3
fect
SECTION OF THE NEW LEVER-DRILL SOWING-MACHINE.
of the parts, by a longitudinal section. In these figures the corresponding parts
are marked as far as possible, by the same letter of reference. In the con-
struction of this drill, the bed-frame a a consists of two side-rails 5 feet 2 inches
in length, 4 inches in depth, and 21 inches in breadth, with three principal
cross-rails a', fig. 339, mortised into the former, besides a minor rail, forming
the bearing or platform of the seed-funnels. The three principal cross-rails are
THE NEW LEVER-DRILL SOWING-MACHINE.
281
each 4 inches by 21 inches, the minor rail being only 1 inch in breadth. The
entire width of the bed-frame for a 6-row drill is 4 feet 7 inches over all, and
the length over the rails is 4 feet 3 inches. The seed-chest b, which is 4 feet
7 inches long, has its sides 12 inches deep, and is constructed and mounted in
every respect similar to that of the broadcast-machine, fig. 3, Plate XIII., ex-
cepting again the projecting apron, which in the drill-machine is not required,
and in the mode of communicating motion to the seed-wheels h, fig. 339. The
carriage-wheels c are 3 feet 6 inches diameter, and have their axle bolted to the
lower side of the bed-frame; the wheels may be either constructed in the usual
manner with wooden fellies and hooped, or, as in the figure, with a strong hoop of
iron only. The fore-wheel d is 2 feet diameter, mounted in the sheers w, and e
is one of the two pillars of the swivel-plate, to which the splinter-barƒ is attached.
The shafts g are jointed to the splinter-bar ƒ by a draught-bolt passing through
eye-bolts in the bar and through the ends of the shafts. The remaining parts,
x y z, of the fore-carriage are precisely the same as described in par. 947 for
the broadcast sowing-machine. The sowing-gear in the lever-drill consists of a
wheel i fixed upon the inward end of the cast-iron nave of the carriage-wheel
on the nigh side; of a second wheel k, placed intermediate between i and the
third wheel, which last is mounted on a continuation of the seed-wheel
shaft h; these three wheels are all equal, and are 7 inches diameter. The
intermediate wheel k is supported upon a stud in the end of a bent lever, the
handle of which is seen at the extremity of the side-rail of the bed-frame, and
below the roller p; by means of this lever the wheel k is withdrawn from the
wheel 7, to stop the motion of the seed-wheels. The discharging apparatus
of the seed-chest is precisely the same as described in par. 952, with slide h,
lever i, fig. 2, Plate XIV., and adjusting-screw. From the orifice in the slide,
the seed falls into funnels m m, fig. 339, each funnel consisting of a series of five
joints, each joint sliding freely within the one below; the uppermost being fixed
on the platform of the bed-frame, and the lowermost in the socket of the
lever n n.
These funnels are made of the strongest tin-plate, and are
strung together by three lines of small chain to prevent their entire dislo-
cation, but allowing sufficient freedom of motion to admit of the rise and fall
of the lever with its coulter. A quadrant o, fig. 2, Plate XIV., of malleable
iron, is fixed by the bolts v v, fig. 339, on each side of the bed-frame, in such a
way as to be capable of a change of position in the vertical direction to the
extent of a few inches; to this quadrant the levers n n are jointed at u upon a
rod of iron 1 inch in diameter, which extends from side to side of the bed-frame.
The levers are forked at the end u, spreading to 9 inches wide, and where the
fork unites, the bar is 1 inch by an inch; it is perforated at t for the reception
of the bar t t', and an eye is formed at m into which the lower segment of the
funnel is fixed; it then diminishes gradually to the extremity n, which is turned
up to prevent the weight o from being dropt off. The weight is a block
of cast-iron of from 3 lb. to 7 lb. weight, of which there may be several sizes,
to be applied according to the state of the land, its purpose being to press the
coulter into the ground. The coulter in this machine has its cutting edge of
solid forged iron, upon which the cheeks t'are riveted, forming the sheath, and it
is secured in the lever by a screw-nut, while the point of the coulter, sinking
1 inch deeper than the sheath, gives the seed a more pulverised bed than can be
produced with a coulter that is level below. A wooden roller p, 4 inches dia-
meter, furnished with iron gudgeons and with a ratchet, is supported in a light
iron standard at each end, upon the side-bar of the bed-frame. A light chain q
from each lever is attached to the roller, and a cross r being fixed upon the

282
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
gudgeon at the right-hand side, the roller can thus be turned round by means
of the cross-arms, the chains wound up to any desired extent, and the coulters
lifted from the ground. This operation is found convenient at the turnings, or
at any time when the machine is not sowing, and the roller, chains, and levers
are held in the desired position by the pawl s falling into the rachet-wheel. The
coulters are represented nearly out of the ground, which is indicated by the line
jj, fig. 339, and when let down to the working level, they penetrate to the
depth of 2 or 3 inches. The distance between the wheels, where they rest on
the ground, is equal to 54 inches, as in the common drill-one of the wheels,
therefore, will always fall into the track of the former round, which may serve
as a marker to the conductor of the machine; but, though not shown in the
figure, a marking bar, similar to that of the common drill, is usually fitted to it
as a movable appendage.
970. From the construction of this machine, with its fore-wheel and with
its lever-coulters independently movable, its motions are more steady and its
management more easy than the common drill, fig. 338, while the freedom of
vertical motion in the coulters gives it the advantage of sowing on any kind of
surface, on ridges however round, at equal depths for every coulter, and either
across or along the ridges with equal facility. It requires two horses to work it.
971. The prices of the new lever sowing-machines range from £10 to £18.
972. Garrett's Suffolk Lever Corn-Drill.-We shall now describe the drilling-
machines used in England, of which we select, as an example for illustration,
the "Suffolk Lever Corn-Drill," manufactured by Messrs Garrett of Saxmund-
ham, Suffolk. This presents so many features of construction in common with
the new lever-drill sowing-machine just described in fig. 339, that we shall
have little more to do than describe the arrangements and mode of operation
as exemplified in Plate XV.,-fig. 1 of which is a sectional elevation, and fig. 2
an end elevation, both drawn to a scale of inch to the foot. In fig. 340 we
give a perspective view of the machine.
Fig. 340.
WWILLIAMS
?
GARRETT'S SUFFOLK LEVER CORN-DRILL IN PERSPECTIVE.
973. In this form of drill the delivery of the seed is effected by a disc a a,
GARRETT'S LEVER CORN-DRILL.
283
fig. 1, Plate XV., attached to a barrel or shaft b b, fig. 2, from the face of which
projects a series of arms set in a circle. These arms carry cups, which, as the
discs revolve in the chamber in which the seed is placed, deliver it to the shoots
c c c, fig. 2, and which convey it through the delivery-tins d d to the coulters e e.
The depth to which the coulters e e penetrate the soil is regulated by the weights
ff attached to the end of the coulter-levers g g, these being jointed at their
extremities, as h, by the keys i i, fig. 1, to the mortise-bar, carried by the frame jj.
The coulter-levers g g being thus jointed at their extremities, the coulters e e
attached to them adapt themselves to all the irregularities of the surface. The
distance between the rows is regulated by setting the levers g g on the mortise-
bar, carried by the frame jj. To prevent damp grain, &c., from adhering to
and remaining in the cups, little percussion-hammers are loosely suspended on
a bar above the line of revolving cups. As the cups revolve, the arms to which
they are attached catch the ends of the hammers and carry them a little
beyond the line of their centres. When released from the cup-arms they fall
down and strike with a sharp stroke the arm of the cup next in succession, and
which at this moment is above the delivery-spout. All adhering matter is then
shaken out of the cup.
974. When working on very hard soil, in addition to the pressure exerted by
the weights ff on the levers g g, extra pressure is exerted on them by means of
the levers 7 7. The coulters can be lifted out of work by turning the barrel m
by the lever n n, round which the chains o o, attached to the coulter-levers, are
wound. To keep the corn-box p p, the lids of which are shown open at q q, in
fig. 2, quite level when the machine is going up or down hill, the regulating-
screw rr is brought into requisition. This is worked through the intervention
of the handle s and lever t, and face-wheels u and v, fig. 1.
Change-wheels are used to
Set-screws, 1 1, are used to
975. The driving-wheels are shown at w w, the axle at x x, and y y are the
nave spur-wheels, which engage with the pinions z keyed on the shaft b b of the
cup-barrel. The quantity of seed delivered to the seed-tins d d is regulated
by the relative sizes of the wheels y y and z z.
vary the quantity of seed delivered as required.
adjust the different cog - wheels, and
keep them properly in gear.
wheels, z z, can be taken in and out of
gear by the lever 2, fig. 2. The travel-
ling-wheels w w are kept clean by the
scrapers 3 3.
The
976. In fig. 1, Plate XV., 4 4 shows.
the wrought-iron sill which carries the
box-barrel and other working parts; 5 5
is the frame of the fore-steerage, 6 6
the steerage travelling wheel, 7 the
connecting-arm by which the steerage
is made fast to the frame 4 4 of the drill
to steady it in the draught, 8 the iron
by which the horses are attached, 9
the friction-break used for steadying
the "steerage" in going over rough
land. The lever-handle, to keep the
steerage straight, is shown at 10.
977. In fig. 341 we give a perspective
b
Fig. 341.
d
а о
(1
b
b
b
SUFFOLK LEVER-DRILL FORE-STEERAGE-
SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
C
view of the "fore-steerage." In this view the parts a a correspond to that
284
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
figured 5 5 in fig. 1, Plate XV., b b, b b, to 6 6 6, c c to 7, d. to 8, e to 9, and
ff to 10.
978. In using the fore-steerage, the attendant walks behind the wheels bb,
and by operating on the handles or levers ff, adjusts with ease and precision
the position of the axle carrying the wheels b b b. Two or more horses are
required to work this machine.
979. The price of Garrett's Suffolk lever corn-drill is £32; the price of a
fore-steerage £4, 10s.
980. Turnip-Drills.-Like the other members of the class of implements employed
under the drill-system of cultivation, turnip-drills mark an improved state of the
art, for in the early history of turnip culture we find the broadcast method of
sowing generally adopted, and in some parts of England at the present day, where
farming is otherwise well understood, we yet see the broadcast system of sowing
turnips not only practised, but advocated as the most productive. That great
aggregate weight of turnip may be produced in broadcast in particular soils.
and seasons, may be true, but doubtless a greater certainty of success is to be
obtained from the drill practice; and it appears now, from the latest English
authorities, that the broadcast practice will soon be rooted out by the unflinch-
ing hand of experience.
981. In the early stages of the drill practice of turnip culture, the breadth
of land sown being but small, a single-row hand-drill or barrow seems to
have been generally used, but a simpler implement than even this has been
employed-the hand-flask sower. As the practice extended, machines of two
rows were introduced, drawn by one horse, and this in various forms con-
tinues to be the chief instrument employed in sowing the turnip-seed.
982. The varieties of the turnip-drill are too numerous to be detailed here in
full, nor would it be profitable to follow all the fancies of machine-makers, some
of whom have produced but cumbrous and inconvenient vehicles, which, when
their purpose is considered, are cumbrous not only in their bulk, but in the
multiplicity of their parts, and hence are complicated and tender, liable to
derangement and failure, and are marked by an absence of that simplicity of
construction so desirable in agricultural mechanics. In many of our more modern
turnip-drills, however, there is to be seen a marked simplicity of construction
that accords well with the objects in view, and this holds especially with those
machines which are employed for sowing the seed alone; and in none more so
than the machine now very generally known as the East-Lothian drill, which
we shall have occasion more particularly to notice.
983. The recent introduction of numerous granulated manures has called
forth a new class of machines, whose object is to deposit the manure along with
the seed either in immediate contact, or in close contiguity, and these com-
pound machines have again involved a degree of complexity of construction;
for whenever a machine is required to perform compound functions, a neces-
sarily increased complication of structure is entailed upon it to a greater or
less extent, proportionate, perhaps, to the mechanical talents of the fabricator.
984. An additional cause of complication in the compound drills has arisen.
within the last few years, from a desire to economise the distribution of the
modern expensive manures, by depositing small portions of it at the points
only where the future root is intended to grow, leaving the intervals destitute
of manure. The propriety of thus dealing so niggardly with the soil in with-
holding those substances in abundance by which it is enabled to continue its
fertility, is at least questionable; but the experiment has effected what we are
at present endeavouring to establish-the further complication of structure in
EAST-LOTHIAN TURNIP-DRILL.
285
the machines employed. The drill-sowing machines adapted to this purpose
are designated in Scotland plumpers, from their dropping their gifts on one
point. In England they are better known by the name of dibbling-machines,
or drop-drills.
985. The whole tribe of turnip-drills may be conveniently divided into two
classes, from the manner in which their movements are produced-namely, those
that move on rollers which press the ridge before the seed is deposited, and
those which move on wheels, having rollers generally attached as an appendage
rather than as a mover. The roller-machines embrace most of those which
deposit the seed alone; the wheel-machines chiefly those which deposit manure
along with the seed,-but the one-row hand-machines approach to this class,
from the necessity of their being furnished with wheels to render their move-
ments more light upon the hand. Without entering fully into the numerous
varieties of roller-machines, we shall proceed to give illustrations of only two
of its forms, one with an elevated, the other with a low framework.
986. The East-Lothian Turnip-Drill.—This drill, represented in fig. 342, is one
of the most efficient and simple in construction of its class. It is uncertain
Fig. 342.
a
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а
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9
h
с
b
し
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b
k
m
h
THE EAST-LOTHIAN TURNIP-DRILL.
whether its origin can be traced to East-Lothian-more probably it is of Berwick-
shire; but it must be observed that John Wightman, an industrious mechanic
of Upper Keith, East-Lothian, obtained the award of a premium from the High-
land and Agricultural Society of Scotland in the year 1827 for his invention or
improvement of this machine, and the form adopted by him still continues to
be very generally employed, though in some districts with slight variations;
but from the simplicity of its construction, and the ease with which it is man-
aged and kept in order, it is not likely to undergo any very important change
for the sowing of seed alone. This is an example of a machine with an elevated
framework.
987. In describing this turnip-drill by referring to fig. 342, the bed - frame
286
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL
a a is 4 feet 6 inches long, and 2 feet wide over all, having two transverse and
three longitudinal bars, each 22 inches square. The three pendant or upright bars
bbb are of the same scantling, and are mortised into the longitudinal bars of
the bed-frame; and for additional strength to these pendants, a slot-bar of 21
inches by 1 inch is frequently passed through them immediately above the rollers,
though not exhibited in the figure. Stay-braces c c are attached to the bed-
frame on the bottom of the pendant by bolts; but in many of the inferior sorts
of machines these are omitted, greatly to the deterioration of their strength and
durability. The horse-shafts d d are bolted upon the two transverse bars;
their scantling is usually about 3 by 24 inches at the front bar; they are also
supported by stay-braces e, and furnished with the usual horse-mounting. The
two rollers ƒfƒ, which are both motive and compressing, were in the early forms
of the machine made of wood, but are now made almost always of cast-iron;
they are 16 inches in length, 14 inches diameter at the ends, and from 6 to 8
inches in the middle. These rollers are cast as light as possible, and with
cross arms at each end, through the eyes of which, and through the lower end
of the three pendants b, an iron rod of 1 inch diameter is passed, forming the
axle of the rollers, and upon which the machine rests and moves. From the
varying diameter of these rollers, their surfaces at different points move with
different velocities, producing friction and disturbance on the surface of the
ridges. To obviate this, it has been proposed to cut the rollers transversely
into three sections, thus giving each section freedom to move with its own
individual velocity. Two seed-boxes g g, one of which is here shown with its
cover thrown open, are attached to an iron frame or bow h, through the ends of
which the axle also passes, whereby the whole becomes movable upon the axle.
The seed-boxes g g are 12 inches long and 9 inches wide, outside measure,
and including the cover are 8 inches high to the apex. The bottom of
the boxes is formed of tin-plate funnel-shaped, and terminating in a short
nozzle to enter the sheath of the coulter i, the latter being also firmly attached
to the iron bow h. For the convenience of regulating the depth of the rut made
by the coulter, and for moving it out of or into the ground, iron connecting-rods.
kk are attached to the seed-box frame, and again at top to the levers 77; the
latter, serving as handles to the machine, are jointed at l', and when lifted up
by the sower and rested upon the iron brackets or guards, by which each lever
is embraced, the coulter is raised out of the ground by the ascent of the seed-
box frame; and when again set in work, the sower, by holding down the
handles till they rest upon the hind-bar of the bed-frame, keeps the coulter at
a uniform depth in the soil; the rod k being inflexible when once set, but being
furnished at top with a plate palm having several perforations, it can be adjusted
to any depth of rut that may be judged requisite; hence, in this form of the
machine, the connecting-rod k is the regulator of depth. The seed-box g is only
the cover or shield, for the true seed-box, which is usually made of tin-plate,
is in form of a small barrel, and is hence called the seed-barrel. The length of
the seed-barrel is 6 inches, and its diameter 6 inches; its ends being of hard-
wood, and 4 inches diameter, a small axle is passed through the barrel, having
bearings on the two ends of the outer box, and upon the outward extremity of
each axle there is placed the pulleys m m, having an acute groove formed in
their edges. A pulley corresponding to each of these is fixed upon the outer
ends of the rollers ff, and being concentric to the rollers, the main axle passes
also through them. A band of strong jack-chain m is now passed round each
pair of pulleys, whereby the locomotion of the rollers gives a revolving motion also
to the seed-barrels, and the consequence is the distribution of the seed through
EAST-LOTHIAN TURNIP-DRILL.
287
the small orifices in the middle zone of the seed-barrel. An important function of
this machine has yet to be noticed-its self-adjustment to the width of the ridges.
This is accomplished by the width between the pendants b b being greater by
4 or 5 inches than the length of the rollers, together with their attached pulleys
and iron bows h, which admits of a ready lateral motion of the roller, with its
accompaniments of bow, coulter, and seed-box, so soon as the machine is put in
progressive motion, and the curved rollers feel any unequal resistance right or
left. Any such unequal resistance, on either end of the rollers, draws it imme-
diately to that side where the resistance is felt, until it is fairly adjusted to the
slope of the ridge or drill; the effect in this case being produced entirely by the
action of the sloping sides of the drill against the conoidal sides of the rollers.
988. Fig. 343 is a longitudinal section of this turnip-drill, for the purpose of
showing more in detail the exact relation of the parts referred to in fig. 342, the
d
"
で
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12
6
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Fig. 343.
ก
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1
เ
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k
2
THE LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE EAST-LOTHIAN TURNIP-DRILL.
feet
corresponding parts being marked by the same letters as before. Thus a a
marks one of the longitudinal bars of the bed-frame, and a' a' the two transverse
bars cut by the section; the pendant bar b is shown as it is connected to a a, and
bas also the slot-bar passing through it, and cut likewise by the section. The
position of the stay-brace is represented by c, with its fixture bolts at top and
bottom to the side-bar and pendant, while d is one of the horse-shafts broken off.
The end of the roller ƒ is seen in its position beyond the pendant bar, and g gives
also an end view of the seed-box, which is fixed between two light bent iron
standards h'; these are forged in pairs, and are first bolted to the coulter-frame
or bow h, the seed-box being afterwards affixed between the standards. The
coulter and its shield i is fixed upon the back of the bow h; its length is about
8 inches, the cheeks of the sheath being 5 inches by 3 inches, and standing about
1½ inch wide at the tail. The hopper i', of tin-plate, is fixed in the seed-box
as a bottom, the funnel terminating in the spout that conveys the seed between
the cheeks of the sheath, and thence into the rut prepared by the coulter in the
soil. The connecting-rod k is jointed to one of the seed-box standards at bottom,
and at top to the lever l'l, as before described; l' shows the joint of the lever,
and n is the bracket in which the lever is embraced, and on which it is supported
when the coulters are raised out of the ground. The chain m m which commu-
288
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
nicates motion from the roller to the seed-barrel, by passing over their respective
pulleys, shown in the figure by the dotted circles, is kept always at uniform
tension, whatever be the position of the seed-box, by reason of the bow h and
its apparatus moving round the main axle of the rollers, when acted upon by
the lever l'l. The machine, as here represented, is to be supposed in the act of
sowing, the lever 7 being close down upon the transverse bar; the line x x
therefore represents the line to which the point of the coulter penetrates the
soil, which, from the curvature of the roller, will be 3 inches below the surface,
the sheath i reaching only a depth of 2 inches.
α
989. Fig. 344 is a perspective view of the seed-barrel, detached from its seat;
Fig. 344.
b
b
THE SEED-BARREL OF THE EAST-LOTHIAN
TURNIP-DRILL.
16
a a is the axle or spindle in which it revolves,
and on the longer end of which the pulley is
placed. The barrel is formed of tin-plate in
two conical frustræ, joined base to base, with
a cylindrical band 6 of 1 inch broad interposed
between the two, and the truncated ends are
closed with discs of hardwood. The band b
is usually divided into six equal parts, and
at each point of division three small apertures
are punched out, each three varying in size
from to inch diameter, but all in the same
order from more to less. A separate band is
then fitted to the first, closed with a clasp-joint, and capable of being slid round
to a small extent upon the interior band, and is, besides, provided with a pinching-
screw, by which it can be fixed at any point within its range of motion, which
does not necessarily exceed one inch. The movable band is likewise divided
into six equal parts, and at each division a perforation is made larger than any
of those in the interior. By these arrangements the movable band can be placed so
as to expose any of the three sets of the six perforations of the inner band, whereby
a greater or lesser quantity of seed can be sown, according to circumstances.
In the figure, the perforations are seen on the outer band; the clasp-joint also is
seen near the upper side b of the figure; and the pinching-screw and slit by which
it can be fixed or moved, are seen in the middle of the figure. The slider d covers
a hole of 2 inch diameter, by which the barrel can be filled or emptied of seed.
990. In some cases this machine is furnished with a pair of small covering
rollers, of 18 inches in length, and 4 inches in diameter, made of any hard wood.
When these are adopted, which is but seldom, the rollers are mounted in light
iron frames or sheers, which are hooked on to a bolt in the coulter-frame, and
are thus dragged behind the machine. These appendages are not, however,
considered as forming an essential part of this drill. One horse is quite suffi-
cient to work this machine.
3
991. The figures given here are from the machines as manufactured by
A. & G. H. Slight, Edinburgh, who have also been successful in applying to
it an apparatus by which some of the richer granulated manures, such as guano,
can be applied along with the seed.
992. The price of the East-Lothian turnip-drill in the ordinary state for
sowing seed alone, ranges from £5 to £6, 10s.
993. Several varieties of this drill are to be met with, in which the chief
difference lies in the mode of communicating motion to the seed-barrel. In
some of these bevelled-gear is employed, in others spur-gear, and in some,
examples of both means are applied for throwing the seed-barrel out of motion
when it is desirable that the sowing should cease, such as at the turning at the
GEDDES'S TURNIP-SOWING DRILL.
289
land-ends, and the like. The want of this in the machines above described may
appear as a defect, and, viewing the article as a piece of machinery, it no doubt
is a defect; but the advantage to be gained from the adoption of that which may
be considered to constitute the more perfect machine is so trifling a saving of
seed-perhaps to the amount of from 1 to 1 per cent of the whole-that few
farmers seem to consider the saving to be an object of such importance as to
compensate for the additional expense and complication induced by the adoption
of the disengaging principle. But among these varieties there appeared, some
years ago, at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show at Dumfries, a drill
of this class, which, to the adoption of spur-wheel gearing, added a mode of dis-
tributing the seed which gave it a claim to notice, and for which a premium
was awarded to Mr Geddes, Cargen Bridge, the originator of this improvement.
994. Geddes's Turnip-Sowing Drill.-This drill is represented in perspective in
fig. 345, and a glance will satisfy the reader that the general principle of its
Fig. 345.
h
C
n
N
2
d
GEDDES'S TURNIP-SOWING DRILL.
construction is the same as that just described—the East-Lothian turnip-sowing
machine; but with a depression of the parts forming the framework of the
machine, which gives to it an appearance of compactness and strength. A solid
plank a a takes the place of the bed-frame of the East-Lothian turnip-sowing
machine, and a pendant b at each end is secured to the plank by means of tenon and
bolts; the pendant being no longer than just sufficient to admit the free motion
of the rollers under the bed-plank. The horse-shafts c are bolted upon the back of
the plank, and the handles or levers d d jointed to it, and embraced by the open
guards n n, as in fig. 342. The rollers e e are in like manner mounted upon
a rod passing through them and the pendant, from side to side, and likewise
through a V-form brace of iron appended to the middle of the bed-plank, support-
ing thus the middle of the rod, which forms the common axle of the machine.
The coulter-frames ƒ ƒ are applied also on the same principle, but differently con-
structed; for instead of being a continuous bow, as in fig. 342, they here
consist of single bars appended on the axle, and connected transversely by a
bed-plank of hard wood, which forms the sole or bottom of the seed-boxes g g.
The coulter is also attached to this plank, and a perforation formed for the dis-
charge of the seed, which is conducted into the sheath of the coulter by a tube
T
290
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
as usual. The arms ƒ ƒ of the coulter-frame are prolonged and turned down-
ward to form the bearings of the small covering-rollers i i, which, in this case,
become permanent members of the machine; and as they must necessarily
be used when the land is in different states of dryness, they are each
furnished with a permanent scraper, to prevent the accumulation of soil upon
them, when it is in a damp state. The motion of the main rollers e e is commu-
nicated to the seed-distributor by means of spur-gearing in a series of small-
toothed wheels, the first of which is attached to the end of its corresponding
roller, and the last fixed upon the axle of the distributor; and these, together
with the intermediate wheels, are enclosed in a case, one of which is partly seen
at h with the cover of the case removed. These cases, with their wheels, are
attached to and movable with the coulter-frames and all their appendages, and
the coulter-frames being supported behind upon the covering-rollers i i, these last
become the regulators of the depth to which the coulters are to penetrate; and
for the purposes of this regulation, the covering-rollers are capable of being
shifted up or down in their bearings in the end of the bent arms of ƒƒ, to suit any
required depth. As the consequence of this also, the connection between the
coulter-frames and the levers d d is formed with a chain in place of an inflexible
rod, the levers being required only for lifting the coulters from the ground;
while the weight of the frames, with their load of coulters, seed-boxes, wheels, and
covering-rollers, possesses sufficient power to keep the coulters in the ground,
and the covering-rollers prevent their going beyond the prearranged depth.
995. The distributing apparatus in this machine has been considered to con-
tain its principal merit, and has been supposed to afford a more correct means
of graduating the quantity to be sown than the common seed-barrel. This
apparatus is very simple; the interior of the seed-box is formed into a semi-
cylinder of 7 inches diameter and 5 inches in length, which may be of wood or
d
a
Fig. 346.
C
Π
1
10
of tin-plate. Fig. 346 is a transverse sec-
tion of this, d d being the interior surface of
the box, in the bottom of which an opening.
is made to receive a brass roller b, 1½ inch
diameter, having a groove of -inch wide run-
ning round it, as in the figure. The roller is
mounted on an axle a, which is prolonged to
sufficient distance beyond the box for receiving
the last wheel h, fig. 345, of the series already
described, the connection with which gives
motion to the roller b. A slider c is attached to the interior of the box, and
capable of nice adjustment by a screw or otherwise. The lower end of the
slider C₁ which comes in contact with the roller b, is formed with a tongue that
enters into the groove, and the adjustment of the opening between the point
of the tongue and the bottom of the groove determines the quantity of seed to
be delivered.
b
THE VERTICAL SEOTION OF THE SEED-DISTRIBUTOR
OF GEDDES'S TURNIP-SOWING DRILL.
996. The dimensions given of the East-Lothian turnip-sowing machine, fig. 342,
will apply generally to this, taking 10 to 12 inches for the breadth of the bed-
plank, while its length is the same as the frame of the East-Lothian. One horse
works this machine. It is an example of a machine with depressed framework.
997. The price of Geddes's turnip-drill will, in consequence of the greater
expense of the wheel-gearing as compared with that of chains, be somewhat
higher than the East-Lothian turnip-drill; but the peculiar points here detailed
merit the attention of machine-makers.
998. Two-Row Turnip-Drill on Wheels.--As long since as 1815, a two-row
turnip-seed sowing-machine, mounted upon wheels such as those of the New
THE ONE-ROW TURNIP-SEED-SOWING BARROW.
17
291
Lever-Drill, fig. 2, Plate XIV., was in common use in the Border counties of
England and Scotland. Why it was given up we cannot tell. Its construction
was such, that the handles, the covers of the seed-barrels, and the coulters,
were either movable or fixed upon the axle of the seed-barrels as desired.
This construction, and the mounting upon wheels, made it a machine admirably
adapted for the sowing of turnip-seed upon land in foul condition, in which
condition, of course, land should not be, but which it may be in certain seasons.
But what is more to the purpose, this construction, with movable handles and
coulters and wheels, was best adapted for sowing turnip-seed upon new-taken-
in or waste land, which always contains much unbroken turf and other obstacles
unsuited to the proper action of fixed coulters and conoidal rollers. This
machine formed the foundation of the turnip and bone-dust drill, fig. 1, Plate XVI.
999. Though the cultivation of the turnip can only be carried on to its most
productive extent on the large scale, there are yet many who cultivate it suc-
cessfully on a small one. We therefore give an illustration of a one-row turnip-
barrow, suited to farms of small size.
1000. The One-Row Turnip-Seed-Sowing Barrow.-This barrow is represented
in perspective by fig. 347: it consists of a frame of timber, formed of the two
handles a a, connected by a broad transverse bar which carries the seed-box ƒ.
Fig. 347.
α
b
C
THE TURNIP-SEED-SOWING BARROW.
The stilts are 5 feet in length, 24 inches in depth, and 14 inch in breadth;
the width of the frame at the handles a is 2 feet, and at the farther point,
a e, 14 inches; besides the broad bar, a round stretcher e to a is introduced
near the farther point of the stilts, chiefly intended for the attachment of a drag-
rope; an iron axle is placed below the frame, running in bushes or small
pillow-blocks, and the two wheels b b are fitted to it, one of them fixed, the other
running free. These wheels are 2 feet diameter, with cast-iron naves, and of very
light construction. Two iron legs c c are bolted to the stilts, with stretcher and
braces to render them steady. A toothed spur-wheel d, of 7 inches diameter, is
fixed upon the axle, and this acts upon another e of equal size fitted upon the
spindle of the seed-barrel, which last is of the same construction as fig. 344. The
seed-barrel is mounted in the case f, and, for the purpose of disengaging the
wheel e to set the seed-barrel at rest, the slide-bar g is applied, which having
its upper edge worked into an inclined plane, the drawing out of the slide-bar
g raises the spindle and wheel e, and disengages it from the driving-wheel. The
bottom of the seed-box is formed into a funnel, terminating in a director-pipe,
as seen near d, which descends into the sheath of the coulter h. The coulter
292
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
is simply a bar of hard wood, 2 inches by 1½ inch, set in a mortise in the trans-
verse bar of the frame, and fixed at the proper position by means of a wedge,
and shod at the bottom with a strong sheet-iron sheath.
1001. Two men are required to work this machine, small as it is, one to
support the handles, and the other to pull by the drag-rope attached to the
round stretcher in front; or a small pony or an ass may be yoked to the stretcher.
1002. Passing over the many and varied forms of the two-row turnip-drill that
are in extensive use, and many of which are very effective, but much too numer-
ous to be detailed here, we proceed to the description of one of those com-
pound machines already alluded to in par. 985, as forming the second class of
drills, and which are employed for depositing manure along with the seed in
continuous lines.
1003. The Turnip-Seed and Bone-Dust Sowing-Drill.-The machines of this
class have not yet received that general sanction from agriculturists which the
first class has long maintained; and this probably arises from the consideration
that turnip will and must be sown more or less in all localities, but the kinds
of manure to be resorted to will vary considerably, according to the circumstances
of those different localities. The simple seed-sowing machine will be employed
in all places, but the manure-sower will be resorted to principally in those
localities where the granulated manures are more extensively employed; hence
the demand for the machines of the complicated class will always be greatly
under that of the simple class. The difficulty, also, of producing an efficient
compound machine is great, and the expense considerably higher than of those
of simple construction, and these circumstances combine to check the extension
of those of complicated construction. The machine now to be described is the
result of some experience and numerous experiments, in which a variety of
arrangements have been experimented upon, and the result has produced a
machine that yields satisfaction, and possesses all the requisites of the opera-
tion of depositing seed and manure together continuously and in any required
quantity.
1004. Plate XVI., fig. 1, exhibits a view in perspective of this turnip and bone-
dust drill, but which, from its combination, can only be described in a general way
from this figure. The main or bed-frame a a is constructed in a similar man-
ner to those of the corn-drills, Plate XIV. This frame is 3 feet 9 inches wide
over all, and measures 4 feet 2 inches longitudinally over the front and back
rails; the axle of the carriage, which passes across and under the frame, is
supported in pillow-blocks bolted to the side-bars. The wheels bb are 3 feet
6 inches diameter; one of them is fixed dead upon the axle, carrying the latter
round with it, and thus forming the mover of the acting parts; the other
wheel being left at liberty to revolve on the axle, for the convenience of turn-
ing the machine round. The horse-shafts c c are bolted to the two foremost
transverse bars, and are made of bent timber, to bring them to the proper height
of the horse. The seed-barrels, of the form already described, fig. 344, are
enclosed in the boxes d d, through which axles pass to and are supported on
longitudinal bearers, each axle carrying a pulley, one of which is seen at d.
The two manure-hoppers e e are 2 feet 2 inches square at the top, 1 foot 8 inches
deep, and 8 inches square at bottom. They are constructed with a cast-iron
bottom, having an opening of 1½ inch wide, and the length equal to the breadth
of the entire bottom, adapted for the reception of the manure-distributing wheel.
Flanges e' e' rise from the bottom, by which it and the boarded sides of the
hoppers are connected, and four ears project laterally also from the bottom, by
which it is bolted to the bed-frame. The latest improvement in this machine
THE TURNIP-SEED AND BONE-DUST SOWING-DRILL.
293
has been the addition of a pair of pressing-rollers ƒƒ, of the same form and
dimensions as those of the common drill, fig. 342. Each roller is also furnished
with a coulter-frame g g, which carries the coulters h h, the coulter being the only
appendage attached in this case to the frame or bow. The rollers and bows are
threaded upon a rod as usual, the ends of which are supported in the malleable-
iron brackets i, one being attached to each side of the bed-frame, with adapta-
tion for being raised or lowered at pleasure. The pressing-rollers have also the
usual extent of lateral play, whereby they possess the property of adjusting
themselves to the ridges, of carrying the coulter-frame and coulter along with
them, and of securing the object of the seed being always sown directly in the
middle of the drills. Two lever-handles, k k, are jointed to the front bar of
the bed-frame, though not seen in the figure; and to these are attached the
connecting-rods f' f', whose lower ends are jointed to the coulter-frame, thus
bringing the operation of the coulters under the control of the person who takes
charge of the levers kk. The connecting-rods f'f' are capable of adjustment, by
means of a series of holes in their upper ends; and when sowing, the adjustment
is such that, when the coulter is at the proper depth, the lever-handles k k rest
upon the hind-bar of the bed-frame, and, when thrown out of working, the coulters
are raised by lifting up the levers, till they rest upon the bridge n. An iron
lever is also jointed upon the front bar; its handle, extending backwards to k',
serves to disengage the action of the manure-distributors from the motion of
the main axle; and as the motion of the seed-barrels is taken from that of the
manure-distributors, all the secondary motion ceases on the movement of the
lever k', and is again brought into action by moving it in the opposite direc-
tion. The motion of the manure-distributor is conveyed by small spur-wheels,
which are not seen in the figure, and the seed-barrels are driven by separate
chains from the shaft of the manure-distributor.
1005. Such is a general outline of this drill; but in order to make the illus-
tration complete, we have here added a geometrical plan and elevation drawn
Fig. 348.
X
а
ď
Ic
i
12
6
0
రా
r
P
g
h
1
n
(1,
m
2
3
feet
ん
​X
THE LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE TURNIP AND BONE-DUST SOWING-DRILL.
to the annexed scale, which thus exhibits the true relation of the parts. Fig.
348 is the elevation, in which a a is one of the side-bars of the bed-frame, and
294
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
a'a'a' the three transverse bars; the side-bars 41 by 24 inches, the trans-
verse bars 4 by 21 inches. The carriage-wheels b have the axle supported on
pillow-blocks bolted to the lower edge of the side-bar a, and the horse-shafts,
seen broken off at c, are bolted upon the upper edge of the two foremost trans-
verse bars. The position of the seed-box is shown at d, and e marks the
position of the manure-hoppers, lower e marking also the junction of the hop-
per with the cast-iron bottom, and the form of the same. While the carriage-
wheel rests on the line x x representing the bottom of the drill, the relative
position of the pressing-roller is shown at ƒ with its coulter-frame g and coulter
h, g' being the connecting-rod between the coulter-frame and the lever-handle,
and p a funnel inserted within the sheath of the coulter to retain the manure
and seed directors. The pressing-roller axle is supported in the malleable-iron
pendant and stay ii, which is bolted on at each side of the bed-frame. The
Ïever-handles k k are jointed at the fore end in iron sheaves placed under the front
transverse bar as at a' k, the handle being at liberty to rise and fall as required.
A kneed tube l, the director of the manure after it passes the distributor, is
secured by flanges that lie under the ears of the hopper bottom; it is jointed
at I so as to have a lateral swinging motion to adapt it to the movements of the
roller ƒ with its appendage, and it terminates with the funnel p. The seed-
director m is formed in a similar manner, and terminates with the kneed tube in
the funnel p. It follows from this arrangement, that the seed and manure are
deposited in a mixed state, and at the same instant. A seed-barrel of the form
of fig. 344 is placed within the box d, n being the spindle on which it revolves;
and o l is one of the manure-distributors, being simply an indented wheel of 6
inches diameter, 1 inch thick, and having ten indentations or teeth; they are
mounted on an axle which passes quite across the bed-frame. This wheel is so
placed in relation to the opening in the hopper, as to be quite close to the fore
end of the opening, while an aperture is left at the opposite side sufficiently
large to pass the largest allowance of manure that is to be given out; and in
order to graduate this quantity, a sliding sluice e' e is attached to that side of
the hopper, and is adjusted by means of the screw at top. By these means the
area of the discharging orifice can be regulated to any desired quantity per
The motions for the discharge of the seed and manure are produced from
the wheel r, which is placed on the main axle, and gives motion to a similar
wheel not seen in the figure, placed upon the manure axle.
acre.
1006. In the plan, fig. 349, which exhibits the bed-frame and what is imme-
diately attached to it above, but leaving out the upper works, as well as those
below, the parts not seen, or imperfectly seen in the former figures, are here
further brought into view. The longitudinal and transverse bars of the bed-
frame are again marked a a a a, but here four secondary bars, a' a' a' a', are
exhibited; these are introduced to form the bearings of the seed-boxes and
manure-hoppers with their shafts. The bars a' a' a' a', are mortised into and
lipped over the two transverse bars a a, their upper surfaces being all upon a level
with those of the main side-bars. The carriage-wheels are again marked b b,
main axle b' b', and the horse-shafts c c, broken off as before. The seed-barrels,
with their separate spindles and pulleys, are seen in their position at dd, the
boxes being removed. The seed-barrel pulleys are driven by means of the
chains which pass round the pulleys ff, mounted on the auxiliary shaft f',
which carries also the manure-wheels e e, and the clutch-wheel h. This last
wheel, which carries round the auxiliary shaft f', runs loose upon the shaft, but
can at pleasure be put in connection with the clutch-fork i, which slides upon a
square on the shaft, and moves at all times with it. The loose wheel h is also
the
THE TURNIP-SEED AND BONE-DUST SOWING-DRILL.
295
constantly in gear with the driving-wheel g, which is fixed upon the main axle
b'b', and at all times, when the machine moves, keeps the wheel h in motion,
Fig. 349.
a
f
回
​a
e
b!
a
d
m
α
α
h
f'
дц
e
m l
b:
a
f
d
a
k
THE PLAN OF THE TURNIP AND BONE-DUST SOWING-DRILL.
while the sowing-gear is at rest. The lever k is jointed to the front bar α, and
has hold of the clutch-fork; this, in the figure, is shown disengaged; but
when the whole machinery is required to move, the lever is shifted to the right,
which brings the fork of the clutch i into contact with the loose wheel h, and
immediately carries round the clutch, and with it the shaft f' and all its depen-
dencies. The lever-handles 77 are jointed below the front bar a, and extend
backward to a convenient distance; their chief duty is to lift the coulter, and
keep it at a uniform depth in the ground, both of which are accomplished
through the medium of the connecting-rods g', fig. 348, which are hooked to the
levers on the studs m m, fig. 349.
Fig. 350.
с
d
1007. Fig. 350 is a horizontal section of the pressing-roller, with the coulter
and its frame; a is a portion of
the roller-axle, b the roller in sec-
tion, its contour being arcs of a
circle. This form, though very
generally adopted, is inferior in
point of usefulness (especially in
giving shelter to the young plants)
to that form of roller which has
its central part nearly cylindrical,
and its terminations two opposite
conical frustums, giving to the top
of the ridge a surface nearly level
to the breadth of 8 inches. The
bow or frame c c is made of malle-
able iron, 2 inches in depth, and
inch in thickness; d is the
a
C
THE PRESSING ROLLER AND COULTER-FRAME OF THE TURNIP
AND BONE-DUST SOWING-DRILL.
sheath of the coulter, which for this machine requires to be made wider than

296
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
usual to receive the manure-director; the dotted lines at e show the width and
form of the cheeks of the sheath at bottom. In this case, also, the opening
behind in the sheath is closed up by the oval-shaped funnel p, fig. 348, the body
only of which is here shown, the spreading funnel being cut off in the figure,
but distinctly seen in fig. 1, Plate XVI., above h h. Fig. 350 shows the bow
cc as applicable to the seed and bone-dust machine, but the only difference
between this bow and that of fig. 342 is, that in it the bow of fig. 342 is made
so much wider as to admit the chain m pulling between the end of the roller
and the cheek of the bow h.
1008. The machine thus described may be considered as one of the best of
its kind, and though apparently complicated, it is yet as free of that fault as it
is perhaps possible to attain, while the essential objects are kept under command.
The graduation of the discharge of manure is attainable by it to any desired
limit, and the discharge is also regular and uniform. The means of engaging
and disengaging both the seed and manure gearing is perfectly efficient and
simple. One horse is quite sufficient to work this useful machine.
1009. From the materials and labour necessarily expended in the construction
of a machine of the kind of the turnip and bone-dust sowing-machine, the price
is higher than that of the common two-row drill, fig. 342, being £11, 10s.
1010. Garrett's Seed-and-Manure-Sowing Drill.-We shall now describe
Messrs Garrett's seed and manure drill, for drilling every description of seed
with or without manure. In fig. 351 we give a perspective view of this machine,
Fig. 351.
WWILLIAMS
GARRETT'S SEED AND MANURE SCWING-DRILL IN PERSPECTIVE.
and in Plate XVII. two views, of which fig. 1 is a sectional elevation, and
fig. 2 an end elevation, both being drawn to a scale of 3-inch to the foot.
1011. The seed is put into the box a a a, fig. 2, Plate XVII., from which it
passes through slides, in regulated quantities, into the chamber in which the
cup-barrel b b b revolves. It is then taken up by the cups c c and delivered to
the delivery-tins d d, and from thence passed to the seed-coulters ee; the depth
to which these enter the soil being regulated according to the pressure on the
levers f, fig. 1, by the weights g.
1012. The manure is put into the manure compartment, the quantity passing
therefrom being regulated by a movable slide worked by the handles hh, fig. 2,
THE BEAN-SOWING BARROW.
297
attached to the wrought-iron shaft or spindle i i, this shaft being connected
with the joints jj. The manure is passed into the manure-delivery tins k k,
fig. 1, and from thence to the manure-coulters 7. These coulters are regu-
lated in the depth to which they penetrate the soil by the cross m m; fixed
on the shaft of the barrel n, round which the chains o o are passed, their lower
extremities being attached to levers p p, supporting the weights q. Rakes
attached to the manure-coulters p p, fill up the channels left by them, so that
the seed-coulters e work in fresh-stirred soil directly above the manure.
rrr
1013. The manure and seed-box is raised and lowered, so as to be kept
level on hilly ground, by the handle s, fig. 1, working the lever t, and by the
face-wheels-one of which is shown at u-the screw spindle v. To the travel-
ling-wheels w w-a number of the spokes, and part of the felly of the nigh
one, are broken off to show the wheel-work at 1 z y—the nave-wheel x is
attached; this engages with the wheel y, which again engages with the inter-
mediate wheel z. This is fixed on the shaft of the manure-barrel, and engages
with the wheel 1 fixed on the driving-shaft of the seed-barrel. The manure-
stirrers are worked by the cog-wheels 2 2, fig. 2; 3 3 are the wheel-scrapers.
The partitions for keeping the seed in regulated quantities in the different
compartments of the box are denoted by the figures 4 4 4. The wheel y is thrown
in and out of gear by the lever 5, fig. 1. The wrought-iron sill is shown at
bb, fig. 1, on which the box and other working parts are supported.
1014. The Bean-Sowing Drill or Bean-Barrow. This is one of the simplest
in its construction of that class of machines which are employed for depositing
the various kinds of seeds in the soil in the drill system. The bean-drill
is made in a form resembling a wheelbarrow, and hence its name. Fig.
352 is a view in perspective of the machine in its most common form;
Fig. 352.
C
m
ん
​a
BRUCE SC
и
4
THE BEAN-SOWING BARROW.
a a b c are a pair of stilts worked to a particular curve, that, when joined
to form the bed-frame of the barrow, has the portion from 6 to c parallel,
and about 6 inches wide over all; while the parts from 6 to a spread out to a
width of 2 feet, forming the handles of the barrow. The body parts b c are 21
inches in depth and 12 inch in thickness, and are bolted together upon two
blocks of 24 inches in thickness, leaving the portion from c to d open for the
reception of the wheel e, and a small space is likewise left open in the body for
the reception of the seed-cylinder, which is about 3 inches diameter and 21
inches in length. A small axle passes through the bed-frame and the cylinder,
and this axle carries a small chain-wheel f. The principal wheel e, which is of
very light construction and 18 inches diameter, carries also a chain-wheel g upon
4
298
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
its axle, of the same diameter as ƒ, and the pitch-chain ƒ g is stretched over the
two wheels, by which means the progressive motion of the machine on the
wheel e gives motion to the seed-cylinder on the axle off. A seed-chest b d h i
is raised upon the bed-frame; it is 12 inches long at bottom, and 24 inches at
top, and the depth 12 inches—the width over all at bottom being 6 inches, and
at top 10 inches. The chest is sometimes covered with a jointed lid, but this
is not essential. A spout k, formed of sheet-iron, is attached below to the bed-
frame, for the purpose of directing the seed to the furrow in which the machine
is moving, and the legs 7 l are attached to the handles to prevent the latter from
falling to the ground when the barrow is stopped. The pinching-screw m is applied
to the purpose of adjusting a slider placed within the chest, for the more correct
graduation of the discharge; and the slider is for this purpose armed with a tuft
or brush of bristles that comes in contact with the seed-cylinder. The entire
fabric is generally of very slender and light construction.
1015. Fig. 353 is a longitudinal section of the barrow, on a scale of 1 inch to
9 CF
g
d
h
Fig. 353.
e
d
C
a
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE HOPPER OF THE BEAN-SOWING BARROW.
the foot. a a is the bed-frame,
broken off at both ends; bis the
seed-cylinder, occasionally made
of brass, but generally of hard
wood, which is grooved longi-
tudinally, to receive and carry
down the regular discharge of
seed. The front and back c c of
the chest are passed down be-
tween the stiles of the bed-frame
at dd, which secures the chest
to the frame; and e is the lid
or cover of the chest. The slider
f is mounted with the brush at b, its lower end, which, by being made to ap-
proach to or recede from the cylinder, diminishes or increases the quantity of
discharge; and it is held in any required position by the pinching-screw g,
which has freedom to move with the slider in the slit i. The spout h is here
shown also as broken off.
1016. Besides the method here exhibited, of driving the seed-cylinder by means
of a pitch-chain (1014), there are other modes of effecting the same purpose.
One of these is by attaching short cranks to each end of the axles of the prin-
cipal wheel and the seed-cylinder, the pair on each axle standing at right angles
to each other; and a light connecting-rod passes from the one to the other on
each side of the machine. This forms a very perfect communication of the
motion from the principal to the minor axle, and is very certain in its operation,
but it is more expensive than the pitch-chain.
1017. The same is also effected by employing two pairs of small mitre-
wheels; but it is equally expensive as the cranks and connecting-rods.
1018. Common chain may also be adopted, along with acutely - grooved
pulleys; but the action of this is less certain than either the cranks or mitre-
wheels.
1019. In using the bean-barrow, a man wheels it before him along the
bottom of the drills, or that of the common furrow after the plough.
1020. The Plough Bean-sowing Drill.-An apparatus for sowing beans in rows
on the surface is sometimes employed, attached to one of the ploughs when
giving the seed-furrow. It consists of a seed-cylinder, placed in a small case
or frame, having an axle passing through the case, which last is surmounted
by a small hopper to contain the seed. This apparatus is attached to the
THE THREE-ROW BEAN-SOWING DRILL.
299
plough immediately behind and within the line of the mould-board, having a
conductor, or spout, from the seed-cylinder to the bottom of the furrow, to con-
duct the seed to its bed. The motion of the seed-cylinder for the delivery of
the seed, is produced in two different ways. First, the axle of the cylinder
may be extended from the case to the land-side handle of the plough, or tail of
the beam, where it will have a bearing in which it turns round. Upon this
extension of the axle, a light iron loop or sheers is loosely fitted, about 2 feet
in length, and in the sheers is placed an iron wheel of 18 inches diameter,
whose axle is borne at both ends by the sheers. A grooved pulley is fixed
upon the end of this axle, and a corresponding pulley upon the prolongation
of the axle of the seed-cylinder, while a chain or band encircles the two
pulleys. The iron wheel, which is so placed as to run in the bottom of the
furrow, will thus, when the plough is in motion, be made to revolve by its
contact with the ground, and, through the pulleys and chain, will also cause the
seed cylinder to revolve and discharge the seed as the plough advances;
and this will continue as long as the iron wheel remains in contact with the
ground. In order to produce a cessation of the sowing process when required,
a cord is attached to the hind extremity of the sheers, and is passed backward
between the handles of the plough till it comes within reach of the ploughman,
who, by pulling the cord, and hooking it upon a stud provided for that pur-
pose, raises the iron wheel from the ground, and thus stops further motion
of the seed-cylinder, and consequently the sowing process. When the plough
has again reached the third furrow from the last sown, the ploughman relaxes
the cord, when the wheel again settles down upon the ground, and the sowing
process proceeds as before.
-
1021. The other method of giving motion to the seed-cylinder is accomplished
by giving the extension of its axle a universal joint, and continuing the exten-
sion a few inches to landward of the land-side of the plough, but without a bearing
upon it. Upon this extremity of the extended axle the iron wheel is placed,
which in this case will be required of larger diameter, so that the axle may run
clear of the tail of the plough-beam. By this arrangement the wheel will run
upon the unbroken land. It will also require a stay of rope, or of light iron-rod
extending from a collar upon the axle, forward to an eye-bolt attached to the
side of the beam, near the coulter-box. From the collar on the axle also a cord
extends backward to the hand of the ploughman, whereby he has the same com-
mand over the wheel in this position for setting on and off the sowing process,
as before described in par. 1020—the universal joint in the shaft serving, in the
present case, the same purpose as the sheers in the other.
1022. This machine is not suited to sow beans in raised-up drills.
1023. Kemp, Murray, and Nicholson's Three-Row Bean-sowing Drill.-This
implement is for sowing three rows of beans at one time in the hollows of the
drills, which are afterwards covered by splitting the drills with the plough in
the usual way.
It can sow from 12 to 14 acres imperial in ten hours, according
to the number of turnings at the land's ends.
1024. Fig. 354 is a perspective view of the machine; fig. 355 a back view,
showing the apparatus for regulating the delivery of the seed; and fig. 356 a
cross section. The same letters refer to all the figures. The body consists of
a hardwood framework, formed by two T-shaped ends, connected at top by two
rails a a, and at bottom by a sole-plank b, to which the uprights are attached
by iron straps, with screws and nuts underneath. Between the upright end-
pieces and the sole-plank two short bars c are introduced, and project about 12
inches behind the sole-plank to support the rail d, into which they are mortised,
and which completes the skeleton of the machine.
300
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
1025. On the inside of the end parts of the frame triangular boards are fixed
to form the ends of the seed-chests, and to these as well as to the upper rails are
Fig. 354.
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KEMP, MURRAY, AND NICHOLSON'S THREE-ROW BEAN-SOWING DRILL IN PERSPECTIVE.
fixed the back and front boards. The cover of the seed-chest is fixed in checks
formed on the two rails a a, a portion being hinged to form a door e, for access
to the interior. The axle which carries the supporting-wheels m m, and also the
Fig. 355,
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TRANSVERSE AND LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE THREE-ROW BEAN-SOWING DRILL.
seed-wheels, runs in bushes sunk into the bottom of the upright end-bars, and
passes through from end to end of the seed-chest, its centre being about 3 inches
above the sole-plank, which forms the bottom of the chest. There are three
delivery-wheels n of cast-iron on the axle, each 4½ inches diameter, and 1½ inch
thick, with ten semicircular notches formed in the rim, one wheel being in the
centre of the axle, and the others at a distance of 1 foot 7 inches on each side.
Between these delivery-wheels two divisions rare placed, about half the depth of
the seed-chest, to divide the lower part into three separate portions, and thereby
prevent the seed collecting at one end. One of the supporting-wheels is fixed
in the axle to carry it round and work the seed-wheels, the other running loose
to allow the machine to turn readily. The seed is delivered through holes in
the back of the seed-chest, and falls into small hoppers o formed in the sole-plank,
whence it passes into sheet-iron spouts f, supported at top by cast-iron necks
attached to the under-side of the sole-plank, and near the bottom by wrought-
iron suspenders p attached to the back-rail d. The support for the middle spout.
THE THREE-ROW BEAN-SOWING DRILL.
301
is fixed, but those for the side ones are movable, to allow the spouts to be set
out or in to suit different widths of drills. When the spout is adjusted, the
bolt on which the suspender is jointed is screwed tight, and fixes the spout
in the required position. A pair of light horse-shafts 1, with the usual mount-
ings, are bolted on the top of the rails a a.
1026. The principal novelty introduced by Messrs Kemp, Murray, and Nichol-
son, consists in the method of opening and shutting the holes in the seed-chest
for the delivery of the seed, and which they are applying to broadcast and other
sowing machines that have hitherto been fitted with a plate sliding endways over
fixed holes in the seed-chest, this sliding-plate being furnished with holes corre-
sponding to the others. (See v, fig. 1, Plate XIII.) The disadvantage of this old
method consists in the opening not being always opposite the centre of the seed-
wheel; for if central when full open, it must be half its diameter to one side when
nearly shut, which cannot but affect the regular delivery of the seed. By the
new method the opening, of 1 inch diameter, is made opposite the centre of the
seed-wheel, and, as usual, protected by a plate of sheet-iron on the outside of
the seed-chest, the wood being cut away on the inside to allow the wheel to
come near the hole in the plate. On the outside of this plate, another plate g,
9 inches long and 2 inches broad, is made to slide vertically, and fixed to the
seed-chest by a pinching-screw. When in its lowest position, a hole formed in
it corresponds with that in the first plate, but when drawn up this hole is
covered, and thus one or other of the holes may be kept from delivering seed
while the others are in action. In front of these sliding-plates is a strip of
hoop-iron h, 1½ inch broad, and nearly the whole length of the seed-chest; it
is supported by staples of hoop-iron attached to the chest, two to each seed-
hole, and of sufficient length to allow the plate to be slidden up or down, so as
to completely expose or cover the seed-holes, which are thus increased or
diminished in the vertical in place of the horizontal direction, as usually prac-
tised. The long plate h is jointed to the seed-chest by two links of hoop-
iron i, 31 inches in length between centres; they are nearly vertical when the
plate is in its lowest position, and inclined when it is raised, the links acting
like the connections of the common parallel ruler, keeping the plate always
horizontal, and consequently opening the different holes equally and simul-
taneously. Motion is given to the plate by a lever k, jointed to it and to the
seed-chest; the upper part of this lever works within a fixed quadrant t, carry-
ing an adjustable stud, by which the motion of the lever can be stopped at any
definite point, and the holes opened to the proper width.
1027. The dimensions of the principal parts are as follow:-The sole-plank b
is 4 feet 4 inches long, 8 inches broad, and 2 inches thick, and the small
hoppers o formed in it are 3 inches square at top; they are simply notches 3
inches deep cut in the back edge of the plank, the edge being bevelled so that
the application of a strap of wood all the way along forms the fourth side of
the hoppers; this piece of wood, which is about 1 inch thick, projects 2 inches
above the main plank, to prevent the spilling of the seed in case it should by
any accident miss the hopper. The depth of the seed-chest s from the sole-plank b
to the top of the framing a is 1 foot 11 inches, the length over the framing 4 feet
4 inches, and the width over the two top rails 2 feet 6 inches. These rails are
3 inches broad and 2 inches deep; the two end rails into which they are
mortised, and which form the heads of the T-frames, are 3 inches square. The
upright bars are 4 inches by 2 inches, flush with the beads outside, to leave
room in the inside for the end boards of the seed-chest. These ends are 1 inch
thick, and fill up the whole width within the top rails, diminishing at bottom to
3 inches in width. The sides are also made of 1-inch deal, nailed to the ends
302
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
3
4
and the under-side of the top rails. The cover is & inch thick, nailed down in
checks formed in the top rails, and having a hinged door e 2 feet long by 1 foot
4 inches broad in the centre of its length, and close to the hinder rail. The
lower rail d, which supports the hangers of the spouts, is 2 inches square, and
The supporting-wheels m are 3 feet 9 inches diameter, and
tire, the width between the centres of the tires being 5
inch in diameter, slightly swelled for the seed-wheels.
The seed-spouts f are of sheet-iron, 12 inch diameter at top and 1 inch at
bottom, riveted lightly to the cast-iron neck-pieces at top, and reaching to
within about 6 inches from the ground.
4 feet 7 inches long.
12 inch broad in the
feet. The axle is 1
1028. The price of this three-row bean-sowing drill is £6, 10s.
1029. The Drop Sowing-Drill or Dibbling Machine.-Sowing seed and manure
together, not continuously, but in small deposits, has been the object of numerous
and varied experiments. The propriety of this mode, and the advantages to be
derived from its achievement, seems yet doubtful; but the accomplishment of the
mechanical part of the operation is now tolerably well performed by machines.
of various makers. In the earlier forms of the drop-drill they were found to
perform tolerably well when moving at a slow rate, but failed when impelled at
the usual rate of sowing. This defect seems to have arisen from the peculiar
form of the manure-depositor, which, in these machines, was usually a short
cylinder chambered in the periphery, and half encircled by a metal cover,
whereby the manure was allowed to drop from the chambers as these came suc-
cessively from under the cover.
1030. One of the first successful machines of this kind is believed to have
been that patented by Mr William Grounsell, Louth, Lincolnshire, in 1838;
and soon after they were brought to an equal degree of perfection in Scot-
land by Mr Sidey, Pitcairn Green, Perth, who still holds by the chambered
cylinder, but more correctly encased, so as to drop distinctly with a moderate
speed.
1031. The price of Mr Sidey's single machine is about £6; if extended to
two rows, the price would not exceed £10.
1032. Smith's Drop-Drill.-The latest improvement that has yet appeared in
Scotland of the drop-drill has been effected by Messrs Smith, St Ninians, near
Stirling, who, adopting a combination of the best parts of previous machines, have
produced one that seems more likely to attain the desired object than any of its
predecessors. In this a metal trunk is introduced for receiving the manure from
the ordinary distributing-wheel, and being provided with a valve capable of being
opened and shut at certain intervals, the manure is retarded in its descent within
the trunk by means of the valve, until the requisite quantity is collected, when
the valve, being suddenly opened, makes the deposit, and is again shut. It is a
single-row drill, is drawn by one horse, and costs £6.
1033. There are apparently some advantages derived from this successive
mode of deposit of the manure and seed, especially with those manures that
are considered the most active, such as bones, guano; for here the manure is
laid in the rut, the earth of which partially falls in and mixes with it, thereby
reducing its intensity; and the seed is dropped upon the mixture instead of
falling directly amongst the pure matter, as is generally the case with machines
that sow both seed and manure continuously. It is said that a more speedy and
vigorous vegetation is produced by this than by the continuous mode of sowing;
but it may yet be deserving of observation, whether the more speedy develop-
ment of the young plant does not arise from the circumstance of the seed, under
this mode of treatment, being deposited nearer to the surface of the soil than it is.
CHANDLER'S, CHAMBERS'S DROP-DRILLS.
303
when put in immediately behind a coulter; and viewing the subject in this light,
it may suggest the question, Whether deep-sowing alone may not be the cause of
the protracted vegetation so often and so seriously experienced in the turnip
crop? This subject, as regards the turnip crop alone, appears to us deserving
of careful experiment not yet undertaken, and, if determined in the affirmative,
much disappointment and loss may be prevented by adopting due precautions
to insure sowing at a proper depth.
1034. Chandler's Drop Sowing-Drill.-Of the drop-drills recently introduced
we select that of Chandler's, manufactured by Messrs Reeves of Bratton, West-
bury, Wilts. It is shown attached to the lower part of the liquid-manure drill
in Plate XVIII. Instead of a coulter which cuts the furrow, a "press-wheel"
a a, fig. 1, Plate XVIII., is substituted; this works in a lever bb, weighted at one
extremity by weights c, and jointed at the other to a mortise-bar b'. A cylinder
of cast-iron revolves in the seed-box d; in the periphery of this cylinder tri-
angular recesses are cut, into which the seed is deposited as the cylinder
revolves. As each recess passes into the open space of the lower aperture
of the seed-depositor, the seed contained in it is released, and drops into the
furrow made by the press-wheel a a. To the end of the cylinder-shaft a
pinion e e is keyed; this engages with a spur-wheelf, which again takes into
the teeth of a pinion g, keyed in the shaft of the press-wheel a a. Motion is
thus imparted from the press-wheel a a to the seed-cylinder in d.
Fig. 357.
b
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1035. Chambers's Water Drop-Drill.-We now give a side elevation of the "water
drop - drill" of Mr
Thomas Chambers of
Fakenham, and which
has been successfully
brought into practice.
It is applicable to any
water or liquid man-
ure-drill. In fig. 357
a a is part of a mor-
tise-bar carrying the
wheel b b, which runs
in the furrow made by
the coulter k which
precedes it, and which
is fixed in the bar a a.
The axle of the wheel
bh carries a hollow ro-
tating chamber, from
the periphery of which four arms or spouts, c d e f, extend. A cap or
chamber g g conducts the liquid manure and seed from the manure and seed
compartment of the drill to which it is attached as by the funnels r r,
fig. 1 and 2, Plate XVIII.—to the interior of the chamber rotating on the axis of
the wheel b b, fig. 357. As the drill progresses, it drags after it the bar a a
and wheel bb, causing the chamber to rotate on its axis; and as each delivery-
spout, c d e f, comes in contact with the soil, it discharges the seed and
manure. If the size of the wheel b b remained invariable, the distance
between the deposits of seed and manure would also be invariable. To give
a capability of varying this distance, the wheel b b is made in segments, and
the arms slotted and provided with bolts and nuts, as shown at h h. By
sliding in and out the arms carrying the segments, and fixing them at any
k
SIDE ELEVATION OF CHAMBERS'S WATER DROP-DRILL-SCALE, 2 INCHES TO THE FOOT.
304
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
point of adjustment desired, by means of the bolts and nuts, the diameter of
the wheel b b may be
diminished or enlarged,
and the distance between
the points of the spouts,
c d e f, correspondingly
adjusted.
1036. In fig. 358 we
give a plan of the appa-
ratus; a a the mortise-
bar, b b the wheel, c c
the hollow chamber, to
which the seed and man-
ure are supplied by the
cap d.
1037. Messrs Reeve
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PLAN OF CHAMBERS'S WATER DROP-DRILL-SCALE, 2 INCHES TO THE FOOT.
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have informed us that they have adopted the form in fig. 358 of the water drop-
drill, giving up the use of that described in fig. 357.
1038. The Depositor-Dibble or Grain-Planter. This implement, known as
"Sigma's," and manufactured by Mr Charles Powell, Ticehurst, near Hurstgrove,
Sussex, from its simple and ingenious arrangement, we shall notice here. In fig.
359 we give a front view, and in fig. 360 a transverse vertical section. The trough
or seed-box a a a, fig. 360, is angular in form. In front of this, five perpendicular
holes or vertical chambers, as b, are placed; communicating with these vertical
Fig. 359.
Fig. 360.
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FRONT VIEW OF SIGMA'S DIBBLE -SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
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TRANSVERSE VERTICAL SECTION OF
SIGMA'S DIRBLE -SCALE,
OF FULL SIZE.
chambers b, apertures or channels c run obliquely up to the bottom of the seed-
chamber a. Stretching from end to end of the seed-box, a flat bar d d, fig. 359, is
placed, the ends of this passing out through apertures in the ends of the seed-cham-
ber aa, and its flat side lying in close contact with the floor or bottom of the chamber.
On the supposition that this flat bar was solid from end to end, it would com-
pletely cover the holes in the floor of the seed-chamber, and stop all communi-
CHANDLER'S LIQUID-MANURE DRILL.
305
cation with the oblique channels c leading to the vertical chambers b, fig. 360.
But in the bar d d, fig. 359, apertures corresponding in diameter to that of the
chamber c are bored at intervals equal to those of the vertical chambers b,
fig. 360. When the solid parts of the flat bar d d, fig. 359, are opposite the
apertures of the oblique channels c, communication is closed, but on moving the
flat bar laterally till the holes in it coincide with the apertures of the oblique
channels, the communication is made between the seed-chamber a and the
vertical chambers b. In these vertical chambers five steel dibbles e e e, figs.
359 and 360, move up and down, these being fixed to the cross-bar ff, running
parallel with the top of the seed-box. This cross-bar ff has two standards 99,
supporting at its upper extremity the handle h h. By lifting up and depressing
the handle hh, the cross-bar ƒ ƒ and dibbles e e e are alternately moved up
and down in the vertical chambers b. The amount of rise and fall or play of
the dibbles e e e in the vertical chambers is such, that when the handle h h is
pulled up to its full extent, the lower end of the dibbles is clear of the lower
apertures of the oblique channels c.
1039. It remains only for us to describe how the flat bar d d, fig. 359, is moved
laterally, so as to open the holes c in the bottom of the seed-box simultaneously
with the rise of the dibbles e e in the vertical chambers b. Near the centre of the
seed-box, and on a stud fixed on its side, a curved lever i k, fig. 359, vibrates.
The long curved arm i of this lever passes through a slot l in the bar ƒƒ, which
carries the dibbles e e e, the slot being long enough to admit of the lateral
movement of the arm i. In the slot two circular studs m m are fixed, the end i
of the lever i k passing between them. If the long arm i was straight, it
would work up and down between the studs without any movement on the bar
ff being raised and depressed, but as it is curved, the studs m m follow the
line of curve, tending to push the arm i laterally; and as i vibrates on a centre,
the other or lower arm k has a corresponding lateral movement, but in the con-
trary direction. The extremity of the lower arın k rests on a lateral slot made
in the flat bar d, so that when the arm k moves from side to side, it moves also
the flat bar d d. Brushes n n are placed so as to brush the upper side of the
bar dd, thus tending to keep the aperture free from all adhering matter. The
handle by which the apparatus is lifted is connected with the seed-box, the
two standards o o supporting the cross-handle p p. In fig. 360 r is a step
or foot-plate for depressing the apparatus into the earth.
1040. The price of a five-row apparatus, to deposit five grains in each hole,
is £3, 3s.
1041. Liquid and Solid Manure Distributors.—We now come to describe useful
forms of liquid-manure drills and carts, and solid-manure distributors.
1042. Chandler's Liquid-Manure Drill.-In Plate XVIII. we give two views
of a well-known form of liquid-manure drill, the invention of Mr Chandler,
and which is manufactured by Messrs Reeves of Bratton, Westbury,
Wilts.
Fig. 1 is a side, and fig. 2 an end elevation, both drawn to a scale as given in
the Plate. In fig. 361 we give a perspective view of the drill as used without
the drop apparatus figured in the Plate; and in fig. 362 we give on a larger
scale, 1 inch to the foot, a front section of the upper part of fig. 1, Plate
XVIII., showing the buckets for lifting the liquid manure into the delivery-tins.
1043. In figs. 1 and 2, Plate XVIII., h h are the driving-wheels, 4 feet in
diameter, ii the frame, 3 inches by 21, supporting the manure-box jjj and seed-
box k, and the working gearing. The total depth of manure-box j is 2 feet 7
inches, its length 2 feet 5 inches, and its greatest breadth 2 feet 8 inches.
On the axle of the driving-wheels h h, a spur-wheel 7, 121 inches diameter, is
U

306
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
keyed, engaging with a spur-wheel m m, 12 inches diameter. This is keyed
on the shaft of the bucket-barrel a a a, fig. 362. The spur-wheel m m, fig. 1,
Fig. 361.
WWILL AS EDIN
PERSPECTIVE VIEW OF CHANDLER'S LIQUID-MANURE DRILL.
Plate XVIII., engages with an intermediate wheel n n, 15 inches diameter,
this engaging with the wheel o o, 10 inches diameter. This wheel o o is keyed on,
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SECTION OF SEED AND MANURE CHAMBER OF CHANDLER'S LIQUID-MANURE DRILL
-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
and gives motion to the
shaft of the seed - cup
barrel b, fig. 362. The
seed is delivered to the
delivery-cans g g, fig.
2, Plate XVIII. The
liquid manure passes
down the tubes q q,
q q, and the united seed
and liquid pass finally
to the drop apparatus d,
fig. 1, through the de-
livery-tins r.
1044. The coulter-lev-
ers, as bb, fig. 1, are
lifted up by the chain
ss passing over the
The barrel is worked
chain-barrel t t, 4 inches diameter and 3 feet 6 inches long.
by the cross u u, which is fixed to the shaft. The manure and seed-box are ad-
justed on going up or down hill by the lever c, keyed on the shaft or spindle d d,
fig. 362, to the extremity of which a worm-screw e is attached, this engaging
with the worm-wheel f, the teeth of which take into the rack of the lever g.
In fig. 1, Plate XVIII., v is the lever; w the shaft; x the box containing the
worm-wheel and screw e, f; y the lever of the rack 9, of fig. 362.
1045. In fig. 362, a a is the bucket-barrel, 1 foot 10 inches in diameter, the shaft
of which revolves in the bearings as shown. Buckets 31 inches long, and 23 inches
deep, are attached by bolts and screws to the barrel or cylinder a a.
The spur-
wheel m m, fig. 1, Plate XVIII., is keyed on to the shaft of the barrel a, fig.
362, and as it revolves amidst the liquid manure which fills the manure-box
hh, the buckets i i deliver it to the spout j, from which it passes off to the
THE WATER AND LIQUID-MANURE CARTS.
307
delivery-pipe k, and finally to the delivery-tins r r, r r, fig. 2, Plate XVIII.
When the liquid manure is not wished to be passed to the spout j, and pipe
k, fig. 362, and delivery-tins r r, the spout j is lifted up-being jointed at o—
by the link m, the upper end of which has a rack which is worked by the wheel
(z in fig. 1, Plate XVIII.) This wheel 1, fig. 362, is keyed on to the shaft, 1 1,
fig. 2, Plate XVIII., worked by the hand-lever 2.
1046. The price of Chandler's liquid-manure and drop drill varies from £22
to £28.
1047. The Water-Cart.—The cart has been very long in use for the conveyance
of water, when the supply of that necessary element for household use has been
distant from the steading; and the liquid-manure cart is its offspring, modified
by certain additions, to adapt it to this change of purpose. The water-cart is
usually the naked bed-frame of a cart, mounted on wheels, and surmounted with
a cask of a capacity suited to the demands of the establishment. The cask is
furnished with a funnel, inserted in or attached immediately over the bung-hole;
and it is likewise furnished with a spigot, or with a stop-cock, inserted into
that end of the cask which hangs over the back of the cart. When the water-
cart has been drawn to the fountain or the pond, from which water is to be con-
veyed, it is filled either by means of a common pump, raised so high as to
deliver the water which it lifts into the funnel of the cask, or the water is lifted
with the hand by means of a scoop, having a helve of sufficient length to enable
the workman to reach the pond on the one hand and the funnel on the other.
1048. The Liquid-Manure Cart.-This, as most commonly used, differs very little
from the water-cart, except in its being provided with the distributing apparatus
in place of the spigot; but in large establishments the cask is superseded
by a covered rectangular cistern or tank, which takes the place of a common cart-
body.
1049. The watering of public streets and highways has induced the necessity
of the rectangular tank for the distribution of water over the surface of roads,
because of the ease with which, by this construction, a greater quantity of water
can be put upon one pair of wheels. Here the quantity of water to a given
surface is much greater than in the case of a liquid manure, and hence the
propriety of a capacious tank for the distribution of water on streets, while the
same principle (economy in the expense) leads to the propriety of employing a
smaller and less expensive vessel for the distribution of liquid manure, which
will not in general be superabundant.
1050. For a liquid-manure cart, a cask of 120 or 140 gallons contents will
be found more economical in first cost than a rectangular tank; and as these
machines can be only occasionally in operation, they will, if not very carefully
attended to, become leaky while standing unoccupied. In this respect the cask
will have a manifest advantage over the tank, for the tightening of a cask is an
operation the most simple, by the act of driving up the hoops; while, in the
case of the tank becoming leaky, no means of that kind can be resorted to, and
the alternative is, either soaking it in water till the wood has imbibed as much
of the fluid as will expand its substance and close the leaks, or the vessel must
be tightened by some more expensive process. As the more economical of the
two, therefore, in point of expense, we have chosen the cask-mounted cart for the
illustration.
1051. Fig. 363 is a representation in perspective of this cart, of the
simplest and most convenient construction. For the more easy means of filling
the cask, it is suspended between the shafts of the cart, and this position
requires the bending of the axle to nearly a semicircle. The cart is a mere
308
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
skeleton, consisting of the shafts a a, which for this purpose may be made of red
pine, their length being about 14 feet. They are connected by a fore and hind
g
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Fig. 363.
C
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THE LIQUID - MANURE CART
bar, placed at such distance as will just admit the length of the cask, while the
width between the shafts is suited to the diameter of it. The axle, as already
noticed, is bent downward to nearly a semicircle, to receive the cask, and its
length will, of course, be greater than the common cart-axle; even the distance
between the caddy-bolts, in a straight line, will be usually greater, but this will
depend on the diameter of the cask. A pair of common broad cart-wheels b b
are fitted to the axle. The cask c is suspended on two straps of hoop-iron, 2
inches broad, the ends of which are bolted to the shafts, and the same bolts pass
also through the ends of two lighter straps which pass over, and secure the cask
firmly in its place. The funnel or hopper d is usually fixed upon the top of the cask
over the bung-hole, or it may be inserted therein by means of an attached pipe.
1052. The distributor e may be made of sheet-copper, of cast-iron or malleable
iron, or even of wood; the copper will be found the most durable, and it should
be at least of an inch in thickness. The next best is the patent malleable-
iron tube; cast-iron, though sometimes used, is not to be recommended, neither
is wood desirable, from its liability to choke. The bore of the distributor should
be not less than 2 inches, nor is it required to exceed 2 inches, the length from
7 to 7 feet, and slightly bent with a uniform curvature, which last property
causes it to cover a wider surface of ground than it would do if straight. But
in giving the distributor its curvature, care must be taken to avoid increasing the
curvature towards the ends, as is sometimes done, to the prevention of uniform
distribution of the manure. The ends of the tube must be closed with movable
covers, screwed or otherwise fixed, that they may be removed at pleasure, for
the purpose of sponging out the tube when it happens to get clogged up with any
solid matter. A line of perforations is made along the hinder side of the tube
for the discharge of the fluid: these should be at the distance of 1 inch apart,
and their opening about inch diameter. As the area of these discharging
orifices cannot be altered at pleasure, nor their amount of discharge altered for
any given time, it becomes necessary, in distributing any given quantity per
acre, to regulate that quantity by increasing or diminishing the rate of travelling
the cart over the ground. The distributor is attached to the cask by means of
a stem ƒ, of the same materials and bore as the main tube, and it enters the end
JAMES'S LIQUID-MANURE CART.
Fig. 364.
m
с
309
of the cask close to the lower chime. A stop-cock is frequently put upon the
stem f to regulate the discharge, and for this purpose it is very beneficial,
serving in a great measure to regulate the quantity per acre; but for the entire
setting off or on of the supply, the stem f
opens into a small chamber inside the cask,
which chamber is closed by a flap-valve
heavily loaded. This valve when closed stops
the discharge, and when lifted the fluid has a
free passage to the distributor. The opening
of the valve is effected by a small chain at-
tached to the flap, rising to the top of the cask
at g, where it passes over a small roller, and
onward to the fore part of the cart on the
nigh side, where it hangs at hand for the
carter to set off or on at pleasure.
O
h
C
1053. Fig. 364 is a section of part of the
cask, and showing the chamber and valve; ƒ is
again the stem of the distributor, h a stop-
cock, i the chamber, and k the valve, which
is the common leather flap or clack-valve
well loaded with lead; c c is part of the cask, 7 the chain attached to the valve
and passing over the roller m.
THE APPARATUS FOR REGULATING THE DISCHARGE
FROM THE LIQUID-MANURE CART.
1054. When the liquid-manure cart is furnished with a tank, the latter can,
with equal facility, be placed low for the convenience of filling; thus the axle
may be cranked, as in the Liverpool dray-cart, the tank resting on the cranked
part of the axle; or the axle may remain straight, and the tank appended below
the axle. Such a tank may be conveniently built to contain a ton of the liquid,
or about 220 gallons; and the distributing apparatus is the same as for the cask.
1055. The price of these liquid-manure carts varies considerably, partly from
construction, and partly from locality. Mr Crosskill, of Beverley, quotes £25
as the price of the tank-cart. In Scotland the average price may be stated
at £18, and when mounted with a cask, £15; these prices, of course, including
wheels and axle.
1056. James's Liquid- Manure Cart.-In fig. 365 we illustrate a liquid-
manure cart which en-
It
joys a high reputa-
tion in England.
is invented and manu-
factured by Mr Isaac
James, of Tivoli Iron
Works, Cheltenham.
In this form of liquid-
manure cart the prin-
cipal peculiarity is the
adoption of two strain-
ers at a, through which
the liquid is passed be-
Fig. 365.
d
JAMES'S LIQUID-MANURE CART.
b
fore it enters the body of the cart, arresting all extraneous matter tending to
choke up the holes in the distributing-box b b. The liquid is discharged from
the body of the tank a to the distributing-box through a conical valve fitted
to the lower extremity of the rod c, and which is actuated by the lever handle d.
All the joints are waterproof.
310
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
1057. Price of James's liquid-manure cart, to hold 250 gallons, to be worked
by horse, is £24—the weight of cart when empty being 8 cwt., when full, 29 cwt.
The price of a cart to be worked by a boy, holding 10 gallons, and weighing
when empty 2 cwt., and when full 6 cwt., is £10.
1058. Solid Manure Distributors.-The experience of every succeeding day
tends to show the extension of the application of granulated manures to the
soil; and the powerful influence of some of them, coupled with the high price
of the article, renders the necessity of a uniform and sparing distribution
of them imperative. Machines being better adapted to the performance of a
uniform distribution than a number of individual hands, and as they can like-
wise be adjusted to deposit either a larger or smaller quantity with uniformity,
the demand for such machines must increase with the extending application
of the manures.
1059. It is found, however, that any one form of machine is not fitted to
deposit all the varieties of such manures, and that to some extent each kind has
required its own peculiar construction of the distributing parts of the machine.
The late introduction of guano has increased this difficulty; for in the more early
application of it, the article was purchased always in a very damp state, and
care was taken to impress on the mind of the purchaser that a state of natural
dampness was requisite to retain the virtues of the manure until it was put into
the soil. This circumstance caused much trouble to those who attempted to
distribute the manure with machines, for by reason of its dampness, aided by
the action of the revolving parts of the machines, the guano was converted into
a paste, and the machine ceased to perform its wonted duties.
But it soon
became evident that the dampness so much recommended by the vendor was
only the effect of a liberal administration of water applied by him to increase
the weight of the article, and the amount of his own profits; and this detection
once made, we now see the article publicly recommended for its dryness. The
previous state had, in the mean time, called forth a degree of attention to the
means of distributing that and other roughly granulated substances through the
machine usually employed, and this has extended our knowledge in this depart-
ment of agricultural machine-making.
1060. The results of these inquiries and experiments have been to produce a
conviction, that the simple principle of distribution so successfully employed
in the broadcast and grain drill sowing-machines, Plates XIII. and XIV., may,
with very slight modification, adapted to the particular object, be rendered
available for almost all granulated manures, more especially now that the
important article of guano will generally be procurable in a dry state, which
hitherto has been the most difficult to accomplish.
1061. Soot, as a manure, has presented the same difficulty in its distribu-
tion from the ordinary machines; and as an example for both of these articles,
it may be stated that a machine, such as seen in Plate XVI., fig. 1, which
is adapted for bone-dust, will neither deliver guano nor soot in a regular
manner. Hence, also, the following machine, constructed for the distribution
of soot as a top-dressing, has been greatly improved by the application to it
of the principle of the broadcast sowing-machine.
1062. Main's Soot-Sowing Machine.—From the limited supply of soot which it
operates upon, this machine can never be ranked amongst the most important
class of machines on the farm; still, owing to the powerful effect of the manure
itself, its due distribution is of importance, and, from its extreme lightness, it
cannot, without disadvantage, be sown by the hand. The machine here described
MAIN'S SOOT-SOWING MACHINE.
*
was the production of Mr Main, factor to the Earl of Dalhousie.*
311
Fig. 366 is a
view in perspective, the horse-shafts being broken off; and fig. 367 a trans-
g
α
b
Fig. 366.
g
g
α
d
m
MAIN'S SOOT - SOWING MACHINE.
b
Fig. 367.
た
​verse section, with the shafts also broken off, the letters of reference applying
to corresponding parts in the two figures. The machine consists of a bed-frame
a a, to which the horse-shafts b b are attached, and is mounted on a pair of low
wheels cc, of 22
inches diameter,
fixed upon, and
turning with, the
axle, around which
there is built a
wooden cylinder
d, about 6 inches
diameter and 6
feet in length, flut-
ed longitudinally.
A chest e, 6 feet
in length, is ap-
pended to the
body frame, and
descends so far as
to half embrace the
cylinder d, and is
surmounted by a
semi cylindrical
cover, which is left
-
N
C
d
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MAIN'S SOOT-SOWING MACHINE.
e
a
out in fig. 366, but
is seen in section k, fig. 367. In the interior of the chest there is placed a
cylinder of sheet-iron f, 22 inches in diameter, perforated all over with holes of
inch diameter, and as much apart, giving to it the character of a riddle.
The cylinder is closed at both ends, and has a trap-door on one side, as seen
in fig. 366, hinged, and secured at each end with hook and eye. An axle of
iron passes quite through the cylinder, having journals that rest in two jointed
bars gg, g; and on one end of the axle, produced beyond the bar is mounted a
gg,
wheel h, of 18 inches diameter. The axle of the carriage-wheels c carries also
a wheel m 9 inches diameter, and the two are connected by means of the
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 535.
312
MACHINES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
intermediate wheel i, thus producing motion in the perforated cylinder, as well
as in the fluted one that is carried by the axle. The purpose of the perfo-
rated cylinder into which the soot is first delivered, is to separate stones or
other hard substances that may be mixed with it; that of the fluted cylinder
being the distribution of it from the machine; and the hinged cover prevents it
flying off during the agitation by the first cylinder.
1063. The operations of the soot-machine are effected thus:—A charge of
soot is put into the cylinder, the chest closed, and the machine put in motion.
By the revolution of the upper cylinders, the soot is separated from the stones
and refuse with which it is always mixed, and so passes into the lower part of
the chest, from whence, by the revolution of the fluted cylinder, regulated by
a brush 7 extending the whole length of the cylinder, it is distributed in an
equal manner upon the ground. When the soot has been discharged from the
upper cylinder, the cylinder is raised from the chest by means of the knee-
jointed bars g g, and when so elevated, the trap-door is opened, and the stones
and other refuse discharged, preparatory to the next charge of soot.
1064. The machine, constructed as above described, has been found liable to
the inconvenience before pointed out in par. 1061, but which has been effectually
rectified by the adoption of the broadcast distributing-wheels, in place of the
fluted roller; the bottom of the chest is consequently closed, except the orifice
for each wheel, all the other parts of the machine remaining as they were; or
by a proper adjustment, the intermediate wheel i is left out of the construction.
It is also to be observed, that the distributing orifices for the soot require to be
about 1½ inch diameter.
1065. Chambers's Broadcast Manure-Distributor.— A most efficient broadcast
manure-distributor, calculated to sow all kinds of manure, is that invented by
Mr Chambers of Fakenham, and manufactured by Messrs Garrett. Of this, in
Plate XIX., we give fig. 1, a back or end, and fig. 2 a side elevation, and fig. 3
a transverse section of part of the machine on a larger scale; fig. 368 is a per-
spective view. The scale to which figs. 1 and 2 are drawn is inch to the
foot; fig. 3 is of the full size.
a
Fig. 368.
b
WILLIAMS SC
CHAMBERS'S BROADCAST MANURE-DISTRIBUTOR IN PERSPECTIVE.
·
1066. The box a a, fig. 1, Plate XIX., 6 feet 6 inches long, containing the
manure, is carried by the wheels b b, 3 feet 7 inches diameter. A nave-wheel
c, 12 inches diameter, engages with and gives motion to the spur-wheel d, of
same diameter. This is keyed on the shaft of the revolving manure-barrel e e.
THE PLOUGH - STAFF.
313
This is composed of short cylinders or pulleys, 5 inches in diameter, fixed on
the central shaft, with discs of thin metal placed between them. These short
cylinders consist of a flat disc of metal, having a box or square hole in the
centre, through which is passed the central shaft. The periphery of each
cylinder a a, fig. 3, is furnished with projections b b. The cylinders, as they
revolve, are scraped clean by the extremities c, of the scrapers d, oscillating or
vibrating in the centre e. The pressure of the points c in the cylinders is
regulated by the weights f, these being placed nearer to or further from the
centre e, in the notches on the upper side of the lever d d. The assemblage
of weights is shown at ƒfƒ in fig. 1.
1067. As the manure passes from the manure-box-which is divided by parti-
tions gg, fig. 3, into four compartments, to equalise the delivery on hill-sides-
it is subjected to the reciprocating stirrers gg, fig. 1, and h, fig. 3. Motion is
given to the shaft on which these stirrers are fixed through the medium of the
crank d, fig. 2, the shaft of which receives motion from the bevel-wheels h, fig. 1,
and c, fig. 2, c being keyed on the shaft of the manure-barrel e e, fig. 1.
From the scrapers gg, fig. 1, the manure is then carried over the manure-cylin-
der e e (a a, fig. 3), where it is further subjected to the action of the pro-
jections bb, and the scrapers c, fig. 3. It falls from thence into the trough ƒ,
fig. 2 (shown in dotted lines in fig. 1), and is sifted by the wire-rods g, from
whence it is delivered evenly on the surface of the land.
1068. The quantity of manure delivered is regulated by the lever hh, and
spring i, fig. 2, which works the rack and pinion ij, fig. 3, the rack forming
part of the slide g. The wheel d, fig. 1, is thrown in and out of gear with the
nave-wheel c, by means of the lever j, fig. 2, and fig. 368. The position of
the manure-box e is adjusted by the winch-handle k (fig. 368), and face-wheels 1,
acting on the rod m, fig. 2.
1069. The price of Chambers's broadcast manure-distributor is £21.*
1070. SECTION SIXTH.-Manual Implements connected with the Cultivation of the
Soil. This section comprehends all the manual implements—or perhaps it would
be better to term them the hand implements-employed on the farm in the cul-
tivation of the soil. They are appropriately named hand implements, because
they are used by the hands of the labourers to do the work these have to do with
them in a direct manner and with individual skill; whereas, in regard to machines
actuated by power, labourers have only to superintend, and it may be to guide.
their operations. Those parts of machines moved by power, which are acted on
by the hand, might also perhaps be strictly called hand implements; but there is
this distinction to be observed between the two cases, that the labourers have
no direct control over the work performed by such machines, nor can they show
their individual skill by their means. The hand implements comprehended in
this section co-operate with the machines described in the preceding five sections
on the cultivation of the soil, and might therefore have been placed and described
in their respective sections. But it has been deemed most convenient to place
them by themselves in a separate section, in order to show their number and
simplicity of form in the most obvious manner, rather than permit them to
interfere, by their presence, with the necessarily elaborate descriptions of the
more complicated machines. The hand implements which follow, are given in
the order of the subjects contained in the preceding five sections.
1071. The Plough-Staff-Fig. 369 represents the plough-staff-a necessary
article of the movable furniture of the plough. It is in form of a small
* In paragraph 1037, for described in fig. 357, read figs. 1 and 2, Plate XVIII.
314
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
shovel, having a socket into which a helve 5 feet in length is inserted, and
in some parts of the country this is furnished with an oblique cross-head. Its
Fig. 369.
THE PLOUGH - STAFF.
position in the plough is to lie between the handles, and its use to enable
the ploughman to remove all extraneous matter, as earth, that may adhere to
the mould-board, or stubble, roots, weeds, that may accumulate before the
coulter. It is common to all ploughs.
Fig. 370.
THE IRON HAMMER NUT-KEY.
1072. The Iron Hammer Nut-key.—Every plough should be provided with a
very useful appendage, an iron hammer, fig. 370.
The head and handle are forged in one piece of
malleable iron, the handle being formed into a
nut-key. With this simple but useful tool, the
ploughman has always at hand the means by which
he can, without loss of time, alter and adjust the
position of his plough-irons-the coulter and share
-and perform other little operations which cir-
cumstances or accident may require, for the performance of which most plough-
men are under the necessity of taking advantage of the first stone they can
find, merely from the want of this simple instrument. The hammer is slung
in a staple fixed in the side of the beam in any convenient position upon
the left-hand stilt. This little appendage is confidently recommended to all
ploughmen, as an essential part of the furniture of the plough.
1073. Plough-Slide.—In removing ploughs from one field to another, or along a
hard road to a field, instead of sliding them upon their
sole-shoe, which is difficult to do when it has no hold
of the ground, or upon the edge of the feather of the
sock and the side of the mould-board-which is a more
easy mode for the ploughman than on the sole-shoe,
and is consequently more commonly taken-every ploughman should be pro-
vided with a plough-slide, a simple and not costly implement, as represented
in fig. 371. It consists of a piece of hardwood board 3 feet 4 inches
long, 8 inches broad, and 2 inches thick, in which a long staple a is
driven to take in the point of the sock; and at b are fastened two
small bars of wood, longways, and at such distance from one another
as to take between them the heel of the sole-shoe of the plough.
On the under side of the board is nailed two pieces of flat bar-iron,
to act as skeds to the slide. Upon this implement the plough may
be
conveyed with comparative ease along any road or head-ridge.
Fig. 372.
h
Fig. 371. (2.
THE PLOUGH-SLIDE.
1074. Feering-Poles.-Feering-poles are a number of round bars of
wood 81 feet in length and 14 inch diameter, graduated into feet and
half feet. Each pole is painted at the top of a different colour, and of
a marked colour from ordinary surrounding objects. Feering - poles
are used for setting off the breadths of ridges and of cross-ploughings.
1075. Plough Harness.-In Plate VI., fig. 2 is a representation of
a plough drawn with two horses in harness. The harness, which in
its separate parts constitutes the implements by which the horses
draw the plough, consists of the following particulars, each of which is
simple in the extreme :-(1.) The collar around the horse's neck, to
serve as a padding to protect his shoulders from being injured by the draught.
It is stuffed with wheat-straw, faced with neat's leather, and lined with rug
FEERING.
POLE
SPADES AND DITCHER'S SHOVEL.
315
cloth, and provided with a cape to fend the rain off from the shoulders of the
horse, which would thereby be heated and blistered in the draught. The collar
weighs about 15 lb., and costs £1. (2.) Embracing a groove in the anterior
part of the collar are the haims or hames, composed commonly of two pieces.
of wood curved towards their lower extremities, where they are attached
together by means of a hook and short chain; and their upper extremities are
held tight by means of a leather strap and buckle. The haims are provided on
each side with an iron hook, to which the draught-chains are linked. When
covered with plate-iron, haims weigh 7 lb., and cost 5s. 6d. (3.) Light chains,
called trace-chains, are fastened at one end to the hooks of the haims in the
collar, and at the other to the swing-trees of the plough, for enabling the horses
to draw the plough: they weigh 8 lb., and cost 7d. per lb. (4.) The chains
are prevented falling down in the middle by the back-band, a broad strap of
leather which passes over the horse's back, and is padded over the chine: it
weighs about 34 lb., and costs 8s. (5.) The bridle is on the horse's head, and
has blinders: the bit is most conveniently removed by means of a small
strap and buckle at one of its ends: the bridle, of good leather, weighs 4½ lb.,
and costs 10s. (6.) It will be observed in Plate VI., fig. 2, that the ploughman
guides the horses by means of plough-reins, made of rein-rope, which pass from
the stilts of the plough to the bridle-ring of each horse, threading on their way
a staple on the back-band. (7.) The horses' heads are kept most steadily by
means of a short rein of rope from the bridle-ring to the trace-chain of each
horse.
2
1076. The Common Spade.-The plough, in its effects upon the soil, is the
nearest approach of any implement to that of the No. 5 common spade, fig. 373.
With its flat rectangular iron blade and wooden helve fastened with riveted
nails into the split socket attached to the blade, the common spade is too well
known and too commonly in use to require any description of its construc-
tion. To the gardener, who turns over the surface-soil, the spade is indispen-
sable; and to the cultivator of the soil, who improves his land by trenching, it is
an efficient implement. In trenching ground with the spade the surface-soil is
turned over one spit deep of the blade, and
another spit of the same depth is brought up
of the subsoil, and put upon the top of the
first, making the trenched soil 16 inches deep.
1077. Parkes' Patent Spade.-The blade
of Parkes' patent spade, fig. 374, is of steel,
and the lower part of the helve attached to
the blade is of tubular iron, the handle and
the upper part of the helve being of wood.
This is a very light and clever implement
for turning over the surface-soil, and in
smooth ground would last many years, but
on rough stony subsoils it could not undergo
the fatigue of the common spade.
Fig. 373.
THE COMMON
Fig. 374.
Fig. 375.
J
A DITCHER'S
SHOVEL
PARKES' PATENT
SPADE.
1078. The Ditcher's Shovel.-The ditcher's
shovel, fig. 375, is 1 foot broad and 1 foot
long, tapering to a point, with a helve 28
inches in length, furnished with a short
cross-handle, and costs, No. 5, 4s. Its uses.
are to clear the sides and bottoms of ditches of loose earth, to clear the bottom
of a trench of loose earth and stones, and to clean up the bottoms of dunghills
on soft ground, which it does better than any broad-mouthed shovel.
SPADE.
316
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
Fig. 376.
Fig. 377.
PARKES' DIGGING-FORKS
1079. Parkes' Digging Forks.-The common spade, on turning over the surface-
Fig. 378. soil in spits, preserves the earth in lumps;
and when the soil is tenacious, those lumps
may be difficult to pulverise.
It was
deemed reasonable, that if, instead of using
a blade, an implement were employed to
turn over the soil, having a number of
prongs pretty closely set together, the
earth would be broken and even comminuted
in the act of being turned over. Accord-
ingly, such forks as are represented by
figs. 376, 377, and 378, were contrived by
Mr Parkes for that purpose, and they have
been found to answer. They are made of
steel prongs, four and five in number, more
or less closely set together, and having
tubular-iron helves attached to them like
his steel spade, fig. 374, with a handle and
upper part of the helve of the wood.
1080. Trenching-Forks.-In trenching ground, it may be desirable to keep the
subsoil at the bottom, and not bring it up to the surface. The trenching-forks,
such as in figs. 379 and 380, afford ready means of
accomplishing that object. After the surface-soil has
been removed from the trench by the common spade,
fig. 373, the trench-forks are then used. When the
subsoil is not very hard, and not many stones in it, the
fork of three prongs, fig. 379, is used to loosen the
subsoil to the depth of the prongs, and to let it remain
in the loose state where it is. When the subsoil is hard,
and the stones many, the two-pronged fork, fig. 380, is
better suited to loosen the subsoil and cast out the
stones than the three-pronged. Fig. 380 is provided
with tramps for the foot to press upon, and force the
prongs into hard ground. The prongs, two or three
in number, are 15 inches in length and 1½ inch in depth
at the neck, tapering to a stout point. The prongs
are connected with a hose, into which an ash helve
with a short cross-handle is fastened. The entire fork
stands 3 feet 9 inches in height, and costs 5s.
Fig. 379.
Fig. 380.
THE TRENCHING-FORKS WITH THREE
AND TWO PRONGS.
1081. The Hand-Pick.-When the subsoil is so hard
that the two-pronged trenching-fork, fig. 380, cannot easily be made to penetrate,
then the hand-pick, fig. 381, is used to loosen both the subsoil and the stones.
The points of the hand-pick are sharp, and the handle, acting as a lever, gives
the labourer a considerable power in overcoming the adhesive property of the
subsoil and the tenacious hold of the boulder-stone. In soft adhesive clay the
hand-pick is of little use, only picking out as much of the earth as the breadth
of the pointed end of the pick. The pick is made of a bar of iron brought to
a point at each end, and curved to a segment of a circle. The handle is 3 feet
in length, is of ash fastened by wedges in a swelled eye, spreading upwards,
forged in the middle of the bar of iron. Each arm is 18 inches long by 2
inches deep and 11 inch broad, and the cost of the implement is 5s. 6d. or 6s.
1082. The Foot-Pick.-The hand-pick is severe upon the arms of the labourer
PICKS, MATTOCK, CROW-BAR, STONE-SLIDE.
4
Fig. 381.
Fig. 382.
317
when using it in hard ground containing many imbedded small stones. The
foot-pick, fig. 382, in such a case,
is an easier implement for him:
it stands 3 feet 9 inches in height.
The shank is of iron, & inch
square at the neck under the eye,
through which the cross handle
passes, and it is 14 inch broad at
the tramp. The tramp is movable,
and may be shifted to either side
of the shank to suit the working-
foot of the labourer, and it remains
firm at 16 inches from the point,
which inclines a little forward to
assist the lever power of the im-
plement in loosening hard soil or in
removing large stones. The cost is
6s. 6d. It is used in this manner:
The labourer raises it by the handle with both his hands, with the point bend-
ing away from him, and thrusts the point with force into the ground, and works
the pick down with the pressure of his foot upon the tramp, until the imple-
ment has penetrated as far as the tramp, which is 16 inches. He then pulls
the handle towards him, and the shank, acting as a lever upon the surface of
the ground as a fulcrum, the point raises the ground before it in a mass, or
displaces any stone that may be in its way. Should the ground be too hard to
yield entirely to the power of the man's arms alone, he increases his power
by sitting upon the handle, and pressing with successive impulses against it
with the weight of his body.
THE HAND-PICK.
THE FOOT-PICK.
Fig. 383.
1083. The Mattock. — In trenching ground, roots of trees or bushes may
sometimes be met with. No implement is so efficient in
cutting the ramified roots of trees or bushes as the com-
mon mattock, fig. 283, which has arms and helve of the
same dimensions as those of the hand-pick, fig. 381,
described above; but, instead of being pointed, one arm
has a horizontal and the other a vertical cutting-face of
3 inches in length.
1084. Iron Crow-Bar. In improving waste land, large
stones are frequently found imbedded in the soil, which the
ploughs, whether trenching or subsoiling, cannot remove
from their places. The stones which cannot easily be dis-
placed with the hand-pick, fig. 381, or even with the foot-
pick, fig. 382, may be so with the iron crow-bar, fig. 384. It is simply a strong
round bar of iron, 6 feet in length, tapering gradually from the lower end, which
is flattened and a little
Fig. 384.
THE MATTOOK.
turned up to give a
firmer grip of the
stone, to the upper
IRON CROW-BAR.
end, which is most commonly finished with a small knob. The crow-bar acts
simply as a lever of the first order, requiring a hard stone conveniently placed
for a fulcrum.
1085. Stone-Slide. The large stones which require the iron crow-bar, fig. 384,
to displace out of their position, are most easily taken out of the field by means
318
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
of a slide, fig. 385. It is made of two pieces of wood, at least 6 inches square,
a a, fastened together at one end at an angle by plates of iron secured with
ם
ㅁ
​b
b
(
a
Fig. 385.
Fig. 386.
STONE-SLIDE.
a
(
O
C
bolts and nuts, and the other ends are con-
nected by a 4-inch square bar b, fastened
with bolt and nut. A piece of a tree
naturally branched, as a and a are repre-
sented in fig. 385, is the strongest and
most convenient form of slide. A staple
with a ringed hook c, to attach a swing-
tree to, for one horse, is fastened at the
apex of the slide. Fig. 385 shows the
implement in plan, and fig. 386 in a side
elevation, where a a is one of the bars, b
the square connecting - bar, and c the
draught-hook. The under side of a a is
shod with iron, such as with the tire of an old cart-wheel, to save the wood
from wear.
Where the stones are large, two horses may require to be yoked,
with double swing-trees, fig. 288, to the draught-hook c.
Fig. 387.
Fig. 388.
1086. Jumper and Quarry-Hammer. When the stones are too large to be
removed by the slide, fig. 385, they will require
either to be buried out of reach in the soil,
or broken into convenient pieces by means
of gunpowder, for removal by cart or slide.
The burying of large stones in deep and capa-
cious holes is too expensive a process to be much
practised, but the blasting of stones is attended
with little difficulty. For that purpose two
instruments are mainly required-a jumper, fig.
387, and a quarry-hammer, fig. 388. The
jumper consists simply of a rounded bar of iron,
flattened at one end to a breadth exceeding the
diameter of the bar, and hardened, and at the
other into a flat knobbed head. The hammer
is of iron, of a rectangular form, with hardened
faces, and furnished with a wooden helve. The
jumper is used by one man holding it in a per-
pendicular position, and turning it progressively
round as it descends into the hole forming in the stone by the assistance of
water, while another man uses the hammer, with a short and firm hold of its
helve, in repeated smart strokes upon the top of the jumper. Very large
boulders require more than one blast to reduce their parts, so as to be easily
removed from the field either by cart or slide.
THE JUMPER.
THE QUARRY-HAMMER.
1087. The Hand-Barrow.-Stones of a size not easily lifted by the hands, and
those also which cannot be lifted in the arms, and yet are too small for the slide,
ITILDE
Fig. 389.
וב
Swan
THE HAND-BARROW.
fig. 385, are best removed from
the field by cart and horse. The
easiest way of loading the cart
with the largest stones is by
means of the hand-barrow, fig.
389, upon which a large stone can easily be canted, and then lifted up by
means of the hand-barrow by two or more men into the bottom of the cart. The
hand-barrow is of simple construction, sparred, as seen in fig. 389, or boarded.
1088. The sides are 5 feet to 5 feet long, 24 inches to 3 inches deep by 11
SPIRIT DRAINAGE-LEVELS.
319
inch thick in the middle. The five spars connecting the sides are about 21
inches by 11 inch, all mortised into the sides, the middle spars being cut off
flush on the outside, while the end ones project beyond the sides, and are
rounded off, a short wooden pin being driven through the projecting ends of the
tenons to keep the whole fabric together. All the spars have a small shoulder
to bear on each side, the tenon being smaller than the body of the spar.
1089. This is the sparred form of the hand-barrow; another is, that the
spars are boarded over, the boards extending to the outer edge of the sides.
The sparred hand-barrow answers for lifting large stones. The boarded one
is used for carrying any material that would fall through the spars.
1090. Draining Tools.-We shall now illustrate the different tools used in
draining. Draining is now universally acknowledged to
be the great fundamental operation in all improvements
tending to a superior cultivation of the soil.
Fig. 390.
d
、་
1091. The Spirit-Level.-In setting out drains, and in
determining their rate of inclination, a spirit-level is an
essential implement. A simple form of this is given in
fig. 390. It is furnished with eyesights a b, and when
in use it is placed in a slight framing of brass, which ope-
rates as a spring to adjust it to the level position d, by
the action of the large-headed brass screw c. A stud is
affixed to the framing, and pushed firmly into a gimlet-
hole on the top of the short rod e, the pointed shod
end of which is penetrated into the ground at the spot.
from whence the level is desired to be ascertained. The
brass framing is placed between the sights a b, with the
stud upwards, and a wooden cover put over it, when the
instrument is to be carried in the pocket.
1092. Thompson's Drainage-Level.—In fig. 391 we
illustrate the form of a drainage-level invented and manu-
factured by Mr H. A. Thompson, Lewes, and which has
received the prize of the Royal Agricultural Society, and
of the Paris Exhibition in 1856. It consists of a spirit-
level in a japanned frame a a, with brass graduated
arch b, and mounted on a tripod-stand c c c, with level-
ling-screws. An iron frame, which carries the two sights de, with cross
hairs, is adapted to this. This portion is capable of turning round in a centre,
α
THE SPIRIT-LEVEL.
Fig. 391.
a
and can be raised or lowered as desired. The ap-
paratus may be used as the ordinary spirit-level
illustrated in fig. 390, or by the use of the gradu-
ated arch. The rate of rise or fall to any given
point may be found by simple inspection. The
most favourable fall may also be ascertained by
it, by levelling and traversing the instrument in
the plane of the horizon. As iron is princi-
pally used in its construction, it is very dur-
able. In this level, the adjustment by the
parallel plates and screws at f is such, that
it can sweep round the entire horizon in one
parallel plane. The arc bis graduated to a per-
centage scale of 1 in 100, so that when the instru-
ment is adjusted to the level, and the eye-pieces and cross hairs moved vertically
till the cross hairs intersect an object the same height as the instrument placed
C
THOMPSON'S DRAINAGE-LEVEL.
320
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
at the outfall, the operator can at once read off, from the graduated arc at the side
of the instrument below b, the rate of fall. The cost is £1, 18s. with tripod-stand.
1093. Levelling-Staff for Drains.-The uniform fall in a drain in sloping
ground is easily ascertained by means of three levelling-staffs, fig. 392, with
cross-heads 9 inches long, two staffs being about 2 feet in length, and one to suit
itself in the drain to the height of the others. One short staff is held perpen-
dicularly on the ground at the upper end of the drain, and another similar one
at the lower end. The third staff, adjusted in height to the other two from
the bottom of the drain, is gradually moved from one end of the bottom
of the drain to the other; the superintendent, placing himself
at one end of the drain, and bringing his eye on a line with the
upper edges of the cross-heads of the two extreme staffs, observes
whether the upper edge of the long staff keeps in the line of
the other two. If it does, then the fall of the bottom of the
drain is uniform; but where it sinks below the other two, the
bottom has been too much scooped out, and must be filled up
with earth; and where it rises above them, the bottom is too
Fig. 392.
THE LEVELLING-STAFF,
FOR TESTING THE
UNIFORM FALL IN
DRAINS.
しし
​Fig. 393.
e
THE DRAINER'S PLUMB-LEVEL.
с
high, and must be cut
down. When the staffs
are painted of a con-
trasting colour, they
are most easily distin-
guished in use.
1094. The Drainer's
Plumb - Level. As a
safe guide in cases
where the fall is not de-
cidedly cognisable by
the sight, a mason's
plumb - level, such as
fig. 393, is a convenient
instrument for drainers. A mark at which the plummet-line d f will subtend an
angle with the plumb-line de equal to the angle of the fall of the drain,
zཎྜ
Fig. 394.
FALL -20
IN L15
100
10
เอ
THOMPSON'S WORKMAN'S BEVEL.
о
should be made at the top
of the opening e, which may
be supposed to be where the
plummet ƒ at present hangs;
by which arrangement it
is demonstrable that the
angle thus set off at e dƒ
must always be equal to the
angle ba c, which is the
angle of the inclination of
the fall.
1095. Thompson's Work -
man's Bevel. In fig. 394
we illustrate Thompson's
workman's bevel-an instru-
ment useful in carrying out
drains on a uniform slope.
This resembles closely fig.
393; indeed, only differs from it in this, that the perpendicular sides can be
DRAINING-SPADES.
Fig. 395.
321
lengthened or shortened by shifting the hypothenuse, so that it will form any
angle with the base which may be desired. The bolt which connects
the hypothenuse and the perpendicular, carries an index-head, and
works in a slot in the perpendicular. The rate of slope is indicated by
the index - point on the graduated scale; and the instrument is
maintained at this point by tightening the nut of the index-head.
In using the instrument the base is placed in the slope of the
drain, and the workman has to see that the plumb-line strikes the
centre.
1096. The Narrow Drain-Spade.-Whatever depth a drain has to
be made, it is essentially economical that it be cut as narrow as a
man can work in it. After the top of the drain has been removed
with the common spade, fig. 373, the narrow spade, fig. 395, follows
immediately after it, and being narrow it has a short cross-head on
the helve.
1097. The Draw-Earth Drain-Scoop.-Should the drain have stood
for some days new cut, immediately before the man proceeds to
lay the sole-tiles, the wet sludgy matter at the bottom should be
removed with the draw-earth drain-scoop, fig. 396.
The scoop
consists of a trough of iron of the breadth of the bottom of the drain, having a
perpendicularly raised edge on each side to retain the sludge. The helve is
Fig. 396.
THE NARROW
DRAIN-8PADE.
DRAW-EARTH DRAIN-SCOOP.
long to reach the bottom of the drain, while the labourer stands across it on the
ground, and it is fixed in a socket.
Fig. 397.
Fig. 399.
1098. The Drain Draw-Hoe.-Where a little dry earth remains at the bottom
of the drain, it is most easily re-
moved along with any small stones
with a narrow draw - hoe, fig. 397,
having a 2-feet helve and a 3-inch-
wide blade. Cost, 1s.
THE NARROW DRAW-HOE FOR DRAINS.
Fig. 398.
C
1099. The Drain-Trowel.-To pre-
pare the sole of the drain for bedding
the tiles flat, the mason's trowel, illus-
trated in fig. 398, will be useful.
lt is 7 inches long in the blade α,
inches in the handle c, and the crank, or return at b, 1½ inch in
height. In cast-steel it costs 2s.; in common steel, 1s. 3d.
5
THE TROWEL FOR DRAINS.
1100. The Narrowest Drain-Spade.—The lowest part of drains is
made much narrower than the upper, to save the expense of digging
out an unnecessary quantity of earth. To effect this, the narrowest
spade, fig. 399, is an appropriate instrument. It is only 4 inches
wide at the mouth, and is provided with a stud in front to press the
heel upon when the workman pushes the blade into the subsoil.
It serves to throw out the earth loosened by the last picking, and to
trim the sides of the bottom of the drain.
THE NARROW-
EST DRAIN-
SPADE.
1101. The Pushing Drain-Scoop.-The loose earth at the bottom of a drain,
left by the spades, is best removed when dry with a pushing-scoop, fig. 400.
X
322
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
This scoop finishes the bottom of a drain neatly. Its mouth is a semicircle of
iron, to which is attached a socket, in which the long helve is fixed. The
Fig. 400.
THE PUSHING DRAIN-SOOOP.
labourer pushes it from him along the bottom of the drain, while he stands
across it on the ground.
a
1102. The Planking of Drains.—The drain required to convey away the con-
C
d
Fig. 401.
e
F
tents of a copious and deep spring, and
of the waters of a lake, may have to be
dug to the depth of from 6 to 10 or 15
feet, according to the lowest depth of
the seat of the water to be removed.
Should the drain prove very wet, and
danger be apprehended of the sides
falling in, the whole division engaged
in for the time is taken out to the
bottom without stopping, in order to
let the conduit be built into the drain
as quickly as possible. Should the
earth have a tendency to fall in before
the bottom is reached, short thick
plants are provided, and placed against
the loose parts of both sides of the
drain in a perpendicular or horizontal
position, according to the form of the
loose earth, and there kept firm by
short stobs, acting as props between
the planks on both sides of the drain,
as in fig. 401, where a a are the sides
of the drain, d d planks placed per-
pendicularly against them, and kept in
their places by the short prop c; or
where it is necessary to have the planks placed horizontally, f and its opposite
neighbour is so placed, and kept in their position by the props e e.
THE POSITIONS OF PLANKS AND WEDGES TO PREVENT
THE SIDES OF DRAINS FALLING IN.
1103. Boring-Irons.—Where it has been ascertained that the strata under a
collection of water is gravelly, and the water is retained in its place by an
impervious stratum of clay over the gravel, the water will find a vent if a hole
be formed through the clay into the gravel, and this is most easily effected
by means of boring-rods. The boring-irons are made to open a passage through
various sorts of materials, such as impervious clay, thin rock and hard rock; and
one or all of these substances may have to be penetrated ere an adequate passage
be formed for the detained water to escape. Fig. 402 shows the various instru-
ments used in boring, where (1) the auger a is from 2 to 3 inches in dia-
meter, and about 16 inches in length in the shell, the sides of which are brought
pretty close together. It is used for drilling a hole in the ground, and bringing
up the drilled earth. When harder substances than earth are met with, such
as compact gravel or thin soft rock, (2) a pyramidal punch, b, is used to pene-
trate into and make an opening for the auger. When rock intervenes, then (3)
the chisel or jumper, c, is used to cut it through, the face of which should be of
BORING-IRONS, DRAIN-GAUGE.
greater breadth than the diameter of the auger used afterwards.
323
There are (4)
rods of iron d, each 3 feet long and 1 inch square, unless at the joints, which
Fig. 402.
FATAL
ル
​b
f
my
d
THE INSTRUMENTS FOR BORING THE SUB-STRATA OF DEEP DRAINS.
9
are 1½ inch in diameter, with a male screw at one end and a female at the
other, for screwing into any of the above instruments, or into one another, to
make them as long as to allow the descent of any of the instruments into their
working place. (5) The short iron key, e, is used for screwing and unscrewing
the rods from the instruments and from one another. (6) A cross-handle of
wood f, having a piece of rod attached to it, with a screw to fasten it to the
top of the uppermost rod, is used for the purpose of wrenching round the rods
and auger, and for lifting up and letting fall the rods and jumper, when these
are used respectively. (7) The long iron key g is used to support the rods and
instruments as they are let down and taken up, while the rods are screwed on
or off with the short key e.
Fig. 403.
Fig. 404.
a
૩
1104. Hammer for Breaking Stones for Drains.-Instead of throwing in stones
promiscuously large and small into drains, the large ones are broken in order
to pack them more firmly together
in the drain, and to prevent their
shifting in position. Fig. 403
represents a hammer well suited
for breaking the larger stones
for drains. It consists of a rectangular mass of iron from 44 lb.
to 6 lb. in weight, having one face square and the other rounded
like an egg, and both faces are steeled. The shaft is of ash, and
about 26 inches in length.
HAMMER FOR BREAKING STONES FOR DRAINS.
2
C
d
1105. The Drain-Gauge.-For the purpose of ascertaining
whether drains are cut out of the specified dimensions by the con-
tractors, a drain-gauge proves a handy implement, of which fig.
404 is a representation: a is a flat rod of wood, of greater length
than the depth of any drain to be cut; it is graduated into feet
and inches, commencing the scale from the lower end of the rod.
Fillets of wood are screwed on to the rod of such lengths as to correspond
to the width of the drain at the top, the middle, and the bottom, such as at
b c d. The rod a is put down by its upper part, which acts as a handle, with
THE DRAIN-GAUGE.
324
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
the arms b c d extending along the drain first to ascertain the depth by the
graduated scale; and which being ascertained, the rod is gently turned round,
while resting on its lower end on the bottom of the drain, until the points of the
arms b c d touch both sides of the drain. If the arms cannot come round square
to the sides of the drain, the drain is narrower than was intended, which can
do no harm; but if they cannot touch both sides, the drain is wider than
necessary, and should be objected to, and although the fault cannot be re-
medied, it may not be repeated. By the constant use of this gauge while the
cutting of drains is going on, much unnecessary work may be avoided.
1106. The Portable Drain-Screen or Harp.-A portable screen or harp is
雁
​Fig. 405.
h
g
α
с
God
3
Fig. 406.
THE DRAIN-STONE HARP OR SCREEN.
used for riddling and depositing the stones, as seen in fig. 405, which consists
of a wheelbarrow a, over and across which is suspended a
screen b, having the bars more or less apart, according to the
description of materials intended to be used. The upper end is
hung upon two posts c c, about 3 feet above the barrow, the
lower end rests upon the opposite side of the barrow. To this
lower end is affixed a spout d; attached about 10 inches from
the lower extremity of which is a board e, by means of two
arms ƒ, and which board e is supported at the farther side of the
drain at k from the barrow a. Another screen g, about one-half
the length of b, and having the bars about an inch apart, is
hung parallel, about 10 inches below the larger one b. The upper
end of g is fixed by means of two small iron bars h to the upper
end of the larger screen b; the lower end rests upon a board i
sloping outwards upon the side of the barrow opposite to that
on which the spout d is situate.
1107. The Frying-pan Shovel.—This is the most convenient
form of shovel for supplying drains with small stones, fig. 406.
It is heart-shaped, with a blunt point in front, and a raised back
for holding in stones, or for protecting the hand when this shovel
is used for spreading lime upon land out of carts. Its helve
is bent to prevent the greater stooping of the labourer, and it is
fixed to a socket, and furnished at top with a short cross-handle. Cost, 3s. 10d.
THE FRYING-PAN OR
LIME SHOVEL.
TOOLS FOR STONE AND BOG DRAINS.
325
1108. A Tail-board for Drain-Stones.-A movable trough, or, as it is commonly
called, a tail-board, a,
fig. 407, is attached to
the hind part of a cart,
for the purpose of re-
ceiving any stones that
may drop while the
workmen are shovel-
ling them out of the
cart. A portion of the
hind part of a cart b
shows the manner in
which it is affixed to it.
1109. Drain - Stone
Rake. Fig. 408 is a
small iron rake used
by the workman in
charge of the drain,
for the purpose of
bringing the surface
of the larger stones to
a uniform height be-
fore being covered with
the smaller.
O
Cl
Fig. 407.
O O
THE TAIL-BOARD TROUGH FOR RECEIVING THE DRAIN-STONES IN THEIR FALL.
Fig. 408
THE DRAIN-STONE RAKE.
1110. The Drain-Stone Beater.-Fig. 409 is the drain-stone Roman beater,
which is a square piece of wood, the width of the drain, used for beating the
smaller stones into the interstices of the larger ones, and thus levelling the
surface of the stones, and making it compact.
1111. Draining of Bogs.-The
draining of bogs requires imple-
ments peculiarly suited for the
purpose. They are not numer-
ous, but efficient.
1112. The Edging-Iron.-The
easiest mode of lining out the
top of a drain in a bog is by fol-
lowing a garden line with the
edging-iron, fig. 410. It consists
of a crescent-shaped blade, hav-
ing a sharp face along the seg-
ment, and the back not very
thick. The helve, furnished
with a short cross-head, is about
4 feet long, and is fixed in a
socket attached to the blade.
Fig. 409.
THE DRAIN-STONE BEATER.
Fig. 410.
Fig. 411.
THE EDGING-IRON.
THE BROAD-
MOUTHED SHOVEL
1113. The Broad-mouthed Shovel.
-The first spit after the edging-
iron, fig. 410, has cut out the line
of the drain in the bog, is best cut and taken out with the broad-mouthed
shovel, fig. 411. It consists of a broad thin blade, slightly hollowed in the
centre. The helve is slightly curved, furnished with a short cross-head, and
fixed into a split hose like the common spade. Being broad and light, this
shovel can cast out a very large turf.
326
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
1114. The Horizontal Spade.—This is a new spade, and is so named because it
Fig. 413.
Fig. 412.
THE HORIZONTAL SPADE.
works in a horizontal direction. Where
footing can be found in a bog, this
spade is the most efficient implement
for cutting out the turf below the first
spit cast out by the broad-mouthed
shovel, fig. 411. Where no footing is
to be had, by reason of the softness of
the peat, this spade is not so useful.
It consists of a blade of iron, rounded
and sharpened in front. The socket.
attached to the blade is long and
bent, so as to keep the blade in a
horizontal position while the labourer
uses the handle at the ordinary height from the ground. The helve, which is
straight, is fixed in the socket, and furnished with a short cross-head.
1115. The Peat-Tile Spade. Tiles made of dried peats have been recom-
mended for the drainage of land where peats are near, and
tiles and stones distant. In case of such a locality requiring
draining, a peat-tile may be made by a spade contrived by Mr
Hugh Calderwood, bricklayer, Ayrshire. It consists of an iron
cutting-part, fig. 413, of a semi-cylindrical form, furnished with
a flange on each edge, and a cutting tongue at the extremity of
one of the flanges. It is provided with a cross-headed helve,
which is inserted into a socket attached to the cutting part.
THE CALDERWOOD
PEAT-TILE SPADE-
TOOL.
1116. The Peat-Tile for Drains.-The tile cut out of the peat
by this spade has the appearance represented in fig. 414, where
two separate tiles, a and b, are placed one above the other, leav-
ing a circular opening in the centre between them. One man can
cut from 2000 to 3000 such tiles every day, which, after being
thoroughly dried by the weather, are fit for use.
Fig. 414.
b
α
THE PEAT TILE FOR
DRAINS.
1117. The Drain-Water Metre.-It is desirable at
times to ascertain the quantity of water discharged
by drains in a given time. Mr Milne Home of
Wedderburn, Berwickshire, has contrived a ma-
chine by which the discharge of water from drains.
may be measured accurately enough for all practical
purposes. Fig. 415 is a view in vertical section of
the drain - water metre, where a is the main-tile
drain-mouth which discharges the water of the
drains, and supplies it at that particular part to the metre; bf is a vessel made.
of sheet-iron in the form of a solid rhomboid, open on two of its sides. The
vessel is attached by a tumbling-joint at one of its angles upon an upright iron
stud d, and it receives the water from the drain a; c is an upright iron spindle,
which carries a toothed rack at its upper end, which sets in motion a series
of graduated wheels and racks, that mark the tenths, hundredths, "and
thousandths of gallons of water discharged in a specified time, the same as
does the index of a gas-metre. The vessel bf is divided in the middle by a
diaphragm represented by the perpendicular dotted lines. When the part b
becomes full of water, that side of the vessel descends by its gravity towards the
bottom of the box h h in which it is placed, by turning upon the tumbling-
joint at d, in doing which it moves the ratchet-wheel e on the spindle c by means
of a short lever attached to the vessel, as shown at d. On the vessel descend-
DRAIN-WATER METRE, FLAUCHTER-SPADE.
Fig. 415.
a
327
ing, it discharges its water from the box by means of the aperture g, situated
on the right side at the bottom. As the
one-half of the vessel b descends and
empties its water, the other half f
ascends to receive the water from a,
and on being filled also descends and
discharges the water at the left side
of the box through the aperture g.
When the half ƒ of the vessel descends,
it does not act on the ratchet-wheel
e, but simply draws the short lever
back over the teeth of the ratchet-wheel,
so that the set of wheels and racks at
c really indicate only half the quantity
of water which has been discharged from
the drain.
2
g
b
h
d
e
THE DRAIN-WATER METRE.
Fig. 416.
1118. Paring Implements.-The common No. 5 garden-spade, fig. 373, with a
sharp edge, and its corners a little worn by work, removes the rough herbage of
the surface very well, and the turf can be set up at the same time by the work-
men to be dried; but the labour of paring and burning in this manner is expen-
sive, and is therefore seldom incurred, although the spade might be usefully
employed in some cases in assisting the other means of paring—that is, by the
paring-ploughs, as figs. 284 and 285-and its work would then be economical.
1119. The Flauchter-Spade.-A more efficient and expeditious implement for
paring turf is a spade of a different
form, fig. 416, the face of which is
angular and sharp, the blade 9 inches
broad and 15 inches long; the right-
hand and straight side of which is
turned up 3 inches, with a cutting
edge in front; the helve is 5 feet
long, and flat, provided with a flat
cross-handle 2 feet long, with its
plane at right angles to that of the
helve. The blade of the spade is set
at such an angle with the helve, as
to permit the handle to be elevated
to the height of a man's haunches,
when the blade rests on its sole, when
THE FLAUCHTER-SPADE AT WORK.
at work, flat upon the ground. This instrument is called in Scotland the
flauchter-spade, from the Teutonic verb to flauch or take off the skin; and the
mode of using it will at once show the impropriety of the English term of the
breast-plough, the breast of the worker never touching it.
Fig. 417.
1120. The Hedge-Spade.-Fig. 417 represents an implement for paring the
face of a hedge-bank of the rank grass that may
have grown there. It consists of a rectangular
blade, with a sharp face; a socket and stem are
attached to the blade, bent as much as to free
THE HEDGE-SPADE.
the labourer's hands from the bank when using the spade. The helve, 2 feet
long, and furnished with a short cross-head, is fixed into the socket.
1121. Carriage for conveying Harrows, &c.-In fig. 418 is given an illustra-
tion of a carriage for removing harrows from one field to another: it consists
of a frame of wood, sparred, in length to take on a pair of harrows coupled with
328
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
their master swing-tree, and in breadth perhaps 34 feet. The hind-part of the
frame rests on crutches supported upon the axle of two wheels, the upper part
Fig. 418.
of the rim of which is below the level
of the top part of the frame; and the
fore-part rests upon a castor which al-
lows the carriage to be turned when
desired. A horse is yoked to two eyes
in the fore-bar of the frame by the hooks
of the plough-chains, to draw the car-
riage by. The harrows are piled one above the other upon the framing.
Such a carriage may convey other articles to and from the fields.
ས་
THE CARRIAGE FOR CONVEYING HARROWS, &c.
1122. The Weed-Hook.-It consists of an acute hook of iron, flattened, of the
form of fig. 419, with the two inner edges as far set asunder as to embrace
Fig. 419.
THE WEED-HOOK.
the stem of succulent herbaceous plants, and made as sharp as easily to cut
through them. The cutting-hook is attached to a neck of iron, which is forged
at the other extremity into the form of a socket, to take in the end of a light
wooden handle about 4 feet in length, to which it is fastened by means of a nail
or screw. The neck is bent in the form that, when the under surface of the
hook rests upon the ground, the handle shall be so inclined as to suit the hand
of the worker. The weed-hook is used with one hand, the worker walking up-
right, and holding it by the handle before her in an inclined position towards
the ground, and drawing it towards her with a jerk. Cost, 6d.
1123. We have seen a weed-hook with its outer edge also sharpened, for
cutting weeds with a push forwards; but such a one cannot be used amongst
standing corn, since its sharp outer edge would inevitably cut its stems.
1124. The Hand Draw-Hoe.-The hand draw-hoe, fig. 420, consists of a thin
iron plate a, faced with steel, 7 inches
a
Fig. 420.
THE HAND DRAW-HOE.
с
in length and 4 inches in breadth, with
an eye b to receive the handle c, usu-
ally made of fir, to make the imple-
ment as light in the hand as possible.
The hand draw-hoe is used for weeding corn sown in rows, as also for singling
turnips. In weeding corn it is used by field-workers, who each take a drill,
and hoe the ground between the rows, and when the corn is dibbled, be-
tween the plants also. In weeding rowed corn it is necessary for the field-
workers each to occupy a row; and to prevent their jostling one another, the
one in the centre of the band takes the lead in an advanced position, while
the others range themselves on each side in echelon. In singling turnips the
shaft c of the hoe should not exceed 3 feet in length, although in some parts
of the country it is 4 feet, whilst in others it is 33 inches. The shorter
the shaft is, the better for the work, as it enables the worker to stoop closer
to the ground, although that position is severe upon the worker.
1125. The Dutch-Hoe.-The Dutch-hoe, fig. 421, consists of a thin plate of
Fig. 421.
THE DUTCH-HOE.
iron steeled on the face, 7 inches
in length, having its two extre-
mities connected with a bow of
iron rod, to which is attached a
ich the handle, 5 feet in length, furnished with an oblique
TURNIP FLY-CATCHER, PICKLING APPARATUS.
329
cross-head, is fixed. It is used by a push forwards, and is useful in weeding
the face and top of the bank behind a hedge.
g
g
Fig. 422.
d
h
1126. Turnip-Fly Catcher.-In fig. 422 we give a view in perspective of a
turnip-fly catcher, patented
by Mr Morris, and manu-
factured by Messrs Banks
and Nixon, Nottingham.
It consists of a light hori-
zontal framework a b, car-
ried by two wheels c d, and
guided and propelled by
the handle eff, the two
side-bars of which, ff, are a
continuation of two of the
horizontal bars of the frame
ab. Two diagonal stays,
g g, connect the fore part of
(
THE TURNIP-FLY CATCHER.
the frame a b with the handle-bars ff, and are provided with slots at their upper
end. These slots slide on bolts connected to the handle-bars ƒ ƒ, and admit
of adjustment at various points. The height of the frame a b from the
ground is adjusted by means of the lever h h, the lower end of which is con-
nected with a bar of the frame a b. The lever is adjusted at any desired angle
by a pin or bolt passing into an aperture in the bar i, fixed at its lower end
to one of the bars of the frame a b. The wheels c d run in bearings in the upper
part of the bars k, the lower ends of which are jointed to the sides of the frame
a b. As the handle e is depressed, the lower end of the diagonal stays g g is
elevated, and this raises the lower ends of the bars k, and depresses their
upper, thereby raising the frame a b farther from the ground, and vice versâ.
1127. To the under side of the frame a b, a curtain of light canvass is attached,
the lower surface of which is smeared with an adhesive compound. As the
machine is propelled forward along the drill of turnip-plants affected by the
turnip-fly, the curtain brushes up the insects from off the plants, and carries
them away adhering to the adhesive compound.
1128. Pickling Apparatus for Wheat.-To insure wheat from the attacks of
fungal disease, it is considered ad-
Fig. 423.
C S.
FFLD11848
visable to "pickle" it—that is, sub-
ject it to a preparation in a certain
kind of liquor immediately before
it is sown. In fig. 423 we illus-
trate the apparatus used for this
purpose, where a is the sack of
wheat to be pickled, b the basket
into which the wheat is put, c is
the tub which contains the pickle,
and into which the basket b is im-
mersed in the pickle; d is the basket
containing the pickled wheat, set upon the drainer e, over the tub f, to drip
the superfluous pickle into; g is the heap of pickled wheat, and h are the empty
sacks to contain the pickled wheat for sowing.
PICKLING APPARATUS FOR WHEAT.
ル
​1129. The Seed Rusky.—Fig. 424 is the seed-rusky or basket for carrying the
seed in the field from the sacks to the sower. It is usually made of twisted
straw laid in rows above each other, and fastened together by means of withes
330
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE CULTIVATION OF THE SOIL.
of willow. It is provided with a couple of handles of the same material,
Fig. 424.
LEAV
sufficient to admit the points of the fingers, and also
a rim around the bottom, upon which it stands.
1130. The Sowing-Sheet.-The sower is habited in a
peculiar manner; he puts on a sowing-sheet made of
linen. The most convenient form of sowing-sheet is
that of a semi-spheroid, having an opening at one side
of its mouth large enough to allow the head and right
arm to pass through, and by which it is suspended
over the left shoulder. On distending its mouth with
both hands, and on receiving the seed into it, the
superfluous portion of the sheet is wound over the left arm and gathered into
the left hand, by which it is held tightly, while the load of corn is securely
THE SEED-CORN RUSKY.
Fig. 425.
W
SEED-SOWING FROM THE SOWING.SHEET.
་་་་་་་..··
supported by that part of it which
passes over the left shoulder across
the back and under the right arm.
The right arm, which throws the
seed, finds easy access to the corn
from the comparatively loose side of
the mouth of the sheet, between the
left hand and the body of the sower.
1131. A square sheet, knotted
together in three of its corners, and
put on in a similar manner, is some-
times used as a sowing-sheet; but
one formed and sewed of the proper
shape, and kept for the purpose, is
a much better article.
1132. Linen sheeting makes an
excellent material for a sowing-
sheet, and when washed at the
end of the sowing season, will last
many years. The difficult point
is to make the sowing-sheet fit the
top of the left shoulder of the sower,
where the greater part of the weight
this, the principal thing to be con-
of the corn is felt; and, in accomplishing
sidered is, to make the plain part, which lies upon the shoulder, broad enough,
Fig. 426.
THE ENGLISH SOWING-BASKET.
and to slope it with the shape of the
shoulder. The gatherings of the cloth
on each side of the shoulder-top should
be flatly executed, and a couple of
tapes placed in a slot-hem in front of
the sheet across the breast.
1133. The English Sowing - Basket.
-A basket of wicker - work, such
as in fig. 426, is very commonly used
in England for sowing seed. It is
suspended by girthing, fastened to
the two loops shown in the figure,
on the rim of the basket, and passed
either over the left shoulder and under
HORSE-RAKE.
331
the right arm, or round the back of the neck; and the left hand holds it steady
by the head of the wooden stave shown on the other side of the basket from the
loops.
1134. Double-handed Sowing Apparatus.-Some sowers throw the seed with
both hands, and then the instrument must be made to suit the practice. In
this case a linen sheet will not answer; a basket or box made of thin deal,
having a curved form to suit the front of the body, should be used. It is
fastened round the body by a strap and buckle, and is suspended besides by
girthing fastened to loops on the side next the sower, and passed round the
back of his neck; and the further side is suspended by a strap passing upwards
towards the chin of the sower, where it divides into two, and passes over both
shoulders, and is made fast to the strap buckled round the body.
1135. A more simple form of sowing-sheet for both hands is a linen bag
attached to a rim of iron-rod, made to suit the form of the body, buckled round
it, and suspended in front in the manner described in par. 1134. In either
construction both hands are at liberty to cast the seed.
Fig. 427.
1136. The Scoop for filling Water-Barrels.—Fig. 427 represents a convenient
form of scoop for filling water-barrels at
a spring or rivulet. It consists of a
small tub of cooper-work, hooped with
iron, and furnished with a shaft long
enough to enable the workman to reach
from the water to the funnel of the barrel.
THE SCOOP FOR FILLING THE WATER-BARREL.
DIVISION SECOND.-IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINES CONNECTED WITH
THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
1137. SECTION FIRST-Hay-Making Machines.
1138. The Horse-Rake.-The horse-rake is an implement much used for col-
lecting the hay into heaps. The varieties of it are numerous, but all possess
the properties of collecting to a certain amount, and then, by a simple opera-
tion of the hand, dropping in a collected mass the quantity of hay or straw
thus accumulated in the machine.
1139. One of the most common forms of the horse-rake is represented in
perspective by fig. 428, and somewhat more in detail by fig. 429, which is a
longitudinal section of the body and adjoining parts, the same letters marking
corresponding parts in the two figures. The body of the machine consists of
a main beam a a, 9 feet long and 3 inches square, and another a swing-bar b b
of equal length, but only 21 inches square, and these are bolted together upon
two side-bars c c, also 21 inches square, but only 2 feet 9 inches long, and the
main beam a and swing-bar b are further supported by two intermediate bars
d d, which, in the vertical direction, are bent as seen in section, fig. 429; these,
at their junction with the main beam, are tenoned instead of being bolted, but
are bolted upon the swing-bar. A pair of handles, e e, are jointed upon the
thorough-bolt n, fig. 429, and are bolted to the lifting-bar f, which rests at each
end on wooden nogs tenoned into the swing-bars c c, and the ends of the
lifting-bar ƒ are each furnished with a thumb-screw for adjusting the height
of the bar. The axles g are kneed to stand 5 inches below the main beam a,
and are bolted to it directly at the tail of the axle, and also through the stud-
332
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
bracket at the neck. The wheels h are 20 inches diameter, of light make in
cast-iron, and the horse-shafts ii, worked to such a curvature that they shall
Fig. 428.
..
i
i
a
y
b
k
m
m
m
k i a
с
d
THE HAY AND STUBBLE HORSE-RAKE.
be of the proper height for the horses' shoulders when the body of the imple-
ment stands level, are bolted to the main beam a and intermediate bars d at k
;
and are likewise supported by the iron stays ll. It is also to be observed, that
77.
in both figures the horse-shafts ii are partially or altogether broken off for want
of space.
The machine is armed with twenty tines or teeth m m, &c., which
are 18 inches high from the ground-line x x, fig. 429, to the upper edge of the
Fig. 429.
४
୯.
k
a
п
g
12
6
0
4
p
d
N'
b
m
1
2
2
feet
e
SECTION AND SCALE OF THE HAY AND STUBBLE HORSE-RAKE.
rake-head n n', each tooth being fixed into a separate head with a screwed
tail and nut, while at the point they are bent forward and sharpened, but are
adjusted so as not to run into the ground. The rake-heads are threaded upon
the bolt n, which extends from side to side of the machine, and between each
two rake-heads a wooden stretcher-roller is applied, preserving the heads at the
SMITH'S COUNTERBALANCE HORSE-RAKE.
333
proper distance, and through these, as well as the handles e e, the bolt n also
passes. Seven stripping-rods p, bent as in fig. 429, are attached to the main
beam a and the swing-bar b by bolts, and each of the rake-heads n' are attached
to the lifting-bar ƒ by means of a short chain q, whereby, when the handles e
are lifted, the bar ƒ and all the rake-tines are lifted from the ground by one
operation; and when let down again till the lifting-bar f, or its adjusting screws,
rest on their studs, each tine is then at liberty to rise and fall a small space, as
the inequality of the ground or any obstruction may require.
1140. In the act of working, the machine advances till the tines m have col-
lected as much hay or straw as can be contained in the bosom of the tines and
heads; and when thus filled, the attendant, by lifting the handles e, causes the
tines to be drawn upward through amongst the stripping-rods p, which dis-
charge the contents of the rake upon the ground; the handles e are imme-
diately let down to the working position, and the work proceeds as before.
1141. As a stubble-rake this horse-rake is in very general use, and is highly
prized from its efficiency in gleaning stubbles.
1142. The usual price of this horse-rake is from £3, 10s. to £3, 15s.
1143. Smith's Counterbalance Horse-Rake.—Amongst the many varieties of
patent horse-rakes now in use, may be noticed that of Mr Thomas Smith of
Bradfield, Suffolk, as possessing arrangements of simplicity and efficiency.
The principal feature of the invention is, combining with the tines or teeth
counterbalance-weights; these tend to raise the teeth from the land, and pre-
vent them from sinking in and doing injury to the ground—an objection which
obtains against some forms of rakes. By the arrangement here adopted, due
strength can be given to the tines without increasing their pressure on the
land; and the whole, by a simple system of levers, are easily thrown out of
contact with the material operated upon. In fig. 430 we give a perspective.
Fig. 430.
e
b
α
{TATT
α
с
SMITH'S COUNTERBALANCE HORSE-RAKE.
view of this machine, in fig. 431 a plan of half, in fig. 432 a side view, and
in fig. 433 a vertical section through the dotted central line at m in fig. 431.
1144. The following is a description of the arrangement and operation of the
various parts: The frame a a, fig. 430, and shafts b, are made of wrought-iron,
and are mounted upon wheels e e, 1 foot 7 inches diameter, these being capable
of being raised or lowered as required. A central bar or axis d d, fig. 431,
connects the two side-frames a a, and carries a series of bosses e e, &c. These
bosses are provided with projections at the two extremities of the diameter,
to which the tines ƒ ƒ, &c. are bolted on one side, and the counterbalance-
weights and levers g g, &c., on the other.
334
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
1145. The tines ff, &c. rest upon a bar h h, fig. 431, parallel to the axis d d;
four levers iiii are provided with eyes through which the central axis d passes.
α
C
h
Fig. 431.
b
~.
b
a
a
Titl
PLAN OF COUNTERBALANCE HORSE-RAKE-
SCALE,INCH TO THE FOOT.
d
Fig. 132.
k
22
h
h
α
У
d
i
a.
с
e
b
1
END ELEVATION OF HORSE-RAKE-SCALE, & INCH TO THE FOOT.
The extremities of the longest arms of these levers are fixed to the bar h h,
those of the shortest arms to the bar k k. To the centre of this bar k k a lever,
fig. 432, is jointed, the upper extremity of which is jointed to the main handle
or working-lever k k.
1146. When it is required to lift the tines out of contact with the ground, the
g
e Fig. 433.
k
a
g
d
с
b
SECTION OF COUNTERBALANCE HORSE-KAKE-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
weights g g, the tines are raised with great
outer extremity of the lever
k k, fig. 432, is depressed;
this bears down the lever i,
which, acting on the bar k k,
fig. 431, depresses it, and
with it the short arms of the
levers i i, the long arms of
which are raised, and with
them the bar h h, on which
the tines ff rest. From the
action of the counterbalance-
ease. As they pass upwards.
they are cleared from the hay by the action of the clearer-rod 7 l, fig. 431.
1147. Where the pressure of the tines on the land is required to be increased,
Fig. 434.
d
ს
a
d
DETAILS OF TINE OF HORSE-RAKE-SCALE,
Fig. 435.
C
INCH TO THE FOOT.
a
b
the counterbalance-weights are
attached to the levers, as shown
in fig. 434, a joint being made
at a to enable the weight b and
lever c to be turned back, rest-
ing upon the tine dd, as shown
by the dotted lines. Another
method of adjusting the pres-
sure on the tines is shown at
fig. 435, where the weight a is adjusted at any point of the length of the lever
bby the pinching-screw c.
1148. With a rake 7 feet 6 inches wide, the price of the implement is
ENGLISH HAY-TEDDING MACHINE.
335
£7, 10s.; when the width of the rake is 9 feet 3 inches, the price is £8, 15s.
The price of the shifting counterbalance-weight, as in fig. 435, is 8s. extra.
1149. The Hay-tedding Machine.-We have now to notice the hay-tedding
machine, which is extensively employed by the English farmers in the prepa-
ration of meadow-hay, prepared from the mixed natural grasses, in contradis-
tinction from the artificial rye-grass and clover hay. The modes of saving or
winning these two kinds of hay are different even in England, where hay-
making is best understood; while in Scotland all hay-making is decidedly
bad, rye-grass hay being the chief kind of hay in Scotland. But it is highly
probable that rye-grass hay might be prepared by the English method, greatly
to the advantage of its nutritive qualities.
1150. The chief objection to the hay-tedding machine in Scotland is, that,
in the peculiarity of its action, it scatters the seed out of the rye-grass. The
objection originates in the perseverance of a bad method of raising hay. When
the rye-grass is allowed to stand so long before it is mowed as to ripen its seed,
it has stood too long to become good hay. When the rye-grass is mown in its
best state for hay, there is no seed in it to scatter abroad. When rye-grass is
grown for the sake of its seed, it should be treated in an entirely different
manner from what it should be when made into hay. The tedding-machine, in
truth, is just as capable of making good hay in Scotland as in England.
1151. The English Hay-tedding Machine.—A form of this machine is given in
perspective in Plate XVI., fig. 2, consisting of a skeleton carriage, and having a
series of revolving rakes occupying the place of the body. The carriage is com-
posed of the transverse bar a, 6 feet in length, into which the horse-shafts b b
are tenoned. An iron stay-bar c c on each side connects and supports the shafts,
and the stays are continued backward, and attached to the centre of the box
that carries the axle of the carriage-wheel on each side. The length of the bars c,
from a to the centre of the axle-box, is 3 feet 10 inches, and the bars are 24 inches
by inch. The carriage-wheels d d are 3 feet 10 inches diameter, and turn upon
arms cast on a circular box, into which the nave of the wheel, armed with a
ratchet e, is received. The ratchet-wheel e, thus attached to the nave of the
carriage-wheel, takes hold of the spur-wheel ƒ by means of a pawl, and carries
it round when the machine advances, but slips hold on backing or turning. The
spur-wheel ƒ works into the pinion g, which is mounted on the end of the hollow
shaft h, extending from side to side of the machine; and though in the figure,
for the sake of distinctness, the spur-wheel and pinion are exposed to view, they
are in the machine closely boxed up in a cast-iron casing, which, for perfect
and safe working, is necessary to prevent entanglement from the hay falling
between the wheel and pinion. A connecting-bar of 1½ inch round iron passes
through the hollow shaft h, and has its end fitted tightly into the outward side
of the case that contains the pinion g, and there fixed firmly with a screw-nut
on the outside of the case; and the hollow shaft and pinions being firmly
connected by thin flanges (which are left out of the figure), they revolve round
the central rod or shaft as one body, the rod having turned bearings where
the pinion embraces it.
1152. The two rake-wheels ii are 2 feet 8 inches diameter, and of very
light construction; they have eyes sufficiently large to pass over the end flanges,
of about 6 inches diameter, of the hollow shaft h, to which the pinions g are
attached by means of their flanges; and, to fill up the large eyes of the rake-
wheels, the shaft h is swelled out at the points of bearing. The rake-wheels,
fixed dead upon the shaft h, are now armed with the eight rakes kk; these are
wooden bars 5 feet 6 inches long, and 2 inches square, each carrying ten light
336
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
iron teeth, about 7 inches in length. The rakes are attached to the wheels
by a tumbling-joint m, and are held to the work by the springs only;
by which arrangement, when any undue resistance is opposed to a rake,
such as a stone or other obstruction, the rake falls back till the obstruc-
tion has been passed, when the springs immediately return it to its working
position.
1153. It will be observed that there is no thorough-axle in the machine, as
the revolution of the rake occupies the place where that member should exist;
hence the axle-arms or heads are simply studs projecting from the box which
contains the machinery efg, and hence also the necessity for the connecting-
bar which passes through the hollow shaft; that, together with the transverse
bar a and the stay bars c c, being the only parts which constitute the frame-
work of the machine.
1154. Besides the capability of backing, without turning the rakes, there
is provision for disengaging them when the machine is advancing. To effect
this, the pawl which is attached to the spur-wheel ƒ, for the purpose of deriv-
ing its motion from the ratchet-wheel e of the nave, is held in action by means
of a spring pressing on the tail of the pawl, and the disengagement of the whole
machinery from the carriage-wheel or first mover is effected by a small tumbling-
lever affixed also to the spur-wheel, and fitted to bear upon and throw the pawl out
of gear with the ratchet of the carriage-wheel nave. The machine is also fur-
nished with the means of elevating and depressing the centre of the revolving-
rake, and, of consequence, bringing the rake-teeth nearer to, or farther from,
the ground, and this is effected by turning round the circular boxes that contain
the gearing to the extent required, which is then fixed by means of a quadrant
bolted to the bars c c; a small portion of this quadrant, which is a part or
flange of the gearing-box, is seen with its bolt-holes at e on the left, and at ion
the right of the figure.
-
1155. When in operation the machine is drawn by one horse, or sometimes
two horses, and the result of the combination of the gearing is, that the
revolving - rake makes 4 revolutions for one of the carriage wheel. The
latter, being 3 feet 10 inches diameter, will pass over 12 feet or thereby in
one revolution, and the rakes being 4 feet 6 inches diameter over the extreme
points of the teeth, will describe a circle of about 14 feet in circumference,
and this revolving 4 times for one of the other, the points of the teeth will
pass through 63 feet while the carriage has moved over 12 feet, and as there are
eight rake-heads, there will be 8 × 4.5 = 36 contacts with the substance which
is to be lifted, in a space of 12 feet, or one at every 4 inches. From this
calculation it will be seen that the hay under the operation of this machine
will undergo a process of teazling or tedding of the most perfect description;
it will be separated and tossed about until no two stems of the plants will be
left in contact, and by this exposure the drying process is effected in a period
greatly shorter and more effectually than could be done by any number of
hands. Thus, if we suppose the horse to walk 21 miles per hour, and the
machine to cover 6 feet in breadth, we have a surface of 12 acre nearly covered
in an hour.
1156. Smith and Ashby's Hay-tedding Machine.—We have now to illustrate
and describe a hay-tedding machine which enjoys a high reputation-namely,
that of Messrs Smith and Ashby of Stamford. Of this we give a perspective
view in fig. 436. By referring to fig. 2, Plate XVI., the reader will perceive
that the rakes k k are in one piece, stretching from side to side of the
machine. In the improved machines, as in fig. 436, the rakes are fixed to
SMITH AND ASHBY'S HAY-TEDDING MACHINE.
337
two sets of revolving frames, each frame being worked by separate gearing at
each end of the machine. By this arrangement, when turning, the outer
Fig. 436.
W VILLAS
SMITH AND ASHBY'S HAY-IEUDING MACHINE IN PERSPECTIVE.
wheel keeps one-half of the rakes in motion; whereas, in the old method, in that
above noticed in par. 1151, wherever the turning occurred in the working-
wheel, the machine necessarily missed its work.
1157. In the early machines, " tedding," or turning the hay under and com-
pletely over the machine, was the only operation intended to be performed by
them. Now, however, another process in hay-making by machine is required,
namely, slightly raising from the ground and scattering behind the machine
the hay which was deposited by the complete turning-over action of the
machine in the first instance. There are thus two actions-one the "forward,"
in which the hay is lifted from the ground and turned completely over; the
other the "backward," in which the hay is scattered very lightly from behind the
machine, not turned over. Messrs Smith and Ashby's machine is furnished
with this reversing action.
a
Fig. 437.
1158. In the machine now under consideration, each tine in the revolv-
ing frame is supported by double bearings of wrought-iron, and is fitted with
two strong steel springs: this arrangement enables the heaviest crops to
be thrown up without clogging. In fig. 437 we give a
detail figure of a tooth or tine. Part of the tine or tra-
verse bar, which supports five teeth (as shown in fig.
436), is shown at a b; c d is part of a spring, the end of
which towards d is fixed to the head of the preceding
cross or traverse bar, the other end being free, and press-
ing upon the shoe e f; g is the tooth or tine resting
upon the spring: its upper end passes through the bar
a b and the iron shoe e f, and is secured by a nut as
shown. The traverse bar a b is jointed at the ends to
the radial bars of the revolving frame, so that it is
capable of being moved round in manner like a shaft.
extremity of the tooth g and pulling it outwards, the bar a b rotates on its centre,
and makes the point e of the shoe ƒ describe an arc of a circle, the end of the
spring c still pressing upon the back of the shoe till the outer point ƒ comes
in contact with the end of the spring c. In this position the end of the tooth g is
placed upwards, the assemblage of teeth on the cross bars being ready for work
Y
d
g
TINE OF SMITH AND ASHBY'S HAY-
TEDDING MACHINE.
By taking hold of the
338
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
as shown in fig. 436. When the tines meet any obstruction while working,
In addi-
the springs give way and allow the points of the tines to pass over.
tion to those two positions of which the tines are capable, a third can be given
to them by carrying the bar a b, fig. 437, further round in the direction of c.
1159. The driving-gear is very similar to that of the machine in fig. 2,
Plate XVI. In fig. 438, which is part of a longitudinal section of Messrs Smith
and Ashby's machine, now under consideration, a shows the lever (broken off)
Fig. 438.
h
e
PANT SECTION OF SMITH AND ASHBY'S HAY-TEDDING MACHINE.
which is within the control of the driver. This acts upon a long rod, which passes
through the hollow main-shaft, and moves the wheels at each side of the
machine, and puts them at the same time in and out of gear.
1160. Another feature in the machine is the mechanism by which the revolv-
ing frames are raised from or lowered to the ground as desired. This is shown in
fig. 438. To the bracket c, attached near the end of the driving-shaft h, and which
is strengthened by the triangular stays as shown, an endless screw works; this
engages with the teeth of a segmental rack b, the spindle of which works on a stud
in the bracket c. To the end of the spindle of this rack a lever d is keyed, the
upper extremity of which is jointed to the end of the lever e. The further
extremity of this lever e is jointed to a stud ƒ fixed in the case or cap g, which
contains the driving-gear that gives motion to the revolving frames. By working
the handle of the endless screw in one direction, the end of the lever d is made
to traverse outwards towards b, pulling the lever e, and causing the stud f,
and the case to which it is attached, to move towards b: this raises the central
shaft of the revolving frames further from the ground; but by turning the handle
in the reverse direction, the end of the lever d moves inwards from the point
b, and, pushing the stud ƒ in the direction opposite to b, the central axis of the
revolving frame is placed nearer to the ground.
1161. In this form of hay-tedding machine, the length of the tine-bars, sup-
porting each five tines or teeth, is 2 feet 6 inches, the section of the bar being
2 inches by 1 inch. The bars are placed in a circle, as shown in the perspec-
tive, fig. 436, eight bars being the number in each circle, 11½ inches being the
distance between the bars. The distance between the two frames bearing the
tines is 4 inches-the total breadth taken up by the two frames being thus.
5 feet 5 inches. The driving-wheels are 3 feet 9 inches in diameter; the tine
is made of wrought-iron, 12 in breadth and & inch in thickness.
1162. Malleable iron being used principally in the construction of this
machine, it is at the same time light and strong.
t
1163. The nave of the travelling-wheel is formed so as to hold a supply of
oil, and is rounded off to prevent hay lodging.
THOMPSON'S HAY-TEDDING MACHINE.
339
1164. The price of Smith and Ashby's hay-tedding machine is £15, 15s.
1165. Thompson's Hay - Tedding Machine. Of the numerous varieties of
recently-patented "tedding" or hay-making machines, we select for illustra-
tion that of Mr H. A. Thompson, of Lewes, as exhibiting some commendable
features in mechanical construction and arrangement, and of which, in fig. 439,
we give a side elevation, drawn to a scale of half an inch to the foot.
Fig. 439.
In
a
exam
a
"
Zoo
THOMPSON'S HAY-TEDDING MACHINE, SIDE ELEVATION-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
fig. 439 a a are the travelling-wheels, b b the horse-shafts, c c the cap or case con-
taining the gearing, d the shaft of the tine-barrel e e, ff the tines, g g the set
screw by which the height of the tine-barrel e e from the ground is regulated.
1166. The principal feature in the
machine is the adaptation of solid
axles to the travelling and working
gear; these revolving in bearings
capable of adjustment, so that as the
parts of the working gear are affected
by wear and tear, they can be readily
readjusted to work efficiently to-
gether.
1167. In fig. 440 we give a trans-
verse section, showing the working
parts: a a part of the travelling
wheel, which is keyed on to the solid
axle bb, on which two journals c and d
are turned down. The axle revolves
in bearings e f, e f, capable of ad-
justment, as the journals wear, in the
manner usually adopted in machine
and mill gearing. These bearings
are attached to the gear-box g h i,
which forms part of the framing of
the machine. To the axle c b, d b,
a spur-wheel jj is keyed; this en-
し
​ん
​in
し
​Fig. 440.
P
ጎረ
ད
a
C
b
d
b
1°
P
a
3
6
9
12
inches
SECTION OF GEARING OF THOMPSON'S HAY-TEDDING MACHINE.
gages with a pinion k, forming part of the hollow barrel 7 7, which carries the
340
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
forks or tines ƒ ƒ, fig. 439. m m, fig. 440, is the axle-bar on which the fork-
barrel revolves.
1168. In the machine now under consideration, the reverse movement of the
fork-barrel 71, fig. 440, is obtained by the intermediate pinion n; this revolves
in and slides along the bolt or stud o, and is placed in and out of gear by means
of the clutch-lever p, jointed at its lower extremity to a stud r attached to the
gear-box g hi. The pinion k is kept in gear with the wheel jj by the locking-
piece s. A light cap t t covers the projecting parts, and prevents hay entan-
gling in them.
1169. In fig. 441 we give a drawing of the side elevation of the gear-box a a,
e
y
f
Fig. 441.
a
ს
d
with the cap t t, fig. 440, re-
moved. bb, fig. 441, are
the two projecting pieces,
between which the bearings
or bushes-in which the
journals c d of the shaft c b,
d b, fig. 440, revolve-are
placed. The bearings or
bushes ef, e ƒ, fig. 440,
are inserted in their place
through the aperture c, fig.
441, left in the side-frame,
which is filled by a square
projection attached to the
lower coupling-piece d d.
To allow of the necessary
adjustment of the distance
of the tines from the
ground, and to attach the
frame that carries the shaft, the ends of the frames e e are each formed into a
circle, which embraces a projection on the side of the gear-box a a, and kept
in position by projecting snugs ff. The lever g, and g g, fig. 439, is attached
to the gear-box, and, by adjustment of the screw at its outer extremity, the
centre of the shaft of the fork-barrel is raised and depressed, thus bringing
the tines further from or nearer to the ground.
α
SIDE ELEVATION OF GEAR-BOX OF HAY-TEDDING MACHINE——
SAME SCALE AS IN FIG. 440.
1170. It is obvious that the form of tine, as in fig. 2, Plate XVI., which is
capable of turning over the hay under action of the forward movement of the
Fig. 442.
α
d
TINES OF THOMPSON'S HAY-TEDLING
MACHINE.
double tine by welding or
b
machine, noticed in the beginning of paragraph
1157, will not be well adapted for the more
simple action of the reverse or backward move-
ment. To adapt the fork or tine to its double
duty, Mr Thompson has introduced the form
illustrated in fig. 442: one of the tines, c, is
curved in the usual way; the other, d, is straight,
or but slightly curved. The tine c presents a
curved surface in revolving in the direction from
b to a; but the tine d presents only a very slightly
curved surface when revolving in the opposite
direction from a to b. In place of forming the
connecting the two tines c d together, the two parts
may be made solid by a thin web of metal as at e.
1171. The price of Thompson's hay-tedding machine is £15, 15s.
NICHOLSON'S HAY - TEDDING MACHINE.
341
1172. Nicholson's Hay - tedding Machine. The principal feature in the
mechanism of the hay-making machine invented by Mr William Newzam
Nicholson, of Newark, and which took the principal prize at the meeting of the
Royal Agricultural Society at Salisbury in 1857, is the substitution of annular
gearing, by which the reverse motion of the fork - barrel or frame is ob-
tained in place of the intermediate pinion as used in the machines generally
employed. The axle-box is in the form of a drum, a a, fig. 443, or cylindrical
case, to the outer periphery of which the spokes of the main driving-wheel are
Fig. 443.
ad
a
a
e
SECTION OF GEARING-BOX OF NICHOLSON'S HAY-TEDDING MACHINE-SCALE,
ff
a
J
f
9
INOH TO THE FOOT.
fixed. This case contains an annular-wheel b b, and a spur-wheel c c, these
being fixed to opposite sides of the case; d d the main axle. The axis g g of
the fork-carrying-wheel is supported in the cylindrical casing at a point above
and to the left of the central axis of the driving-wheel. To the axis of the
fork-carrying-wheel two pinions, e e, ff, are keyed; one of which e e engages
with the spur-wheel c c, the other ƒƒ with the annular or internal wheel b b
of the cylindrical case or axle-box a a. When the machine is merely travel-
ling from place to place, and the forks not required to be in operation, none
of these pinions engage with the spur or annular wheel, but are kept in a
position midway between them, as shown in the figure; but by moving the
fork-carrying axis to the right, the pinion e e is put in gear with the spur-
wheel c c which gives the fork-carrying axis g g the forward motion; by moving
the axis g g to the left, the wheel e e is taken out of gear with the spur-wheel
cc, and the pinion ƒƒ put in gear with the annular-wheel bb, when the fork-
carrying axis g g has the backward motion. The fork-carrying axis g g is kept
in any of the three positions by the catches g g.
1173. The position of the axis g g, relatively to the ground, is changed by a
simple arrangement. The inside cover of the axle-box is lengthened out so as
to form a long lever; the extremity of this is finished with a small segmental
rack; a pinion with two or more teeth engages with this, the spindle to which
the pinion is fixed being worked by a small lever. To work both sides of the
machine simultaneously, the rod carrying the pinion is extended across the
machine, and a similar apparatus is provided at the other side.
1174. A commendable feature in Nicholson's hay-tedding machine is the
employment of tubular iron for the shafts.
1175. The price of Nicholson's hay-tedding machine, with patent tubular
shafts, is £15.
1176. The Rick-Cloth.-The rick-cloth is an important article in the English
farmer's stock in trade, not so much for its value as for its usefulness, and the
extension of its use amongst farmers in general is a matter deserving of consi-
deration. It is of essential service to the hay-maker on the English system in
342
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
the building of his large hay-stacks or ricks, since by its use, when spread
over the stack, he is independent, in some degree, of changes of weather, as it
forms a sure defence against rain, should that overtake him in the midst of his
operations. We are happy to be able to say, that the rick-cloth has been used
in some parts of Scotland for several years past.
1177. Fig. 444 is a representation of a hay-stack in progress of erection,
with the rick-cloth pitched over it, exhibiting the mode in which this cover is
applied, and which may be described as follows.
a
५
Fig. 141.
d
C
ww
a
d
b
THE MODE OF ERECTING A RICK-ULOTH OVER THE SITE OF A HAY-STACK WHEN IT IS BUILDING.
1178. Two light poles or spars of a length that will rise 10 or 12 feet above the
intended height of the stack, are placed one at each end, and about 2 or 3 feet
distant from the ends of the stack; these are supported by three guy-ropes, two
of which, c c, fig. 444, stand opposite to each other, and the third b in the direc-
tion of the length of the stack, the ends being all secured to wooden stakes, and
the fourth guy a a is common to both poles, extending from the head of the one
to that of the other. A third spar, equal in length to the distance between the
poles, is laid down either on the ground, if the stack is not yet begun, or in that
portion of it that has been laid down; and the two tackles d d, being previously
appended to the head of the respective poles, are hooked below to the third
pole, which is to form the ridge of the cover. The canvass covering, or rick-
cloth e, is now laid over the ridge-pole, with its middle bearing on the ridge-
pole, and, if necessary, lashed thereto. The pole and cover are then hoisted
up to any desired height, forming a temporary but safe and water-tight roof
to the stack while it is being completed. The lower edges of the cloth
are secured by bracing lines ƒ to the sides of the stack, or they may be
stretched out beyond these by means of the lines, and attached to stakes or
otherwise, after which, as the stack rises, another pull is made upon the tackles,
hoisting up the cover to afford sufficient space under it for the stack-builders.
1179. The figure represents one man in the act of forking hay from the
cart upon the stack, and another adjusting the hay with a fork over its surface.
1180. Rick-cloths of all descriptions and sizes are manufactured by Mr
Benjamin Edgington, 2 Duke Street, Southwark, London Bridge, London.
1181. SECTION SECOND-Corn-reaping Machines.-The process of reaping
OLD CORN - REAPING MACHINES.
343
the crop in the season of harvest is the most engrossing event of the agricul-
tural year, and that in which all the other operations of the farm may be said to
centre. It is not surprising, therefore, that, from the earliest periods in the
history of agriculture, there have been, from time to time, attempts made to
facilitate the operation of harvest by the aid of machinery, more or less com-
plex, for cutting down the cereal and leguminous crops. But it is a fact, not
less curious than unaccountable, that this operation of reaping, simple though
it may appear, continues to be almost entirely performed by the sickle and the
scythe. Reaping by machine, doubtless, is now gradually extending, and con-
siderable efficiency has been secured; but the attainment of a completely
effective reaping-machine is an object yet to be sought for. Previously to
entering into the description of the machines which have the highest reputa-
tion, it will be appropriate to take a retrospect of the progress of machine-
reaping during the past half-century.
1182. Previous to the commencement of the present century, there had, even
from the period of the Roman greatness, been occasional attempts at the accom-
plishment of a process by which the grain crops might be more expeditiously
cut down than by the sickle; but none, it would appear, had ever assumed such
a satisfactory form as to induce agriculturists to adopt them. Of the structure
of such abortive attempts at a reaping-machine, little information has come
down to us, and that little is vague and unsatisfactory. Nor is it of much
importance that we are not in possession of direct information respecting them,
seeing that nothing effective had ever arisen out of their attempts.
1183. Soon after the commencement of the present century, when agricul-
tural improvements were making progress in every direction, by the extension
of the use of improved machinery to the various branches of the art, the
important department of the harvest operation naturally occupied a share of
the inquiries then going on. Agricultural societies, too, by the offer of pre-
miums, called forth the energies of inventors, both amateur and practical, in
this particular line.
1184. Boyce's Reaping-Machine.-Very early in the century we learn of Boyce's
reaping-machine, for which he secured a patent. This was based on the revolv-
ing-cutter principle; but the revolver was armed with a series of short scythes,
which cut the corn as the machine moved along. It was destitute, however, of
a proper apparatus for gathering and depositing the corn after being cut, and
hence it never reached any degree of success.
1185. Plunket's Reaping-Machine.-About the same period, one Plunket, a
London implement-maker, made a similar attempt, also on the revolving prin-
ciple; but in place of the scythe of Boyce, he adopted a circular cutter, toothed
like a fine saw or sickle. Being destitute, also, of a proper gathering apparatus,
this machine acquired no reputation, and speedily was laid aside.
1186. Gladstone's Reaping-Machine. Nearly about the same time, 1806,
Gladstone, a millwright, of Castle-Douglas, Kirkcudbrightshire, brought out a
reaping-machine that excited much interest, and possessed considerable promise.
Its principle was the revolving circular smooth-edged cutter, supported in a car-
riage-frame, with two main-wheels only. A pair of long horse-shafts projected
forward at one side, so that the horse walked alongside the standing corn-thus
drawing the machine. The circular cutter was ingeniously overlapped by a sort
of shield, armed with pointed prongs, projecting in front of the cutter, which served
to collect and to hold the straw until the cutter had done its work. A compli-
cated and peculiar apparatus was applied as a gatherer, to collect and deliver the
cut corn in small parcels like handfuls. This machine, as given in the Farmer's
344
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
Magazine, vol. vii., appears to have possessed great ingenuity of contrivance as a
whole. Its cutter also appears to have been formed on a sound principle; and
it was, besides, provided with an apparatus by which the cutting edge could be
whetted as often as necessary without stopping the action of the machine. Its
gathering apparatus, however, carries too conclusive evidence that upon that
member of the construction the whole design had failed, and the machine sank
into oblivion like its predecessors.
1187. Salmon's Reaping-Machine.-At a still later period Mr Salmon of
Woburn brought out a reaping-machine, under promising circumstances. In this
there appears the first indications of a cutter on the clipping principle, com-
bined with an apparatus for collecting and delivering, that promised to lay the
cut corn in parcels like sheaves ready for binding. Although this invention
seems to have been brought out under the most flattering hopes of success, it
does not appear to have ever obtained the approbation of the class for whose use
it was intended, and has been, like its precursors, almost forgotten.
1188. Scott's Reaping-Machine.—We may advert to one or two others in their
proper order of date: of these the first is that of Mr Scott of Ormiston, East-
Lothian, factor to the Earl of Hopetoun, an amateur mechanician of no small
merit. During the war, in the early part of the century, he had directed his
mechanical views to the construction of self-acting floating-machines.or vessels
for the purpose of disabling or destroying the fleets or ships of the enemy by
stratagem. With the peace of 1815 he found that "occupation gone," and very
adroitly turned his talent towards more peaceful objects. Amongst these came his
reaping-machine, which, like most others, as we well remember, was an object
of considerable interest for a time, although it ended in a failure, like those that
had gone before. Mr Scott's machine had a cutter acting on the revolving prin-
ciple, though not a circular cutter, but a wheel carrying sixteen small-toothed
sickles, and had projecting prongs in front of them, like Gladstone's. He had
copied Mr Smith's imperfect gatherer (an inverted conical drum), but added to it
twenty-four jointed prongs or fingers, acting in the form of collectors or rakes,
which were expected to convey the cut corn from the cutter to the ground. This
machine was supplied with other contrivances, such as a brush to keep the cutters
free of stubble or weeds, which might otherwise have stopped their proper
action; but with all these precautions and auxiliary appendages, it is known
that the machine never performed beyond a mere trial.
1189. Ogle and Brown's Reaping-Machine.—About 1822, Mr Ogle, at Rening-
ton, near Alnwick, invented a machine, by which he and a Mr Brown of Alnwick
engaged to combine every act of reaping, except binding and placing the sheaves
in stook. This machine is reported to have performed very satisfactorily in the
field upon wheat and upon barley; but in consequence of no encouragement being
given to the makers, the manufacture of the machine was dropt after the first
complete specimen was made. The inventor, in 1826, published a drawing and
description of the machine in the Mechanics' Magazine, vol. v., from which the
following abstract is taken. The framework or body of the machine closely
resembled a skeleton of a common cart, with its wheels and shafts, to the latter of
which the horses were yoked to draw the machine, walking by the side of the
standing corn. To the right of the carriage was projected the cutting apparatus-
a light frame, whose front bar was of iron, and armed with a row of teeth 3 inches
long, projecting forward; immediately upon these teeth lay the cutter, a straight-
edged steel knife, equal in length to, and a little more than the breadth of the
corn to be cut at one passage. By a motion from the carriage-wheels, this
knife was made to vibrate rapidly from right and left, as the machine travelled.
SMITH'S ORIGINAL REAPING - MACHINE.
345
Above, and a little before the cutter, a fan or vane was, from the same source,
made to revolve, which thus collected and held the corn to be cut by the knife;
and, on being cut, was by the vane carried backward, and laid upon a deal
platform immediately behind the cutter: here, by the assistance of a man with
a rake, it was collected to the extent of a sheaf, and then discharged.
1190. There is here observable a very curious coincidence in the almost
perfect sameness, in every point, between Ogle and Brown's machine and one
of the American reapers, Mr M'Cormick's, to be afterwards noticed; the simila-
rity is so perfect, that the description of either would suit equally well for the
other. But the curiosity of it is lessened from the consideration that similar
coincidences are not uncommon amongst mechanists.
1191. Kerr's Model of a Reaping-Machine. A case of this kind actually
occurred at the period of Mr Smith's invention of his reaping-machine, in Mr A.
Kerr, of Edinburgh, having produced a small model proposed as a reaper, in
which the cutter and gatherer were exactly on the same principle as those of Mr
Smith, and were admitted to be so by that gentleman. Kerr's model exhibits
these two members precisely as admitted; and placed within them is a pair
of small wheels, which are all that appears for a first mover. That such
wheels could ever have served the purpose of impelling the action of a
reaping-machine seems altogether improbable, though very applicable as an
auxiliary to support the cutter at a proper height. To this defect it is easy
to ascribe the failure of Kerr's machine, when extended to a working size.
1192. It were easy to multiply the competitors in this field of invention. At
the periods above spoken of, the aspirants were numerous; but, with the excep-
tion of the four principal reaping-machines, yet to be noticed, none seem to have
proceeded much beyond the formation of an imperfect model.
1193. Mr Smith of Deanston, afterwards so well known as an agriculturist,
came on the field with his reaping-machine in the year 1812 with very con-
siderable promise of success. Mr Smith, having been well trained as a mecha-
nician, and being conversant in all the mechanical inventions and applications
of machinery of the period to various manufacturing purposes, and having, of
course, observed the numerous and successful applications of rotatory motion
in preference to any kind of reciprocating action, wherever the former could be
applied, was very naturally led to the adoption of the continuous rotatory action
in the construction of a reaping-machine. This principle he accordingly did
adopt, and, although his first trials were not altogether successful, they were
such as led to a series of improvements that brought the machine, as we shall
see, to a degree of efficiency which promised ultimate success. The Dalkeith
Farming Society had previously offered a handsome premium for the invention.
of an effective reaping-machine, and Mr Smith became the only competitor in
1812. In the following year the machine, in its improved state, was again
exhibited in operation before a committee of the Dalkeith Club, when they,
although not considering it entitled to the full premium, voted to Mr Smith a
piece of plate, value fifty guineas; and shortly after, the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society having appointed a committee to examine and report on its
efficiency, found that report so satisfactory that a piece of plate of fifty guineas'
value was in like manner voted to the inventor, and at the same time a complete
model of the machine was lodged by Mr Smith in the Society's Museum, which
is now transferred to the Technological Museum.
1194. Smith's Original Reaping - Machine.-In its original form, this machine.
consisted of a horizontal wooden frame of about 7 feet long and 3 fect
wide. Beneath this was attached the main axle and pair of broad wheels,
346
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
of about 5 feet in height, the axle turning with the wheels by means of spring
and ratchet, and carrying a spur-wheel, which geared into another fixed
upon a shaft placed above the wooden frame, and parallel to the main axle,
and thus gave motion to the succeeding movements of the machine. This
last shaft carried a pair of reversed bevel-wheels, loose on their shaft, while
they continued both in contact with a third wheel fixed on a shaft, placed
horizontally above the frame; a sliding-clutch on the former shaft brought
either of the two bevel-wheels, at the pleasure of the conductor, into action with
that upon the horizontal shaft, by which arrangement that shaft was turned to
the right or to the left, or by placing the clutch so that neither was in contact
with it-the third wheel and its shaft remaining stationary. On the forward
end of the horizontal shaft was placed another bevel-wheel acting upon the
pinion of an upright spindle; and this spindle, supported on the forward extre-
mity of the horizontal frame, assisted by a three-ribbed iron arch raised above
the frame, was, by means of the two bearings, kept sufficiently steady for its
duty of carrying the circular cutter at its lower extremity. Here, however, the
spindle had a further support from a pair of small wheels and frame, placed under
the foot of the spindle, and by a stay of iron proceeding from the hinder part
of the frame. The cutter, 5 feet in diameter, was composed of thin steel seg-
ments bolted upon an iron ring, and this last was surmounted by an inverted
frustum of a cone, formed of sheet-iron, whose lower diameter was 10 inches less
than the cutter, or 4 feet 8 inches, while its diameter at top was 5 feet 4 inches.
The front wheels under the cutter were only 14 inches diameter, and about as
much apart; their duty was to keep the cutter at the regular distance from the
ground to which it might be set for the time being. The gearing above
described was so arranged as to bring out a velocity in the edge of the cutter,
such that, for every inch of progressive motion of the whole machine, any point
in the edge of the cutter passed through a space of 9 inches in its motion of
revolution. The machine was moved by two horses yoked to a pole fixed to
the wooden frame, and projecting from behind, so that the horses pushed the
machine before them by drawing with trace-chains from a yoke-bar attached to
the end of the pole behind them. By means of the clutch and bevel-wheels the
cutter could be made to revolve to right or left, and the cut corn laid down
right or left accordingly; convenient means were also provided for placing the
cutter higher or lower at pleasure, by means of a lever that lifted or lowered the
cutter and conical drum, acted upon by a chain and screw, the latter brought
to a convenient point at the end of the pole. In working, the grain was cut
regularly and well. The drum revolving with the cutter carried the cut corn
round until it fell off at the side of the machine in a pretty regular continuous
swathe.
1195. Smith's Improved Reaping-Machine.-The description here given applies
to Smith's machine, after it had undergone some improvements up to 1814;
from that period, at occasional intervals, it was brought out with renewed
hopes of success, until, in 1835, at the Highland and Agricultural Society's
Show at Ayr, it was exhibited in operation with remarkable eclat. Mr Smith
had now engrafted upon it an important addition, borrowed from a machine
which has yet to be described, invented by Mr Mann, Raby, Cumberland.
This was the attachment of a series of rakes placed vertically upon the
periphery of the original drum, the teeth of the rakes being about 6 inches
long. This served the purpose of a more certain conveyance of the cut corn
to the place of delivery at either side of the machine. Although the applica-
tion of the rakes was less efficiently done than in the machine from which
MANN'S REAPING-MACHINE.
347
the idea was taken, their velocity being here the same as that of the cutter,
they nevertheless seemed to facilitate the process of gathering, which hitherto
had been imperfect. The experiment was made on a field of wheat in a fair
condition for being cut by a machine. The operation began, not at an outside,
as was usual, but right in the middle of the field, the spectators being placed
around the point of commencement; and amongst these we had the fortune to
be placed. The passage of the machine through the field left behind it an
open lane, where nothing was at first observable but a bare stubble, the cut
corn being all laid down at one side against the standing. Never, perhaps, did
an experiment come off with better effect or greater success; the general
impression was that the problem had at last been solved-that Smith's
machine was complete. Not so was it, however, in fact; for, notwithstanding
the striking effects produced by that day's trial, the machine remained, and to
this day remains, without making further progress.
1196. It is more than probable that the failure of this machine rested mainly
on the following defective points-1st, From its great length and weight it was
unwieldy in all its movements; 2d, From its great length, also, and from the
mode of attachment of the horses, together with the want of a swivel-carriage
either before or behind, it was defective in turning at a landing; 3d, From the
small diameter of the bearing front wheels, and especially from these being
placed nearly directly under the centre of the revolving cutter, this important
member, when these wheels fell into a furrow, ran right into the brow of the
adjacent ridge, and thus destroyed for the time its whole edge, its projection
before the wheels being nearly 2 feet; and 4th, It may be stated as an objec-
tion, that the price could not be much under £50.
1197. Mann's Reaping-Machine.-The next important step in this direction
was taken by Mr Joseph Mann, Raby, Cumberland, who brought out a reaping-
machine in 1820, in the state of a working model, before the Abbey Holme
Agricultural Society, who expressed their approbation of the design, and advised
a horse-power machine to be constructed with some proposed alterations, one of
which was that the horses should push instead of draw the machine, the model
having been upon the drawing principle. These alterations seemed to have
turned out rather unsuccessful, for in 1822 a full-size machine was exhibited to
the same society; but the mechanist having endeavoured to satisfy too many
opinions, his machine became so complicated that its success was doubtful, and
it fell aside till 1826, when Mr Mann returned to his favourite method of drawing
instead of pushing; and from this period to 1830 he was, from time to time,
engaged in completing his improved design, which, from his own statement,
at last possessed four principal points of a good reaping-machine: 1st, It
preserved the parallelism of the line of draught, though that draught was
applied to one of its angles in front; 2d, A polygonal cutter; 3d, The
gathering process from the cutter, performed by a revolving series of rakes;
and, 4th, The process of stripping the rakes in such manner as to lay down the
cut corn in a regular swathe by the side of the machine as it progressed.
-
1198. Mr Mann's machine, possessing the above described points, was
exhibited at the Highland and Agricultural Society's Show, held at Kelso in
1832. On this occasion we had ample opportunity of studying its construc-
tion, and also witnessed its trial on a small portion of a field of oats, performed
under very unfavourable circumstances. The portion of the field acted upon
had been later than the other parts, hence it was left uncut, and still unripened,
and withal thought so worthless that cattle had been allowed to traverse it.
But notwithstanding all this, the machine performed the operation of cutting
348
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
much better than could have been expected under the circumstances, while
the laying of the cut corn in the swathe was performed very regularly. In
working up-hill, and especially in crossing the ridges, its operation was less
satisfactory; and on the whole, although the trial called forth much approbation,
the judges could not take upon them to recommend a premium. Nevertheless,
it must be admitted that, making allowance for Mr Mann being only an amateur
mechanic, and having constructed the machine almost entirely by his own
hands, it could not be expected to be other than a rude specimen of mechanism,
and, therefore, not capable of doing all that the principles involved ought to
have brought out: it deserves, however, to be looked upon as possessing the
germs, at least, of the four points which its author held to be the ultimatum
sought for in a reaping-machine. It is still our opinion also, in looking
back, that the principles of that machine, in the hands of an able mechanician
possessed of capital (for of that commodity, like many others of his kind, the
inventor was deficient), might have placed it foremost in the competition for the
solution of the problem.
*
1199. As it may be interesting to those who may yet turn their attention to
the construction of the reaping-machine, the following description is given
from the writer's original paper, published with drawings in the Journal of Agri-
culture, which for more minute details may be consulted by the machinist.
In Mann's machine, the cutting process is performed on the revolving principle;
but instead of a circular cutter like Smith's, one of a polygonal form had been
preferred, having twelve equal sides. By this form of cutter the action upon
the standing corn is somewhat different from that of the perfectly circular cutter :
with the circular cutter the cutting edge is constantly and equally acting upon the
standing corn, but with the polygonal the effect is a rapid succession of strokes,
arising from the inclination of the cutting edges in the sides of the polygon to
each other; for, as will readily be understood, from the angles of the polygon
being farther from the centre of revolution than any point in the straight side
thereof, any opposing body, as a stalk of corn, will be forcibly acted upon when
the angle is passing the stalk; and, if passing without completing the separa-
tion, the progressive motion of the whole machine will not only keep the edge
in contact through the first half of the passing side of the polygonal edge, but
as the next angle approaches the stalk, it will receive the more impressive
stroke from the remaining half side to complete the severance—and so of all the
rest.
1200. The cutter is formed in twelve separate segments of thin steel plate,
fixed upon the extremities of a corresponding number of horizontal arms
attached to a vertical revolving shaft. The joinings are formed by the ends of
the segments lapping over each other, and situate posteriorly to the angles of
the polygon in relation to its motion of revolution. The segments of the cutter
were attached to the revolving arms by means of a slender slide-bar of iron,
riveted on to each end of the segment; and these sliders, two together, being
those of the contiguous ends of two segments, were passed through a clasp in
the ends of the arms and there secured by a pinching-screw. This mode of
attaching the cutter rendered the removal for sharpening extremely convenient,
as a whole spare set of the segments could be carried with the machine, the
change of the one set for the other being capable of accomplishment in a few
minutes. The cutter, when completed with all its segments, was 4 feet
diameter; and taking the rate of progressive motion at 2 miles per hour, the
Journal of Agriculture, vol. i. p. 250,
MANN'S REAPING-MACHINE.
349
cutters made 175 revolutions per minute, which corresponds very nearly with
the rate in Mr Smith's machine.
1201. The framework of Mann's reaper was of rather irregular construction :
in plan its form was that of a trapezium, the sides parallel, the back at right
angles to them, and the front side had the acute angle at the left or nigh side,
and to that the draught was applied by means of a pair of horse-shafts. This
framework was supported on three principal wheels: of these, two had a dia-
meter of 3 feet, one being on each side towards the rear, but that on the off-side
about a foot in advance of the other, and from the axle of it alone the move-
ments of the working parts were derived. The third wheel had a diameter of 2
feet, and was attached to an upright, or rather a sloping swivel-shaft, placed in
connection with the acute angle of the framework, and to which the horse-
shafts were firmly attached—making thus to the machine a swivel or fore-
carriage, by which it could be directed or turned round in a small space. A
fourth and much smaller wheel or roller worked in the fore-end of the perch that
extended from the lower part of the framework, and on which rested the foot of
the cutter-shaft directly over this fourth wheel; but of its utility there are doubts.
1202. One of the peculiarities of this reaper was the application of the revolv-
ing rakes to gather the corn as it fell from the cutter. This was accom-
plished by the construction of a skeleton cylinder, placed over and revolving
concentrically with the cutter upon the upright shaft of the latter, but inde-
pendently of it, and with a different velocity. The cyclinder was mounted with
25 rakes attached to it in a vertical position, each rake having 10 teeth of about
6 inches long. The revolutions of the rake-cylinder were made in the same
direction as the cutter, but at a rate only as one to seven of the latter—namely,
about 28 per minute. To complete the gathering part of the process, a second
and fixed rake or comb was attached in a vertical position to the near side of
the framework. The wooden teeth or prongs of this comb were of considerable
length, and were projected horizontally between the lines of teeth in the revolv-
ing rakes. In the latter, also, a ring of light wire was carried round each row
of the teeth horizontally, having an attachment to every tooth about 2 inches
from its root; and as the point of the prongs of the comb lay within or nearer
to the centre of revolution than those rings of wire, not a single straw could
escape the comb, but every straw was regularly stript from off the rakes as it
came round. The cut and gathered corn was thus regularly laid down in a
continuous swathe, the stalks of grain lying parallel to each other, and nearly
at right angles to the line of progress of the machine.
1203. The gearing of this machine was extremely simple. On the axle of
the off-side carriage-wheel, already alluded to, was fixed a bevel-wheel of 56
teeth, which acted on a horizontal wheel of 28 teeth; and upon the vertical
shaft of this last were mounted two pitch or chain wheels, the one of 8 teeth,
the other of 28; these, by means of two pitch chains, acted upon two other
wheels of 21 and 9 teeth respectively, placed upon the rake-cylinder and upon
the cutter-shaft, bringing out the velocities before named for the two members.
Besides these active motions, there was provision by means of levers, by which
the height of the stubble could be regulated almost instantaneously, and the
revolving parts thrown out of gear, and also for raising or depressing either side
of the machine to suit the rounding of ridges and deep furrows.
1204. The power required to draw this reaper was one horse, and with this it
cut down a breadth of 3 feet; so, taking its rate of travel at 24 miles per hour, its
performance, by calculation, is limited to 9 acres in 10 hours, or thereby; but
in actual work it might not exceed 7 acres in that time.
350
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
1205. Of all the reapers hitherto taken notice of in this work, it is believed
that not one of them was ever worked throughout a harvest. Even Smith's
and Mann's machines, which were the most perfect, do not appear to have been
worked beyond a few hours consecutively; their actual capabilities, therefore,
seem never to have been properly tested.
1206. Bell's Reaping-Machine.-The year 1826 may be held as an era in the
history of this machine, by the invention, and the perfecting as well, of a
really effective mechanical reaper. This invention is due to the Rev. Patrick
Bell, now minister of the parish of Carmylie in Forfarshire. The principle on
which its cutting operation acts is that of a series of clipping shears. When
the machine had been completed, Mr Bell brought it before the Highland
and Agricultural Society, who appointed a committee of its members to inspect
its operation in the field, and to report. The trials and the report being favour-
able, the Society awarded the sum of £50 to Mr Bell for his invention, and a
correct working-model of the machine was subsequently placed in the Society's
Museum. The invention shortly worked its way to a considerable extent in
Forfarshire; and in the harvest of 1834, we, in a short tour through that
county, saw several of these machines in operation, which did their work in a
very satisfactory manner. Dundee appears to have been the principal seat of
their manufacture, and from thence they were sent to various parts of the country.
It is known, also, that four of the machines were sent to the United States of
America; and this circumstance renders it highly probable that they became the
models from which the numerous so-called inventions of the American reapers
have since sprung. At the great fair or exhibition held at New York in 1851,
not fewer than six reapers were exhibited, all by different hands, and each
claiming to be a special invention; yet, in all of them, the principal feature-
the cutting apparatus-bears the strongest evidence of having been copied from
Bell's machine.
1207. To enable our readers to form a just conception of the construction
and principles of Bell's machine, and to compare it with those now being
introduced after the American copy, a plate is given, showing a full view, in
perspective, of Bell's reaper in its most genuine form. The machine consists,
first, of an open carriage-framework of carpentry about 4 feet wide, the same in
length, and about 3 feet high, marked a a in fig. 1, Plate XX. This is sup-
ported on two principal wheels b b, about 4 feet in diameter, and two minor
wheels c c, 18 inches in diameter, supporting the fore-part of the carriage, to the
front bar of which the cutting apparatus is attached. The axle of the main
wheels bb passes quite through the carriage-frame, and supports it by turning
in bearings fixed to the middle horizontal bars, on either side. On this axle is
fixed a bevel-wheel e, 20 inches in diameter, turning with the main wheels and
axle, and gearing into the bevel-pinionƒ, fixed upon the sloping shaft g, which,
at its lower end, carries a short crank h. This last, by means of the connecting-
rod i, gives the vibrating motion to the cutter-tail bar k, to which bar the tails
of the movable blades of the series of shears are loosely jointed.
1208. The bevel-wheel e gives motion also to the small sloping shaft l, through
a pinion not seen in the figure; and at the upper end of this shaft, by means of
the two small mitre-wheels m, motion is given to a small horizontal shaft p, on the
end of which a combination of three beyel-wheels and clutch at q gives motion
to the first web-roller, making the web o (which is here represented as torn off
to expose the parts below) revolve to right or left, as desired. The web o, when
in action, is stretched over the two rollers n n. The light iron bars v v serve
to carry the revolving fly w or vane to collect and carry the cut corn to the web.
BELL'S REAPING - MACHINE.
351
The vane w derives its motion from a pulley fixed on the extreme end of the small
shaft p, another, x, being fixed on the extremity of the axle of the vane w; and a
small band passing round these pulleys completes the motion. The vane w is
readily adjustable upon the light arms v v, to suit any height of grain, and also
in distance horizontally, to suit the delivery of the cut grain upon the web o.
1209. This machine is worked by two horses, pushing it before them by means
of the pole s, to which they are yoked by the common draught-bars, fig. 288.
1210. In its original form, a castor or swivel-wheel was attached under the
machine, and brought to bear up the hind-part of it from the ground, by a rack
and pinion worked by a handle. The intention of this was to obviate a sup-
posed difficulty in turning the machine. Experience, however, has shown that
the supposition was groundless. The swivel-wheel has been laid aside; and as
one of the main wheels necessarily required the convenience of being disengaged
from the gearing that drives the cutter, &c., the same disengagement serves to
make the machine turn with all requisite facility.
1211. The cutter consists of a fixed bar of iron r r, 6 feet in length, so that it
projects over and clears a passage for all the bearing wheels and other project-
ing points in the machine. The bar is strongly attached to the fore-part of the
framework by two iron brackets, and to the bar are firmly bolted the 13 fixed
blades of the shears. The 12 movable blades are likewise attached to the same
bar, each upon a joint-bolt. Each of these last blades is prolonged backward
in a tail-piece, till they rest in the vibrating bar k, where the extremity of each
tail rests between two pegs, which serve as a secure but simple and loose joint
for it.
1212. Such are the different motions of the machine, and, when in operation, the
effects are as follows: The driving-wheels bb being nearly 4 feet in diameter,
one turn of these carries the machine in its progressive motion over 12 feet of
surface. The bevelled-wheel and pinion e and ƒ being in the proportion of 6 to
1, the crank and cutter-tail bar k will make six vibrations in the time that the
machine moves over 12 feet; but as the movable blades of the shears cut both
ways, they will each make 12 cuts in the same time, each cut extending to 12
inches forward; and as the cutting-blades are 14 inches long, the uncut corn
can never reach the root or joint-end of the shears, to produce choking.
The revolving vane w in front serves to catch hold of and retain the corn
against the onward pressure of the cutter, but their chief duty is to assist in
laying the cut corn upon the endless web o. The duties of the web are very
simple, being merely to convey the cut corn to right or left, and to deliver it
upon the ground, which it does with a regularity perfectly sufficient for the pur-
pose of being gathered into sheaves.
1213. In the process of working this machine, Mr Bell's practice is to employ
one man driving and conducting the machine; eight women are required to collect
the cut corn into sheaves, and to make bands for these sheaves; four men to bind
the sheaves, and two men to set the sheaves up in stooks-being in all fourteen
labourers, besides the driver of the horses, whose time reckons along with
them; and the work performed averages 12 imperial acres per day. These
data have been obtained from fourteen years' experience of the machine, and
have therefore a strong claim upon the consideration of the farmer.
1214. The expense in money for reaping by such a machine will, of course, vary
a little with the rate of wages; but, on an average, it may be taken at 3s. 6d.
an acre, including the expense of food to the workers. This, in round numbers,
may be taken at a saving of one-half the usual expense of reaping by hand, at
the lowest calculation; and the saving on a farm where there might be 100
352
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
acres of cereal and leguminous crop would do more than cover the price of a
machine of the best quality in two years.
1215. It is difficult to account for the reason why Bell's machine has not
been more extensively adopted. For a period of nearly twenty years it was
successfully used; and yet it seems doubtful whether, with practical agricul-
turists, it has so high a reputation as its American rivals-the machines of
Hussey and M'Cormick-yet to be described. "There have always," says the
Report of the Royal Agricultural Society, on the exhibition and trial of imple-
ments at Chelmsford (1856), "been some points of excellence in Bell's machine
not shared by any other. The power of cutting in any direction, of delivering
the corn on either side, right or left, and of requiring no scytheman to prepare
its way, are advantages peculiar to this machine. These have hitherto been
considered as counterbalanced by the excessive draught of the machine, by the
liability of the delivery-web to become disordered, and by the labour and diffi-
culty of steerage. These drawbacks have, since last year, been in a considerable
degree removed. The delivery-web has been superseded by three gutta-percha
bands, which, without deducting from its former efficient delivery, has reduced
friction and greatly diminished draught. Other minor alterations have been
made, still further diminishing draught." The improvements here alluded to
have been introduced by Mr Crosskill, the well-known agricultural engineer of
Beverley, in Yorkshire. It is but right, however, to state that these modifications
on the original plan have been introduced without the sanction or approval, we
believe, of the inventor, the Rev. Patrick Bell.
1216. It now remains for us to describe the two machines which have been
most prominently before the public during the last few years-these being
known as Hussey's and M'Cormick's-Hussey's being manufactured by Messrs
Dray & Co., engineers, of Swan Lane, London Bridge, London; M'Cormick's by
Messrs Burgess and Key, Newgate Street, London. These firms have intro-
duced great improvements in the machines which they respectively manu-
facture; so much so, that there would be some difficulty in recognising in them
the same machines, the appearance of which, at the Great Exhibition of 1851,
created such an interest in the agricultural world. It is not now necessary for
us to describe and illustrate their early forms, so as to show the progressive
improvements which have been effected on them; their present condition of
comparative efficiency, to which they have attained, by the exercise of much
patience and considerable skill by the parties who make them, being of greater
interest to the agriculturist.
1217. Dray's Hussey's Reaping-Machine.-In fig. 445 we give a perspective
Fig. 445.
i
Mw
WILLIAMS S
DRAY'S HUSSEY'S REAPING-MACHINE IN PERSPECTIVE.
ny s
しし
​DRAY'S HUSSEY'S REAPING - MACHINE.
Fig. 446.
α
Fig. 448.
d
353
view of Hussey's reaper, improved by Messrs Dray. The side-beams a a of
the gearing-framing are 6 feet long, 4 inches thick by 6 inches deep; they are
kept 10 inches apart by two cross pieces or binders. The main driving-wheel
a a, fig. 446, is 2 feet 8 inches diameter, 7 inches broad on the periphery
or ring, and is provided with a series of ribs inch deep, placed trans-
versely across its periphery-these enabling the wheel, when travelling, to take
a firm hold of the ground. The
shaft of this wheel revolves
in bearings, one of which is
placed in each of the side-
beams a a, fig. 445. To the
interior arms of the wheel a a,
fig. 446, a spur-wheel b b, 18
inches in diameter, is attached.
This engages with a pinion a,
fig. 447, keyed on to the shaft
b, which carries the large
bevel-wheel b b, fig. 445; the
shaft of this revolving in bear-
ings bolted on to the left-hand
beam a a. This bevel-wheel
bb engages with a pinion a,
fig. 448, keyed on the end of
the crank-shaft b, which re-
volves in bearings shown in
α
с
¿
DRIVING-WHEEL AND GEAR OF DRAY'S
REAPER.
Fig. 447.
a
b
DRIVING-PINION AND SHAFT OF
DRAY'S REAPER.
a
b
CRANK-SHAFT FOR DRIVING
CUTTER-BLADE.
Fig. 449.
the figures with their attached bolts, by means of which they are bolted on to
the left-hand beam a a, fig. 445. The connecting-rod a b c, fig. 449, is jointed
at one end a to the pin d of the crank-shaft, fig.
448, and at the other end, c, to the joint a at the end
of the bar a b, fig. 450, which carries the cutter-
blades c c c. The length of the connecting-rod a b c,
fig. 449, is 17½ inches from centre to centre. The
cutters c c c, as they reciprocate to and fro, play in the slots of the projecting
fingers c c, fig. 445. The form and size of the cutter-blades and of the fingers
Fig. 450.
b
CONNECTING-KOD OF CUTTER-BLADE.
כ
ןם
0 ojn DID 010 O Q
Q
D
•
b
O D
CUTTER-BLADE.
се
Fig. 451.
"
will be hereafter described. The draught-pole d d, fig. 455, is bolted to the
pole-plate ef, and in fig. 451, by two bolts, one of which is fixed in the end of
the pole-plate nearest the driving-wheel, and the other
moves in a curved slot ƒ at the opposite end of the pole-
plate e f. This allows of the vertical adjustment of the
pole d d. The height at which the cutters work from
the ground is regulated by two wheels, the first of
these being connected to the framing opposite to that
at which the driving-wheel is placed; the second of
the adjusting-wheels, h h, is attached to the pole d d.
a, fig. 452, is hung at the centre of the bar or lever c d, jointed at its end c
to the side-framing, and provided with a curved guide d and handle e at the
other extremity.
A bolt is fixed to the side - framing, and passes through
Ꮓ
POLE-PLATE OF DRAY'S REAPER.
The first-named wheel
354
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
the slot of the curved guide d, fig. 452. By pressing downwards on the handle
Fig. 452.
d
a
e, the curved guide d is depressed, and the
central part b brought nearer to the ground,
and the end of the machine and the cutter-
bar lifted further from it. The guide d is
dis
fixed at the point required by screwing up
the nut provided to the bolt passing through
the slot of the guide. The stem or central
bar, conveying the wheel h h, attached to
the pole-plate d d, fig. 445, is movable in a
vertical direction in the central aperture of a guide a a, fig. 453, bolted to the
side of the pole-plate. A nut and screw on the spindle of the wheel h h, above
α
GUIDE FOR ADJUSTING-WHEEL.
Fig. 453.
a
GUIDE FOR STEM OF ADJUSTING-
WHEEL.
3
4
a
and below the guide, retain the spindle in any desired
position in the guide aperture. The two wheels a a, fig.
452, and h h, fig. 445, are so adjusted as to make the cutter-
bar level throughout its length. The following are the
dimensions of the pole-plate ff, fig. 451: Extreme length
17½ inches, height at lower end 5 inches, at highest 8
inches. The distance of curved slot from end 1 inch, length of slot 4
inches, breadth of slot inch. The pole-plate is strengthened by two dia-
gonal stays of wrought-iron. The distance of the first stay from the highest end
is 4 inches, of the second at the lowest end 5 inches, the width of the stays
being 11 inches. The plate by which the pole-plate is attached to the beam
a a, fig. 445, is 32 inches at its narrowest, and 4 inches at its broadest part.
The height of the cutter-bar can be adjusted by the wheels a a, fig. 452, and h h,
fig. 445, at any point within a range of from 2 to 8 inches. To the side-frame
carrying the wheel a a, fig. 452, the delivery finger i i, fig. 445, is attached.
This goes in advance of the machine, and brings the grain within the action
of the cutter-blades. The tilting platform k k, fig. 445, 2 feet 6 inches broad,
and 4 feet 8 inches long, is made of light timber covered with zinc plates. It
vibrates or oscillates on a central bar.
1218. On the machine being adjusted, so that the knives will leave a stubble
of the height required, the gearing covered by the box 77, fig. 445, the pole
dd inserted, the horses yoked thereto by whipple-trees, and all the parts well
oiled, the attendant mounts the box 7 l, sitting on the part m, inserts his right
foot in a loop formed by the strap attached to the corner of the tilting platform k k.
On the machine progressing, the driving-wheel a a, fig. 446, revolves, and with
it the spur-wheel bb, which engages the pinion a in the shaft b, fig. 447. This
gives motion to the bevel-wheel b b, fig. 445, and through the pinion a, fig. 448,
to the crank-shaft b, and connecting-rod a b c, fig. 449, and the cutter-bar a b,
fig. 449. The cutter-blades have thus given to them a rapid reciprocatory
movement in the slots of the fingers c c, fig. 445. The corn passing between
these is cut, and falls back on the tilting platform k k. On the attendant
deeming a sufficient quantity delivered to the platform, he raises his right foot,
and this being attached by means of the strap to the front edge of the platform,
it is tilted upwards, and the grain deposited behind. The operation of delivering
the grain behind is also facilitated by a rake which the attendant wields.
prevent the jarring action of the cutter-blade, resulting from its rapid oscilla-
tion, a balance-weight n, fig. 445, is attached eccentrically to the crank-shaft o;
this acting as a species of fly-wheel, bringing the crank d, fig. 448, easily round
the "dead" points. The bevel-wheel b b, fig. 445, is thrown out of gear with
the pinion on the end of the shaft o by means of the lever-handle p p, a part
To
DRAY'S HUSSEY'S REAPING-MACHINE.
355
of which embraces a clutch on the extremity of the shaft carrying the wheel
b b. This lever is within reach of the attendant sitting on the box. On
the wheel b b being thrown out of gear with the pinion a, fig. 448, the motion
of the knives or cutter-blades is stopped.
I
Fig. 454.
d
f
2
h
1219. Having described the general arrangements of this form of reaping-
machine, we shall now illustrate several of its important details. And first of
the cutter-blades and fingers. In fig. 450 we give a plan of the cutter-bar, the
extreme length of which is 7 feet 2 inches, the thickness inch, and breadth
1 inch; it is strengthened by a part at the end a, 1 foot 8 inches in length
and 1½ inch in breadth, the united thickness being an
inch. To the centre of this part a stud a is riveted, one
end of the connecting-rod c, fig. 449, being jointed to this
by a pin or bolt of 2 inch diameter. The length of the base
of the stud a is 51 inches, its breadth 14. The strengthened
part of the cutter-blade a, fig. 450, slides in a guide,
fixed to the under - framing, in a line with the crank.
The knives c c c, fig. 450, of hardened steel, are riveted to
the bar a b by two rivets of inch diameter; there are
twenty-one knives, the end b of the bar being terminated
by half a knife. In fig. 454 we give a plan of the knife one-
third full size; the width from a to b is 3 inches, the
extreme length from c to d 41 inches, the point d being
rounded off to ths of an inch. A lozenge-shaped part is
cut out of the centre, its length from e to ƒ being 21 inches, its breadth from
g to h 1 inch. This aperture prevents the blades choking while working in
the slot of the fingers. The edges ii of the knife are bevelled
off from the upper side to form cutting edges; k k are the rivet-
holes for connecting the blade to the bar a b, fig. 445.
4
(1,
k
k
e
о
C
PLAN OF KNIFE OF DRAY'S
KEAPER—¦ FULL SIZE.
1220. The fingers are riveted to a bar or finger-plate of wrought-
iron 3 inches broad and 1½ inch thick, placed across the front of
the machine. In fig. 455 we give a plan, and in fig. 456 a side
elevation of a finger one-third of the full size. The extreme length
from a to b, fig. 455, is 91 inches; the diameter from c to d 13
inch; the distance from centre to centre of rivet-holes e and ƒ 12
Fig. 455.
(
b
d
с
Fig. 456.
a
a
i
ん
​し
​mh
e
SIDE ELEVATION OF FINGER FULL SIZE.
inch; diameter of rivet-holes, 3ths of an inch. The width from 9 to
h is 1 inch, rounded off at i k to a width of aths of an inch, which is
the breadth of the projecting end of the top side of the finger a 1 m.
In fig. 456, the slot a a, in which the knives work, is of an inch
in depth. The thickness of the end of the finger where it is riveted c
to the finger-plate, as at b c, is an inch; the length of the part
from d to e is 5 inches. From b to the side of the set-off ƒ the
length is 4 inches; the depth of the set-off nearly 3 inches.
b
с
d
PIAN OF FINGFR
1
FULL SIZE.
1221. In fig. 457 we give enlarged views of the shoe sustaining the delivery-
finger i i, fig. 445. This is formed of plate-iron bolted to the under-side of the beam,
356
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
which supports the wheel a, fig. 445; it is curved upwards, as shown in fig. 457
d
Fig. 457.
b
α
at a b. At a distance of 3 inches from
the point a, a slotted guide c is fixed.
21 inches in height and of an inch
broad, the distance between the sides
being an inch. At a distance from
this of 31 inches, a stud d is attached,
with a slot in the centre, an inch in
side of the stud d gths of an inch in dia-
458, of the finger a b c, is jointed a bolt
21 inches long and inch diameter, passing through the hole in the side of
the stud d in fig. 457, and the bolt hole of the
SIDE ELEVATION OF SHOE-SCALE IN FIG. 130.
width. A bolt-hole is made on each
To the delivery-end a, fig.
meter.
Fig. 458.
d
a
VIEW OF DELIVERY-FINGER.
-
Fig. 459.
A
SHIELD OF DELIVERY-FINGER-
SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT
a
α
с
eye a of the delivery-
finger a bc, fig. 458.
The bar ba c, being
jointed at a, allows the
point b to rise and over-
come any obstacle which
may be lying in its path
while entering among
the corn as the bar
rises and falls, it plays in
the slot of the part c, fig.
457. The length of the central bar b c, fig. 458, is 2 feet 3 inches, 1 inch deep,
and 2 of an inch thick at its strongest section; the distance from the end c to the
centre of the eye a is 31 inches. The eye is elliptical in form, 12 inch long, and
4
и
b
d
с
Fig. 460.
d
b
a
PLAN OF DRAY'S REAPER CARRIAGE-SCALE, 3-INCH TO THE FOOT.
same breadth, the diameter of
the bolt-hole in its centre being
of an inch. To the central bar
bc, fig. 458, shields (one of
which is shown at d, fig. 458)
a a, fig. 459, are riveted at the
point b; the extreme length of
those is 11 inches; the width
at broadest end 4½ inches, nar-
rowed at the point b to the
depth of the bar. The shields
are shown in plan in the lower
part of fig. 459; the distance
from point to point of the ex-
tended part c c being 31 inches.
From the central bar b c, fig.
458, two light rods, e and f, curve
upwards and outwards. The
height to which the extremity of
e rises, measured from the point
a, is 1 foot 9 inches; the length
of bf is longer than be by 161
inches, and the distance between
the rods bf and be, at the ex-
tremity of e, is 8 inches.
1222. In fig. 460 we give the
plan of the carriage, to the under-side of which the reaping - machine just
described is swung, for the purpose of easy conveyance from place to place.
M'CORMICK'S REAPING - MACHINE.
357
The wheels a a are 4 feet 10 inches diameter, and 3 inches tire; the axle-beam
bb is 6 feet long and 4 inches broad, by 51 inches deep. The central beam
cc is 6 feet long and 3 inches broad by 5½ inches deep. The stays d d are 21
inches broad by 5 inches deep. Part of the reaper-pole is shown at e.
1223. The price of Dray's Hussey's reaping-machine is £25.
1224. M'Cormick's Reaping - Machine.—We shall now describe M'Cormick's
Reaper, with the improvements introduced by Messrs Burgess and Key, New-
gate Street, London. While the cutting apparatus and driving-gear of this
machine present features somewhat similar to those of Hussey's machine just
described, there is an essential difference in the mode of delivery. While in
Dray's, the grain, after being cut, is delivered to a platform, the working of
which requires a special attendant, and the grain, delivered to the ground in
quantities sufficient to make a sheaf, is required to be immediately bound up
in order to clear the path for the return journey of the machine-in Burgess and
Key's, the cut grain is at once delivered to a screw platform, and passed to the
ground at the side of the machine. A special attendant is therefore not
required, and the grain, moreover, being delivered at the side, may be left till the
whole can be conveniently bound up.
1225. In fig. 2, Plate XX., we give a perspective view of this machine, a a
the main framing, carrying the driving-wheel b b, on the shaft of which is the
spur-wheel c, engaging with the pinion d, keyed on the shaft of the bevel-wheel
e. This engages with a bevel pinion a in fig. 461, keyed on the end of the
Fig. 461.
2
D
О
•
ㅁ
​H
-
d
I
a
2
ㅁ
​16
e
h
g
a
b
O
し
​ㅁ
​•
ס
し
​712
N.
1
PLAN OF GEARING OF M'CORMICK'S KEAPER-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
crank-shaft b, which works the cutter-knives through the medium of the crank
c and connecting-rod d. On the shaft carrying the main driving-wheel b b,
fig. 2, Plate XX., a pulley e e, fig. 461, is keyed; this carries a driving-belt
f, which passes over a pulley g, fig. 2, Plate XX., on the shaft of the gathering-
reel h h h. The office of this reel is to bring the grain to the action of the
cutter-knives, this being aided also by the conical dividing-screw i i. The
fingers k, fixed to the finger-beam 1, pass between the grain; and the knives
cutting the grain fall on the Archimedean screws n n, m m, the platform o o,
and third screw p p, which, revolving, pass the grain to this side of the machine.
To the shaft carrying the wheel e a pulley q is fixed outside the framing; this
carries a driving-belt r r, which passes over the pulley s, fixed to the extremity
of the shaft of the screw n n; a pulley at the further extremity of n n carries a
driving-belt t, which communicates motion to the other screws m m, p p. The
chain u u is to raise or lower the platform v v as required by the lever-handle w.
358
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
1226. In fig. 461 we give a plan of the working parts of the driving apparatus,
drawn to a scale of inch to the foot. The main framing n n n n, fig. 461, the
extreme length of which is 7 feet 3 inches, greatest breadth 3 feet 2 inches,
and least breadth 18 inches. The driving-wheel g g is 2 feet 10 inches in
diameter, keyed on a 3-inch shaft. This carries a spur-wheel h, 1 foot 9 inches
diameter, which engages with a pinion i, 6 inches diameter. The shaft of this
carries a bevel-wheel k, which engages with the pinion a keyed on the shaft b,
carrying the crank c, which, through the medium of the connecting-rod d, gives a
reciprocating motion to the cutter-blades. The bevel-wheel k is thrown in and
out of gear with the pinion a by means of the lever ll operating on the clutch of
the wheel k. The pole is inserted at m.
1227. In fig. 462 we give a plan of the finger-beam a a, with the shoe b and
礼
​Fig. 462.
O
a
O
ť
a
e
V
VV
V
PLAN OF FINGER-BEAM-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
fingers cc; and in fig. 463 a plan of the knife. The cutting parts of the knife are
of steel, with serrated sickle edges, and are riveted to a malleable-iron bar by
two rivets each.
Fig. 463.
PLAN OF KNIFE-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
1228. In fig. 464 we give a side elevation of the framing, at the side opposite
to that which supports the driving-gear in fig. 461. This framing, fig. 464, sup-
ports the reel-braces x x in fig. 2, Plate XX.; the part a a, fig. 464, corresponds
a
Fig. 464.
d
C
&
b
SIDE ELEVATION OF FRAMING-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
to that marked y' y in Plate XX. The extreme length of b b, fig. 464, is 6 feet
9 inches; the diameter of the guide-wheel c is 14 inches. The braces a a, d d
are tightened up by the click or catch e entering the rack f. The end d of the
finger-beam a a, fig. 462, is bolted at the part g of the side-frame, fig. 464.
M'CORMICK'S REAPING-MACHINE.
359
1229. In fig. 465 we give a side elevation of the off-side of platform for sup-
porting the delivery-screws. The part a is bolted at the point e of the finger-
beam a a, fig. 462; b is the centre in which the extremity of the shaft of the
Fig. 465.
d
α
A SIDE OF PLATFORM-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FO01.
screw n n, fig. 2, Plate XX., revolves; c that of the second screw mm; d that
of the third screw pp; the platform v v being fixed at the point e, fig. 465.
1230. In fig. 466 we give a side elevation of the near platform-side marked,
z z in fig. 2, Plate XX. The end a is bolted to the stud fin fig. 462. The pro-
Fig. 466.
a
b
C
O
A BIDE OF PLATFORM-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 467.
jecting part a, fig. 467, of the frame b b, in which the screw c c (corresponding
to p p, fig. 2, Plate XX.) revolves, is bolted to the side-frame, fig. 466, at the
point c. The part d, fig. 467, of the frame e e, in which the screw fƒ (corre-
sponding to m m, fig. 2, Plate
XX.) revolves, is bolted to
the frame, fig. 466, at the
point b. The extreme length
of first screw n n, fig. 2, Plate
XX., is 4 feet 11 inches
;
V
C
e
d
a
e
с
PLAN OF DELIVERY-SCREWS AND FRAME-SCALE, } INCH TO THE FOOT.
را
diameter of central boss, 7
inches; diameter of blade or
helix of screw 10 inches.
The extreme length of second
screw m m is 4 feet 6 inches
diameter of central boss, 8
inches; of helix or third, 11
inches. The length of third screw p p is 7 feet 3 inches; diameter of boss, 9
inches; of helix, 12 inches. The extreme length of central shaft of reel h h h
is 7 feet 2 inches; the diameter of reel 5 feet 10 inches; the length of the
blades or beaters being 3 feet 6 inches; the breadth 7 inches. The diameter of
pulley g is 13 inches. The letters i i point out the conical screw, the object
of which is to bring the corn which lies away from the machine up to the plat-
form. This is the most recent improvement introduced by Messrs Burgess and
Key, and is admitted to be most effectual in its operation. In the older forms
This conical
the place of this screw was filled by a tapered divider-board.
screw is worked by bevel-gearing 1, 1, which receives motion from the reel-
shaft, through the medium of the pulleys 2 and 3, and belt 4.
1231. The price of Burgess and Key's M'Cormick's reaping-machine is £42, 10s.
360
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
1232. SECTION THIRD.-Thrashing-Machines.
1233. Thrashing-Machine.—We have now arrived at one of the most impor-
tant machines of the farm-one on which much has been said in regard to its
history, and of which, although of comparatively recent introduction, the true
merit of its invention is involved in some obscurity. Like most other inven-
tions, it appears to have come to maturity not by one mental effort, but by a
succession of steps, sometimes progressive, and at other times retrograde.
1234. As may naturally be supposed, the earliest attempts at machine-
thrashing, of which there is any authentic notice, were imitations of the flail,
a mode the most unlikely of all others to be attended with success. The
county of Northumberland seems to have given birth to the first rational
attempts, and that not longer ago than seventy years. The Northumberland
experiments, in the hands of Mr Ilderton of Alnwick and Mr Osley of Flodden,
though differing somewhat from each other,* and neither of them successful,
contained the germs that led to the development of the perfect machine-not,
however, without passing through other stages of probation.
-
1235. Amongst these transition steps is to be ranked the experiments
and improvements upon the former machines by the late Sir Francis Kinloch,
Bart., whose models, having been put into the hands of Mr Andrew Meikle,
Houston Mill, East Lothian, served as a groundwork for that ingenious
millwright to fabricate the thrashing - machine in a comparatively perfect
form;
perfect, indeed, in so far as the simple act of beating the grain
from the husk was concerned. To Meikle, therefore, has been ascribed
the merit of the thrashing-machine; and that he is entitled to this, as having
produced the first really effective machine, there can be no question; but there
can be as little, that those who pioneered the way, and brought the machine so
near the mark, deserve their share of the merit. The previous machines
appear to have contained the essential parts of the thrashing apparatus, the
feeding-rollers and the beater or scutcher; and though it is usually alleged
that Meikle gained the palm by having devised the drum with its beaters, yet
we are now well aware that a close cylinder or drum is not by any means
essential to thrashing, and that the beater, when set upon open arms, and
revolving at the proper velocity, will perform the work perhaps better than with
a close drum. The drum, however, has taken such hold on the minds of Scotch
millwrights and farmers, that it has hitherto been little less than sacrilege to
propose its dismissal: there is, however, every probability that the day is not
distant that will see the drum beaten out of the barn by the long-rejected open
beaters.
1236. It appears that the early thrashing-machines, even those that were
held perfect, did nothing more than simply beat the grain out of the husk, the
remaining processes of shaking and dressing being left for manipulation.
These, however, appear to have followed in rapid succession; the revolving
rake-shaker having been first added, and afterwards the dressing-fan.
1237. In the early stages of the machine, the whole of it generally stood
upon the ground, barns in Scotland having not then attained a loft or first floor.
The introduction of the shaker, but more especially the fan, induced the neces-
sity, first of elevating the mill to a greater height on the ground-floor to admit
of the application of these appendages, and ultimately rendering a first-floor a
necessary part of the arrangements of a well-regulated thrashing - machine.
By the disposal of the parts of the machinery in two floors, the whole business
* BROWN On Rural Affairs, vol. i. p. 318.
SCOTCH THRASHING - MACHINE.
361
is conducted in a more orderly manner, and a distinct separation of the un-
thrashed corn from the straw, the chaff, and the grain. The arrangement of
the premises will be found illustrated in the Fourth Division of this book.
1238. The Scotch Thrashing-Machine.-Thrashing-machines may be divided
into two great classes-English and Scotch-in the mode of operation of which
there are marked differences. We shall first describe the Scotch thrashing-
machine, as it may be said to be the precursor of the combined English
machines now so much in use.
1239. The arrangement of the thrashing department of the steading with a
complete machine consists of the following parts:-1. The upper or thrashing-
barn, which contains the chief part of the machinery and the thrashing appara-
tus: here the unthrashed corn is received from the stackyard, and is delivered
into the machine; and here also the separation of the grain from the husk
and the straw takes place in passing through the upper works of the machine.
2. The corn-barn, immediately below the former, and is part of the ground-floor;
here the grain, separated from the straw by means of the shaker and screen, is
received, first into the fanners, where it is separated from the chaff, and
delivered at two distinct spouts, the one giving out the partially-dressed grain,
and called the clean spout; the other, called the seconds spout, discharging a
mixture of grain with some husks and a few unthrashed ears—which is again
returned through the machine. 3. The straw-barn, into which the straw is
received direct from the shakers of the machine. 4. The chaff-room, situate
intermediate to the two former divisions, and is usually a portion of the corn-
barn, partitioned off with boarding, the fanners forming a part of the partition.
1240. Besides the essential divisions of the process just pointed out, there
are minor divisions which are chiefly carried on in the corn-barn.
These may
be taken in progressive order, and are-1. The elevator from the foul or seconds
spout, raising the seconds to the feeding-board. 2. The elevator from the clean-
spout, raising the grain from that spout of the first fanners to the hopper of the
second fanners, and in some cases a third set of elevators, lifting the grain
from the second to a third fanner. 3. The hummeller, chiefly used for rub-
bing off the base of the awn in barley, but occasionally applied also to the other
grains for specific objects.
1241. Details of the Framework.-In describing the framework of the
thrashing-machine, it is necessary to begin with that which supports the main
shaft. This, it invariably falls out, has its bearing for one point in the wall
that separates the barn from the locality of the power, whatever that may be.
For this purpose, when the altitude of the position of the shaft has been deter-
mined, an opening of 2 feet square is formed in the wall, as at f' in fig. 2, Plate
XXII., the sill of which should be of one solid stone, laid at the proper level,
and upon which the pillow-block of the shaft is bedded. If intermediate wheels
are employed, another and similar opening must be formed for the bearing of
the shaft of the great spur-wheel. Such other shafts also as may require to
be extended to the wall of separation, should have bearings in recesses formed
in the wall at the respective positions, such as for the extension of the shafts of
the drum and of the feeding-rollers, which, in general, may be arranged in one
recess, as at i of the same figure. The sills and bearers in these minor recesses
will be found more convenient if formed of good sound Memel timber, than of stone.
In further describing the framework, the letters of reference apply to correspond-
ing parts of fig. 1, Plate XXI., an elevation; of fig. 1, Plate XXII., a longi-
tudinal section; and of fig. 2, Plate XXII., a plan of the machine. In these
figures, a marks portions of the barn wall, bb the ground-floor line, and ce
362
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
the foundation-beams, whose scantlings are 12 inches by 6 inches. The letter d
marks the different parts of the framework of the case of the machine. Of these
parts, the four posts which encase the drum ii, together with the two bearers on
which it rests, are 5 inches square. The four posts, with their bearing-rails,
that enclose the shakers 7 n, are 5 inches in breadth and 3 inches in thickness.
These timbers are joined by mortise and tenon, so as to be all flush on the
outward side. The whole of the posts are likewise tenoned into the sill d,
which is 3 inches in breadth and 2 inches in depth. The four drum-posts,
being of greater breadth than the sill, are tenoned with a cheek at bottom of 2
inches in thickness, which passes down upon the inside of the beams, and is
secured thereto by bolts, thus giving greater stability to the drum-framing.
The top-rail d is also 3 inches in breadth by 24 inches in depth, and is ten-
oned upon the head of the posts. The top-rails of the drum-casing are joined
in like manner to their posts; but their dimensions are 5 inches by 3 inches.
The position and form of the feeding-board is marked by the letter e; and ast
this appendage is not required of great strength, it is usually of a temporary
construction, and sometimes even portable. The two sides of the framework
thus described require to be tied by means of cross-rails, which are most con-
veniently fixed upon the top-rails of the framework by bolting.
1242. The openings in the two sides of the framing, formed as above
described, are now to be filled in with panels of -inch boarding, neatly fitted
and strengthened with cross-bars at each end of the pannel. Those panels
that fill up the frame on the gearing side of the machine may be permanently
fixed in their respective places; but all those on the other side must be made
easily movable, for giving access to the different parts of the interior for the
purpose of cleaning. In the panels that close up the drum-case, it has been
recommended to leave an opening of 6 inches diameter round the shaft, for
the purpose of admitting a current of air, which, it is supposed, might prevent
the winding of straw round the shaft and ends of the drum. When the con-
struction is good in other respects, it does not appear that this precaution is
necessary; but the simplicity of the proposed remedy recommends it to
attention.
1243. Gearing of the Thrashing-Machine.-Intermediate gearing is, in some
cases, required between the power and the great spur-wheel. These are again
represented by the dotted circles m and n in fig. 2, Plate XXI., where n is
the wheel attached to the engine-shaft, and m that upon the shaft of the great
spur-wheel. These, together with the latter, may be considered as common to
all thrashing-machines, except those driven by a belt; but there are two prin-
cipal modes of constructing all the inferior gearing, the one by means of
toothed wheels, the other by pitch-chains and wheels adapted to the chains.
The fig. 1, Plate XXI., and figs. 1 and 2 in Plate XXII., being those in which
the toothed-wheel system is adopted, we shall first advert to them.
1244. The Toothed-Wheel System.-The great spur-wheel is marked f, fig. 2,
Plate XXII.; upon its shaft is also placed one of the mitre-wheels g'; its fellow
is mounted on the oblique shaft g, which gives motion to the feeding-rollers
through the intervention of the triad of mitre-wheels h. Of these two sets of
wheels, the lower g' may be from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, with a pitch
of 11 inch and a breadth of 24 inches. The upper, or triad h, are about 7 or
8 inches diameter, with a pitch of 1 inch and a breadth of 1 inch. These,
acting upon a train of small gearing, produce the requisite changes of the
feeding-rollers, it being kept in view that the oblique shaft g should make
either from 45 to 50, or from 65 to 70 rotations per minute; and to effect this,
SCOTCH THRASHING - MACHINE.
363
if the great spur-wheel make any number intermediate to these, the velocity of
the shaft g is brought up or down, as opinion and circumstances may advise,
by using bevelled wheels of different diameters, suited to bring out the required
velocity, instead of the mitre-wheels g'. In the case now before us, the spur-
wheel ƒ is understood to make 50 revolutions per minute, and is therefore
adapted through the mitre-wheels g' for the lowest rate of the feeding-rollers.
1245. Feeding-Gear.-Fig. 468 is an elevation of the feeding-gear, in which
k
h
9
i
d
ť
V
Fig. 468.
THE FEEDING-GEAR.
p
ル
​ገቢ
11
tt is a part of the drum-framing, and u u a bolster attached to the wall; and
though subject to great variety, the arrangement represents a simple and com-
pletely efficient train of gearing. a is the driving mitre-wheel of the triad h
in fig. 2, Plate XXII.; b and c are the two other wheels, these last being
mounted on the shaft d. The wheels b and c are connected together by a tube
e; and this combination is fitted to slide upon the shaft d, but is prevented
from turning round upon it by means of a feather or rib inserted in the shaft,
the tube being also grooved to receive the rib. - The tube is further provided
with an annular groove f, formed by two raised collars. The groove ƒ admits
of a forked lever, by which the combined wheels b and c can be moved from
right to left, or from left to right. The tube e is of such a length as admits
of both wheels b c being placed out of gear with a; and, of course, when slid
to the right, b comes into action with a, which turns the shaft d in one direc-
tion; but if slid to the left, b is disengaged, and c is brought into contact with
the wheel a, and the shaft d is then turned in the opposite direction, while a
continues to move always in one direction. The object of these counter-
motions is to enable the person who feeds in the sheaves of corn to reverse the
motion of the feeding-rollers when, on any occasion, it is found necessary to
make them disgorge the straw.
1246. The object of the remaining wheels of the train is to change the
velocity of the feeding-rollers, and is accomplished by the following combina-
tion: The shaft d, having a velocity already given to it of 50 turns per
minute, which is suited to the lower velocity of the rollers, it is only
necessary to communicate that to the rollers as one of their two rates.
364
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
The shafts g and h are respectively the prolongation of the lower and upper
feeding - rollers i and k, connected thereto by the universal joints g and
h, and each of the shafts g h are furnished with the equal spur - wheels
m n, each of 12 teeth, working continuously into each other; while 7, of 16
teeth, is fitted to run loose upon its own shaft. The wheels o and P have
each 14 teeth, o being also fitted to run loose on the shaft d, and p fixed
dead upon the shaft g; the two pairs, therefore, I m and o p, are always in gear.
The slide-clutch q, with a slide-rib, being now placed on the shaft d, between
the wheels 7 and o, which, as well as the slide, are furnished with clutch-forks,
and so disposed that the slide can be clutched to either of the wheels 7 or o, or
it may stand free of both,-and being always carried round with the shaft by
means of the rib, and movable at all times, right or left, by a lever acting in its
annular groove q r,—the man whose duty it is to feed can at pleasure stop all
motion of the rollers, by placing the lever of the slide in a middle notch, give
the rollers the highest velocity by clutching the slide into the wheel l, or their
lowest velocity by disengaging it from 7 and clutching the wheel o; the former
being effected through the wheels 7 m n, the latter through o p m n. In
either of these cases, the disengaged wheel continues to be driven free of the
shaft, by their respective companions m and p. The action of the slide-levers,
by which the mitre-wheels b and c, and the spur-wheels 7 and o, are moved, will
be more distinctly understood by turning to h, in fig. 2, Plate XXII., where
the apparatus just described is seen in plan.
1247. When it happens that the great spur-wheel has a velocity that suits
the highest velocity of the feeding-rollers, and that the wheels g', fig. 2, Plate
XXII., are still mitres, the train of small spur-wheels is somewhat changed.
The wheels / and m, fig. 468, change places, and are, besides, moved their own
breadth towards o and p; o and p are likewise shifted to admit the slide, but do
not change places. A sixth wheel of the same number, as n, is then fixed on
the shaft g, acting constantly in n. When the slide is now clutched into o,
the highest velocity is produced; and when into 7, the lowest is given out.
1248. When, again, it happens that the great spur-wheel has a velocity not
agreeing with either the highest or the lowest velocity of the feeding-rollers,
and the mitre-wheels g', fig. 2, Plate XXII., are still retained, the arrangement
is again somewhat different. In this case the wheels m and n, fig. 468, remain
upon their respective shafts, but are shifted their own breadth to one side.
Suppose the velocity of the spur-wheel, and that of the oblique shaft and its
wheel a, to be 60 revolutions per minute, the wheels 7 and m must take the
inverse proportion of 60 to 65, or say 70, for the high velocity; and the wheels
o and p, instead of being equal, take the inverse proportion of 70 to 60 for the
lower velocity. It were endless to multiply examples; it is sufficient to show
the general mode of procedure, as every change of circumstance requires a
new calculation.
1249. The arrangement of the feeding-gear has undergone many changes.
Some of the older methods were sufficiently inconvenient and unscientific; but
improvement has gradually made progress, and, though the varieties are nume-
rous, they may be considered generally as efficient. The arrangement here
detailed seems to possess every appliance that the case requires; it can be instan-
taneously adjusted while the machine is in motion, and yet it is free of complica-
tion and of liability to derangement. The couplings of the shafts we have called
universal joints, par. 1246, but they hardly claim that appellation, nor, in the
case of the lower shaft g, fig. 468, is that principle required; in the upper shaft h,
the principle of universality of motion is, however, necessary to accommodate
SCOTCH THRASHING - MACHINE.
365
the rising and falling of the upper roller with the quantity of feed, while the end
n of the shaft lies in a permanent bearing. This coupling, as usually formed, is
simply a box or socket formed on the end h of the shaft, and in its cross section
the box is usually oblong, being 12 inch by 1 inch, or a little more, while the
corresponding end of the roller-shaft is formed to fit so loosely into this socket.
as will allow the shaft n h to rise to an angle of 10° with the horizontal line, and
this it must be capable of doing in any part of its revolution. This mode of
coupling being so simple, is also applied to the shaft g, though, having no
change of direction to encounter, the yielding joint is not essentially neces-
sary. The shafting of this gearing is usually 1 inch in diameter.
1250. Gearing of the Drum.-The drum, as the principal member of the
machine, requires the most direct means of communicating the power to it;
hence the pinion of the drum is usually driven directly by the spur-wheel; but
it is also necessary, with the high velocity at this point, to produce a smooth
action, and the difficulty and expense of procuring this, when rough cast-iron
is employed, is such, as to have induced the practice of employing cogged
wheels, now in most cases adopted. By the term cogged wheel is now under-
stood any wheel, the eye, arms, and rim of which are of cast-iron, but having
the teeth formed of hardwood, generally beech, set firmly in mortises previously
cast in the rim; hence such wheels, in the language of the mechanic, are
frequently called mortise wheels. (See fig. 171.) The great spur-wheel ƒ,
then, fig. 1, Plate XXI., and 2, Plate XXII., is a cogged wheel of 5 feet
diameter, having 120 teeth, the pitch of the teeth being 12 inch, and the
breadth 4 inches. This drives the pinion i, which is placed upon a prolongation
of the drum-shaft, the prolonged part being coupled to the true shaft immedi-
ately outside the framework, as seen in fig. 2, Plate XXII., between d and
q, though some makers prefer that the whole be in one piece. The pinion i of
the drum is here 12 inches diameter, with 22 teeth; and, as ought always to
be done in the case of a pinion being driven by a cogged wheel, the pinion is
turned true upon its own shaft, the cast teeth correctly graduated afresh,
the correct curve drawn upon them, and the whole dressed off to equality by
the chisel and file. For this purpose, pinions that are to be dressed true must
be cast with their teeth of such extra thickness as will admit of this dressing,
and still possess the due thickness and strength required for true action.
1251. Gearing of the Shakers.-The shakers being required to move at a
velocity considerably lower than the drum, and even lower in general than
the great spur-wheel, a reduction of velocity becomes necessary. In the
arrangement under consideration, this is effected by extending the main shaft f',
fig. 2, Plate XXII., by means of a coupling-piece extending to, and resting on,
the beam c. This extended part of the shaft carries the small wheel seen at k
in the same figure, but is hid in fig. 1, Plate XXI., by the eye of the great
spur-wheel. This small wheel is 10 inches diameter, and acts upon the inter-
mediate wheel k, which is not furnished with a shaft, but turns upon a strong
fixed stud. The wheel k acts upon l, which is fixed upon the shaft of the first
shaker l, and of fig. 1, Plate XXI. The continued train of spur-wheels 1 m, m n,
together with k, are all of one size, 2 feet diameter, 1 inch pitch, and 2 inches
broad. Of these m m are also intermediate, or applied to convey motion from
I to n; n being fixed upon the shaft of the second shaker, while m m turn
upon studs like k.
These studs are inserted into a swing-bar that can be
bolted to the horizontal rails of the framing, in such position as will bring
the intermediate wheels into proper pitch with the principals 7 and n.
1252. Gearing of the Fanners.-The motion for the fanners is taken with
366
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
great convenience from the drum-shaft, on the extension of which is placed a
grooved pulley of 9 inches diameter, at q, fig. 2, Plate XXII.; a corresponding
pulley s, fig. 1, Plate, XXI., is placed upon an extension of the fan-shaft of
the fanners, the extended part being coupled to the principal shaft of the fan
immediately adjoining to the pulley, and the extreme end supported in a bearing
on the post t. The driving-pulley q being 9 inches diameter, and making about
360 revolutions per minute, the pulley s, in order to bring the fan to a proper
velocity of 220 revolutions per minute, requires to be made about 14 inches
diameter. Since these two pulleys stand at right angles to each other, and the
rope-band (usually employed) cannot, for that reason, apply directly to them, it
requires to be carried in the direction qr q s, fig. 1, Plate XXI., r being a
slide-frame in which two leading pulleys, mounted in a case, are fitted to slide
in the vertical direction, thus serving at the same time to lead the band in the
proper direction to the pulleys q and s, and to tighten or slacken the band.
The pulley-case is moved in the slide, either by a long screw or by a tail-rope,
which, when the case is adjusted, is fastened to a cleat.
1253. The second fanners a', fig. 1, Plate XXI., are most conveniently driven
by a band of rope or leather c' c', from a pulley set upon the extreme end of
the drum-shaft; but this, in all the figures, is hid from view by the adjacent
parts. The band passes down through the floor, and directly under the corre-
sponding pulley on the fan-shaft. The pulleys for this purpose are of the same
diameter as those described for the first fanners.
1254. Gearing of the Elevators.-The methods of giving motion to the eleva-
tors are numerous, depending frequently on the arrangement of the machinery,
and sometimes on that of the barn. The one here adopted is, by placing a
chain-wheel on the great spur-wheel shaft immediately behind the mitre-wheels
g', fig. 2, Plate XXII. A corresponding wheel v is placed on a shaft appended
to the lower side of the foundation beams by plummer-blocks, and reaching
across both beams. Over these wheels the pitch-chain u u, fig. 1, Plate XXI.,
is applied, which gives motion to v. On the shaft of the wheel v, and at a
point directly in front of the clean spout of the fanners p, are placed two plain
wheels or pulleys x, of about 14 inches diameter; these carry the belts of the
elevator w w, which, by descending to the lower pulleys, becomes the driver of
the elevator y y, the lower pulleys of both being on one shaft. Corresponding
to this last pair of pulleys, there is also placed in the upper barn, at a sufficient
height above the feeding-board, another pair of pulleys, one of which, y, is seen
at the upper extremity of the elevator y y, fig. 1, Plate XXI., and placed on
a shaft appended by plummer-blocks to the collar-joists of the roof. Thus
arranged, the chain u u gives motion to the elevator w, which, in its turn,
through the medium of the lower pulleys x, and their shaft, gives motion to the
elevator y.
1255. In cases where elevators for the foul spout only are employed, the
chain u u, fig. 1, Plate XXI., is carried to a chain-wheel placed on the shaft
of the pulleys of the upper extremity of the elevator y, or, if circumstances.
render it more convenient, to the lower extremity x; and in either case, it
is obvious that the elevator w, instead of being the driver, may be made that
which is driven.
1256. Having considered the construction of the framework, and the appli-
cation of the gearing of the thrashing-machine, we proceed to notice the con-
struction and action of the active parts of the machine, and their relation to
each other.
1257. Of the Feeding-Rollers.-The feeding-rollers have had their varieties of
SCOTCH THRASHING-MACHINE.
3
Fig. 469.
ს
367
TRANSVERSE SECTIONS
OF THE FEEDING-ROLLERS
change, and these varieties have arisen from attempts to overcome an accident
to which feeding-rollers are liable when thrashing corn in a damp state-the
winding of straw around them. To obviate this, rollers have been made, both
plain, and both fluted in various forms; they have been made of hardwood,
and wrapt spirally round with hoop-iron; have been turned truly round in cast-
iron, and fitted up with scrapers constantly acting upon them, to prevent adhe-
sion of the straw; and with one fluted, and one plain, without being turned
true. The forms now most generally adopted in Scotland
are represented in fig. 469, where a is a transverse section of
the lower roller, fluted in an angular form; while the upper
roller has its transverse section, b, forming a polygon, whose
sides are slightly concave. In both, the breadth of the flutings
and of the faces are from to inch. In the Scotch thrash-
ing-machine the rollers are invariably made of cast-iron, with
journals or gudgeons of malleable iron, either cast into the
roller, or afterwards fixed in with wedges. Their diameter is
usually 4 inches; and for their length, it is always desirable
that it be 1 or 2 inches greater than that of the drum. The
weight of a roller, therefore, of 3 feet in length, will be
about 140 lb. The velocity of revolution of the feeding-rollers
is a point of great importance in this species of thrashing - machine, and
is affected by various causes, such as the length of straw in the wheat com-
pared with that of the barley and oat crops. The state of the crop also
requires to be considered as to its dryness and dampness, with other causes
arising from soil, climate, &c. Independent of these considerations, if the
rate of feeding be too slow for the velocity of the drum, the work will be
slowly performed, and the straw will be much broken. If, on the other hand,
it be too fast for the drum, the corn will pass through imperfectly thrashed;
both of which results it is desirable to avoid. The results of the experience
for many years of numerous millwrights, have determined a mean range of
velocities which appear best suited to obviate the greatest number of difficul-
ties. These velocities, when stated in terms of that of the drum, are, that the
rollers of 4 inches diameter make one revolution to five of the drum as the maxi-
mum velocity, and one to six and one-third as the minimum. When compared
by the spaces over which the straw is passed in a given time between the rollers,
the maximum rate is 73 feet, and the minimum 57 feet per minute. Or, taking
the number of strokes of the beaters in a given length of straw, we have, in
round numbers, 24 strokes on 1 foot of length of straw as the maximum, and,
for the minimum, 19. Some makers, it may be remarked, make the maximum
higher, and the minimum lower, than the above rates; but unless a third or
mean velocity could be obtained, which no doubt could be done, there seems
to be no advantage gained, from pushing the extremes-the maximum and
minimum rates-beyond reasonable limits.
1258. The rollers are usually placed in front of the posts of the drum-framing,
and the lower one at a height of from 3 to 5 inches above the level of the drum's
centre: the lower we hold to be the better of the two. The upper roller, of course,
lies upon the lower when not in action, with straw between them. They are
supported in brackets of various forms; and as it is necessary that means be
afforded to vary the distance of the rollers from the beaters, numerous methods
have been taken to accomplish this, by varying the form and means of applying
these brackets or bolsters.
1259. We have, in the course of our practice, applied a very perfect and easily-
368
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
managed form of bracket, but which is, perhaps, too expensive for the remunera-
tion afforded from the making of thrashing-machines. The principle of the
method is: the two brackets are fitted to move horizontally in a metal slide,
and their movement is effected by a screw passing into each. Each of the
screws is mounted with a small mitre-wheel, serving as the head by which it is
turned. A slender shaft extends from the one bracket to the other, and carries
two more mitre-wheels, which act upon the two former. A handle is fitted to
the slender shaft, and, by turning this either way, the screws are acted upon
through the mitre-wheels, and ultimately on the brackets, to move them back-
ward or forward simultaneously, and with the greatest precision.
Fig. 470.
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a
hi
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1260. A simpler and very efficient method has also been adopted, which is
represented in fig. 470, where a is a front post of the
drum-framing, b a part of the bearer of the drum,
and c the place occupied by the top-rail; d d' is
the bracket, e is a tail, hinge-jointed at d, and is
bolted dead upon the post; f is the bearing of the
lower roller, and g that of the upper, which is formed
as a curved slit concentric to the circle of the drum.
At the top d' of the bracket, and on the back part, a
wedge form piece is cast upon it, forming an in-
clined plane. The reverse wedge h is of malleable
iron, forked or slit from the head towards the tail, to
pass over the bolt k, and terminates in a screw and
nut; the tail is sunk into the post, and passes up-
ward through the top-rail c, where it is held in the
position required by the screw-nut. It is obvious
that, by drawing the wedge h upward, it will press
the head of the bracket outward; and the nut of the
bolt k being then screwed tight, the bracket will be
held fast and secure. A separate bracket i is bolted
upon the post a, serving as a bearing for the shaft d
of fig. 468.
i
wela
THE BRACKETS OF THE FEEDING-
ROLLERS.
4
1261. Of the Drum.-The construction and proper-
ties of the drum, as it is the prime member of the
machine, require the most careful consideration. In
the Scotch practice, it is invariably made a close
cylinder. The shaft, always made of malleable iron,
is usually 1 inch square, sometimes 2 inches, and
rarely 1 inch. Upon this is mounted generally two sets of crosses or arms of
hardwood. The quality of lightness, especially towards the central parts, with a
due degree of strength, being of great importance, these arms should be of the best
and toughest materials. Their dimensions at the centre need not exceed 4 inches
by 21 inches, tapering to 24 inches square at the ends. They are half-lapped
in pairs at the centre, and strengthened by a plate of malleable iron on each side,
with a bolt on each arm, passing through the plates and arms. By means of
these plates, also, they are firmly wedged upon the shaft, one set of arms being
placed at each end. Fig. 471 is a transverse section of the drum thus con-
structed, showing the shaft a, the plates b, and the arms d. To these are added,
upon each set of arms, a ring of hardwood e, worked in segments, and bolted to
the arms. This ring, 2 by 1 inches, and 28 inches of external diameter,
besides binding the extremity of the arms, serves as a bed for the covering,
which is now always made of sheet-iron of the strength of 1 lb. per superficial
SCOTCH THRASHING MACHINE.
369
foot. The portion of the arms that projects beyond the ring serves as the
bearing to which the beaters ƒ are bolted; these are 3 inches in depth, and
2 inches in thickness. The striking face of the beaters is formed to lie in the
radii of the circle, and is faced with an iron plate from end to end, the breadth
of which may be from 2 inches to 1½ inch, usually steeled on the striking edge
with a thickness of 3 inch, and securely fixed with bolts or screws. The ends
8
of the drum are covered with 2-inch boarding, and dressed off truly by turning.
1262. Such is the construction of the drum most frequently adopted; but other
methods are also followed. In some cases, arms of cast-iron instead of wood
Fig. 471.
Fig. 472.
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b
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b
d
b
d
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TRANSVERSE SECTIONS OF THE SCOTCH DRUM.
C
are employed; and these, if judiciously proportioned, are, in some respects, supe-
rior to wood-all the other parts outward remaining as described in par. 1261.
1263. A third method has also been adopted, wherein the arms and ring are
in one piece of cast-iron, comparatively light. Fig. 472 represents this mode
of construction in transverse section, where a is the shaft, b the arms, 2 inches
by inch, and c the ring, having the same dimensions; its diameter over all
being 2 feet 6 inches. In this the beaters d are only 3 inches in depth; they
are bedded upon a flange projecting on each side of the ring, and bolted in that
direction, but supported, besides, by the lip e, which rises and supports them
behind in the direction' of the stroke.
3
1264. The position of the drum in relation to the feeding-rollers has been
already stated (1241); its distance from them ranges from to inch, the mean
of these being the distance most generally acted upon. The height of the
drum's centre above the floor of the barn varies, with local circumstances, from
1 foot to 2 feet, there being no special rule to confine it to any precise height
between these limits.
1265. The diameter and length of the drum has undergone many changes.
In the early period of its history, it appears to have been of moderate dimensions,
but with the extension of the use of the machine came an impression that its parts
should be also extended; and, accordingly, about thirty years ago we find the
length of the drum extended to 5 and even to 6 feet, and its diameter to 3½ feet.
These, no doubt, are extreme cases. But the general opinion then was, that a
large drum was the only means by which a large quantity of work could be
performed. During the last twenty years, opinions have taken the contrary
direction, and the drum has returned to more reasonable dimensions. This last
change has, no doubt, been in part brought about by the introduction of steam
as a thrashing power, for by it a machine that with 6 horses could, with an effort,
2 A
370
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
thrash 30 bushels of wheat per hour, will now, with a 6-horse-power engine,
thrash with ease 45 bushels in the same time, and that with a drum not exceed-
ing 3 feet in length and 3 feet diameter: there is now, therefore, a general
disposition to approach these dimensions as a standard. With such power, it
has been found that one man can feed for the thrashing of 45 bushels per hour,
or even as high as 60 on an emergency; but even with the latter quantity, and
though the drum were 5 feet long, the spread of the corn does not extend beyond
31 feet of its length, or more properly to only 3 feet of it; hence all that is over
the greatest of these is superfluous length, and ought to be removed. Since a
machine with a drum of 33 feet is capable of thrashing 450 bushels in 10 hours,
the whole produce of a farm of 500 acres could be thrashed in from 30 to 40
days, which seems abundantly expeditious; and, therefore, the maximum length
of drum may be fairly taken at 31 feet for a 6-horse-power engine; and, by the
same calculation, 3 feet for a 4-horse power, and 2 feet for a 2-horse machine,
the diameter of the drum in all cases remaining the same-3 feet.
3 feet. Under the
system that admitted of large drums, the number of revolutions was necessarily
low, and during these periods it was generally limited to 300 per minute, which,
with the diameter of drum then used, gave an annular velocity, at the extremity
of the beaters, of about 3300 feet per minute. With the changes related above,
the number of revolutions has been increased, while the diameter has decreased.
The medium rate now employed is 350 revolutions per minute, but frequently
400: with 350 revolutions, the velocity of the beaters continues nearly the
same as when the large drum was employed; but with a rate of 400, the velo-
city amounts to 3300 feet per minute. There is good reason for concluding that
a mean velocity of 3500 feet per minute will yield the maximum effect under the
system of thrashing herein described.
1266. In the Scotch thrashing-machine the action of the beaters is upward;
and this, with very few exceptions, is invariable. From the construction of the
thrashing parts of the machine, the corn is kept under the action of the beaters
for a very short space; for, however well the feeding-rollers may hold on the
straw, the ear passes beyond the reach of the beaters, when it has passed over
about one-fourth part of the circumference of the drum-case. This we hold to
be a defect in the machine, and that to this defect may be ascribed almost all
those complaints of imperfect thrashing, not unusually ascribed to defects in the
shaking department. In another class of thrashing-machines, this defect is
obviated by retaining the straw under the action of the beaters during its
passage over at least two-thirds the circumference of the drum-case; and there
appears every reason to conclude that the thrashing process of the Scotch
machine would be much improved by adopting a similar arrangement, and which
could be easily effected.
1267. Of the Drum-Cover.-The thrashing process is accomplished by subject-
ing the corn and straw to the action of the beaters, while it is held by the feed-
ing-rollers. But in order to give full effect to the blows of the beaters, the straw
is resisted and held to the action by means of the apron or cover of the drum.
The cover is a strong concave board i", fig. 1, Plate XXII., equal in length
to the drum, and in breadth measures about 27 inches. The boarding is 1 inch
in thickness, and is fastened by nailing it upon three segmental bars, placed
outside, of hardwood or of cast-iron, the concave surface being also lined with
sheet-iron. The radius of curvature of the interior surface is 3 inches greater
than that of the drum itself; and it is suspended at its upper edge by a swing
link, capable of being shortened or lengthened at pleasure by a screw. The
average distance of the upper edge of the concavity from the beaters is about
SCOTCH THRASHING - MACHINE.
371
3 inches, while the lower edge coincides with a circle that would touch the feed-
ing-rollers, or about ğ inch distant from the beaters. Different methods are
followed in forming the junction of the feeding-rollers with the apron.
1268. In some cases, the front edge of the apron is cut off nearly vertical, so
as to allow the upper feeding-roller to pass the apron when raised up by the
feed. In this case, the lower edge of the apron forms an acute angle, and is
supported in a swing link similar to that of the upper edge.
1269. Another method is to rest the lower edge of the apron on the journals
of the upper roller by means of a gland at each end, bolted to the lower edge of
the apron, and having a bearing on the journals. In this case, the lower edge
of the apron is worked off to the curvature of the roller to a small extent, and
keeps always close upon but not touching it.
1270. By these means, the lower edge of the apron rises and falls with the
roller; and when so rising and falling, it swings upon the upper link, and the
roller has consequently the weight of the apron always upon it. When the
straw has passed the apron, it is prevented from flying off by a plain board d
placed in a tangent to the curve of the apron, as in the figure, which leads
it directly from the apron to the shakers.
1271. The casing of the drum is completed by having an arc k, fig. 1, Plate
XXII., formed underneath, extending from the rollers at h' to the breast of
the casing at the top of the inclined plane ", its position and curvature being
such as just to allow the beaters to revolve freely. This part of the casing is
formed of 1-inch boarding laid upon three segmental ribs of hardwood k.
1272. In the operation of the drum, it is occasionally, from the state of the
straw, subject to an inconvenience arising from an accumulation of straw between
the ends of the drum and the casing-boards. This seems to occur only where
an unnecessary wide space is left between the ends of the drum and the boarding.
With due care, this space may be reduced to inch, but should never exceed 1
inch ; and by attention to this on the part of the maker, all inconvenience from
this cause may be avoided. (See par. 1242.)
1273. Of the Shakers.-Next in importance to the drum stands the shaking
apparatus, for separating the loose grain from the straw. That mode which is
of the longest standing, and by far the most generally approved of, is the
rake shakers l and n, figs. 1 and 2, Plate XXII. They are variously formed,
having sometimes a close cylindrical body like the drum, with rake-heads pro-
jecting from it, as in n. It is also formed with a square and with a pentagonal
body, the rake projecting as before; and lastly, a square form, with concave
sides, which, uniting at the angles, shoot out into the rake-heads, as in 1, which
is a form that has been well established for a first shaker, the concave spaces
affording good range for the reception of the grain and straw from the drum. In
the construction of this shaker, two very light frames of cast-iron, of the form
represented in the figure, consisting of the four arms, about 14 by inch, and
the four concave sides having the same scantling, after their junction, pro-
ceed to the distance of 27 inches from the centre, when they are turned off
into the palm, which stands at an angle of 45° with the direction of the arm.
The entire length of the shaker should be 4 inches, at the least, longer than the
drum; and the two frames just described are set upon the shaker-shaft, at about
5 inches within the intended length. The rake-heads are 21 inches square, and
of the full length of the shaker; they are bolted to the palms of the frame, and
are bored for the insertion of the spikes or teeth, which are set on the heads at
spaces of about 4 inches apart, their length being about 8 inches beyond the
head. In the several heads, the same distance apart is observed for the teeth;
3
372
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
but they are so arranged in each, that those in any one rake follow a different
track from the teeth of any of the other three heads. The radius of the shaker,
measuring to the extreme points of the teeth, is 3 feet; and the distance of these
from the beaters is usually about 9 inches. In all cases, the grain and straw
pass under this shaker, and the position given to the teeth has the effect of
pressing the straw down upon the grating while in progress over it, producing
thereby a process of rubbing, to aid the discharge of the grain. But so soon as
the straw is relieved from the friction of the rake, the same position of the teeth
discharges it with certainty upon the second shaker.
arm.
а
1274. The second shaker n, figs. 1 and 2, Plate XXII., has also undergone
various changes; but, in general, it is either a close or a skeleton cylinder, with
rakes attached. Some makers prefer sending the straw over the top of the
second shaker, and there is good reason for recommending this practice. When
this practice is adopted, the shaker is necessarily of the skeleton make, to allow
the grain to fall through it; and the present example is upon this principle. It
consists of two sets of arms, each extending to a radius of 21 inches, when each
arm terminates in a palm, standing at an angle of 22° with the direction of the
A ring of hardwood, 24 inches by 1½ inch, and 3 feet 4 inches diameter,
is bolted upon each set of arms, and they are thus set upon the shaft 5 inches
within the extreme length of the shaker, as before. A series of triangular laths
are then nailed upon the rings, their length forming the body of the shaker, and
set at 4 inches apart. Four rakes, formed as described for the first shaker, are
bolted upon the palms, which complete the structure; and the radius in this
case, taken to the point of the teeth, is 2 feet 6 inches. There is sometimes a
necessity for the adoption of this kind of shaker, namely, when the barn is so low
that the great hopper cannot be extended under the whole length of the grating
of the second shaker without giving the hopper such a low angle, that grain,
particularly barley, would lodge upon it. To obviate this, a part of what ought
to be grating is boarded over, as at n', fig. 1, Plate XXII.; and to prevent grain
from accumulating upon this, brushes are applied over one-half of two opposite
rakes, the teeth in these parts being left out, and the brushes attached by means
of adjusting screw-bolts, by which the brushes are adjusted to sweep the grain
into the grating.
1275. It will be observed that, when the second shaker takes the straw over,
and if driven by wheel-gearing, the two intermediate wheels m m, fig. 1, Plate
XXI., are required; but if the straw is taken under, then the shaker revolves
in the opposite direction; and to effect this, one intermediate wheel only is
required; in which case, also, the wheels, instead of being 2 feet diameter, will
require to be 3 feet 2 inches, or thereby. In the case of working under, also,
the rake-teeth must be placed at the angle 45°, as in the first shaker.
1276. The position of the shakers vertically, in relation to the drum, may,
without detrimental effect, be varied according to local circumstances; but with
a 6-feet first shaker, its centre should, on an average, be 9 inches above the
level of the drum's centre. This will give the plane l", fig. 1, Plate XXII.,
leading from the drum, an inclination of about 40°, which will be sufficient to
prevent any accumulation of grain or straw in that part of their course. The
centre of the second shaker, of 5 feet diameter, may be placed anywhere between
that of being on a level with the first shaker to 6 inches below its level; the
height of the barn being, in this respect, the principal object of consideration, in
order that the spread of the great hopper o may be as great as possible, which,
it will be observed, is shortened by lowering the second shaker. The velocity
of the shakers is the last point of importance; and on this it may be observed,
that the smaller the quantity of straw in the grasp of the shaker at any one time,
SCOTCH THRASHING - MACHINE.
373
so much the better will the work be performed. This will be effected by giving
the shakers the highest velocity at which they will deliver the straw, without risk
of carrying it round on the teeth of the rakes, and these points will be obtained
by giving the shakers a velocity of from 25 to 30 revolutions per minute.
1277. The Screen or Grating.—The screen, over which the straw is carried by
the action of the shakers for the final separation of the grain from the straw,
extends from the breast of the drum-case, following the curve of rotation of the
shakers, onward to the extremity n', fig. 1, Plate XXII. The plane 7" is close-
boarded, and covered with sheet-iron, in the position as described in par. 1276.
At the bottom of this inclined plane, the screen proper begins.
5
1278. The screen is formed in various ways, some makers using a cast-iron
grate, with square meshes, of 1 inch on the side, the iron being inch in
thickness and inch in depth.
8
1279. Others apply splits of deal, ğ inch thick and 1 inch in depth, placed
at intervals of 11 inch in width, the splits being crossed by other splits of the
same breadth, but only 3 inch in depth, placed at intervals of 24 inches.
1280. A third method may also be recommended as strong and durable,
composed entirely of straight rods of malleable iron, inch diameter, and laid
at intervals of ğ inch.
1281. The iron grating and the malleable-iron rods, though the most expen-
sive, are very efficient, and are the most durable. In all the three methods, the
gratings are supported on segments of hardwood l m" and m' n', worked off to
their respective circles, and nailed to the foundation beams and framing; and
when the machines are of the widest, a central segment is also applied to sup-
port the middle of the splits or rods. The portion n' lying beyond the great
hopper is close-boarded, and a continuation of this, marked o', is placed in
a sloping direction, to carry the straw over the wall, and deliver it upon a
sloping rack placed in the straw-barn.
1282. The Great Hopper.—The dimensions of the hopper o, fig. 1, Plates
XXI. and XXII., are regulated by the height of the barn and the breadth of the
machine; the breadth of the hopper at the upper part being equal to the length
of the shakers, and its length is adapted to the extent of the grating. The
bottom of the hopper is adapted to the width of the fanners in one direction, and
is usually from 20 to 22 inches in the other direction. The inclination of the
ends should never be lower than an angle of 55°; the sides will always fall to
have a sufficiently high angle. The entire hopper is formed of 2-inch boarding,
and its object is to collect the grain from the grating, and to deliver it into the
fanners.
1283. The Fanners.—The first or machine fanners p, fig. 1, Plates XXI. and
XXII., are placed in a central position under the gratings land m', so that the
two ends may have equal slopes. The height of the fanner-case is about 5 feet,
and the extreme length 8 feet. The width is a point on which great difference
in practice exists, some makers being satisfied with a width of 20 inches, while
others give 36 inches, the power of the machine being the same. These
extremes we consider to be both in error, and that a width of 26 to 30 inches is
sufficient for every purpose. The details of the first fanners being so much akin
to those of the second or barn fanners, we shall leave them to be treated of
more at large under Barn Fanners.
1284. The Elevators.-The elevators are simply a chain of buckets, sometimes
attached to actual chains, but more frequently to leathern belts. The buckets
y y, from the foul-spout of the fanners p, fig. 1, Plates XXI. and XXII.,
are 14 inches in width, scoop-shaped, with a depth of 4 inches and a length of
10 inches. The ends y y are formed of hardwood, and the back and bottom of
374
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
light sheet-iron, bent round, and nailed upon the edges of the wooden ends.
The buckets are now attached to two leathern belts, 21 inches in breadth,
at distances of two feet from bucket to bucket, by one rivet or a small screw
and nut in each end of each bucket. The two belts, with their buckets, are
then laid round the pulleys x at top and bottom, and connected at a proper degree
of tension; and to prevent any inequality of motion in the two belts, it is well.
to attach two diagonal straps to them of about 4 feet in length. As the lower
end of the chain of buckets passes under the level of the floor, a boarded
cradling is there formed to collect any stray grains that may fall beyond the
buckets, where, as they accumulate, they are taken up by the buckets in their
transit through the cradle. The contents of the buckets are discharged as they
turn over the upper pulleys x into the shoot z, from which they fall upon the
feeding-board e.
1285. The clean elevators w w, fig. 1, Plate XXI., are formed after the same
manner, except that the buckets are of smaller size, their breadth being only
10 inches, and depth 3 inches. They are sometimes formed also on a canvass
web, but the principle is the same in all. The clean elevators discharge their
contents, in the same manner as the first, into the shoot b' leading into the second
fanners a'. The velocity at which such elevators move is usually from 150 to
180 feet per minute.
1286. The Second Fanners.-The position of the second fanners is subject to
endless variety, arising from the arrangement of the machinery and the point
from which the motion is taken to drive them. That which is here adopted a',
fig. 1, Plate XXI., is one by which the motion is easily obtained; and in the
case of a preference being given to hand-driving, the position is equally con-
venient. The more minute details of this sort of fanner will be also given
under Barn Fanners.
1287. The ultimate utility of working the second fanners, and still more, as
practised by some farmers, a third fanner, by the same power that is employed
to thrash, is a question still unsettled. The operation of riddling, which is
generally required for the grain as it comes from the clean-spout, has not yet
been very satisfactorily performed by machinery, and to put it through the
second and third time, without riddling, will seldom produce a perfect sample.
The difficulty may be got over by removing the clean elevators from the spout
and make them lift from the heap riddled by hand; but even were this done,
there is a defect in the process, arising from inequality of blast, owing to the
motive power, from inequality of feeding, not having at all times a uniform
velocity, which is a circumstance not easily overcome. The most perfect
system of dressing with the fanners is that where, water being the power, a
small water-wheel is employed to drive the second and third fanners alone;
and where water is abundant this may be practised simultaneously with the
thrashing, or, if scarce, the dressing is performed as an after operation.
1288. An ingenious method of equalising the blast of thrashing-machine
fanners was adopted by Mr Andrew Sharpe, Hilton, near Dunfermline, previous
to the year 1835, for a description of which he received the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society's silver medal. The invention consisted in placing a hinged flap,
in form of a valve, in the wind passage of the fanners, occupying the entire width
of the passage, the flap being adjusted to occupy a certain position when the
fanners was emitting the due force of blast; but if this was increased by any
acceleration of the motive power, the first effect of the acceleration was to increase
the area of the wind-passage by raising the flap. The flap, by means of levers
and rods, being placed in connection with a pair of light folding-doors attached
SCOTCH THRASHING - MACHINE.
375
to the eyes of the fanners, the same cause that produced the effect on the flap,
tending to enlarge the wind-passage, produced at the same instant, through the
medium of the levers and rods, a counteracting influence, by closing the folding
doors, and thereby decreasing the aperture of the eyes, and, by consequence,
the volume of air entering by them, thus tending to preserve a uniform intensity
of blast. The principle of this apparatus seems to be sound, and there appears
no reason to doubt that a due adjustment of them would effect a decided improve-
ment in fanners driven by a variable power.
1289. The Chain-gearing System.-We have now described the thrashing-
machine, as driven by wheel-gearing, in full detail; there remains only to say a
few words on the method of chain-gearing. Fig. 2, Plate XXI., is an elevation
of a machine fitted with chain-gearing. In this figure a a is the wall separating
the corn from the straw-barn, b b the foundation-beams, c the framework of the
machine, and d the feeding-board, exactly the same as in the toothed-wheel
system; m and n are the spur-wheels intermediate to the power, and the great
spur-wheel e. This last wheel having a velocity of 65 revolutions per minute,
there is placed upon its shaft a chain-wheel of 10 inches, for the purpose of driving
the feeding-rollers. A pitch-chain ƒ is passed round this wheel, and also round
one of the same diameter g on the driving-shaft of the feeding-rollers; this chain
and wheel g give motion to the same train of gear as described in fig. 468, which
can be proportioned as detailed under fig. 468. The mitre-wheels, however,
are wanting, which in this mode of driving could only be of use for reversing
the motion of the rollers (1244)-an operation which is often thought of little
value-for if straw is once allowed to wrap around the rollers, it is easier to cut it
off than to unwind it; this single chain then accomplishes the whole work of the
feeding, and is perhaps the best and most simple method that can be adopted.
1290. The Drum is driven by a pinion h, a chain, under the circumstances,
being inapplicable to the purpose.
1291. The Shakers are both driven by the chain i i i which passes over the
wheels k k on the first and second shaker-shafts, and also over another wheel
set upon the shaft of the spur-wheel e; and for the purpose of keeping a due
degree of tension on the chain, a small movable tension-pulley p is applied. This
provision for keeping the chain in a proper degree of tension is the more
required in this particular arrangement, wherein the chain, in passing over the
wheel of the first shaker, touches only a small part of its circumference, and,
unless under proper tension, the chain would be liable to start over the studs of
the wheel. The proportions of the shaker-wheels to that upon the shaft of the
spur-wheel must be attended to in order to bring out the proper velocities, as
given at 1276. It will readily occur to the reader, that the same results will
be obtained by using two chains, and two chain-wheels on the shaft of the first
shaker. In such arrangement, the first chain passes over the wheel on the
main shaft of e, and also over one of those on the shaft of the first shaker.
The second chain passes round the two wheels k k.
extremely simple, and if made sufficiently strong,
will work very satisfactorily; but unless atten-
tion is paid to due strength, and that all the
links are properly adjusted to length, the chains
are sometimes liable to failure.
1292. Pitch-Chains.-Pitch-chains are of two
kinds the buckle-chain and the ladder-chain.
The buckle-chain, fig. 473, is formed of links.
C
The chain-gearing is
Fig. 473.
a
J
с
THE BUCKLE PITCH-CHAIN.
a of an oblong shape, forged and welded out of round iron; the strength of
376
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
which, for shakers, may be inch diameter; these alternate with flat links b
formed of the strongest hoop-iron, 1 inch in breadth; and these are folded in
the form as represented by c c, which is the chain viewed edge-ways, the flat
links being secured by means of one rivet passing through the three parts of
the link.
1293. The ladder-chain is represented in fig. 474. In it the links are
d
Fig. 474.
d
all of one size and strength, and,
when formed, has the appear-
ance as seen at d d, where they
are arranged in pairs, inward and
outward alternately, the pins or
rounds passing through two links
at each end, and riveted; e e is
an edge view of this chain, the
links being worked on one edge
to the curvature of the wheel, and
are in like manner curved on the opposite, for uniformity and lightness. This
form of chain is the stronger and more durable, but at the same time the more
expensive of the two; and both examples are on a scale of 3 inches to 1 foot.
THE LADDER PITCH-CHAIN.
1294. Numerous other forms of chain are employed in the practice of
mechanics; but as they seldom or never come under the agricultural branch, it
is unnecessary to do more than thus advert to them.
1295. One - horse Thrashing - Machine. There is a diminutive form of
thrashing-machine that merits notice-a one-horse machine. In some of our
pastoral districts, where the proportion of arable land is so small as not to
warrant the expense of a large thrashing-machine, these have been very suc-
cessfully adopted. They are constructed with a small horse-wheel, generally
overhead; and the motion is carried into the barn in the usual form, where a
spur-wheel drives the drum-pinion at a velocity of 250 turns per minute. The
drum is 27 inches long, and 30 inches diameter over the beaters: it strikes
downward, and has a pair of feeding-rollers. There is neither shaker nor fan
attached to the machine, and four people are required to carry on the process,
the dressing being an after operation. With this little machine 12 bushels of
oats can be thrashed in an hour; and the whole cost of it is about £20.
1296. The English Portable Thrashing-Machine.—We have now come to the
English thrashing-machines, and the remarkable character which they present
consists in their being portable. The English portable thrashing-machine is
now most extensively employed in the southern parts of the kingdom, and
apparently to good purpose. But while we grant this to the machine, we must
demur to the practice which involves out-of-door thrashing. But it is to one
member of the machine that we wish to direct attention, namely, the drum.
1297. It appears to us, in regard to the drum, that the English and the
Scotch machines operate on different principles. In the Scotch, as is well
known, the thrashing is performed by a process of beating, and the instru-
ment acts over but a short space upon the grain undergoing the process, that
is, while it is under the drum-cover, or about one-fourth the circumference of the
drum-case; and even during a part of this progress, the cover is so distant from
the beaters-about 3 inches-that little effect is produced upon the straw
beyond a few inches from the feeding-rollers. There can be no doubt that,
owing to this peculiar construction, when a stray ear of corn, or a sheaf-band,
happens to enter root foremost, it is very likely to pass unthrashed, for
the rollers have no hold of them; and they are so lightly pressed upon the
DRAY'S TWO-HORSE THRASHING-MACHINE.
377
beaters that we cannot be surprised at their passing in an imperfectly thrashed
state.
1298. It has come under our observation, also, that, taking our machines
as usually worked, and applying them to the thrashing of corn cut by the scythe,
the work, from the same cause, is often imperfectly performed, mainly in conse-
quence of many of the ears entering by the reverse end.
1299. Of late years many attempts have been made to improve our thrashing-
machines, by improving the shaking apparatus, apparently forgetting that the
shaker should have nothing to do beyond separating loose grains from the straw.
The duty of the shaker is not to thrash; and when foul thrashing appears, it is
the drum, not the shakers, that are in fault.
1300. Let us turn to the English machine, which had, till lately, nothing
beyond a drum and feeding-rollers; and even the rollers can be left out.
The drum, or, as we would call it, the rubber, though armed with what may be
called beaters, does not, in fact, thrash by beating, but by rubbing the grain
against a wire-grating, and in this lies its best qualities. The drum of this
machine is a skeleton formed of two rings of cast-iron, similar to fig. 472, fixed
upon an axle, and to these rings are fixed six beaters, lying parallel to the axle,
forming a skeleton cylinder. Its diameter never exceeds 24 inches, often as
low as 20 inches, and its length from 24 to 30 inches. It revolves within a
concave, which embraces nearly three-fourths of its circumference, and is
nowhere more distant from the beaters than 14 inch. The concave is nearly
throughout an open trellis or grating, composed of plates and rods of iron and
wire; and, to complete all, this drum makes from 600 to 800 revolutions per
minute. In an apparatus of this kind it is impossible that an ear of corn, enter
how it may, can escape unthrashed, or rather rubbed; for it will be evident, we
think, from the description, that the machine operates by a process of rubbing out
the grain. And, with all the defects that attend these machines, it must be
granted to them that they thrash clean.
1301. Contrasting these machines, we see the Scotch one operating with a very
heavy, and, from its general construction, sluggish cylinder, its beaters moving
with a velocity of less than 3000 feet a minute, and the grain subjected to its
influence over a space not exceeding 1 foot; and when worked by four horses,
thrashing at the rate of 26 bushels of wheat per hour, dressing included. In the
English machine is to be seen a small and extremely light skeleton-cylinder,
which, from its structure, must be easily moved, though its beaters move with a
velocity of 4000 feet per minute, and the grain is subjected to its influence over a
space of about 4 feet, and, when worked by four horses, thrashing at the rate of 36
bushels of wheat per hour, but not dressed, though in general very clean thrashed.
The straw is perhaps a little more broken, which is sometimes unimportant.
1302. Dray's Two-horse Portable Thrashing-Machine.-In Plate XXIII. we
give views of a two-horse portable thrashing-machine, as manufactured by
Messrs Dray and Co., of Swan Lane, London. Fig. 1 is a side elevation partly
in section, showing the beater or rubber; fig. 2 a plan, and fig. 3 an end eleva-
tion. The machine is fitted with four small wheels, and is generally transported
from place to place on the framing of the "horse-gear work," hereafter illus-
trated and described in Division Third, Section First, on Horse Power. The
length of the machine is 6 feet, the height is 5 feet 8 inches, and breadth 4 feet
9 inches. The drum a a, fig. 1, 21 inches in diameter, revolves nearly in contact
with the breast, or concave b b b. The drum-shaft carries a pinion c, 3 inches
diameter, figs. 2 and 3, with which the spur-wheel d d, 25 inches in diameter,
engages. To the spur-wheel shaft a coupling e, fig. 3, is fixed, this being con-

378
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
nected with the driving-shaft of the "horse gear," hereafter described in the
section on Horse Power. The drum a, fig. 1, is constructed of wrought-iron
rings, and six square wood beaters, plated with iron; the concave or breast b
is made of wood, with rough cast-iron plates and wire. The corn falls through
the interstices as it is beat out by the action of the drum, while the straw passes
on to the open wood-frame ff, fig. 3, on passing over which the corn remaining
is further separated from the straw.
1303. The Portable Combined Thrashing-Machine. - In the "portable com-
bined thrashing - machine," now so much used and so favourably known in
England, the operation of dressing and separating are combined with those
of thrashing and winnowing. In this combination, a satisfactory adaptation
is met with, of the manufacturing-like arrangements and general economy
of the Scotch thrashing system, to the avowedly good principle of the beater and
concave of the English plan of operating, as just described and illustrated in
Plate XXIII., figs. 1, 2, and 3.
1304. From a paper on "Barn Machinery," read by Mr William Waller before
the "Institution of Mechanical Engineers," November 5, 1856, we learn that the
first portable thrashing-machine on wheels, which was driven by the power of
steam, was made in 1842 by Messrs Tuxford, the agricultural engineers of Boston.
In this case the engine was in the same frame. The same firm brought out the
first combined machine, in which the corn was dressed and separated, as well as
thrashed and winnowed, early in 1844. Many firms are now celebrated for their
manufacture of this form of machine-as Messrs Garrett, of Suffolk; Messrs
Hornsby and Son, Grantham; Messrs Barrett and Exall, Reading; Messrs
Clayton and Shuttleworth, Lincoln; and Messrs Humphrey, Pershore.
1305. Garrett's Portable Thrashing-Machine.-In fig. 475 we give a perspective
view of a portable combined thrashing, finishing, and dressing machine, manu-
Fig. 475.
W.WILLIAMS
GARRETT'S PORTABLE COMBINED THRASHING MACHINE IN PERSPECTIVE.
factured by Messrs Garrett and Sons; and in Plate XXIV. views of the same
to scale, fig. 1 being a side elevation, fig. 2 a longitudinal 'section, and fig. 3 a
plan. The extreme length of the machine is 17 feet 4 inches; the height 8 feet
GARRETT'S PORTABLE THRASHING - MACHINE.
379
4 inches; and breadth, including wheels, 7 feet 8 inches; the breadth of body
being 4 feet 10 inches. The machine is supported on four wheels, the two front
being 2 feet 9 inches in diameter-the two hind, 3 feet 9 inches.
1306. The following is a description of the arrangement of its parts, the letters
of reference being made to fig. 2, Plate XXIV. The man feeding the machine
stands in the box or dickey a a, 17 inches deep, 20 inches long, and 16 inches
wide. The sheaves are passed through the aperture bb, 2 feet 2 inches in width,
and extending across the machine, as shown at sss in the plan, fig. 3. It is then
taken up by the drum c c, fig. 2, 1 foot 8 inches in diameter, and 4 feet 3
inches long, and thrashed between it and the concave or breast d d d, which is
adjusted by the link e. The straw then passes out from between the drum c
and concave d d, at the point f, to the straw-shakers g g, h h, 8 feet 10 inches
long, 12 inches broad, and 4 inches deep. In this form of shaker, known
as the "cross-shaker," the boxes g g, h h move alternately up and down. The
crank by which the vibratory motion is given to the boxes is placed in the
centre of the length of the box; while the links-one of which is shown
at jj, the length of link from centre to centre being 14 inches-on which
they vibrate, are placed at alternate ends. By this arrangement, the ends of
each box have a different amount of rise or lift given to them: thus, the
ends nearest the links rise a distance equal to the vibration of the link jj from
its lowest to its highest point of movement, while the ends nearest the crank
have a rise nearly equal to the throw of the crank; and as two of the four
shakers have the links at the outer end, while the other two have their ends
free, the straw, on passing out from the machine, is tossed up and down by the
ends of the two free shakers, while it has a forward or progressive motion given
to it by the other two, or those which have links, as jj, attached. Any corn
remaining in the straw after it is passed on to the straw-shakers, is thus shaken
out, and falls on to the vibrating screen k k, 7 feet 10 inches long, and extend-
ing across the machine. This screen has a vibratory motion given to it by a
crank 1, through the medium of a link or lever m m, 4 feet 11 inches long from
centre to centre. The corn passes from the screen k k, and mixes with the
greater bulk which falls from the drum and concave on to the second vibratory
screen n n, to which the vibrating motion is communicated from the crank 1 by
the link or lever o o, the length of which from centre to centre is 5 feet 11
inches. The cavings or short straws pass off at the end p of screen n n; while
the corn and chaff are delivered to the winnowing-machine q q, from whence the
chaff is blown by the action of a blower, the shaft of which revolves in bearings
r, and which receives motion from the bevel-pinion s, driven by the bevel-
wheel t. The corn is then passed to the "avelling" apparatus or hummeller
u u, 7½ inches down, and extending across the machine. This is used for taking
off the horns or avels from barley, and, in the case of wheat, for destroying
any smut-balls, &c., that may remain among it. After passing through the "avel-
ler," the corn is lifted up by the elevator, part of which is shown at v v, to the
finishing dressing-machine w w, 18 inches broad and 11 inches deep; from
which it passes to the rotatory grain-separator xx, 2 feet in diameter, fur-
nished with a rotatory conductor. From this it is delivered into four spouts,
one of which is shown at y, as
“best corn,
seconds," "chobs," and "dross."
1307. In communicating the motion of the steam-engine which drives the
machine to the various parts, the principal feature is the patent intermediate
shaft z z, supported in the main frame of the machine, which takes the power
off the engine, and distributes it to the drum and other parts. This arrangement
gives a steadier motion to the various parts than when the power is, in the first
380
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
case, laid on to the shaft of the drum or beater-which requires a high velo-
city-and from thence to the parts requiring slower motion.
1308. In fig. 1, Plate XXIV., a a is the main driving-pulley, 2 feet 8 inches
diameter; bb the pulley of the drum or beater, 12 inches diameter; c c a small
fly-wheel fixed on the shaft, 24 inches in diameter, which drives the shaker-
cranks, fig. 2; d d, fig. 1, the pulley, 14 inches diameter, of the shaft which
works the crank l, to give motion to the vibratory screens k k, n n, fig. 2;
e e, fig. 1, the pulley, 11 inches in diameter, which gives motion to the fanner
or blower of the winnowing-machine q q, fig. 2; ƒƒ, fig. 1, the pulley, 14 inches
diameter, giving motion to the barley-aveller u u, fig. 2; 9 g, fig. 1, the pulley,
10 inches in diameter, which gives motion to the rotatory-screen separator xx,
fig. 2; h, fig. 1, is the cover of the adjusting apparatus of the concave or breast
d d, fig. 2; i, fig. 1, the pulley which drives the pulley g g—the shaft of this
crosses the machine to the opposite side; jj, fig. 1, the gearing for driving the
finishing dresser w w.
1309. In the plan, fig. 3, Plate XXIV., the same letters of reference as in
fig. 1 denote the same parts. The pulleyjj, 17 inches diameter, is that which
gives motion to the shaft of the pulley ii, fig. 1; 7 l, fig. 3, the pulley, 131
inches diameter, which gives motion to the shaft of the gearing jj, fig. 1—
this pulley being driven by a belt passing round the pulley m m, fig. 3, 9
inches diameter, fixed on the main shaft of the driving-pulley a a. The pulley
n n, 19 inches diameter, drives, by means of a crossed belt, the pulley o 0, 2 feet
2 inches diameter, fixed on the shaft of the shaker-crank, fig. 2; p p, fig. 3,
N
m
0
d
242
し
​a
а
Fig. 476.
a
e
α
d
f
C
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF HORNSBY'S THRASHING-MACHINE-SCALE IN PLATE XXV.
is the fly-wheel on the
shaft of pulley d d. The
pulley q, 5 inches dia-
meter, drives, by means
ofa crossed belt, the pul-
leyjj, which works the
elevator, of which the
case is at rrr; sss the
drum, bbits pulley, t the
dickey, u u the shakers,
v v the delivery-spouts,
cc the fly-wheel.
1310. Hornsby's Port-
able Thrashing-Machine.
-In Plate XXV. is
given a longitudinal
section of the thrash-
ing-machine invented
and manufactured by
Messrs Hornsby and
Sons, Grantham, Lin-
colnshire; in fig. 476
a transverse section;
and in fig. 477 a front
elevation, all drawn to
the scale shown in
Plate XXV.
1311. The extreme
length of the machine is 16 feet 7 inches; the breadth over all, 6 feet 9 inches,
HORNSBY'S PORTABLE THRASHING - MACHINE.
381
not including travelling-wheels; including travelling-wheels, 8 feet 3 inches.
The height from ground-line to top of elevator 9 feet 7 inches; the diameter
of front travelling -
wheels, indicated by
the circle a a in Plate
XXV., is 3 feet; of
hind-wheels, indicat-
ed by the circle partly
dotted b b, 4 feet.
=
Fig. 477.
2
h
1312. The follow-
ing is a description
of the various parts:
The machine is fed at
the dickey cc, Plate
XXV., over the feed-
ing - board d to the
drum e e 22 inches
diameter. The drum
is composed of eight
half-round malleable-
iron buttoned beaters.
The sheaves pass be-
tween the drum e e
and the concave or
screen g g, the dis-
tance between which
and the drum is, capable of adjustment. The straw is next passed to
the straw-shakers h h, hung at the front end near the drum in links
or swing-levers i i, and receiving an up-and-down motion at the back ends
through the medium of the throw-crank k. There are four of these boxes,
as shown at a a a a, in fig. 476, the upper surface being formed of a series of
convex or angular openings, and furnished with spikes, as shown in Plate XXV.
In fig. 476, b b is the throw-crank. The length of the shakers is about 11 feet
3 inches, the breadth about 15 inches, and depth 6 inches. The straw is passed
along the length of the shakers h h, Plate XXV., and delivered at their back
ends, while the corn, pulse, chaff, &c. remaining in the straw when passed from
the drum falls through the slots or openings in the boxes of the shakers to the
trough 7, which is placed at an angle; the sides also being inclined, as shown
by the lines c c, c c, fig. 476. From thence they are taken up an incline by the
Archimedean screw mm m, the length of which is about 6 feet 3 inches, and dia-
meter 15 inches, and delivered to the first riddles n n, in passing through which
to the second riddles o o they are subjected to the action of the blast of air from
the revolving-fan p p. The tailings pass off into the trough q q, in which a hori-
zontal screw r revolves; this delivers the tailings to the Archimedean screw s s,
which re-delivers them to the dressing machinery. By the action of the blast
from the fan p p, the chaff and pulse are blown into the riddle tt, where they
are cleaned, the chaff falling into the receptacle u u, and the pulse into the
receptacle v v. The riddles n n, o o are suspended by the links w w, and the
riddle t t by the links xx; they receive motion through the medium of con-
necting-rods y y
from eccentrics fixed on the shaft of the screw r.
y y and z,
1313. The good corn is passed from the lower riddle o o, Plate XXV., to the
shaking-shoe a' a', from whence it is delivered to the elevator b' b', by which
FRONT ELEVATION OF HORNSBY'S THRASHING MACHINE-SCALE IN PLATE XXV.
382
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
it is taken up to the barley awner or hummeller c', where the wheat is freed.
from the husk, or, as the case may be, the beards or awns taken from the
barley. The corn is at the same time propelled by the awner c'on to the
riddles d' d', shown at e e, fig. 476, and which receive motion by means of the
connecting-rod ƒ of the eccentric g; h h are the links by which the riddles e e
are suspended. As the corn passes through the riddles d' d', Plate XXV., it is
subjected to the action of the blast of air from the fan e' e', 18 inches in
diameter. From the riddles d' d' the corn passes to a second barley-awner or
corn-cleaner, shown at i in fig. 476, and which runs parallel to the side of the
machine. The knives of this are arranged in a helical form, so as to propel
the corn along to the screen ƒ' f', Plate XXV., from which it passes to a
blower, where it receives the action of the blast of air from the fan g'g', the
light corn passing from the spout h', or from the spout a, fig. 477-the best corn
from the spout c, fig. 477, and the screenings from the screen f'f', Plate XXV.
The screen ƒ'f' is suspended from the links d d, fig. 477, and receives its
vibrating motion by means of the connecting-rod e, of an eccentric fixed on the
end of the shaft of the pulley f, which drives the pulley g of the fanner g' g',
Plate XXV. In fig. 476 k is the screw corresponding to m m in Plate XXV.,
7 the shaking-shoe corresponding to a' a', and m m the elevator, corresponding
to the elevator b' b', b' b', Plate XXV.
1314. Clayton and Shuttleworth's Fixed Thrashing-Machine.-In Plate XXVI.
we give two views of a fixed combined thrashing-machine, manufactured by
Messrs Clayton & Shuttleworth, of Stamp End Works, Lincoln—fig. 1 being an
elevation of the corn-delivery side of the machine, and fig. 2 a longitudinal
section. The extreme length of framing is 14 feet 3 inches, breadth 5 feet 31
inches, and height 9 feet 11 inches.
:
1315. The following is a reference to the letters in fig. 2, Plate XXVI. a a is
the dickey, 25 inches deep, 20 inches wide, and extending across the machine;
b the mouth of the machine, 25 inches wide, and extending across the length
of beater-shaft, into which the sheaves are fed to the drum or beater c c, 22 inches
in diameter, and 4 feet 6 inches long. The drum carries beater-plates on its
periphery; and by the action of these on the sheaves while being drawn over the
concave or breastwork d d, the grain is beaten from the ear. The concave d d
is adjusted by set-screws at e e. The straw is passed from the drum and con-
cave into the chamber ff. The straw, with such corn in it as may have passed
from the drum and concave, is thrown on to the straw-shakers g g, h h, of which
g g is 8 feet 11 inches long, and h h 8 feet 3 inches; the depth of these at one
end is 5, and at the other 3 inches. There are five of these boxes—of which
there are four 102 inches wide, and the fifth, or central one, 8 inches. Of
these five boxes, the second and fourth have two links, one of which is shown
at i i, the length of which, from centre to centre, is 14 inches. The inner ends
of the other three shaker-boxes, one of which is shown at g g, are prolonged
beyond the ends of the other two, as h h, to admit of the throw of the crank k,
which gives them motion, and are attached to a cross-bar j, extending across the
machine, and carried by two links outside the framework.
1316. In fig. 478 we give a part of end elevation at straw-shaker end, in
which a b c d e are the five shakers, of which the second and fourth, b and d, are
provided with links f, f, f, f. The grain which is shaken out of the straw by the
action of the straw-shakers, falls on to the shock or shogging-board 7 7, fig. 2,
Plate XXVI., suspended by the links m m, and to which a vibratory motion is
given by the crank at o (9 g, fig. 478), through the medium of the lever or link
p p, 4 feet 4 inches from centre to centre.
CLAYTON'S FIXED THRASHING - MACHINE.
Fig. 478.
a
с
ს
d
I
J
PART ELEVATION OF SHAKER END OF THRASHING-MACHINE-
SCALE,INCH TO THE FOOT.
383
lun
1317. To the riddle-board q q, fig. 2, Plate XXVI., the whole of the grain and
chaff is brought to be dressed, which falls directly from the drum and concave,
guided by the board rr, and
from the straw-shakers g g,
hh. This riddle-which is
worked by the links s s, 3 feet
102 inches from centre to
centre--is of a coarse mesh,
so as to take off the cavings.
or short straw, those being
passed off at the end. The
grain passes through upon
the board tt, below the riddle
q q, on to the second riddle
u u, having a finer mesh.
The grain here meets a blast
of air from the blower or fan
v v, 22 inches diameter,
which drives off the chaff through the opening w. The grain next falls on to
the third or fine riddle x x, through which it passes-small stones, &c., being
passed over the end-to the spout y, which delivers it to the shoe of an
vator." From this it is taken up by the "cans" and delivered to the barley
“aveller” or “hummeller" z z, into which the corn is passed. From this it is
delivered to sacks, should it not be required to be dressed. In ordinary circum-
stances, however, it passes from the aveller z z again to the riddle-board q q,
where the same process is again gone through. It is from the last riddle, x x,
delivered to the shoe a a of a second elevator b b, fig. 1, Plate XXVI., which
delivers it to the chamber c of the separator. In passing out of the chamber c,
as shown by the arrow, a powerful blast of air from the fan or blower d d
projects all light grain through the shoot e e, from whence it is taken out by
the spout f.
The heavy grain passes through a revolving screen placed at
an angle in the case h h. This screen is composed of different meshes, and
passes the grain to different spouts-the small grain to that marked i, the larger
toj; the best corn only passing completely through the screen, and being
delivered at the spouts k k.
"ele-
1318. The peculiar arrangement of this corn-dressing screen will be described
in a succeeding paragraph, and illustrated in Plate XXVIII.
1319. In fig. 1, Plate XXVI., the other parts not referred to in the above
description are m and n, the set-screws by which the concave d d, fig. 2, is ad-
justed; o the suspending links for the shock-board 7 l, fig. 2; p P, p p the links
for the riddle-boards q q, fig. 2, and q q the links for the straw-shakers g g,
fig. 2; r r is the barley-aveller, and s s the end of the riddle q q in fig. 2.
1320. The thrashing machines illustrated in Plates XXIV., XXV., and
XXVI., are suited for large farms, where steam-engines of from six to eight
horse-power are employed.
1321. Dray's Four-Horse Portable Thrashing- Machine. -In fig. 4, Plate
XXIII., we give the section of a thrashing-machine to be worked by a four-
horse engine only, this form being introduced by Messrs Dray, Swan Lane,
London. The length of the machine is 12 feet 8 inches, the height 7 feet 3
inches. The following is a reference to the various parts: a the mouth,
16 inches wide, by which the grain is fed to the drum b b, 19 inches in dia-
meter; c c the concave, adjusted by the set-screw d; e e the straw-shakers,
384
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
four in number, suspended at the outer ends by links ff, and having a vibra-
tory motion given to them by cranks, as at g; hh a conducting-board, which
leads the grain passing from the shakers e e and concave c c to the riddle i i.
The board h h and riddle i i are worked by the crank jj, and the links or levers
k and l. The first riddle i i takes out the cavings or short straw, the corn and
chaff pass on to the board m m, and from thence to the second riddle n n, where
it meets the blast from the fan or blower o o, 19 inches in diameter, by which the
chaff is blown out. From the riddle n n the grain passes to the board p p, on to
the third riddle q q, from which it is delivered by the spout r to the shoe of an
elevator, which delivers it through a spout placed at a sufficient elevation to
admit of a sack being set below it.
1322. American Thrashing-Machine.-As a machine presenting some features of
novel arrangement, we give, fig. 479, a section of an American thrashing-machine.
The sheaves are fed by the inclined feed-board a; bb is the drum, c the concave
d
Fig. 479.
f
ALITA
h
g
Aw
ANTRY
b
a
d
||NAYAKAY
4 3 6 9 12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
SECTION AND SCALE OF AN AMERICAN THRASHING MACHINE.
or breast; the grain and straw are delivered to the straw-shakers d d, revolving as
an endless web on two rollers or drums e e; the straw is taken off by the second
endless webƒƒ; the grain is passed down the shoots g and h to the riddles i i,
where it is met. by the blast from the fan k k, and delivered by a spout below.
1323. Barn-Fanners.-The fanners referred to in the description of the Scotch
thrashing-machine is the common winnowing-machine or fanners, and is here
represented in figs. 480, 481, and 482. The first figure is an elevation, the
second a longitudinal section, and the third a transverse section. These figures
exhibit in detail a fanner that is considered to be of the most approved con-
struction, both for cleaning and separating the various qualities of grain. A
scale of feet applicable to all the figures is attached to fig. 480.
1324. The principle on which the blast of the fanner is produced being so
well known, it appears unnecessary to do more than merely to say, that it is
produced by the quick revolution of a light four or five vaned fan within a case,
the air being inhaled through central openings in the sides of the case, and
discharged with considerable force by a lateral opening in the curved side of
the case, through which it is discharged upon the grain as it falls from a hopper.
The grain thus subjected to the effects of a strong current of air undergoes a
mechanical separation and distribution; and in this machine these separations
extend to five divisions: 1, the sound and best grain; 2, an inferior quality
in respect of individual bulk of the grains; 3, extraneous small seeds; 4, light
grain, and grain with husks attached; and, 5, the chaff. These separations
go on simultaneously, and the proceeds of the different divisions are each
collected separately.
SCOTCH FANNERS.
385
1325. The machine, in its dimensions, measures 6 feet 9 inches in extreme
length, 4 feet 9 inches in height, and in breadth 1 foot 9 inches. In the eleva-
tion, fig. 480, the following parts are exhibited: The framework, formed usually
of hardwood, consists of the principal frame a, which is usually made double,
Fig. 480.
C
b
PB
g
118
ν
k'
ƒ
ι
k
m
C
ル
​12
6
0
تتا
1
THE ELEVATION AND SCALE OF DRESSING-FANNERS.
feet
or in halves, for the convenience of removing the outward half of the fan-case,
and of the back-frame b. The distance at which these frames are placed apart is
3 feet 8 inches, and the axle of the fan has its bushes in the line that joins the
principal frame. The side-boarding c c is of 2-inch deal: in laying it out, the
centre of the fan d is 3 feet from the bottom, and the radius of the fan is 1 foot
6 inches. The air-ports e are furnished with the sliding-panels ff, by which
the admission of the air, and ultimately the force of the blast, can be regulated.
The crank d has a radius of 1 inch; and the connecting-rod g communicates.
motion to the double or bell-crank spindle h, whose office it is to move the
riddle-frame. The hopper i receives the rough grain, and the spouts k l m
deliver respectively the first, the seconds, and the light grains, after separation
in the machine; but, as it would be inconvenient to deliver these all at one side,
there are corresponding sliders k' l'm'; and each side being provided with
spouts and sliders, the sliders are shifted so as to cause the three qualities to be
delivered, two on one side, and the third on the opposite side. The slot-bar n
is for the purpose of adjusting the length of the fourth foot of the machine to any
inequalities of the barn floor.
1326. Fig. 481 is the longitudinal section, where a a is the main frame, b b
the back-frame, and c c the side-boarding; d d is the fan with its five vanes, and
e the air-port. The fans revolve within the circular case f g h, the space ƒ g
being open for the discharge of the air; the position of the point f is determined
by taking the chord of an arc h i = 12 inches, and hƒ a tangent to the curve at
2 B
386
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
the point h. Then, with a horizontal distance of 15 inches from the diameter
a i, cut the tangent in the point f, and drawing f k parallel to a i, and the
Fig. 481.
P
IV
グ
​ľ
n
C'
k
b
in
10
26
q
g
ď
رح
n'
1
སང
THE LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE DRESSING-FANNERS.
શેખ
a
d
position of a side of the spout, k, is given. The width of the spout k is 7½
inches, that of 7, 4 inches, and of m likewise 7½ inches, leaving the intermediate
space n' 8 inches. The opening fg in the case for the discharge of the blast is
20 inches; and the funnel-board go, 9 inches in breadth, is so placed that, if
produced, it would meet the tangent hf, when also produced, in the line of the
upper edge of the side-boarding at a point p. The shoe and riddle-frame, of
which o q r s t is one of the sides, has the shoe s t, 13 inches in breadth, nailed
upon the under edges of the two sides, sloping at an angle of about 18°, while
that part of the sides that form the riddle-frame lies horizontally, and is 6
inches in depth. It receives two riddles, slid into the grooves u and v, and the
entire frame plays horizontally on a pivot in t. The hopper w is 28 inches
square at the top edges, the side sloping inward to 9 inches in width and 7½
inches in length, where it meets the shoe, and is fitted so as just to let the shoe
vibrate freely below it. A sluice o is fitted to the front of the hopper, and
moved by the screw-winch x to regulate the feed. The sieve-frame a' b′ is 28
inches in length and 5 inches in depth; the two sides are connected by the
bars c' and dat a width of 15 inches over all, being the same breadth as the
riddle-frame. This frame is also provided with two sets of grooves e' and ƒ',
which receive the sieves; and the frame is supported in front on a pivot at a',
or, as in most cases, it is produced to g'. Both frames are supported behind by
the chains b' and h', attached to the stretcher-rod b. The toothed wheel i, seen
in part through the air-port, is turned by the winch-handle k, seen in fig. 482,
and acts upon a pinion fixed upon the axle of the fan. The proportions of the
wheel and pinion are 4 to 1, the fan making from 212 to 220 revolutions per
minute. The space k', fig. 481, is a locker in which the spare riddles are kept,
l' being a lid that opens into it; c n is a slider that can be raised or depressed
SCOTCH FANNERS.
387
to catch the light grain, while it allows the chaff to pass over. The sieve-frame
a'b' is furnished with two wire-cloth sieves; the upper one has 9 meshes in
the inch, the lower 7 meshes.
1327. The full complement of riddles for the riddle-frame is six, of which
two only can be employed at one time. Their meshes are, for wheat 5 in the
inch, for barley 4 in the inch, and for oats 3 in the inch. The slap-riddles are
2 inch, and 1 inch in the meshes.
Fig. 482.
ย
1
พ
1328. Fig. 482 is the transverse section; a a the frames, c c the side-board-
ing; m m are the light spouts, corresponding to m of figs. 480 and 481; m
are the sliders to change the direction
of the discharge, and o' p' is the sloping
division o' p' of fig. 481. The sieve-
frame, with its two sieves, is contained
between a and b', fig. 482; and ƒ ƒ
are two flaunch - boards, sloping over
the sieve - frame, to direct the grain
upon the sieve. The riddle-frame, with
its riddles u and v, are contained be-
tween r and o; and w is the hopper,
with its sluice s. The end of the con-
necting-rod g, fig. 480, is seen at g, as
jointed to the bell-cranks that shake
the riddles and sieves by their attach-
ment at b' and o; i is the toothed wheel,
with its winch-handle k, and framework
1, by which the fan is impelled.
k
ጎቦ
C
p'
ท
"
m
THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE DRESSING-FANNERS.
1329. When these fanners are in
operation, the blast is sent through
the tunnel f g o b', fig. 481. Its chief
force is directed upon that end of the
riddles q o; and as the grain falls
from the hopper upon that end of the
riddles, the lighter chaff is immediately
blown off beyond the point c. The remainder, with the grain, will be passing
through the riddles towards the sieve; and during this stage, any remains of
chaff are blown off, and the light grain and seeds are blown beyond b'. The
blast not having power to carry them over c, they fall down between c and b',
and are discharged at the lights spout m, (and m, fig. 480), at the same time the
heavy grain and seeds fall upon the upper sieve f', when all the plump full-sized
grains roll down over this sieve, and are delivered at the first spout k, (and k, fig.
480). These grains, together with other seeds, whose specific gravity exceeded
the lights, but whose bulk was under that which the upper sieve is intended
to pass, fall through the meshes, and are received upon the lower sieve e';
upon this the grain so received rolls down and is delivered through a small
opening at the foot of the sieve e' into the chamber of the seconds spout 7,
(and 7, fig. 480). The smaller seeds, such as those of the wild mustard and
others, being too small to be retained even upon this sieve, fall through it,
and are received into the chamber n', from which they are removed at conveni-
ence through the aperture p', which is closed by a sliding-shutter.
1330. The usual price of this barn-fanner, with its riddles and sieves, is £9, 9s.
1331. The Finishing Fanners, or Duster.—This fanner, fig. 483, is of simpler
construction than fig. 480. On many occasions it may take its place; and, from
388
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
its lightness of working, may be always employed for giving the finish after
hummelling, or when grain has lain any time in the granary. This, in regard
to blast, is constructed on the same principle as the other; but in its details
is much simplified. Fig. 483 is an elevation, in which the framework is simi-
lar to fig. 480, but its over-all dimensions are smaller, the extreme length being
Fig. 483.
k
g
b
回
​h
回
​a
с
b
α
THE ELEVATION OF THE FINISHING-FANNERS OR DUSTER-SCALE SAME AS IN FIG. 480.
5 feet 8 inches, the height 4 feet 8 inches, and the width, as in the other,
1 foot 9 inches. The main frame a a is again made in halves, and the back
frame b is placed at 3 feet from the main. The diameter of the fan is 3 feet,
and of the air-port c 16 inches. The wheel d, and its pinion on the axle of the
fan, are in the same proportion as in fig. 480; but on the axle of the wheel, a
pulley, of 5 inches diameter, is mounted, which, by means of a cross-belt e,
drives the pulley f, of the same diameter, placed upon the axle of a feeding-
roller. The side-lining g g is formed to the taste of the maker, except in that
part which forms the fan-case, and in the parts h and i, which are cut away to
afford more ready access to the lights, and to small seeds that may have been
separated: k and 7 also are handles by which it may be lifted.
1332. Fig. 484 is the longitudinal section, where, as above, a a and b b are the
cross-rails of the frames, and c the air-port. In this machine the blast is sent
directly through an open tunnel, the opening de being 17 inches, and fg 11
inches; the latter being continued outward from the feeding-roller h, which is
so placed as not to offer any obstruction to the current. The hopper i is fur-
nished with a slider k, which is adjusted to the requisite feed by the screw 7;
and the sole of the tunnel from m to d is a solid board, while the shoot from d
to n-the point of discharge for the firsts-is a wire-sieve. The opening
between the case d and the sole is 31 inches, and the slope is an angle of 35°.
That part of the sole m d, and the board g o, are both fitted to slide up or down
to temper the division of the lights, should any of them remain; and p is a
division separating the lights from the small seeds.
1333. Fig. 485 is the transverse section: a a are the frames, b is the winch-
SCOTCH FANNERS.
389
handle, c the wheel-framing, and g the wheel; f is the pulley of the feeding-
roller, h the roller, and i the hopper. Of the interior parts, p is the division
Fig. 484.
a
9
m
b
h
k
P
~3
a
n
THE LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE FINISHING-FANNERS OR DUSTER.
under the sole, m is the sole as seen below, and d d are the vanes of the fan, e e
being its axle.
h
Fig. 485.
ల
1334. In operating with this fanner, the grain is taken from the hopper by
the revolution of the feeding-roller;
and as it falls perpendicularly in a
thin sheet, is intercepted by the
blast under the most favourable cir-
cumstances. All such chaff and dust
as yet remain amongst it is blown
over the back-board g, fig. 484; the
light grain that may have remained
is separated also, and falls between
g and m, down the spout go o; the
remainder runs down the sole m d,
and in passing from d to n, should
any small seeds yet remain, they
are intercepted, and fall through the
screen dn, while the good grains
pass on and are delivered at n.
1335. The price of this fanner is
£6, 15s.
1336. The Thrashing-Machine Fan-
ners.-The thrashing-machine fan-
ners differ so little in their essentials
from fig. 480, that it appears unne-
cessary to give a figure of it. The
width for a 6-horse-power machine.
e
d
d
e
m
P
O
O
x
9.
b
THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE TINISHING-FANNERS
OR DUSTER.
390
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
ought to be considerably more than the common fanners-not under 24 inches,
nor is it requisite that it should exceed 30 inches. The fan is of the same
diameter, and the first spout stands in the same relation as described in fig.
481, but should be 20 inches distant from the vertical line passing through
the centre of the fan, and 9 inches wide. There is no spout corresponding to
the seconds of fig. 481; but the foul-spout takes the place of the lights,
and is 11 inches wide; the distance between them should be 22 inches.
The riddles and sieves of fig. 481 are entirely left out, and in their place is a
simple shoe, of 2 feet 10 inches in length, with a sheet-iron bottom, which is
perforated all over with 1-inch holes at ğ inch apart. This is placed under
the great hopper, and is agitated by a connecting-rod from a crank on the fan-
axle, in the same manner as exhibited in fig. 480. The extreme length of
the machine-fanners should be 8 feet, and their height 4 feet 10 inches.
1337. Dray's Corn-Dressing Machine.-In Plate XXVII. we give two views
of the corn-dressing machine manufactured by Messrs Dray and Co., of Swan
Lane, London Bridge; fig. 1 being a side elevation, and fig. 2 a longitudinal
vertical section.
1338. The principal features of this machine are-1, By using the straight-
forward throw to move the riddles, the whole width of the machine is made
available; whereas, in other machines, one-third of the machine is occupied
by the cross movement of the riddles. 2, The same movement is made to
answer the purpose of a feed-roller, and it supersedes it, as spiked rollers will
frequently clog up in roughing. 3, The extreme simplicity of the machinery
required to move the riddles and screen causes but little friction, and therefore
takes but little power.
1339. The motion is given to the machine by the winch-handle a, fig. 1, on
the shaft b, on which is keyed a spur-wheel c, 15 inches diameter, gearing into a
spur-pinion d, 2 inches diameter. This pinion d is carried by the fan-shaft e,
supported by brass bearings on the frame of the machine. On the extreme ends
of the shaft e are keyed two eccentric plates f, 33 inches diameter, from which
the motion is conveyed by connecting-rods g, 22 inches long from centre to
centre, to the vibrating-rods h h, 19 inches long; from the top and bottom of h
are hung the riddle-case k k, and screen 7 l, fig. 2. The screw i is that by
which the elevation of the riddle-case k k, fig. 2, is adjusted. The adjustment
of the screen 7 l is obtained by the chain j. The slide m, fig. 2, opens and shuts
off the feed. On passing from the hopper o o, the corn is carried past the slide m
along the coarse riddle p, which carries off all stones, cavings, &c.; it next
falls through this on to the second riddle q, which carries off knottings, these
passing through the spout r r. The corn then falls on to the conducting-board s,
and from thence to the screen 7 7, where the light corn and seeds are separated;
the good corn being delivered at t.
1340. When the dressing is required to be more thoroughly done, the board
u is turned down so as to prevent the feed-board n taking the corn in too fast.
The inclination of the riddles p and q which vibrates on the pivot v, is regu-
lated by the adjusting-screw i; w is one of the five fans, and y y are handles by
which the fanners are removed from place to place, being projecting parts of
the lining. In fig. 1 i is the adjusting-screw as i in fig. 2, k the rough spout
as at r r, l the good-corn spout as at t, fig. 2, and m the store for riddles.
1341. Palmer's Rotatory Corn-Separator.-In Plate XXVIII. we give dif-
ferent views of Palmer's patent rotatory corn-separator, to which we have already
alluded in par. 1318, as being used in Messrs Clayton and Shuttleworth's
thrashing-machinės. The peculiar feature of this rotatory corn-separator or
screen, is the employment of longitudinal divisions or partitions of iron or
PALMER'S CORN-SEPARATOR.
391
steel, set side by side in the interior of a revolving cylindrical screen or sieve
of the ordinary character. These partitions are set at such a distance apart,
that, as they rotate, they carry the grain up the side of the screen or cylinder,
but not so far as to turn it over or round the centre. As the grain enters
the elevated end of the screen, the partitions tend to distribute it over the inner
periphery, and to return a larger amount of it in contact with the wire-work of
the screen than is due to specific gravity, or to the momentum of the revolv-
ing-screen. The partitions, also, as they are carried round by the rotatory
cylinder, dip into the corn lying in the lower part of it, and by their rubbing
against the corn tend to arrange the individual grains in the direction of the
length of the meshes of the cylinder, and thus to facilitate their escape from
the screen.
1342. In Plate XXVIII. we give various views of the separator, drawn to a
scale of 1 inch to the foot. Fig. 1 is a longitudinal vertical section; fig. 2, half
of the end elevation, partly in section; fig. 3 an edge view of a few of the par-
titions; and fig. 4 a front view of a single partition. In fig. 1, a a is the frame-
work of the machine; b b the central shaft, or axis of the screen c c, receiving
motion through the medium of the bevel-gearing d e. Motion may be given to
the rotatory screen by means of a winch-handle fixed to the upper extremity of
the shaft bb. The cylinder or screen c c is composed of wire wrapped heli-
cally round longitudinal rods, these being riveted at their extremities to rings
ƒƒ, 9 g, which are connected by radial arms, shown at a a, fig. 2, to the central
shaft b b, fig. 1. The meshes of the cylindrical screen c c, fig. 1, are composed
of wire of four different gauges, the finest being at the feeding end g g, the
coarsest at the discharging end ƒ ƒ. Attached to the radial arms a a, a a,
fig. 2, are two longitudinal bars, one of which is shown at b b in fig. 2, and
at h h h in fig. 1. These extend from end to end of the cylindrical screen c c,
fig. 1, and are fixed at opposite ends of the shaft b b. From these arms, bars e,
fig. 2, project, and carry at their extremities the partitions d d, d d. These
partitions, dd, d d, are arranged side by side at a distance of 14 inch from each
other, as shown in fig. 3, and the forward end of every alternate partition is
set forward in advance of its neighbour. By this arrangement, all the ends of
the partition do not come into contact with the grain at the same moment,
and their rubbing action is thereby facilitated. In order to keep the meshes
clear, a steel-wire brush f, fig. 2, is applied to the screen, being connected to
the framing by the standards g g, and is capable of being adjusted by the lever
h, and screw i. Messrs Reeves, of Bratton, Westbury, who manufacture this
screen in its separate or portable form for the patentee, give the wires of this
brush a bent form; this imparts to them an elasticity which greatly facilitates
the cleaning of the meshes.
1343. The corn to be cleaned is fed to the cylindrical screen c c, fig. 1, by
the hopper ii (part only of which is shown in the figure); below the cylinder,
corresponding to the positions of the different meshes of which it is composed,
shoots, k l m n n, are placed to conduct the various products of the screening
operation to suitable receptacles, as o p q. By the shoot k, the small seeds
and dirt separated by the first division of the screen is delivered to the recep-
tacle o; by the shoot 7 the thin corn is delivered to the receptacle p; by
the shoot m the tail corn is delivered to the receptacle q, while the largest and
best corn is delivered to the spout n n. At the end of the cylinder c c, a shoot
rr is provided to receive poppy-heads and other bulky substances which will
not pass through the meshes of the screen cc: these, as they are delivered
from the end of the cylinder to the shoot r r, are carried away to a suitable
receptacle.
392
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
1344. The Hummeller.-The hummelling of barley is a process that, in many
cases, is essential to the marketable condition of that grain, and it is effected
in many different ways. In some cases the thrashing-machine itself is made
the hummeller, by employing a fluted cover to the drum; in others, with-
out this addition, the barley is shut up in the drum-case for a few minutes while
the drum is revolving, as recommended by the Rev. Dr Farquharson, Alford.*
1345. Another method is with a conical receiver, within which a spindle,
carrying a number of cross arms, is made to revolve, and the grain passes
through this machine, lying nearly in a horizontal position, before entering the
fanners. This form of the hummeller was brought forward by Messrs Grant,
Grantown, Banffshire,† and with some modifications,—which are, however, very
important ones, and give a new character to the machine,-a hummeller similar
to that is now the most approved form, the case being made cylindrical, and its
position vertical. Instead, also, of the grain passing loosely through the cylin-
der, an essential characteristic of the improved machine is, that the cylinder`
shall be always full of grain.
1346. The Cylinder Hummeller.-The cylinder hummeller, figs. 486 and 487,
m
b
回
​Fig. 486.
h
k
d
b
b
b
d
h
с
a
a
12
6
1
n
d
Lynny
Fig. 487.
k
નવા
MM
h
i
i
2
-feet
'N
i
d
g
h
d
b
C
THE ELEVATION AND SECTION OF THE CYLINDER HUMMELLER.
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiii. p. 66.
a
+ Ibid.
3
8
HUMMELLERS.
a
b
е
Fig. 488.
393
2
α
THE PLAN OF THE CYLINDER HUMMELLER.
consists of a cylindrical case of wire-cloth, having an upright iron spindle
revolving within it, armed with a number of flat thin blades of iron, kept in
revolution at a high velocity. The grain is admitted through a hopper at top,
keeping the cylinder always full, and is discharged through a small orifice at
bottom, the degree of hummelling depending upon the area of this orifice.
Fig. 486 is an elevation, fig. 487, a vertical section, and fig. 488 a plan of
this hummeller, the same letters marking
corresponding parts in each. The sole-
frame a a rests on the floor of the corn-
barn; b b are two strong posts rising from
the former, and secured to the beams of the
floor above; c is a bridge-tree which sup-
ports the foot of the spindle h; two rings of
wood, dd, whose internal diameter is usu-
ally 10 inches, but varying according to
the power of the machine, are supported by
the uprights ƒƒ, making the height of the
cylinder 2 feet 3 inches. It is lined with wire-cloth, of 10 or 12 meshes in
the inch, and placed between the posts bb, and is furnished with a bottom g,
which just admits the spindle h to pass through, and having a thin shield on
the spindle, over the opening. The spindle is 1 inch square; the blades i i,
of which there are two rows, 5 and 4 in a row, are 2 inches in breadth
and inch thick, riveted into the spindle; or the blades may be cruciform,
with an eye in the centre, through which the shaft passes. The hopper k may
be either formed round the spindle, as in the figures, or it may stand to one
side; and it may be furnished with a slider 7 to regulate the feed, though this
is virtually done by the contraction or enlargement of the orifice below. For
want of space here, the figs., 486 and 487, are represented broken off; but m
is a bridge-piece bolted upon the posts bb, to support the head of the spindle
at b', and also the end of the horizontal shaft n; the spindle h and shaft n
carry the mitre-wheels o that give motion to the spindle. The spindle requires
to have a velocity of 300 to 400 per minute, and the motion may be conveyed
in various ways, suited to the general arrangements of the machinery. In
the present case, it is brought at once from the great spur-wheel by a pinion
of the same size as that of the drum, the pinion occupying the position of
the dotted circle d' in fig. 1, Plate XXI.; and its shaft is supported on a
bracket appended to the beam c of that figure, at the one end, while the other
has a bearing in the wall that separates the barn from the engine-house.
1347. Clayton and Shuttleworth's Hummeller.—The form of "hummeller,”
66 awner, or "aveller," used in the
English thrashing-machine, as that of
Messrs Clayton and Shuttleworth, is illus-
trated in fig. 489. A shaft a, resting on
bearings bb, and set in motion by the
pulley c, is provided with a set of knives
dd; the whole revolving in a casing e e,
set in an inclined position. The grain
enters at ƒ, and its passage down the cas-
ing e e is further facilitated by the knives being set in a spiral form on the
shaft a.
The shaft a should make from 400 to 500 revolutions per minute.
1348. Ransome and Sims' Hummeller.—In fig 490 we give a perspective view
of an exceedingly compact and well-constructed barley-hummeller, manu-
Fig. 489.
се
V V V Y
e
SECTION OF CLAYTON AND SHUTTLEWORTH'S HUMMELLER.
394
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
factured by Messrs Ransome and Sims, Ipswich. The machine stands about
4 feet high: a is the handle by which it is worked, b the hopper, c the
delivery-spout, d the bolts to fix it to the floor. Fig. 491 is a vertical section,
and fig. 492 a sectional plan showing working parts. A spindle a a, 1 inch
diameter, revolves vertically in the step b, and in the bearing of the curved
h
Fig. 491.
h
a
Fig. 490.
b
С
g
f
U WILLIAMS 30
RANSOME AND SIMS' BARLEY-HUMMELLER IN
PERSPECTIVE.
712
d
1
α
es
a
f
g
VERTICAL SECTION OF HUMMELLER--SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
Motion is
guard c c, connected at its extremities to the sides of the machine.
given to this shaft by the bevel-wheel d d, shown by dotted lines, keyed on to
the spindle of the handle a, fig. 490. This bevel-wheel d, fig. 491, engages with
another, e, half the diameter, keyed on to the vertical shaft a a, a little above
the bottom step b. To the central shaft a a, a cylinder ff, 13 inches in
diameter and 5 inches high, is connected. This carries on its periphery a
series of wrought-iron pins. These pass between the spaces formed by pins
placed in the interior periphery of the outer cylinder g g, the diameter of which
is 16 inches, and height 61 inches. The barley is put into the hopper h h, the
diameter of which, at top, is 1 foot 10 inches, and height 9 inches.
1349. Rankin's Corn-Cleaner and Smut-Machine.-We now present illustrations
of a double-action smut-machine and corn-screen, as manufactured by Messrs
R. & J. Rankin, Manchester Street, Liverpool. Fig. 493 is a side elevation of
the machine, drawn to a scale of inch to the foot. The corn to be cleaned
14
is delivered by the spout a to the elevator b b, the buckets of which, c c, deliver it
RANKİN'S CORN-CLEANER AND SMUT-MACHINE.
In
g
Fig. 492.
C
C
h
t
g
395
to the separator e by the spout d. The refuse, as nails, stones, &c., pass from
the spout f, while the
grain passes down the
spout g and h, to the
cleaner. This is formed
of a cylinder, the upper
part of which is made
of fluted iron, the lower
part of wire-cloth.
the interior of this cylin-
der another cylinder re-
volves, provided with
beaters. The beaters,
acting on the wheat, in
conjunction with the flut-
ed iron and wire-cloth of
the cylinder, cleanse the
wheat from all smut, and
force it through the
sides to the space be-
tween the cylinder and
the outside casing i i,
which space acts as a
dust-box. Powerful fan-
ners are placed at the
top of the casing at i i,
and drive off all smut,
chaff, &c., which are fi-
nally passed from the
machine by a side spout.
The cleaned grain is then
delivered by the spouts
kk, the refuse passing
from the space between
the outside and inside
casing by the spout 7.
The whole is supported
by the pillars m m. Part
of the cylinder i is
shown in section; its
upper part, with the flut-
ed bars, is shown at n n;
the lower part, of wire,
at p p; the interior re-
volving cylinder, o o, has
longitudinal beaters.
1350. There has not
yet been sufficient expe-
rience of the English
thrashing machine
-
Scotland to form a cor-
a
PLAN OF HUMMELLER-SCALE, 1 INOM TO THE FOOT.
b
Fig. 493.
Ꮣ
C
i
h
n
n
C
p
p
g
L
m
k
k
1
rect judgment of its su-
RANKIN'S CORN-CLEANER AND SMUT-MACHINE -SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT
396
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
periority over the Scotch thrashing-machine. Scottish farmers, however, seem
already convinced that the beater or drum of the English machine takes the grain
more cleanly from the straw, breaks the straw much less, and thrashes out a
larger quantity of grain in a given time than the Scotch machine. Thus far the
English machine affords decided advantages. On the other hand, it has been
found that the English machine indents or mutilates the grain itself, especially
new or unwon wheat, and even destroys its vitality. It is believed that if the
downy substance at one end of the grain of wheat is taken away, the grain loses its
vitality. It is quite possible that the sharp quick stroke of the English beater
may actually injure the grains of wheat, and so may those beaters which rub
out the corn from the straw, but one can hardly suppose that either the beating
or the rubbing of the English drum could remove the downy substance from
the grain; so that if the vitality of wheat is really affected by the English
machine, it must be so by the hummeller within it, which seems to us to endea-
vour to do too much in the way of cleaning the grain by a thrashing-machine. It
is well, indeed requisite, that a thrashing-machine should take the grain from
the straw, and divide the grosser impurities of chaff and roughs from the grain,
but a question may reasonably be raised whether the grain should be cleaned
to the degree fit for market by the thrashing-machine. For our part, we have
never yet seen a thrashing-machine that cleaned the grain as it should be for
market, according to our judgment of cleanliness; and, in our opinion, the
English machines attempt too much, and run the risk of injuring the grain.
Now, the Scotch machine, by its slow motion, never injures the grain, and few
attempt to clean it for the market; but the cleansing process by the Scotch
fanners and the hands of women-workers is perfect and innocuous. The im-
provement which we would therefore desiderate in Scotland in the thrashing of
grain, is the adoption of the high-speed English beater to the degree of not
injuring the grain, with a combination of the most perfect Scotch cleansing
process. Under such auspices the grain would escape injury, and be perfectly
cleansed to the degree to insure its vitality. It is the true object of the farmer
to preserve the vitality of the grain he sells, that it may be sold alike to the
farmer to be sown, or to the miller to be ground. If the miller finds that the
farmer's extent of cleansing does not suit him, he must himself prepare the grain
for his own purpose; but the farmer, for his own interest, must on no account
adopt any process that will deprive the grain he has to sell of its vitality.
1351. We may here mention that the shakers adopted in the English machines
—namely, those with the reciprocating and saltatory action—are of Scotch origin.
The invention of the principle was claimed by two persons simultaneously-Mr
Docker, Findon, and Mr Ritchie, Mill of Melrose, both in Banffshire; and both
inventions are described and figured in the 12th vol., p. 195, of the Transactions
of the Highland and Agricultural Society for 1837; but the claim made by Mr
Docker seems to have been as early as the 4th of April 1829.
1352. The Barn Weighing-Machines.-The weighing-machine is an important.
article of the barn furniture, and various forms of it are resorted to.
1353. The common beam and scales is the most correct of all the instru-
ments of the class; but it is defective, as being less convenient for the pur-
poses of the barn than several others that are partially employed.
1354. Steelyards of various forms are also used; but in all steelyards there
are grounds for doubting their accuracy, in consequence of the operator not
seeing the true counterpoise of the substance weighed, but only its repre-
sentative, bearing an actual weight greatly smaller than the substance, but in
the inverse proportion to it that the longer arm of the steelyard on which it is
THE BARN BALANCE WEIGHING-MACHINE.
397
appended bears to the shorter arm. Many of these steelyards, from their com-
pactness, are, however, greatly to be commended; and, when well constructed,
and properly adjusted, will be found to answer the purpose of weighing such
bulky articles as grain with sufficient accuracy. Their cheapness also, when
compared with some other instruments on the beam-and-scale principle, holds
out a great inducement for their adoption.
1355. The Balance Weighing-Machine.—A weighing-machine, on the balance
principle, which combines every convenience for the setting on and removal
of the bags of grain with accuracy and neatness of construction, is exhibited
in fig. 494. This machine is constructed chiefly of cast-iron; the framework
a a is connected by cross-stretcher bolts b, and is supported in front on the
wheels c c, while the back parts are supported on the feet d. The folding
Fig. 494.
h
q
q
g
a
m
THE BARN BALANCE WEIGHING MACHINE.
handles e, one on each side, turn on a joint pin at e, and become levers by
which the machine can be moved about like a wheelbarrow. The beam,
parts of which are seen at ff, is double, and also formed of cast-iron, with
steel centres, the two bars forming the beam-stand, and are connected by a
398
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
diagonal truss. The one end of the double beam supports a cross-head sus-
pended on the end centres of the beam, and to which is attached the pillar g,
to the lower end of which is attached the shelf-plate or scale h, upon which
the principal weights i i are placed. The cross-head carries also the top shelf
or scale k, upon which the smaller weights are placed, and a dead plate 7 is
fixed on the framework on which the small weights stand ready for use. The
opposite ends of the beam carry a frame m, only partially seen, to the lower
end of which the shelf n is jointed, and upon this shelf the bag o, about to
be weighed, is shown in the figure. To the upper end of the frame m there is
also attached, by a strong bracket not seen in the figure, the shelf or scale p,
and upon this scale the bag may be placed and weighed with equal accuracy,
while it is supported by the light frame q q. The object of the top and bottom
weighing-shelves is to suit the placement, or the removal of the bag, either
from or to a man's back by the top shelf, or from or to the corn-barrow by
the lower shelf. When the machine is not in use, the lower shelf n is folded
up against the back of the frame, and the light frame or back qq folds down
by a jointed arm over the folded-up lower shelf n, reducing the machine to a
very compact state.
1356. In weighing with this machine, from its being on the principle of
the balance, the amount of weights required is equal to the absolute weight
of the body that is being weighed, and the true weight is determined when the
scales or shelves k and p coincide in one level line with the dead-plate 1.
1357. In constructing this machine, the bottom of the pillar g, and of the
frame m, are provided with a horizontal connecting-rod, which preserves their
parallelism, and, consequently, the correct indications of the beam.
1358. Weighing-machines are constructed, on the same principle, with wooden
a
f
Fig. 495.
C
d
Ъ
PORTABLE LEVER WEIGHING-MACHINE
framework, which renders them
lighter and cheaper; but from
the changeable nature of the
material, as affected by moisture
and dryness, they are liable to
derangement.
1359. The price of this bal-
ance weighing-machine is £8,
10s.; and when constructed in
wood the price is £5 or £6.
1360. Portable Lever Weigh-
ing-Machine. — In fig. 495 we
illustrate a portable lever weigh-
ing-machine, in which small
weights on the lever c balance
heavy weights on the platform
ƒ ƒ. When the lever a of the
standard e is up, as in the dia-
gram, any weight placed on ƒ
f
does not affect the balance-
beam c; but on pulling it down,
it puts the platform ƒ in connec-
tion with the beam. Weights
are then put on the plate d, connected by a rod with the extremity of the
balance-beam c, these weights representing cwts.
parts, each showing a pound, from 1 to 56 lb.
The beam c is divided into
After bringing the beam c
CARTS-WAGGONS.
399
nearly to the balance-level, the sliding-weight b is moved along it till the
balance is accurately obtained. The weight at d shows the number of cwts.,
and the weight b indicates on the scale of the beam c the number of pounds
beyond the cwts. the article placed on the platform ff weighs.
1361. As manufactured by Messrs Dray and Co., the price of a machine of this
class, to weigh 5 cwt., is £5, 15s.; to weigh 10 cwt., £8, 16s.; and to weigh a
ton, £13.
1362. The same firm manufacture a modification of this weighing-machine,
adapted to weigh calves. This is provided with a movable pen, which is
placed upon the platform ƒƒ, fig. 495, and in which the calf to be weighed, is
placed.
1363. SECTION FOURTH.-Carts, Waggons.-In Book First, Fourth Division,
Second Section, from pages 124 to 138, we have gone into the consideration
of the philosophy or theory of the action of wheel carriages; it now remains
for us to describe the construction of their component parts, and to point out
some things of the principles which direct the modern wheel-maker.
1364. The Construction of Wheels and Axles.-With but few exceptions,
carriage-wheels of all sorts are constructed principally of wood, but bound
and supported with iron; such a wheel for one-horse carts consists of the
nave, a turned block of wood, usually elm, 12 inches long, and from 10 to 12
inches diameter, bound at each end with iron hoops: it is pierced with twelve
mortises equally divided around it, into which are firmly inserted a like number
of spokes, always made of oak. A ring of wood in six segments or felloes is
mortised upon the extremities of the spokes, and this is surrounded by the
hoop or tire of iron, either in one unbroken ring, or in segments.
1365. Of wheels so formed there are several varieties. That without the dished
character may be held as a nonentity, except in carriages of one wheel or of three
wheels, where the third or front wheel may be found without dish, and in some
cases where a double inverted dishing is adopted. The dished wheel is that
which has its spokes so placed in the nave that, if laid with the end of the nave
upon an extended flat surface, the point of each spoke would be farther distant
from that surface than the root where the spoke enters the nave, and the spokes
of the wheel thus arranged, when put in revolution, would describe a cup or
dish-form figure, concave above, forming the front of the wheel, and convex below,
forming the back.
1366. The class of dished wheels are separated again into two great divisions
-the conical dished wheel and the cylindrical. The conical is known chiefly in
England, and is that in which the tire, properly so called, is applied in segments;
and sometimes, as in the wheels of very large waggons, the tire is composed of
two, three, or four breadths of iron. In wheels of this kind the tire is some-
times applied in one ring or hoop; but its object as a binding-hoop is in a great
measure frustrated by the conical surface to which it is applied, and hence the
necessity of such solid tires being secured by strong rivet-bolts passing through
it and the felloes, to prevent its dropping off the wheel. The cylindrical wheel,
like the conical, may have any degree of dishing given to the spokes; but the
sole of the felloes or periphery is worked off at right angles to the plane of the
felloes, and consequently cylindrical wheels of this kind are always hooped with
an entire ring of iron, applied when red-hot; its contraction, therefore, when
cooled, brings the felloes into close contact with themselves and the iron, and
affords the greatest possible strength to the wheels.
1367. The sole or tire of conical wheels varies in breadth from 4 inches to
400
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
16 inches, the latter being found only in the largest class of carrier's waggons,
while the former, and intermediate sizes, are to be seen on two-wheel carts and
all intermediate carrying vehicles. The sole of the cylindrical wheel is seldom
above 6 inches, generally 5 inches; but the great bulk of them is 2 to 3 inches.
broad. Wheels of this form, when above 3 inches broad in the sole, are run
upon straight axles, the plane of the felloes being vertical, hence they move
without any tendency to deviate from a straight line. Those with a sole of 3
inches and downward, usually run upon bent axles, as afterwards more particu-
larly described, and hence partake a little of the tendency of the conical wheel,
the plane of the felloes standing oblique to the vertical.
1368. A great deal of irrelevant matter has, from time to time, been put forth
on the subject of dished and conical wheels, in some cases deviating so far
from the subject as to mistake the one quality for the other, and exhibiting such
a want of information on the English practice of using conical wheels, as to
represent a highly dished and conical wheel running in a waggon, with the
plane of its felloes standing vertical-evidently intended to exhibit their destruc-
tive effects on the roads, by cutting them up in a way that never occurred
except in the mistaken imagination of the writers. Similar incongruities are to be
found respecting the dishing and form of the wheel, where the conical character
is confounded with that of dishing, probably arising from the absence of a true
conception of the terms as applied in practice. It is pleasant, however, to see
that men of talent are still found, who will devote their energies to the elucida-
tion even of this everyday subject, and that with a degree of simplicity and
perspicuity not hitherto to be met with on this subject. Thus, in the volume
of The Library of Useful Knowledge chiefly devoted to the "Horse," there is
a treatise on Draught, in which the principles and the defects of conical wheels
are so clearly illustrated, that nothing remains to be said in condemnation of
the practice. Instead, therefore, of spending time in attempting to elucidate
their construction and defects, it seems better to allow them to take their place
among the things that have been.
1369. Of the Wheel.—To proceed, then, in the consideration of the cylindrical
wheel, and, in connection with it, to consider also the formation of the axle, it
must be observed that there are two varieties, the inclined and the upright,
though both varieties are dished wheels; and of these the first to be considered,
as being the oldest, is the inclined cylindrical wheel, as it is seen in section in
fig. 496. In this figure a e is the nave, with the axle b passing through it. The
spokes c c are represented as they are inserted in the nave, and as they pass
through the felloes d d, and these are encircled by the iron-hoop or tire, seen in
section at g and g, which, when complete, serves to bind and compress the entire
ring of felloes into one mass. This common cart-wheel is seldom made below 54
inches in diameter, nor exceeding 58 inches, measuring over the iron hoop.
The ordinary length of nave is 12 inches, and its diameter varies from 10 to 12
inches. In an average diameter of 11 inches in the middle, the inner end of
the nave is 10 inches, and the outer end 9 inches; at the inner end, it is bound
by an iron hoop a e of 2 inches in breadth by & inch in thickness, and on the
outer end by a hoop fm of 4 inches in breadth, about one-half of which projects.
beyond the end of the nave, forming a shield to defend the end of the axle from
accident and from mud. The iron for the outer hoop or band is manufactured
for the special purpose, the edge of the bar intended for the outward part being
inch in thickness, while the inward edge is not more than 1 inch.
1370. When a block has been selected for the nave, an auger-hole is bored
through its axis; into this an iron bar or mandrel is driven, and upon it the
16
SCOTCH CART.
401
nave is turned to the proper shape and dimensions, and lines drawn round it
limiting the length of the intended mortises. Its circumference is then divided
into twelve equal divisions, and
upon these divisions, as a cen-
g
d
Fig. 496.
tre, an auger-hole is bored upon
each in the direction of the
radii of the circle-or if machin-
ery is applied in the manufac-
ture, the nave is suspended be-
tween proper centres, furnished
with a dividing index, and the
vertical drilling-machine brought
to bear upon the nave, dividing
and boring it at one operation.
The enlargement of the hole is
then performed either with the
mortising-chisel and hand-mal-
let, or by the mortising-machine,
until the mortise is of the proper
size and direction. In forming
the mortise, its sides ought to
be parallel, the width from 1
inch to 14 inch; the front end
must be cut to the slope of the
intended dish of the wheel, while
the back of the mortise ap-
proaches nearly to a right angle
with the axis of the nave.
1371. A practice has been
long prevalent to make the
k
α
с
N
0
d
q
P
グ
​m
h
SECTION OF THE INCLINED CYLINDRICAL CART-WHFEL.
mortises wider at the front than at the back; and in support of the practice
it has been alleged that it tends to keep the spoke firm in its mortise, and at the
proper inclination. Little consideration is necessary to show that the practice
can neither accomplish the one nor the other, but it involves a condition much
worse than this negative quality, which is, that it leaves less substance of wood
in the bridge or partition between the mortises at the front than at the back,
thus inducing an unnecessary weakness in that part of the nave more than at
the back, and though this may not exceed or of an inch in each partition
at the surface, it forms a more sensible proportion of it towards the bottom ;
and as the nave is the basis on which the whole wheel depends, every means
ought to be adopted to secure its uniform strength.
4
4
1372. The spokes of the wheel ought to be prepared of the best oak-root,
thoroughly seasoned, for which purpose they require at least three years' pre-
paration. The length of the rough spoke is 27 inches, and when dressed to
enter the nave, the breadth at the root is from 31 to 32 inches, the thickness of
the body ranging from 1 to 12 inch. Fig. 497, a is a side view of a spoke
when prepared to be driven into the nave, b the same when it has been fin-
ished in the wheel, and c a front view of the same in the finished state. In
figure a, the form of the root tenon is exhibited, wherein the front edge is uni-
formly straight, but on the back the tenon part is wedge-formed, the slope d e
deviating from the line e ƒ a quantity nearly equal to the dish which the spoke
is intended to have in the wheel, whereby the back of the mortise approaches
2 c
402
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
to a right angle to the axis of the nave. In wheels where the dishing is carried
to an excess, this rule would give the tenon so much of the wedge-shape as to
(1
Fig. 497.
k
h
с
render it very liable to be dislodged from the nave;
and hence, as one evil begets another, arises the
necessity for giving the back of the mortise an in-
clination, or what is termed being under-cut, which
induces the further necessity of weakening the
partition behind by sloping the back of the mor-
tise, or the alternative of giving it less width behind
than in front; but every one of these conditions
should be avoided as much as possible. The
shoulders of the tenon, instead of being cut in at
right angles to the faces of the tenon, are usually
cut at an angle of not less than 45°, as seen at the
figure c; these, when the spoke is driven home,
fill up firmly the parts which are cut away for this
purpose in the two edges of the mortise, giving to
the spoke a more stable bearing on the shoulders,
and, at the same time, increasing the strength of
the tenon at this essential point. Figure 6 is ex-
hibited finished at the head, though this operation
is performed only after it has been driven into the
nave. The face-edge k h of the head tenon has its plane dependent upon the
amount of dish, for the part from k to h is always cut off at right angles to the
axis of the wheel, being also parallel to the intended face of the felloes. From
the point h towards the body of the spoke, the face is usually curved to g, as in
the figure, the principal use of which is to facilitate the formation of the curve
given in the finish of the face of the spoke, as seen at i in figure c. The back
part of the head tenon is quite arbitrary, but it is proper to give it greater
breadth at the root than at the point by about 1 inch.
d
THE SPOKES OF A WHEEL
1373. The fitting of the mortises of the naves to the spokes is an opera-
tion requiring considerable care; the front of the spoke must be set at the
proper angle of dishing, which should not be under 821° with the axis of the
wheel, nor should it exceed 84°, or nearly 14 inch, and 1 inch on each foot
of the length of the spoke. It is difficult, and unnecessary, to determine the
degree of force requisite to drive the spoke into the nave, but it may be
affirmed that there may be as much injustice done to the fabric by having the
spokes too firmly driven into their mortises, as by having them too easy: the
danger of the former arises from overstraining and crippling the partitions of
the nave; and of the latter, from the spokes becoming loose in the mortises ;-a
due mean between these, which can only be judged of from experience, will
always produce the most lasting results.
1374. It is deserving of remark, that, for some reason now lost in the obscu-
rity of time, the tenon at the point of the spoke is almost invariably formed
with a shoulder or bearing on one side only, as in fig. 497, b. From the manner
which the pressure comes upon the felloe and the spoke being that of com-
pression on the end of the spoke, it would certainly appear more natural that
it should be shouldered on both sides, but more especially in the wheel with broad
felloes. Here, I should say, it is indispensably necessary to the due stability
and support of the wheel; nevertheless it is seldom, if ever, adopted, except
in the practice of a few wheel-makers.
1375. The felloes, in a wheel of ordinary size, are always six in number, and
SCOTCH CART.
403
Fig. 498.
C
are usually either of ash or elm; they ought also to be well seasoned, and of
sound quality; the breadth, from front to back, is from 3 to 3 inches, and
their depth 3 to 4 inches. Fig. 498
is a view of a felloe square-dressed
and mortised, being in the state in
which they are first prepared previous
to being put on the spokes; a a are
the mortises, and b is the dowel-hole,
as bored in each end of the felloes.
b
α
THE FELLOE OF A WHEEL.
a
a'
с
d
1376. The dowels of wheels are usu-
ally of oak, 2-inch diameter, barrel-
shaped, and their chief use is to
keep the joinings of the felloes fair and even while finishing, and until the
tire is put on.
1377. The felloes, previous to their being put on the spokes, are partly
rounded off to the form seen in section, fig. 498, a', in which the dotted lines
represent the mortise, f the face, e the back, and d the sole, of the felloe.
After being put on the spokes, dowelled and wedged up, the felloes are dressed
thoroughly off either by turning, or by the plane and other hand-tools, the
periphery, or sole of the wheel, being dressed off square to the face of the
felloes without being at all conical. In fitting the end-joinings of the felloes,
which is done by running a saw several times through the meetings, and
in finishing the joints, it is proper to leave them open outwardly, or towards the
crcumference, because, from the felloes being generally cut out of straight
wood, the parts c c, of two contiguous felloes, when presented to each other,
have the grain of the wood. abutting obliquely, and hence liable to compression
when brought to their bearings: this occurs when the tire or hoop is applied;
and to admit of the full effect of the hoop as a binder, the end joinings of the
felloes are all finished slightly open.
3
1378. The application of the tire or hoop is the next process in the construc-
tion of the wheel. For narrow wheels, which are now under description, the
iron of the hoop is from 2 to 3 inches broad-seldom 3 inches-and the thick-
ness from inch to 1 inch. The bars are first bent in the cold state to the
curve, either by passing them through a three-roll machine, or, what is simpler,
they are bent over a curved block of somewhat smaller diameter than the
intended wheel. When brought to the circle the ends are welded, but, previous
to doing so, the length of the circumference of the wheel, and the length of the
inside of the hoop, are compared. This operation is performed by measuring
the length of the circumference by means of a simple odometer, a small iron
wheel turning upon a pivot, which is held in the hand; with this the length of
the external surface of the felloes is measured, and also the internal surface of
the hoop, and when welded up, the internal surface of the hoop should be
1 to 1 inch shorter than the external surface of the felloes, proportioned
to the allowance that has been given for the closing of the felloe-joints.
The hoop having been set tolerably correct to the circle, and also out of twist,
it is heated either in the forge fire, or in a pile; but what forms the
most perfect and economical mode of heating is the hoop-furnace, in which,
as well as in the pile, two, four, or more hoops may be heated at once.
In this operation the heat required is only such as will produce that degree of
expansion in the fire which will make it pass freely over the wheel, and for this
purpose a dull red heat is sufficient. The wheel is laid on a hooping bed of
stone, or of cast-iron, with its front downward; the heated hoop is brought over
404
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
it; if sufficiently expanded and true to the circle, it passes on to the wheel
with little trouble, and at most with a few twitches of the hooked lever, or a
blow of the hammer, it takes its place. Cold water in abundance is immediately
applied to the iron, serving at the same time to prevent the burning of the
felloes and to expedite the contraction and tightening of the hoop: so soon as
it begins to bite, the wheel is turned up, and the wood and the iron are adjusted
to each other. The iron is now cooled down to prevent all deterioration of the
wood, the wheel being thus strongly compressed on all points, the shoulders of
the spokes against the felloes, and the joinings of the latter brought also into
close contact. This operation, by compressing the joinings of the felloes, while
they are resisted by the spokes from contraction of the wheel's diameter directly,
has always the effect of increasing the dishing of the wheel, by the spokes yield-
ing forward in obedience to the contraction of the iron, and the compression of
the felloes. It is necessary, therefore, in the first construction of the wheel, to
make allowance for this; and to this end 2 inches of dish will be sufficient
before the iron is applied, as it will then be increased to nearly 3 inches. In
wheels hooped in this manner, the only fixing given to the hoop beyond that of
contact is a spike driven through it into each felloe, and the only use of the
spikes is to prevent the hoop falling off in the case of the felloes shrinking
in a long course of dry weather.
3
4
1379. The bushing of the wheel is the concluding process. The bushes are
of various sizes, suited to all purposes; for wheels such as we are here describ-
ing, they are 2 inches and 1½ inch diameter, or 22 inches and 12 inch-the cart-
wheel bushes in common use being always tapered in these proportions. They
are cast with a chilled interior surface, that is, cast upon a turned iron core or
mandrel, which gives them a tolerably smooth surface, with considerable hard-
ness. In setting the bushes in the wheel, they must be placed so as to have
their axis in the centre, and at right angles to the face of the wheel; and
to insure the attainment of these points, the wheel, with the bush fitted in,
should be suspended on the axle, and the bush adjusted with wedges, so as to
make the wheel revolve truly.
1380. The foregoing description has reference to narrow wheels; but in the
case of the common Scotch broad wheel, the only point of difference lies in the
greater breadth of the felloes and the hoop. The dishing is usually the same as
for the narrow, though, according to the ordinary views of the case, the dish-
ing ought to be less, or to vanish entirely. This, however, would weaken the
wheel much more than any ordinary amount of dishing could produce; and
this for reasons that will immediately be shown. In the broad wheel the felloes
have the same depth, or nearly so, as stated in par. 1374; but the breadth
varies from 4 to 6 inches. The spokes are usually finished in the same manner
as in fig. 497; but the mortises of the felloes are placed farther from the face,
so as to throw the bearing on the spoke, nearly in the middle of the breadth.
The hoops are, of course, suited to the breadth of felloes, but the thickness is
always less than in those of narrow wheels-seldom exceeding 2 inch, and
descending to inch.
3
1381. Of the Axle.-Cart-axles are always prepared in the form of blocks
under the forge-hammer, and are afterwards finished to the true form on the
anvil, with the hand and sledge-hammer. Fig. 499 is a view of an ordinary
f
a
Fig. 499.
b
e
d
THE CART-AXLE.
с
cart-axle in the finished state, and adapted to narrow wheels.
The body
SCOTCH CART.
405
part, from a to b, is 1 inch thick, and 2 to 2 inches in depth; it is thick-
ened at c and d to a breadth equal to the diameter of the arm, for the purpose
of admitting the opening of the caddy bolt-holes c and d; the arms of this
example being 2 inches diameter at the shoulders e e, and diminishing to 13
inch at the linch-pin holes ff. In preparing the axle on the anvil, an incision
is made along the lower side of the arm in the parts which will bear upon the
bushes, and a strip of steel is laid thereon and welded into and upon the arm.
When finished and hardened, this presents a smooth and durable surface on
those parts of the axle where the greatest pressure occurs, thereby at once less-
ening the friction, and increasing the durability of the axle.
1382. In axles of the common construction, the arms are simply rounded and
dressed a little with the file till they enter freely into the bushes.
In con-
nection with this rude finish, an opinion prevails among workmen, that a trans-
verse section of the arms should not be a circle, but an oval, or approaching
to the figure of the longitudinal section of an egg, the lower side on which the
pressure exists corresponding to the end of the egg. This form, it is alleged,
by allowing the bush to touch the axle on a line passing along its lower side,
and again on the fore-part towards the upper side, produces less friction than if
the surface of the arm were a perfect cylinder, or rather cone; and having also
the advantage of a space before and behind the line of bearing in which the
grease has a lodgment, and ready at all times to lubricate the bearing part of
the surface. It must be admitted that there is some show of truth in the latter
part of the allegation, but the former is assuredly one of the vulgar errors;
for if it is true, as shown by experimenters, that with the same load friction is
not increased by an extension of the rubbing surfaces, then there can be no
extinguishing of friction from a decrease of the bearing surface on the axle;
and even to admit, according to some experimenters, that there is a slight
increase of friction by an extension of surface, it would form such a small
amount, the whole being but of the draught, that any reduction of that fric-
tion cannot possibly be otherwise than of very little importance.
20
1383. The more refined mode of finishing the axle-arms by turning is un-
questionably the best adapted to destroy friction, especially when the surface of
the bush has been also bored, or otherwise rendered accurately round and smooth.
The retention of the grease is also partially accomplished by the chamber formed
in the central part of the bush, seen at n, fig. 496. But the best proof of the
advantages of turned and well-fitted axles is derived from the performance of
the royal mail and stage coaches, whose axles fit their bushes so exactly as to
be almost air-tight. In these, it is true, the constant lubrication is effected in
a very perfect manner by the bush being converted into an air-tight chamber,
which retains the grease without risk of its being squirted out. The want of
some more secure means of retaining the grease in the cart-axle is a serious
inconvenience and loss; for if the grease is so thin as to be completely useful,
it is squirted out of the open bush in a very short time, causing a loss of the
material; to obviate which, it is compounded in such a manner as to give it a
consistency that will prevent its too free discharge; but by the same means
it is rendered less serviceable as a lubricator, and a consequent small increase
of friction ensues from that circumstance.
1384. There are two kinds of such axles and bushes especially in use. That
known by the name of the Mail-coach patent axle retains the principles of the
tapering and bent axle, and is exceedingly simple and effective, though not quite
so elegant as that known as Collinge's patent, used for light carriages; but the
mail axle is best adapted for such vehicles as carts. A section of the mail-coach
406
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
axle and bush is here exhibited in fig. 500, wherein a is the arm of the axle, and b
the bush, c c being the nave in which it is enclosed. The bush is cast on a turned
Fig. 500.
a
DYEABIN
mandrel, and thereby hardened; a chamber is
formed in the mouth of it, to which the axle
is accurately fitted, the collar d filling exactly
the chamber at the mouth. The outer end
of the bush is solid, and it is rendered
grease-tight at the mouth by means of a
leathern packing or washer applied to the
end of the nave and embracing the axle; this
is again covered by the iron-plate or collar e,
which, besides retaining the solid collar of
the axle in the chamber of the bush, is
brought home to the end of the nave and
bush by three bolts, which, passing through
the plate and the nave, are tightened at the
outer end of the latter by screw-nuts, until
the collar of the arm has just freedom to
turn in its chamber. The reservoir for the
grease is the open space between the point
of the axle-arms and the bottom of the bush,
and the charge of grease is introduced to this chamber through a small opening
at b, which is closed by a screwed plug f
THE MAIL-COACH AXLE.
מתקן
1385. Axles of this construction require a peculiar mixture of grease, which
shall have such a consistency as to prevent its escaping too freely by the side of
the collar d; hence any pure oil is not suitable for the purpose, because of its too
great fluidity causing it to be speedily exhausted. A composition that is well
adapted to these axles consists of equal parts by weight of whale-oil and lard,
with about part of vegetable tar. The mixture, when cold, is of a consistency
similar to honey, requiring to be heated to render it so fluid as to pour into
the orifice of the bush, where it is again congealed, until by the motion of
the wheel a sufficient temperature is produced to keep the grease in a state
capable of lubricating the surfaces without becoming so fluid as to escape by
the collar.
1386. A variety of axles have recently been introduced, but are too elaborate
to be recommended for the purposes we have here in view; we therefore deem
it unnecessary to go into details respecting them.
1387. Of the inclination of the axle - arms much has been said and
written, and demonstrations innumerable produced, to show that axles should
have certain forms that are, in fact, impracticable, and others that never
can, or never have existed, except in the diagram of the mathematician.
Certain points in the subject have apparently been taken up originally under
theoretical, and even mistaken views, and the conclusions drawn from these have
been, of course, participations in the original error; but what is more unfortu-
nate, they have been received and handed from one to another with all their
faults, the subject, as it would appear, being considered by succeeding writers
not worthy of the trouble of being again taken up at the fountain-head of
experiment, or of resorting to the induction that may be derived from everyday
experience. Without entering, therefore, into, or following any of those learned
discussions, we shall take a simple practical view of the case, referring, when
necessary, to previous conceptions of the subject.
1388. It has been held by some writers who have treated this subject, that
SCOTCH CART.
407
the position of the axle-arm should be such as to have its lower or bearing side
at right angles to the position of the spokes that are at the moment bearing the
load of the axle, the bearing-spokes being, by hypothesis, at the time vertical;
it being supposed, under this view, that the dishing of the wheel is adapted to
bring out this result, and that any deviation from this rule will produce an
undue pressure of the end of the nave and bush against the collar of the axle,
if the arm droop at the point, or against the linch-pin, if the arm is turned up
from the horizontal line at the point. It will be observed that this proposition
implies that the lower or bearing side of the axle should always be horizontal,
and this without reference to the degree of taper given to the arm. Now, such
a proposition might possibly have applied at a time when wooden axles were
almost exclusively employed, the taper of these having been much greater than
is required for those of iron. But were it essential that the lower spokes should
stand perpendicular, and the principle be carried out to the iron axles now in
use, whose taper amounts to 1 inch on 12 inches, or inch on each side, it would
follow that the dishing of the spokes would amount to only inch on the foot,
or about 11 inch of entire dish; and, from what has been said in the latter part
of par. 1378, this is too little to afford sufficient support and strength to the
wheel. In practice, we find that all the above conditions may be deviated from
with impunity; for with dished wheels, and the arms of the axles bent down-
ward, the most perfect freedom of action is found to exist: and not only in this
case, but with broad-dished wheels running upon straight axles with arms
tapering in the same degree as the former, a like freedom of action is obtained.
It appears, therefore, that the points hitherto considered by writers on this
subject as of essential importance in the formation of the axle, and the relative
position of the wheel, may be departed from without inconvenience, and that
the requisite freedom of action of the wheel upon the axle-arm is to be
accounted for from other causes than have hitherto been recognised.
1
1389. Having pointed out what appears to us as fallacies existing in the hitherto
received opinions as to the proper form of the axle, we have now to add, on this
part of the subject, a few remarks on the common practice method of making
the cart-axle in Scotland, chiefly as regards the setting or form of the axle.
1390. The practice has long prevailed of bringing the wheels of vehicles in-
tended for load to one standard of width, where they touch the surface of the
ground; and this standard or gauge has, by long-established use, been fixed at 4
feet 4 inches between the tread of the wheels, where they rest on the ground;
and as the breadth of the hoop in narrow wheels is 2 inches, the gauge over
all is 4 feet 9 inches. By a corresponding usage, the length of the axle-bed,
or that part of it lying between the collars e and e, fig. 499, has been fixed at 3
feet 6 inches, thus affording two fixed conditions in the problem.
1391. Were all wheels made with one uniform degree of dish, we should then
have one simple standard for the set of the axle-arms, which would be this :
Let the concavity, or true dish, in the front of the wheel, and measured at the
surface of the nave by 24 inches, the entire deflection from the base of the nave
a e, fig. 496, to the front of the felloes, will then be 10 inches, and were the
axle straight, the wheels would stand at the distance of 3 feet 6 inches,
+ 10 inches + 10 inches, or 5 feet 2 inches over all; but as they must be
brought to the gauge of 4 feet 9 inches below, each wheel will be brought to
an inclination of 5 inches from the perpendicular upon its entire height, or it
is 1.12 inch nearly on each foot of its height.
1392. It is evident that, since the axis of the axle-arm must stand at right
angles to the face of the wheel, whatever degree of inclination the wheel makes
408
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
5
with the vertical line, the axis of the axle-arm must make an equal degree of
inclination with the horizontal line, or its deflection will be also 1.12 inch
upon a foot of its length. The axis, or central line, of the arm will therefore
hang, or be bent downward at the point 1.12 inch below the straight line,
passing along the central line of the body of the axle; but as it is easier in
practice to operate upon the lower side of the axle-arm than upon its axis, deduct
half the difference of the diameter of the two ends of the arm, which, in ordinary
cases, is inch, and this deducted from the deflection due to the axis or central
line, we have .62 inch, or nearly, remaining for the deflection of the lower
side of the arm. This quantity is, however, subject to variation from two
causes-the dish of the wheel, and the diameters of the axle-arm; but the rule
will apply to all cases; and though it does not produce a perfectly correct form
of the axle, being defective in principle, yet it approaches so near the truth that
we are surprised to find such a close approximation produced simply from
experience, for it does not appear that the principle has ever been detected on
which the practice has probably, by accident, been based. In most of the
attempts made to establish a principle on which the form of the axle ought to
depend, the demonstrations have failed by a misconception of the direction in
which gravity acts through the medium of carriage-wheels.
1393. The rule above referred to may be stated more concisely thus: To the
length of the axle-bed add twice the deflection of the wheel, measured from the base
of the nave to the face of the felloes; from this sum subtract the intended over-all
width of the wheels at the ground, and the remainder will be the deviation of the face
of the wheel from the perpendicular. Divide the last acquired number by the diameter
of the wheel for the deviation per foot, which will also apply to the central deflection of
the axle-arm, and subtracting half the difference of the inner and outer diameters of
the arm from the rate of deviation thus found, will leave the amount of deflection for
the lower side of the arm.
1394. Example.—Let the axle-bed be 42 inches long, the wheels 4 feet 6
inches diameter, the deflection, or total dish, measured from the base of the nave
to the plane of the felloes, 11 inches, width of gauge 57 inches over all, and the
diameter of the axle-arms 22 inches and 12 inch, then
4
(42 + 11 + 11)—57 = 7 inches,
7
4.5
- =
which, divided by the whole diameter, is 1.55 inches, the deviation for the
face of the wheel from the perpendicular, or of the axis of the axle from
the line of its body. Then half the difference of the diameters of the arm
or .5, and 1.55—5 = 1.05 inches, is the amount of deflection in 1 foot of
the axle-arm.
24—13
2
=
1395. The axle of broad-dished wheels, with a cylindrical sole, can only be
formed straight, or without bend in any direction; any deviation from this is a
positive disadvantage; and though the adoption of cylindrical arms for broad
wheels has been sometimes recommended, it can only be applicable when the
wheels not only stand vertical, but they must have no dish; and it is an error
to suppose that broad-dished wheels could work with advantage upon straight
axles with cylindrical arms.
1396. Of the practical utility of dishing, but especially of giving the wheels
an inclination outward above, there can be but one opinion-that it is a neces-
sary evil, producing advantages which more than counterbalance any disad-
vantages that may arise by thus deviating from just theoretical principles. An
upright wheel without dish, and running upon a cylindrical axle, is unquestion-
SCOTCH CART.
409
ably perfect in theory; but the various considerations that practice brings to
bear on the economy of their application, decides the question in favour of a
deviation from strict theory. It has, therefore, been found better to sacrifice a
little to utility, and by dishing to gain additional strength to the fabric. By
inclining the wheel, also, a greater width is obtained in the cart; and the incli-
nation affords another advantage, though certainly not of vital importance,
that of throwing off mud from the carriage and the load. The bending and
tapering of the axle-arm, consequent upon the dishing, will perhaps appear
the most objectionable point in the combination; but this, also, has its com-
pensating quality, for though we have here the friction arising from a conical
surface, it is acting against a similar surface revolving round the axle, and the
result is only a slight increase of velocity in the revolving surface towards the
base of the cone; but as friction is little, if at all, affected by velocity, there
will consequently be no increase of the former at the larger end of the axle,
as compared with the smaller. In such a case, therefore, the effect is totally
different from that of a broad conical wheel rolling upon the extended surface
of a road, and constrained to move forward in a straight line. In this case,
were the wheel allowed to travel in the circle which the conical surface of the
wheel would generate, it would produce nothing beyond the natural resistance
of the rolling surface; but being constrained to move right forward, if we sup-
pose the middle part of the tire to have the mean velocity and to roll without
sliding, then those parts of the tire lying towards the base of the cone would
be accelerated, and would have a tendency to tear up the surface of the road
backward, while the parts lying towards the apex of the cone would have the
opposite effect-thus producing great and unnecessary friction, all of which is
avoided in a conical bush turning round a conical axle.
1397. A doubtful practice has long existed in the formation of cart-axles, that
of giving the wheels a gather, as it is called, in the fore parts. This is done
by bending the axle-arms slightly forward, so as to make the wheels run a little
nearer to each other in front than behind, the difference varying from 1 inch to
3 inches. There seems no good reason whatever for this peculiarity, though
enough of questionable ones are adduced by those who uphold the practice. If
any advantage is to be gained from it, the common bent axle, with the cart in
yoke, possesses it in a sufficient degree, from the manner in which the horse is
yoked to the cart; for the shafts of the cart, taken at the point where the back-
chain is attached, are always higher than the axle, and as the axle is attached
sufficiently firm to make it move with the cart, and if, when the shafts are hori-
zontal, the wheels are found to be equally distant, before and behind, their rela-
tive position will be changed by any movement up or down in the shafts; thus,
if the point of the shafts is raised, which is their working position, the wheels
will be brought nearer to each other before than they are behind. It is highly
probable that this natural result, by being observed in a well-working vehicle,
has given rise to the opinion.
1398. In regard to the defective state of the question as to the principles that
govern the formation of the axle, and adaptation of the wheels to bring out upon
sound data the most perfect action of the wheels on their axle with the minimum
resistance, we have, after some investigation of the relation of the parts to each
other, and from careful observation of numerous cases, arrived at what we con-
ceive to be a principle, which is sufficient to account for the phenomena under
consideration.
1399. The views that have usually been taken of carriage - wheels, when
the object was to investigate the effects of the load upon them, would lead us
410
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
to imagine that the wheel is composed, and not only composed, but continues
to act, and to be acted upon, as if it were a number of disjointed parts; but
such an assumption is not fact: a wheel built as has been here described, forms
one strongly-compacted piece of iron-bound carpentry, wherein every individual
part assists in supporting all the others, and the entire frame becomes a rigid
structure. Instead, therefore, of supposing that any one spoke that may happen
to be in the lowest position at any one instant, and that in a vertical position,
supports the whole load, it is more correct to view the wheel as a solid of revo-
lution, generated by the quadrilateral figure b o p q, fig. 496. In this figure,
formed about the extreme points of the lower or bearing half of the section of a
wheel, we have the side bo forming the lower side of the axle-arm, and p q the
sole of the wheel; the whole load on that wheel will be distributed over the line
0, and transferred to p q, or that part of the wheel which rests upon the ground.
If we now conceive the axle k bo completed, and the opposite arm supporting
its wheel, affording a similar solid, whose section will exactly resemble b o p q,
upon these two sections the indefinite load on the axle will be equally divided,
while the sole of each wheel, or the side p q of each, will be pressed to the
ground with a force equal to, or little more than, half the load, and the friction
caused by this pressure will prevent the sole from all lateral motion on the sur-
face of the ground. If we now consider the effect of gravity upon the sole p q,
and its supposed opposite wheel, its natural tendency is in the vertical direction,
but its effects may be diverted from this into any other direction.
b
1400. Example.-In fig. 501, let the straight line a b represent a rigid bar
supported on two struts c d and ef, the surface of the ground being represented
by gh; let a weight w be appended to the bar a b, gravity will then act in the
C
Fig. 501.
J-
0
N
201
e
b
с
a
p
k
2
q
m
d
w
૩
THE PRINCIPLE OF THE BENT AXLE.
h
direction w w; but the beam and load being supported by the struts c d and ef,
the pressure is borne equally by them, each strut sustaining a pressure of nearly
half the weight, together with the beam, and this transferred pressure will be in
the direction of the two struts, and not in the vertical line. The construction
here represented will come under the denomination of a tottering equilibrium,
which it is easy to obviate, but is not of importance under the present considera-
tion; and it will be evident that, besides a tottering equilibrium, the head of each
strut will have a tendency to slide outward. To prevent this last result, let the
lines i k and I m be drawn at right angles to the struts, and draw also the lines
an, no, o b; the space included between these lines and i k, k l, lm, represents
a longitudinal section of the cart-axle, with bent arms, the lines i k and I m
being the lower side of the arms, which rest upon the bushes of the nave repre-
sented here by the same lines i k and 7 m. The struts are now supposed
to be shortened, and instead of giving their support at c and e, they support
SCOTCH CART.
411
the axle at the points p and q, and being now at right angles to that part of
the bar or the axle at which they give their support, the struts have no ten-
dency to slide either outward or inward, so long as the bar itself is prevented
by any means from being affected by motion in the direction of its length. If
the triangles dik and flm are now completed, we have figures exactly cor-
responding to the prism of revolution, when its sides have been extended to
r, fig. 496; and it is to be observed, that the triangles di k and fl m, fig.
501, being isosceles, the sides d i, d k, being equal, and if it is supposed to
represent the section of a solid, there is no tendency, though supported on a
mere point, to move in one direction more than in the other: hence, if wheels
and their axles were constructed to fulfil these conditions, they would possess
the greatest possible freedom of action, and be free from all undue pressure either
upon the collar of the arm or upon the linch-pins. We consider ourselves war-
ranted, therefore, in offering this as the true principle on which we are to
depend for producing the minimum of friction and resistance from the action
between wheels and their axles.
1401. It is evident that all wheels having the same quantity of dish, and
their axles having the same degree of taper, will come within the condition
now specified; and it is to be remarked, that the position of the axle-arms makes
no change in the conditions; for whether it be straight, as in those of broad-
dished wheels, or inclined in any degree, as in narrow ones, the rule still holds
good.
1402. But to bring out the advantages of this principle of formation in its
utmost perfection, we have to attend to the following points: That the line of
the true or virtual dish of the wheel shall have the same inclination to the face or
plane of the wheel, which is at right angles to the axis, as the inclination of the
taper on the axle-arm or the bush makes with the axis of the arm or the bush
;
and what we here call the virtual dishing is measured by a line, supposed to
be drawn from the middle of the axis of the nave through the middle of the sole
of the felloe, as from n to the middle point of the sole p q, fig. 496, or to the
apex r.
In the common bushes this inclination is inch on a foot, and as the
radius of a wheel is 24 feet, the amount of virtual dishing would be 1 inch,
which is too little for the stability of the wheel, and should be at least 1 inch on
a foot; but this increase of dishing involves the necessity of a like increase in the
taper of the axle-arm, which would now be required to have its two ends 14 inch
and 31 inches diameter, and this would be attended with various inconveniences.
In practice, however, it is not only desirable, as a matter of opinion, that the
wheel should have a tendency, while turning upon the axle, towards the
shoulder or collar of the axle, but it is demanded as a matter of safety; for if a
linch-pin were to drop out, and the tendency of the wheel to be outward, the
wheel would infallibly drop off; but when the bias is towards the shoulder, the
wheel may keep its place even in absence of linch-pins. It follows, therefore,
that though the method here promulgated is mathematically true in theory, we
may, by a slight deviation from the rigid rule, retain the advantages of the
combination, and, at the same time, render greater safety to the vehicle. This
is accomplished by retaining the bushes commonly in use, and instead of giving
the wheel the low dish due to our calculation, let it have a dishing of 2 to
3 inches, or about 14 inch on the foot.
1403. It has been ascertained, from a long series of observations, that with the
proportion of 12 inch on the foot complete freedom of action is obtained as
well as safety; and the existing practice is, in general, happily sufficiently near
to the true theory to give every advantage that can be desired; but, never-
412
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
theless, we would strongly impress on wheel and axle makers, not to allow
the dishing to exceed 3 inches on the wheel when hooped, and to bear in
mind, that when the dishing and the taper of the axle are adjusted to each
other in the proportion of 14 inch on the foot, it matters not, so far as the free
working of the wheel is concerned, what degree of bending is given to the axle-
arm. It may be straight, or even bent upward, yet the free action of the wheel
is not impeded, neither is there any undue strain upon the spokes; for, in the
section, fig. 496, in whatever position they stand, the strain or pressure upon
them is always one of direct compression, whilst they are mutually aided in
sustaining the load by the contiguous parts of the wheel. It must, however, be
admitted, that such undue spreading of the lower part of the wheel as would
arise from bending the axle upward, would produce a tendency in the wheels
to displace the materials of the road, by the thrust of the wheels outwards; but
in respect of the action of the wheel upon the axle, all that is requisite is the
equality of the angles b and o of the triangle b r o, fig. 496, or, in practice, a
near approach to it.
1404. The practice now becoming general of employing half-round iron for
wheel-tires in fast carriages, and partially so for cart-wheels, removes much of
the inconvenience arising from flat iron tires as applied to inclined wheels.
Flat iron tires, as will be seen at low g, in fig. 496, will at first, if running on per-
fectly level roads, have the greatest wear on the outward edge, but the tire, in all
cases, ultimately acquires the half-round form; and as this form brings the
strain more equally upon the sole, it seems desirable that this should be adopted
from the first.
1405. Besides the wheels here described, which are those generally employed
on the farm, there has of late years been introduced a variety of forms of con-
struction in malleable-iron wheels, some of which, by a misnomer, have been
called wheels on the suspension principle, under which name it was alleged,
that, instead of the load being supported on the lower spokes, it was constantly
transferred to those above the axle; and the upper portion of the hoop was sup-
posed to bear the load, on the principle of suspension from the hoop as from an
arch. In the strict sense of suspension, nothing could be more fallacious than
this idea; but in a more limited sense, taking the wheel as a rigid and immu-
table structure, it has some semblance of truth, for all the parts do bear a portion
of strain at all times when loaded, but the parts below the axle must always
bear incomparably the largest share.
1406. Of the Carriage.—Agricultural carriages are either four-wheeled wag-
gons or two-wheeled carts; and as the Scotch practice, which we incline to
think by far the most economical, admits, with very few exceptions, the two-
wheeled cart only, the following observations are chiefly confined to that
implement.
1407. Though the cart, in general, is a vehicle very much diversified in
structure to suit the numerous purposes to which, in a commercial country, it is
applied; yet for the purposes of the farm its varieties lie within narrow limits,
and may be classed under two principal kinds, the tilt or coup close-bodied cart,
and the close-bodied dormant cart; but these, again, vary as to size, forming
single and double horse carts, which are merely varieties of the first. A third
and less important kind is the corn or hay cart, used chiefly in the seasons
of corn and hay harvest; and there are others not required on every farm,
but are important to some, such as the cage-cart, for carrying lambs and
other live-stock to market, and the water and liquid-manure carts already
described on page 308.
SCOTCH CART.
413
1408. The Tilt-cart, fig. 502, is the most important vehicle of transport on the
farm, and is employed for nine-tenths of all the purposes of carriage required in
the multifarious operations throughout the year. It is employed to convey
Fig. 502.
e
d
b
a
THE SINGLE - HORSE TILT - CART
a
manure of all kinds; to carry stone and tiles for draining, and other materials
for various operations; to lead home turnips and potatoes, and to take pro-
duce of all kinds to market. For some of these operations the tilt-cart is
pre-eminently adapted, such as carrying and distributing manures, or other
substances that can be safely discharged by tilting.
1409. The dormant cart, on the other hand, is sufficiently commodious when
substances have to be carried that require to be discharged from the cart by
lifting, such as grain in bags, and many other articles requiring to be con-
veyed to and from the farm.
1410. Fig. 502 is a view in perspective of the common one-horse tilt or coup
cart, of a simple and much-approved construction, and consists of the following
parts. The wheels a, a, which are of the usual height, 4 feet 6 inches, are of
the dish construction, with cylindrical tread or sole, and are inclined from the
vertical to bring them to the standard gauge below. The axle, which is of the
bent order, with 24-inch arms, is only seen as it protrudes through the nave.
The body of the cart b b, with its bolsters, one of which is seen at c, by which
it rests upon the axle, and to which the shafts are jointed by means of a joint-
rod that passes through the bolsters and the ends of the shafts. The shafts d
are secured to the body by means of the lock seen in the figure in front; and
they are here represented resting upon a trestle to keep the cart upon a level;
and lastly, the top sides e, e, which are fitted to ship and unship as occasion may
require. But in order to convey a thorough conception of this importont agri-
cultural vehicle, the following detailed description, with figures, is given in
geometrical plan and elevation, and which, except when otherwise stated, are
all to one scale, ğ inch to a foot.
1411. Construction of Tilt-cart.-The body-frame of this cart is represented in
fig. 503, where a, a are the two main bearers, b the fore cross-head, b' the back
cross-head, and c, c, c, c the slots or floor-bearers. The main bearers and cross-
heads are made of ash or elm, the bearers 21 inches in depth, 6 inches in breadth
at the point where they are pierced for the caddy-bolts, and 4 inches at the
414
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
ends.
The fore cross-head is also 24 inches in depth by 4 to 43 inches in
breadth, and the other 3 inches in depth by 44 inches in breadth; and the slots
d
Fig. 503.
d
b
e
a
C
..
~
α
e
d
12
6
0
e
[
e
1
THE BODY - FRAME OF THE TILT
-
CART.
е
、
ľ
2
d
feet
are from 31 to 41 inches by 11 inch, and should always be made of oak. In
order to prevent too great a loss of strength in the framework, the mortises for
the slots are taken to a depth not exceeding 2 inches; the tenon of the slots
is formed on one side, or single-check tenons, whereby the upper surface becomes
a
Fig. 504.
THE JOINING OF
flush with the surface of the bearers, and the check is
rabbeted into the edge of bearer, as seen in the an-
nexed fig. 504, where a is a cross-section of the bearer,
SLOTS AND BEARER. and b a slot with its tenon rabbeted into the bearer.
The tenons at the ends of the main bearers pass, in like manner, only half
through the cross-heads, as shown by the dotted lines in fig. 503, and these
joinings are screwed and drawn hard up by means of the screw-nuts of the hook-
Fig. 505.
A HOOK - BOLT.
小泉
​bolts d, d, d, d, which are seen on a scale of double the size in
fig. 505. The main bearers are mortised at e e e e e e, for the
wooden standards that form the sides, three on each side, be-
sides the fore and back iron stays, to be afterwards described.
These mortises are so placed as to produce a width within the
sides of 3 feet 6 inches at the floor-line. In framing the
back cross-head, which is 1 inch thicker than the bearers, the difference of
thickness is brought upward, and the rabbet ƒ ƒ is taken out an inch
each way, so that its bottom is level with the main bearers, and the ends
of the flooring-boards are received into the rabbet, thus bringing the surface of
the floor and of the cross-head to one level. To defend this cross-head from the
constant wear to which it is subject, it is necessary to inlay upon its surface a
bar of iron not less than 2 inches in breadth by inch thick, extending the
whole length of the cross-head, or, to make the cross-head 31 inches thick, and
covering it all beyond the rabbet with an iron plate 3 or 34 inches in breadth.
1412. Various modes are adopted for the finishing of this part of the cart,
SCOTCH CART.
415
such as the application of an iron bar alone, 2½ inches by 2 inch, in place of
the wooden cross-head and its iron fender, in which case the last slot must be
put in close upon the iron cross-head, in order to support the ends of the
flooring. This method, which is of late introduction, cannot be considered as
equal in security and durability to the first-described method.
1413. The body-frame of the cart, finished as above described, varies in its
dimensions according to taste and circumstances, but a good medium size for a
one-horse cart is 5 feet 4 inches in length, and 3 feet 10 inches in width over all.
1414. The standards of the sides are set with a slope outward of about
3 inches on a foot of height, and the head has usually the same degree of slope,
while the door of the cart stands nearly perpendicular, or not exceeding 1 inch
of slope outward, making the top dimensions about 5 feet 8 inches in length,
and 4 feet 7 inches in width, over all.
1415. Fig. 506 is an elevation of the side of this cart, in which the horse-
shafts are broken off at a; bb is the edge view of the body-frame; cc one of
the bolsters or limbers, which serve to support and bind the body, while they
d
g
b
n
Fig. 506.
THE SIDE-ELEVATION OF THE TILT-OART.
с
Ic
g
d
α
serve also as the medium of connection for the horse-shafts. The bolsters ter-
minate forward at the face of the cross-head, where they are 31 inches deep
and 2 inches in breadth; at the bearing on the axle they are 7 to 8 inches in
depth, and 4 to 4 inches in breadth; and at their termination behind, where
they project 5 or 6 inches beyond the cross-head, they are 3 inches square.
1416. The bolsters should be made of ash or elm, but, as a means of saving
expense, they are frequently made of beech-wood, which, in point of durability
in any exposed work, is much inferior to either; but this, and many other
inferior substitutes, are, of necessity, resorted to by the agricultural mechanic,
to enable him to produce his manufacture at the low market-price of the article.
1417. The end of the axle is seen at n, and i is the joint-bolt on which
the horse-shafts are jointed to the bolsters; k is the end of the lock-bar
framed into the shafts, and by which they are hooked to the body. The figure
exhibits also the three oak standards, which are 21 inches in breadth at bottom,
tenoned into the body-frame b b, and at top into the top-rails or shelvements d d;
these are also of ash or elm, and are 21 or 21 by 2 inches. The height of the
sides, measuring on the slope, is 17 inches over all, or it is 14 inches inside mea-
sure; but this dimension varies more than any other, depending on the purpose
to which the cart is to be applied, and many other circumstances. The top-
sides g g are usually made of deal 1 inch thick; they are 5 to 6 inches in height,
416
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
and are furnished with the iron arms h h, which slide into the eyes g g of fig. 507,
their lower extremity being also received into eye-bolts fixed into the edge of
the body-frame bb, fig. 506.
1418. The shelvements are furnished at the extremities with iron mounting,
TRENTSTE
d
d
Fig. 507.
a
d
d
which is seen in plan in fig. 507, on a scale
of double the size. In this figure a is the fore-
end mounting, and b that for the back-end or
door; c c is the wood of the rail broken off; d d,
dd the bolts by which the irons are fastened
to the wood; e is the screwed tail, by which
the forehead-bar is secured to the top-rail, and ƒ
is the pin upon which the door is passed and
secured by a cottar dropt into the cottar-hole
at ƒ; g is the eye forged in the irons for receiving the arms of the top-sides.
1419. The fore as well as the back end of the top-rails are frequently sup-
g
(AREDJARS |
b
9
IRON ENDS OF THE TOP-RAILS.
Fig. 508.
d
4
ported by iron stays, to the strap of which the ends of
the side-boarding are also secured by rivets; but it is
essential that the stay be applied at the back end.
Fig. 508 is an end view of the stay, on a scale of double
size; a is a part of the cross-head broken off, b c that
part of the stay that supplies the place of a standard :
it is 2 inches broad, and inch thick, and the boarding
d is fixed to it with riveting. The stay proper e c is
welded to the standard at c, where a tail-bolt is formed
that passes through the top-rail f, and secured by the
nut 9, the bottom of the standard and stay being both
" also formed into tail-bolts that pass through the cross-
head, to which they are secured by screw-nuts h, below.
1420. A bottom plan of the tilt-cart is represented
by fig. 509, in which a a, a a is the body-frame, b, b, b, the fore and back
cross-heads, c, c, c, c, the slots of the body-frame, dd the shafts broken off, e the
e
*muu
h
THE IRON STAY.
α
-
k
i
2
Fig. 509.
b
a
h
9
K
a
a
THE BOTTOM PLAN OF THE TILT-CART.
b
d
d
SCOTCH CART.
417
slot, and ƒ the lock-bar of the shafts, g a part of the lock, and h the joint-bolt
passing through the bolsters ii and the ends of the shafts, which are here
armed with plates of iron to strengthen and support the wood. In forming and
placing the bolsters, attention must be paid to having a proper width in
front for the shafts, which should not be less than 3 feet 2 inches between the
bolsters at the front, making their over-all width at that point 3 feet 7 inches;
at the caddy-bolt k k the width over the bolsters may be 3 feet 4 to 3 feet 6
inches, and behind, the precise width is unimportant. Equally so is the width
of the shafts at the joint-bolt, as that dimension is adapted to the limbers; but
the distance from the bolt to the front of the cross-head is 2 feet 6 inches.
The bolsters are secured to the body-frame with four or five half-inch screw-
bolts with nuts.
1421. An elevation of the front of the cart is exhibited in fig. 510, with the
axle attached to the bolsters. a a is the axle slightly bent in the arms as for
narrow-dished wheels, bb the bolsters, c c the shafts in section, and d
g
Fig. 510.
a
་
e
10
d
e
f
a
the lock-bar.
THE FRONT VIEW OF THE TILT-OART.
The cross-head e e is 4 feet 6 inches long, forming part
of the body-frame. The lower head-rail e' is 4 inches in height, and 1 to 12
inch in thickness; it is fitted in between the side-boardings, and spiked or
bolted to the cross-head, upon which it lies about 1 inch within the front
edge. The upper head-rail ƒƒ is 5 feet 2 inches long, 4 inches deep,
and 1 inch thick; it is secured by the tail-bolts of the end mounting of
the top-rails; and here it may be remarked, that in low-priced carts this head-
mounting is only a single strap and tail-bolt, in place of the double gland, fig.
507. In a front finished in this manner, with lower and upper head-rails,
the upfilling is done with boards standing on end, making it strong, simple, and
durable. In connection with this, and above the head-rail, are seen the ends of
the top-sides gg. The lock h, in this example, is an iron bar, 2 inches broad,
inch thick, and about 10 inches long; it is hinge-jointed to a bolt near the
lower end that is fixed in the lock-bar, and the lock has a bent tail or stop,
descending 2 inches below the joint, which permits it to open to a limited extent.
It has also several holes of about 1 inch diameter punched in its length, as seen in
the figure, and a pin-headed bolt is inserted into the front of the cross-head, pro-
jecting about 2 inches from the head. The holes of the lock are adapted to pass
easily upon this pin, and when so placed a cottar or forelock is dropped into the
cottar-hole of the pin.
1422. The several holes in the lock serve a number of useful purposes;
thus, if the load is too heavy forward upon the horse, by shifting the pin
one, two, or more holes higher in the lock, the centre of gravity of the load
2 D
418
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
is thrown backward, and lightens the pressure upon the horse; again, in distri-
buting common bulky manures upon the field in small heaps, if the front of the
´cart is raised and sustained by means of the lock, the manure is more easily
discharged with the dung-drag.
1423. Fig. 511 is a section, at double size, of the cross-head and lock-bar,
m
f
N
с
i
О
h
a
Fig. 511.
О
1 g
d
K
&
q
THE LOOK, AND SECTION OF CONTIGUOUS PARTS.
giving a side view of the lock. In
this figure, a is the lock-bar, showing
the position of the lock and its joint-
bolt; b c is the lock, b being the jøint,
and b d the bolt; e is the bent tail,
which allows sufficient range to the
motion of the lock on its joint to pass
over the lock-pin f, before being stopped
against the face of the bar. The lock-
pin has its tail-bolt ƒ g secured into
the cross-head h, and the cottar i, at-
tached by a chain, prevents the lock
leaving the pin till it is relieved
by the withdrawing of the cottar i;
k is the floor, m and n the upper and
lower head-rail in section; o is the
horse-shaft, p the side-boarding, q the
shelvements, and r the top-side, all
broken off.
The
1424. The shafts of the tilt-cart are
generally made of ash-seldom of oak;
but of late years they are frequently
made of the American birch and elm, either of which, when fresh and sound,
are, from their tenacity and elasticity, well adapted to the purpose.
length of the shaft is about 9 feet 2 or 3 inches, of which 6 feet go for the
yoke; they are worked off and lightened towards the point, and finished accord-
ing to the taste of the maker. In that part which passes into the cart-body,
they are framed upon one slot e, fig. 509, which is tenoned into the shafts, and
by the lock-bar f, which is simply bolted to the shafts; it being of great
importance not to weaken the shaft by any mortise at this point, where the
greatest strain occurs.
1425. In regard to the scantling of shafts, various opinions have been broached,
some advocating the principle that they should be considered in the relation of
a beam that has to carry a load, implying that their largest dimension should be
in the vertical direction; while much of the general practice places them in the
other direction, or, at most, making the two dimensions equal. We have already
shown in par. 9, that in fixed beams of equal length the strength increases
directly as their breadth, and as the square of their depth. This is an important
consideration in the management of beams; but we have grave doubts whether
it is desirable to apply the principle to such a movable beam as the shaft of a
cart. In stationary beams, rigidity is almost always a chief object; but where
one end of the beam is supported on the back of a living and moving animal,
rigidity, as appears to us, should be avoided as much as possible, and elasticity
made the desirable object. The rigidity of shafts that are formed on the prin-
ciple of permanent beams, from the severe shocks that they must communicate
to the back-chain of the horse, and thence to the whole frame of the horse itself,
must be very injurious to the animal, which might be very much mitigated
SCOTCH CART.
419
by adopting an elastic medium. Shafts, then, of tough ash, or other elastic
woods, we conceive to be the most desirable, and in order to obtain the principle
as far as possible, their breadth should rather exceed their depth; and general
practice approaches this, as we commonly find such shafts about 3 inches square
at the lock-bar; but let them be made 4 by 3 inches, which is nearly the same
sectional area as the former, and the horse would be a gainer, in point of comfort,
compared with what he would be were the same shafts placed on edge. Neither
would the shafts be much, if at all, more liable to fracture if placed flat-ways;
for a single beam that has no elasticity is more liable to fracture from sudden
shocks than one of the same absolute strength, but possessing a certain degree
of elasticity; and cart-shafts are peculiarly liable to such shocks.
1426. The yoking-gear of the shafts is seen in fig. 512, which is a portion of
the off-side shaft enlarged, and broken off at a. It consists of the runner-staple
b, which is from 8 to 10 inches in length, its centre being placed at about 4 feet.
Fig. 512.
d
а
THE YOXING-GEAR OF THE SHAFTS.
6 inches from the lock-bar. The back-chain-hook c is fitted to slide from end
to end of the staple, and the breeching-hook d takes a fixed position on the back
leg of the staple; while the draught-hook or staple e is generally placed
obliquely on the inner side of the shafts, its position there bringing it more
directly in the line of traction than if it were attached to the runner-staple, in
which position it is sometimes, though improperly, placed.
1427. The back view, and door of the cart, are seen in fig. 513, where a a iş
again the axle, b b the end view of the bolsters, c the lock-bar and its connec-
Fig. 513.
g
a
g
b
d
α
THE BACK VIEW AND DOOR OF THE TILT-CART.
tions, as seen under the body, but at the further end; and d d is the cross-head,
e is the bottom-rail of the door, and ƒƒ the top-rail, the two being connected by
plain boarding standing on end; g g are the top-sides, and the arms on which
they are supported are seen at h and h. The door is furnished with the bottom-
catches ii, which are strongly riveted and bolted to the bottom-rail of the door,
their points being received into eye-bolts fixed in the cross-head, which secure
the lower edge of the door. The upper part of the door is received upon the
iron ends of the top-rails, as seen at h h, where it is secured by the cottars
dropped into the eyes of the end pins.
420
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
1428. The dormant-bodied Cart.-Fig. 514 represents a side view of the dor-
mant-bodied cart. It has its body constructed in all respects similar to that of
the tilt-cart; description of it is therefore unnecessary, except as regards the
Fig. 514.
THE DORMANT-BODIED CART
shafts. This cart requires no bolsters, but instead thereof the shafts are pro-
longed backward, taking the place of, and serving most of the purposes of,
the bolsters; and at a slight glance, when viewed on the side, the cart has
every appearance of a tilt. The entire length of the shafts is about 12 feet
those parts that fall under the body are fashioned off, as in the figure, similar
to the bolsters of the tilt-cart, and of the same dimensions; of the parts before
the body, the dimensions and finish are the same as in the tilt.
1429. A great variety of other forms of construction are followed in the for-
mation of the dormant-bodied cart. In many examples the body-frame of the
tilt-cart is dispensed with, the slots being then tenoned directly into that part
of the shafts which fall within the length of the body, and the side-standards
are tenoned into the upper surface as in the tilt.
1430. In others, while the slots are framed with the shafts, the side-standards,
instead of being tenoned also into them, are attached to the outside of the
shafts by means of double clasp-bolts. This last is a simple and durable con-
struction, well adapted for the carriage of heavy articles, such as coal and the
like; and it gives a greater width of body inside than the other.
1431. In a third form, the slots, instead of being tenoned into the shafts, are
simply laid upon them as bearers, and bolted. The side-standards are fixed
with clasp-bolts, as in the second variety. In all the three varieties the front
of the body is formed by a bottom head-rail bolted to the shafts, the top head-rail
being applied as in fig. 510.
1432. It will readily be observed, that of the dormant-bodied cart, par. 1428,
the length, but especially the width, is equal to that of the tilt-cart, which is
wider than the whole distance between the naves of the wheels, the body-frame
being projected a little over these; hence the necessity of the deep bolsters and
shafts of these carts. In the varieties of pars. 1429-30-31, the width must be
such that they lie between the naves of the wheels; the two varieties, however,
with the clasped standards, in pars. 1430 and 1431, acquire a width inside of 3
or 4 inches greater than the variety in par. 1429.
་
1433. The two-horse agricultural cart differs only from the one-horse tilt,
fig. 502, and its details, in being of larger dimensions, but especially in depth;
the length is also increased a few inches, while the width remains nearly the
same, and the limbers are stronger; but all the dimensions are variable, accord-
ing to the tastes and objects of the owners.
THE CORN AND HAY-FRAME.
421
1434. In all carts of the descriptions here noticed, the cladding or board-
ing of the floor and sides is an important point; very fine and straight-grained
deal should be avoided, because of its liability to split. Of the woods best
adapted for the purpose, we may name the common saugh or willow, the larch,
the common Scots fir, and others of the pine tribe; and the more they abound
in sound knots, so much the better are they adapted to the purpose, not only
preventing the splitting of the boards, but adding to the durability of the mate-
rial.
1435. The nails used for fixing the boarding should always be the common
cart-nail, which is distinguished from other common nails by its diminished
length, increased thickness, and being chisel-pointed-qualities that adapt it
for being driven into hardwood, while its thickness gives it the requisite
strength to resist the hard usage that such machines are always liable to.
1436. Corn and Hay Carts.-Next in importance to the carts already de-
scribed, come the corn and hay carts, of which there are many varieties; but
in many situations, and under certain systems of management, a substitute for
these is adopted, in the application of the hay-frame to the common close-
bodied cart; and this, though somewhat injudicious in principle, is rather exten-
sively adopted.
A
Fig. 515.
d
b
g
a
1437. The Tops.-The hay-frame, or tops, is a light rectangular piece of frame-
work, represented in plan by fig. 515,
and in section by fig. 516. It consists
of two main bearers a and b, which are
fitted to lie across the cart, the one a
to the fore part, slightly notched upon
the top-rails, and leaning against the
upper head-rail, the top-sides being at
the same time removed; the other bearer
b is fitted in like manner to the back
part, leaning against the door. A pair
of light side-rails c and c are applied on
each side, crossing the bearers, and
notched upon and bolted to them with
screw-bolts. These are again crossed
by two rails d behind, and by three
more e e in front; and as e e pro-
ject over the back of the horse, they
are made arch-form, to give freedom to
his motions, the whole being bolted to
the longitudinal rails. Fig. 516, the
transverse section, exhibits the form of
the bearers, and their notchings, a and
b being the top-rails or shelvements.
These bearers are about 6 inches in
depth by 21 inches in breadth; the
parts projecting beyond the top-rails
being tapered off from below to about 3 inches in depth, and the extreme
length 7 feet 6 inches. The section shows also the longitudinal rails c c, as cut
across by the section and the arched cross-rail d. The extreme length, from
outside to outside, of the front and back cross-rails is usually about 10 feet,
and the breadth in the same manner about 71 feet. Both longitudinal and
cross rails are from 2 to 24 inches square, and all made of hardwood, usually ash.
1438. Various methods of securing the hay-frame to the cart are adopted.
α
e
THE CORN AND HAY FRAME.
f
Fig. 516.
d
b
f
THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE HAY-FRAME.
"
422
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
Figs. 515 and 516 exhibit one simple and effective method, by means of the
bolts ff in the front bearer, which pass through it and the upper head-rail, and
by the single bolt g in the hind bearer, which passes through it and the door.
1439. Another method is by hook-stanchions of iron, two of which are
appended to eye-bolts in the crossing of the fore cross-rail and the inner
longitudinal rail, and two similar stanchions are appended in the same manner
behind. These four stanchions have their lower ends adapted to hook into eye-
bolts fixed in the horse-shafts before, and in the end of the bolsters behind.
This method has the advantage of serving as supports to the extremities of the
frame, as well as binding it to the cart, though the latter is not so well per-
formed as by the simple bolts shown in the figures.
1440. The price of the hay-frame is from 40 to 50 shillings.
1441. The Corn and Hay Cart.-The corn and hay cart, being adapted to a
specific purpose, is a more efficient vehicle than the common cart and hay-
frame, and is of very simple construction. A side view of this cart is given
in fig. 517, and a transverse section in fig. 518: in these the same letters mark
9
Fig. 517.
e
→
h
α
с
C
с
d
ď
b
→h
0
1
2
3
feet
THE CORN AND HAY CART.
α
the corresponding parts of the two figures. Lightness being an object in this
construction, the shafts a a are usually made of Baltic fir; they are about 17
Fig. 518.
f
e
k
k
2
d
d
b
a
h
Da
THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE CORN
AND HAY CART.
i
e
feet in length, 6 feet of which goes for the
horse-yoke, and the remaining 101 feet for
the body of the cart, measuring over the
cross-heads b b. The depth at the caddy-
bolt is from 7 to 8 inches, tapering forward
to 6 inches at the fore cross-head, and on-
ward to 3 inches at the point; a similar
diminution being carried backward, making
the depth 5 inches at the back cross-head.
The thickness throughout the body is about 4 inches, the yoke part being dimi-
nished to 3 inches at the point. The shafts are framed upon the slots h, and are
further strengthened by two thorough-bolts passing from side to side of the
body. The cross-heads b b are 7 feet long, 4 inches in breadth, and 24 inches
in depth, secured to the shafts by the tail of the iron standards passing through
them and the shafts. Each side is formed with four oak standards c, c, c, c, and
four of iron; two of the iron, d d, are those that pass through the cross-heads,
serving to bolt them to the shafts; one is placed in the centre, and the remain-
ing one d' before the fore cross-head, to support the overhanging parts of the
upper works.
The inner top-rails are mortised upon the oak standards, and
are pierced by the upper extremities of the iron ones. The rails are 12 feet in
length, usually made also of fir, and are about 2 inches by 2 inches. Two
upper cross-heads e e, together with two arched rails f, and a middle or load
rail
9, are next applied. The upper cross-heads, and also the two arched rails,
are always made of hardwood-ash or elm. The cross-heads e e are about 3
ROBERTSON'S CORN AND HAY CART.
423
inches by 24 inches, the arched rails ƒ2 inches square, and the middle rail g
9 inches by 2, the whole being 7 feet in length, and are secured by the extre-
mities of the iron stays passing through them, with screw and nut above.
As seen in fig. 518, the ends of the upper cross-heads are supported by
an iron standard ii planted near the end of the main or lower cross-head;
and between each of these and the principals d d, a diagonal stay k k is
applied, to give lateral support to all the upper works. The outer top-rails 7 7,
fig. 517, are of the same dimension as the upper cross-heads, and are sup-
ported on the extremities of the cross-rails, along with which they are secured
to the outer iron standard by screw-nuts, the bearing on the middle rail being
secured by a simple screw-bolt. The extreme breadth over these outer rails.
is about 7 feet.
1442. The yoke-gear of this cart is of the same construction as that of the
tilt-cart, fig. 512; and for the purpose of collecting any shaken-out grain, the
body is usually close-floored, besides having a ledge-board of 3 or 4 inches
high running along the inside of the standard, as seen from 6 to b, in fig. 517.
1443. The corn and hay cart is seldom furnished with axle and wheels exclu-
sively attached to it, but is adapted to those of any of the common carts, upon:
which it is placed when required.
1444. In piercing the shafts for the caddy-bolts, the same rule is observed as
for those of the tilt-cart; taking the extreme length over the cross-rail behind
the front arched rail f, fig. 517, and dividing this in two equal parts, setting
off of the whole length backward from the middle point, gives the position
of the bolts.
1445. Robertson's Improved Corn and Hay Cart.-A corn and hay cart, simple
in construction, but possessing complete efficiency and greater safety than
fig. 517, was contrived by a farm-servant, by name Robert Robertson, and was
introduced in 1832* in the west of Fifeshire and neighbouring counties, and of
which fig. 519 is a view in perspective, with its wheels and axle in full working
state. The shafts and body-frame of this cart may be considered as identical
Fig. 519.
d
α
e
α
d
ROBERTSON'S IMPROVED CORN AND HAY CART.
with fig. 517, which, without the upper works, is the simple dray-cart. Upon
this body-frame is placed the fore and back cross-heads a a and b, projecting
beyond the body, their extreme length being 7 feet. Lighter cross-rails are
applied, one before and another immediately behind the wheels, and the whole
bolted to the shafts. Upon these cross-rails are laid a longitudinal rail
3 x 2 inches on each side, and not more than 2 inches beyond the body-
frame, and two similar portions of longitudinal rails are also laid on each side,
extending from the fore and back cross-head to the wheel-rails; over these lon-
gitudinal rails is laid another light cross-rail behind, and the parts all secured
* Prize Essays of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xi. p. 395.
424
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
with bolts. A light frame d d is raised upon the fore cross-head a a to a
height of 2 feet, with two iron stanchion-rods at each, and these are surmounted
by an arched rail, which is supported against the pressure of the load by two
iron stays from the shafts. The outer longitudinal rails, being cut by the
wheels, are connected again by the arched iron bars e and c, which are bolted
at the ends to their respective rails, and these are connected by the broad cross-
rail f, the arches rising sufficiently high to allow the wheels to have freedom to
turn below the rail f. A side-board g is also raised on each side upon the body-
frame, and under the arch-rail e, extending a little before and behind the
wheels, thus preventing the load from coming in contact with the wheels. The
body-frame is floored over in the usual manner, and the space between the body
and the inner longitudinal rails is filled up with hinged flap-boards, which are
required about 4 inches broad, thus preventing the loss of grain that may be
shaken out in the cart.
1446. Carts of this construction possess several advantages: from their sim-
plicity is derived cheapness; and from the load assuming its full breadth over
nearly the whole floor of the cart, at the lowest possible position, the centre of
gravity of the whole load will be very considerably lower than in that of the
hay-cart, fig. 517, and still more so than on the hay-frame, fig. 515. The low
gravity produces greater stability, and reduces the risk of upsetting, besides
affording a greater facility of loading. There is also the advantage of its easy
conversion into an open dray-cart for carrying timber or the like, which is done
by unbolting the cross-heads and rails, and removing the upper framework in a
The removal of the upper framework is frequently connected with the
common corn and hay cart, by having the whole of its upper works based upon
two longitudinal rails corresponding to those of fig. 519; and these being at-
tached to the two main cross-heads, the whole upper works can be lifted off the
body-frame, and again secured by the insertion of four bolts.
mass.
1447. The English Farm-Waggon.-In fig. 520 we give a perspective figure
of the waggon manufactured by Mr Crosskill, of Beverley. The length of the
Fig. 520.
-
CROSSKILL'S ENGLISH FARM - WAGGON IN PERSPECTIVE.
body over all is 10 feet, the width 3 feet 10 inches, the height of the front
wheels is 3 feet 4 inches, and that of the hind, 4 feet 9 inches. The waggon is
THE CART STEELYARD.
425
constructed either with pole or shafts, and is provided with a break easily regu-
lated by a winch-wheel in front, as shown in the figure.
1448. The waggon has never yet found its way upon a farm in Scotland, nor
is it likely ever to find it, as it seems to possess no decided advantage over the
common cart. It is true that the waggon can convey a very heavy load, and it
bears no stress upon the horse's back; but a well-balanced load upon a cart bears
no undue strain upon a horse's back; and it has already been proved, in par. 496,
that the horse draws a load all the better and the steadier by bearing a propor-
tionate share of the load upon his back.
1449. Hay, being the most bulky load of the farm, is the most trying one for
horses, and yet we have seen 100 stones of hay—which in Scotland weighs
nearly a ton-delivered by a single horse at several miles' distance in such a hay-
cart as fig. 517, and 14 ton is no uncommon load of hay for a pair of horses in a
double-horse cart.
1450. A waggon, therefore, that would carry a heavier load than that just
stated, would not be of particular service on a farm in preference to a cart, inas-
much as the horses would either be overstrained by it, or their number would
require to be increased; and besides, a large and heavy load occupies too long
time in loading and unloading for horses to be standing idle in the yoke.
1451. On a comparison between a waggon and cart, as the means of con-
veying all kinds of agricultural produce, it cannot be denied that the very
appearance of the cart at once determines it to be the more handy and easily-
managed machine.
1452. The Cart Steelyard.—We have in par. 1352 made reference to weigh-
ing-machines for in-door purposes, and in particular for those of the barn. We
now describe another weighing-machine, the cart-steelyard, which, by judicious
arrangement, may be applied to many other objects in the weighing department.
It is not in the weighing of carts, nor of grain alone, that the farmer should be
interested; there is nothing that the farm produces, nor that is received or
delivered upon it, that is not deserving of being weighed and registered. Not
that every particle of produce, nor every cart-load of manure, should be precisely
weighed, but large samples of both might be taken, upon which a fair average
could be struck; but in many cases, such as the produce of a particular field
that has been undergoing a certain routine of management, the whole produce
may be taken with comparatively little trouble if the means of doing so were at
hand, and the certain result would be a source of high satisfaction to the active
and industrious farmer. In all manufacturing establishments, the raw material
consumed is carefully ascertained as well as the finished goods. Farming is but
another name for a manufacture of goods, the most important of all others—the
staff of life; and why should the farmer not adopt the same correct system in
conducting the details of his business, which is every day followed in the estab-
lishments of those who are employed probably in the re-manufacturing of his
produce? It is not meant to be urged, that he could gain anything directly by
adopting the practice of weighing all his outgoings and incomings of manures,
produce, &c.; but the satisfaction of knowing at all times what he is putting
into this field, or drawing from that, in tons and hundredweights, is a matter of
no small importance; and, what is more, it would form part of a system based
upon close attention and vigilance towards the details of the business in hand,
and which vigilance and attention are the mainstay of all sound management.
1453. The cart-steelyard or weigh-bridge, which is here exhibited by fig.
521, a geometrical plan-fig. 522, a longitudinal section-and fig. 523, a trans-
verse section, is a machine in which a combination of levers is employed to
426
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
effect, in a commodious way, the weighing of bodies of considerable weight, and
which would require the common Roman steelyard of most inconvenient dimen-
sions, or a balance equally cumbrous, besides the inconvenience of a great mass
of movable weights. The combination consists of two double-fulcrum levers of
the second order, combined with a single lever of the first order. The relation
of the arms of the double-fulcrum levers are 34 to 1, and of the single lever 8 to
1, making the ultimate ratio 28 to 1, so that every cwt. placed upon the plat-
form of the machine is balanced by 4 lb. on the scale-board attached to the
second lever.
1454. In describing the construction of this compound steelyard, we have in
fig. 521, the ground or geometrical plan, the bed-frame a a a a, which is 6 feet
in length by 4 feet in breadth, the bars being about 5 inches broad and 1 inch
a b
k
候
​D
9
Fig. 521.
b a
с
C
p
a.
m
p
αν
b
b
α
PLAN OF THE CART-STEELYARD.
feet
thick, except the middle bar, which is 6 inches, the whole surrounded by a
stand-up flange 2 inches in height. This frame is laid in a pit formed of masonry,
xx, figs. 522 and 523, adapted to the size of the frame, and having the surface
of its foundation-course laid level, with a footing inwards, at a depth of 1 foot
Fig. 522.
X
S
i
g
k
n
b'
h
n
b'
a'
a'
20
m
Z
:
LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF THE CART-STEELYARD.
8 inches under the surface of the ground, sufficient to bear the sole-frame, and
upon which it requires to be solidly bedded. Four blocks b'b' are cast upon
the upper surface of the frame, standing at a height of 6 inches above it, as seen
at b'b', in fig. 523; they are faced on their top-surface with a cradle of steel,
forming the dead fulcra of the levers b b.
1455. The two first levers b c d, b c d, fig. 521, seen also in profile at b c d,
b c d, in fig. 523, are so formed in the horizontal direction as to bring their points
of bearing at b, c, and d to the requisite position; and in the vertical direction, as
seen in fig. 523, to bring the centres b, c, d into one plane. The centres of these
two levers at b and c are steel pieces, worked off to a knife-edge, and fixed into
a dovetailed seat in the levers, while that at d is a steel pin passing through
THE CART STEELYARD.
427
the end of the lever, the centre being formed on the pin at one side, as seen in
fig. 521; and when the levers are duly placed, their ends d pass each other
about 6 inches, being thus suited to the centres of the second lever. The second
lever k l, seen in figs. 521 and 522, has its main centres g supported upon the
Fig. 523.
b
୯
n
S
S
n
b
h
d
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE CART-STEELYARD,
two arms of the standard h, raised upon the middle bar of the sole-frame, as seen
in figs. 522 and 523. From the centre g to i the distance is 8 inches, and from
g to l it is 64 inches, or 8 to 1; the extremity i to k being for the purpose of
adjusting the equilibrium of the machine. Upon the centres i, of which there
are one on each side of the lever, links are appended, which, in their lower
bend, receives the centres d d of the two first, and the extremity l is formed into
the fork p p, fig. 521, upon the centres of which the scale-board m is suspended.
1456. The chamber a' a', in which the second lever vibrates, is of the same
depth as the main pit, and may be formed with masonry, or a casing of cast-
iron, with covering plates to enclose it. The platform s s, which is left out in fig.
521, but is seen in profile in figs. 522 and 523, is also a frame of cast-iron,
whereof the end bars are 15 inches in breadth, with raised ledges, as seen at o o in
the section, fig. 522, to guide the cart-wheels when being placed upon the plat-
form s. Four pendant pillars n, figs. 522 and 523, are bolted to the lower side of
the platform s, and steel cradles are fixed in their lower ends, which are adjusted
to bear equally on the centres c of the first levers. When the platform is thus
placed on its centres, and the scale-board suspended on its centres at p p, fig.
521, if the equilibrium is not perfect, it is to be adjusted by adding to or taking
from the back end of the second lever. A light cast-iron frame is also laid into
the masonry round the edge of the pit, having guides to lead on the cart-wheels,
and also studs projecting inward, coming under the platform at the wheel-tracks
-these last serving to bear not only the weight of the platform when unloaded,
but to receive the shocks of the load when coming upon it, thereby saving much
of the tear and wear of the centres.
1457. In this form of weighing-machine, it will be observed that the platform
can have no lateral motion, which would be a defect if it had a great range ver-
tically; but this being extremely small, the want of lateral motion does not
affect the accuracy of the indications. In those machines having slight lateral
motion, the principles of the levers are the same as here described-the chief
difference being this, that the platform is suspended upon links, to accommodate
which the pillars n n are lengthened downwards, and hooked under the first
levers, so as to rest upon the links suspended from them.
1458. By using a movable pen of wood or iron hurdles upon the platform,
cattle and sheep may be easily and quickly weighed upon this machine.
1459. A more elaborate form of the machine is in frequent use where the
business is extensive; it consists in the application of a third lever, which is so
arranged as to stand within doors in the weigher's office. This lever is graduated,
so that one weight adapted to slide along upon its edge gives the result of any
weight that comes upon the platform down to a certain denomination, suppose
7
428
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
stones, or one-eighth of a hundredweight; and by the aid of a second and
smaller weight, properly adjusted, the result in pounds may be obtained, and so on.
1460. The prices of cart-steelyards, as here described, range from £15 to £25.
1461. SECTION FIFTH.-Straw-Cutters.
1462. The importance of supplying cut fodder to cattle being now fully
established, machines to bring the material to the desired state of division are
essential parts of farm mechanism. We shall, in the present section, describe
and illustrate one or two specimens of this class of machines, known generally
as chaff-cutters-a title, however, which is a misnomer, as the machines are
cutters of straw, not of chaff: they cut the straw into small pieces like chaff.
We therefore prefer and use the title Straw-Cutters.
1463. There are several orders or classes of straw-cutting machines, and of
these we propose to select for illustration that known as the disc. This forms,
we think, the most important order of this machine, and is that also which is
for the most part employed in England. The principal feature, the cutting-
knife, fixed upon the fly-wheel, is invariable, except that it sometimes carries
one, at other times two knives. The machinery or details are exceedingly
varied. In some, it is adapted to cut of various lengths by means of ratchet-
wheels and lever-catches applied to the motion of the feeding-rollers, and at
the same time to move the substance forward only in the intervals of the stroke
of the knife; in others, the motion of the straw at intervals only is attended to;
in a third, a continuous motion of the straw is deemed sufficient: and these
varieties of motion are produced by other and various arrangements of spur,
bevel, and screw gearings.
1464. The Disc Straw-Cutter with Convex Knives.-The machine selected
for illustration is one in which two knives are employed, and which gives
to the substance to be cut a continuous motion forward. The figure here
representing this is taken from a machine manufactured by John Anderson
and Son, founders, Leith Walk, at a price of £10, 10s. Fig. 524 is a view
of this machine in perspective. The chief parts of the framework are of cast-
iron, consisting of a frame a a on each side of the machine, which are sup-
ported transversely by the truss b. The front parts of the side-frames extend
upward and form the feeding-roller frame. The cutting-plate is attached in
front of the latter portion of the framework, and is dressed truly off for the
passage of the knife over its face. The feeding-trough e is connected in the
fore part to the roller-frame, and along its bottom to the upper edge of the side-
frames. The back end of the trough is supported in a light wooden frame.
The principal shaft ƒ is supported on two projecting brackets g and h, and upon
it is mounted the single-thread screw i and the fly-wheel k; on the extreme
end also of the shaft the winch-handle 7 is attached. A bracket carries one end
of a small shaft, on which the screw-wheel n, of 21 teeth, is mounted, and is
turned by means of the screw when the fly-wheel is put in motion. On the
opposite end of the small shaft n a spur-wheel is also placed, and acts upon
another of equal diameter placed on the axle of the lower feeding-roller. The
lower as well as the upper roller are furnished with the usual long-toothed
pinions, for admitting of the rise and fall of the upper roller. The upper roller
is supported in a light frame that rises and falls in a slide of the roller-frame,
and this is acted upon by a lever and weight, of which the hook only is seen in
the figure at o. The cutting-knife p is 18 inches in length, and 4 inches in
breadth. It is firmly bolted upon the arm of the fly-wheel k, and its cutting
edge, which is convex, is so formed that every successive point, in passing the
edge of the cutting-plate, forms equal angles with the edge of that plate.
RICHMOND AND CHANDLER'S STRAW-CUTTER.
429
1465. In many of the disc machines, the cutting edge of the knife is con-
cave, formed on the same principle of equal angles, and, in effect, is the better
of the two.
e
Fig. 524
ww
P
THE DISC STRAW-CUTTER WITH CONVEX KNIVES.
g
e
1466. The dimensions of the principal parts of this machine are as follows:
Width of the frames 14 inches; length of cast-iron frames 30 inches, and height
3 feet; length of feeding-rollers 12 inches, and their diameter 4 inches; length
of feeding-trough 5 feet, and width 12 inches. The fly-wheel is 4 feet 3 inches
diameter, and the height to its centre is 3 feet. From the entire weight of the
fly-wheel being supported at one angle of the frame, the spreading brackets q r
are attached, to give the machine stability.
1467. Richmond and Chandler's Straw-Cutter.—Of the various forms of straw-
cutters used in England, perhaps the best known and the most highly esteemed
is that manufactured by Messrs Richmond and Chandler of Salford, Manchester.
The leading peculiarity in this form of machine is the employment of toothed
rollers, which are self-feeding, and are not liable to choke. The prevention of
choking, and rendering the machine nearly self-feeding in its operation, are
two advantages of immense importance. We give more than one form of this
machine, which, from the utility of the above features, the compactness of the
arrangements, and the admirable workmanship which usually characterises the
specimens sent out by the manufacturers, may be cited as a good example of
what agricultural mechanism ought in all cases to be.
1468. In fig. 525 we give a perspective view of the machine, and in fig. 526 a
plan, drawn to a scale of 1 inch to the foot; and in fig. 527, part section, full
size, showing the form of the teeth of the rollers.
1469. The framing is entirely of cast-iron, well fitted, stayed, and securely
bolted together, so as to insure steadiness of working. The height of the bed-
plate of the frame from the ground-line is 2 feet 8 inches; the length of the
430
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
bed-plate a a a, fig. 526, is 3 feet 3 inches; its breadth at the narrowest part
Fig. 525.
RICHMONDY CHANDLER
"SALFORD."MANCHESTER
RICHMOND AND CHANDLER'S STRAW-CUTTER IN PERSPECTIVE.
1 foot 9 inches, and at its broadest part 1 foot 11 inches. The fly-wheel
shaft b, 1 inch in diameter, is placed across the centre of the machine, and
11
Fig. 526.
m
i a
N
n
d
α
k
O O
\ 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
a
α
PLAN OF RICHMOND AND CHANDLER'S STRAW-CUTTER-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
4
COMPACT STRAW-CUTTER.
Fig. 527.
ROLLER-TEETH OF STRAW-CUTTER.
431
g
revolves in steps or pedestals, c c, bolted to the sides of the bed-plate. The
bed-plate is relieved by a vacant
space to the front, 6 inches wide and
2 feet 10 inches long; in this the fly-
wheel d d and knives e e attached re-
volve. The diameter of the fly-wheel
is 2 feet 9 inches. Motion is given to
it by a handle fixed at the outer ex-
tremity at f. At the other end of the fly-wheel shaft a mitre or bevel wheel
is keyed on, 31 inches diameter, engaging with a bevel-wheel h, 5 inches
diameter, fixed in the end of a shaft i at right angles to the fly-wheel shaft,
revolving in bearings k k. On the outer extremity of this shaft i, a pinion,
22 inches diameter, is keyed; this engages with a spur-wheel 7, 81 inches
diameter, revolving on a stud fixed to the framing of the machine. To
the centre of this spur-wheel 1, a pinion m, 3 inches diameter, is fixed, engag-
ing with a spur-wheel n, 8 inches diameter. This is keyed on the end of a
shaft p parallel to the shaft i; and, passing below the bed-plate at its farther
extremity, a spur-wheel or pinion, 42 inches diameter, engages with a similarly
sized wheel o, keyed on to the shaft p, which gives motion to the upper roller.
To admit of the rise and fall of this roller, according to the thickness of the
layer of straw passing through, a swing-joint q is provided to the shaft p. The
width of the feed-
mouth is 9 inches,
rising from 14 inch
to 4 inches; the
length of the feed-
ing-trough is 4 feet.
The form of the
knives is shown in
the perspective fig-
ure; it is that of
a differential scroll,
and gives a continu-
ous and uniform cut
during the revolu-
tion of the fly-wheel.
1470. The price
of this machine,
adapted for hand or
power, is £7. The
cost of a pulley,
where it is to be
driven by power, is
9s.; change-wheels
to vary the length of
cut, 6s. 6d. per pair.
1471. Richmond
and Chandler's Com-
pact Straw-Cutter.—
In figs. 528 and 529
we give two views
C
d
e
Fig. 528.
d
a
FRONT ELEVATION OF COMPACT STPAW-CUTTER-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT.
of an exceedingly compact form of machine, well adapted for exportation,

432
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
recently introduced by the same firm, and constructed on the same principles
as that described in fig. 525.
1472. Motion is given to the feed-rollers through the medium of a single-
thread worm a, fig. 529, acting on the face-wheels b and c; the pressure on
g
d
Fig. 529.
h
SIDE ELEVATION OF COMPACT STRAW-CUTTER-SCALE, 1 INCH TO THE FOOT
the feed-rollers a and b, fig. 528, being regulated by the weight d on the lever
e, fig. 529. The feed-box is at ff, g g the fly-wheel, h the knife, i the handle.
In fig. 528, c c the fly-wheel, d d the knives, e and f the face-wheels, g the
weight. Fig. 528 is a front, and fig. 529 a side view-the scale to which
they are drawn being 1 inch to the foot. Price of this machine, £3, 15s.
1473. Gorse or Whin-cutting Machine.-By a change in the gearing of the
straw-cutting machine, fig. 526-the pinion on the end of the shaft i having four
more teeth-it is used as a gorse-cutter, the toothed rollers serving to crush
and bruise the gorse before the knives cut it.
1474. SECTION SIXTH.-Turnip-Slicers, Root-Graters, and Root- Washers.
1475. Turnip-Slicers for Sheep.-Machines for slicing roots, and particularly
for the turnip, are constructed in a great variety of forms, but may be classed
under two leading groups-those that cut the turnip simply into circular discs,
as generally adopted for the feeding of cattle, and those that cut at one opera-
tion into oblong rectangular pieces or parallelopipedons, commonly practised
for feeding sheep-forming a somewhat more complicated class of machine.
Turnip-slicers for sheep may be again subdivided into lever and revolving
LEVER TURNIP-SLICER FOR SHEEP.
433
;
machines; and of the many varieties under these forms, there are the stationary,
the portable, the wheelbarrow, and what may be called the locomotive machine
the locomotive being rendered so by its attachment to a cart, and by its own
motion thus communicated, performs the operation of slicing while it travels
over the field.
1476. The first introduction of the turnip-slicer is, like many other equally
useful inventions, lost in obscurity, but it is most probable that, like the culti-
vation of the root itself, it originated in England; and it is likewise probable
that the first attempt was the simple chopper still used to chop turnips for cattle.
It appears uncertain whether the lever or the revolving slicer came first into
use, as does also the time of their introduction. But we have an authentic
record of a premium having been offered in 1806 by the Board of Trustees for
the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures in Scotland, for a revolving turnip-
slicer. This was awarded to John Blaikie, carpenter to the late Lord Polwarth,
Harden, Berwickshire, which is believed to have been the earliest application
of that form of the machine in Scotland.
1477. Lever Turnip-Slicer for Sheep.-The first of the sheep turnip-cutters
that we shall notice, is one of the lever form, but in its mechanical construction
may be very aptly called the gridiron turnip-cutter, and is represented in an
entire form in fig. 530, which is a perspective view of the machine. It consists
of a wooden frame supporting a trough, together with the cutting apparatus.
Fig. 530.
b
9
d
d
a
THE LEVER TURNIP-SLICER FOR SHEEP
с
h
The frame is formed of the four posts a a a a, which are 24 inches square.
The front pair stand 15 inches in width, over all at top, the hind pair 19 inches;
in both they spread a little below, and are separated to a distance of about 34
inches. Each pair is connected by cross-rails b b, and they are connected longi-
tudinally by the bars d d, 4 feet long, which form also the handles of the wheel-
barrow, being bolted to the posts at a suitable height for that purpose; their
scantling is 2 inches by 1½ inch. A pair of wheels, c c, of cast-iron, 9 to 12 inches
diameter, fitted to an iron axle which is bolted to the front posts, gives it the
conveniency of a wheelbarrow. The trough e e, into which the turnips are laid
2 E
434
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
for cutting, is 4 inches deep and 34 feet long, besides the sloping continuation e
of it in front of the cutters, for throwing off the sliced turnips. The cutting
apparatus consists of a grooved frame of iron f, in which the compound cutter
moves up and down by means of the lever handle g. A forked support h is
bolted by a palm to the further side of the wooden frame, and at the extremity i
of the fork a swing link is jointed. The lower end of the link is jointed to the
extremity of the lever, which is likewise forked, forming its fulcrum; and the
gridiron-cutter k is also jointed by its top-bar to the lever at 7. While the
point 1, therefore, of the cutter moves in a parallel line by its confinement in
the grooves of the frame f, the fulcrum is allowed to vibrate on the joint i of the
swing link-thus allowing an easy vertical motion to the cutter through the
full range of its stroke.
1478. For the better illustration of the cutting apparatus, the following
figures are given on a larger scale. Fig. 531 is a front view of the cutter-
frame, and fig. 532 a horizontal section of the same, including that of the
Fig. 531.
h
О
9
g
d
४
Fig. 532.
e
a
d
a
ს
a
a
Fig. 533.
Fig. 534.
α
C
9
e
THE FRONT AND Side ViewS OF THE CUTTERS OF THE LEVER TURNIP-SLICER.
grooved frame f. In fig. 532, a b c is a section of the grooved frame, with the
cutter-frame set in the grooves. The grooves are inch wide, and the cheeks
GRIDIRON HORIZONTAL TURNIP-SLICER.
435
of the frame 1½ inch by inch, making the parts a b c 14 inch square; a da is
the bottom bar of the cutting-frame, 1 inch broad and inch thick, kneed at
the ends to receive the lower ends of the cutting-frame; e is the edge view of
the slicing-knife, as fixed in the cutter-frame, 4 inches broad by inch thick,
and ƒƒƒƒƒƒ are the vertical or cross cutting-knives, also as seen from above.
In fig. 531, d again marks the bottom bar of the cutter-frame, e is the slicing-
knife, and ƒƒƒfƒfƒ the shanks of the cross cutting-knives; these are riveted
at top into e, and at bottom into d; g g are the side-bars of the cutter-frame,
3 inch by inch, into which the knife e is riveted, and to which the bar d is
attached by screw-nuts. The top bar h welded to g g swells out in the middle,
where it is perforated for the joint-bolt of the lever, as seen at 7 in fig. 530, and
forms as a whole the gridiron cutter.
4
1479. Figs. 533 and 534 are views of the knives on a still larger scale. In
fig. 533, together with the portion f broken off, a a b is a cross section
of the slicing-knife, and c d e ƒ a cross cutting-knife, with its shank; here a d
is the cutting edge, c being the body, and e f the shank of the knife. The
length of the cutting edge a d may vary from 2 to 1 inch, according to the
practice of the feeder, the shank e ƒ being about inch broad, and the whole
inch thick, except the cutting edge, that alone being sharpened and
steeled as well as the edge of the slicing-knife. Fig. 534 is a section of a
cross cutting-knife on the line x x, of fig. 533, together with a part of the
shank e.
1480. The whole length of the cutter-frame, fig. 531, is about 20 inches,
apportioned thus,-from the bottom bar d to the edge of the slicing-knife,
12 inches; breadth of the knife, as before, 4 inches; and from the back of the
knife to the top of the frame, 4 inches. The width of the frame over all may
be 9 inches, and the cross-cutters set at from 1 to 1½ inch apart. The
grooved frame must of course be constructed to receive and admit of the range
of stroke of the cutter-frame.
1
1481. It is to be remarked, that the slicing and cross-cutting is performed
with this machine by one operation, the slicing edge being only inch in
advance of the cross-cutters, as at b in fig. 533.
2
1482. In operating with this machine, the trough e, fig. 530, is filled with
turnips, and the operator lays hold of the lever g with the right hand, while in
his left he holds a short baton. Having raised the lever, and with it the cutter-
frame, he pushes a turnip with the baton against the gridiron, and bringing
down the lever, the knives cut off a slice, and divide it into oblong pieces;
these may partly remain between the backs of the cross-cutters until the suc-
ceeding stroke is effected, when the several portions of this slice will discharge
those of the first, and so on, into any vessel placed below the sloping part of
the trough e.
1483. A large number of sheep may be supplied by one person with sliced
turnips by means of this slicer; but as the wheeled turnip-slicer is easier
worked in the field for that purpose, this hand-lever slicer will be found a very
handy machine for supplying sliced turnips to small numbers of sheep, as tups in
winter, or ewes while lambing, in small fields or paddocks.
1484. The Gridiron Horizontal Turnip-Slicer.-The gridiron has also been
applied in combination with a revolving crank motion; the gridiron recipro-
cating, and that in a horizontal position. This modification appears to have
originated in Roxburghshire, and appears to possess some advantages, the
chief of which is, that, as the roots lie directly upon the gridiron, they are
more likely to be regularly sliced than in those machines where the roots lie
436
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
only against the cutters, as in the common vertical disc machines. This machine
is essentially a gridiron turnip-slicer, with a reciprocating motion, derived from
a rotatory motion. The latter is produced by turning a winch-handle, the axle
of which carries a fly-wheel and two crank levers, or, more properly, the crank
of the winch serves for both; the throw of the handle being 15 inches, while
that of the cranks is only 7 inches from the axis. A connecting-rod on each
side of the machine connects the cranks with the gridiron-cutter, producing
the reciprocating motion, which is in the horizontal direction; and to ren-
der the motion as easy as possible, the frame of the gridiron moves upon
slide-rods.
1485. From the circumstance of the motion of the cutter being horizontal,
and the turnips lying directly upon the gridiron, it can be easily constructed to
cut both ways, that is, with the out as well as the in stroke; the gridiron for
this purpose being furnished at both ends with the slicing-knife and the cross-
cutting knives, as described in fig. 531.
1486. The machinery here described is mounted on a wooden frame, 4 feet 6
inches long, 22 inches wide, and 34 inches high, and over the gridiron is placed
a square hopper of wood or of sheet-iron, into which the turnips are thrown by
an assistant, the machine being driven by a man. A bar of division is placed
across in the middle of the hopper, serving as the point of resistance against
which the turnips are pressed while the slice is being made; and as the
turnips lie on the bars of the gridiron with their full weight, they will for
the most part be in a position to secure a slice of uniform thickness being
removed.
1487. A slight modification has been made on this machine by placing the
gridiron on radius bars, making the cutter move in an arc of about 2 feet
radius, instead of moving in a slide. The radius bars produce a lighter motion,
but have no effect on the cutting principle.
1488. With a view to economy, the regular slicing of turnips is of more impor-
tance than many farmers are aware of. When a part of the turnip is cut into
very thin, and even into fragments of slices, a very considerable proportion of it
goes to waste. In choosing a turnip-slicer, therefore, one of its points should
always be, that it should cut as far as possible to a uniform size, whatever that
size may be, and not pass a large proportion of the sliced turnips in thin-edged
slices, or thin and small fragments of slices.
1489. Wheelbarrow Turnip-Slicer for Sheep.-This machine has since its
introduction undergone many modifications. From being made entirely of
wood, it was then made entirely of iron; but iron being less convenient for
moving about, has induced the more general introduction of a disc of cast-iron,
carrying the cutters, mounted on a wooden frame, which is generally again
mounted on wheels like a wheelbarrow. Fig. 535 is a perspective of this
machine: the wooden frame, which is 36 inches long and 15 inches wide over
the posts at top, but spreads a little wider below, is formed with four posts
a a a a, one of which is only partially seen in the figure; they are 21 inches
square, and stand about 32 inches in height. The posts are connected on the
sides by top-rails b b, and two brace-rails c c, below, one of which serves to
support the spout d, which discharges the sliced turnips. The sides of the
frame thus formed are connected by cross-rails above and below, e e e, and is
there furnished with the handle-bars ff, bolted to the posts, and projecting a
convenient length beyond them at one end. The barrow-wheels g g, of 12
inches diameter, are fitted to an iron axle, which is bolted to the posts in front.
The hopper h is fixed upon the top-rail by means of a cast-iron sole bolted upon
the rail, and is further supported by a wooden bracket at each side, as seen
WHEELBARROW TURNIP-SLICER FOR SHEEP.
437
at i, and by the iron stay k. The slicing-wheel 7 is a disc of cast-iron, carrying
three sets of cutters. The disc is mounted on an axle passing through its
Fig. 535.
a
C
g
m
b
9
THE WHEELBARROW TURNIP-SLICER FOR SHEEP.
centre, where it is fixed, and which is supported on bearings placed on the top-
rails, and, when worked, it is turned by the winch-handle m, fixed upon the axle.
1490. Fig. 536 is
a section of part
part of
this machine, cutting it
through the hopper, and
the disc, &c., to exhibit
some of the parts more
in detail. a a are parts
of two of the posts, bb
the top-rails, and c one
of the end-rails of the
frame, covered by the
boarding d of the spout.
f is one of the pillow-
block bearings of the
axle, the other being
kept out of view by the
hopper, and the winch-
handle is applied at e.
gg is the disc shown also
in section. The sole of
the hopper is represented
at h; it has a flange be-
tween h and b, by which
it is bolted to the top-
rail b; and the sole itself
e
9
9
Fig. 536.
k
THE SECTION OF THE DISC AND HOPPER OF THE WHEELBARROW TUKNIP-SLICER
438
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
is a cylindrico-concave plate of 12 inches in length at the bottom of the con-
cavity, 9 inches in breadth, and is placed at an angle of 45°. It is also fur-
nished with a flange at each side, whereby the sides i of the hopper are attached
to the sole. k is the foot of one of the brackets i referred to in fig. 535, rising
in the position of the dotted lines, fig. 536, for supporting the hopper; and t is
a light tie-bar, cut by the section, which is applied also to bind the sides of the
hopper.
1491. The disc or wheel g g, fig. 536, is a plate of cast-iron, 32 inches in dia-
meter and 1 inch thick, encircled by a heavy ring of the same metal, to give it
momentum when in action. The face of the disc is divided into three segmental
compartments around a plain and central portion, which is 9 inches diameter.
This central part lies in the general plane of the disc, while the segmental portions
diverge from the plane in the direction of the circle, causing them to take the
form of portions of three separate helical or spiral surfaces of 9 inches in breadth.
Their divergence from the plane of the disc does not, however, exceed of an
inch at the termination of a segment, or such other space as may be determined
upon for the thickness of the slices. By this construction three slits are formed
in the disc, passing obliquely through, one at the termination of each segment;
and the steel slicing-knife, 12 inches in length and 1 inch in breadth, is fixed
by bolts, so as to form the entering edge of each segment, as seen in fig. 535;
the flat face of the knife lying in the general plane of the disc. The terminal
edge of each segment lies exactly behind the leading edge of the next, so that,
Fig. 537.
นาง
when the slicing-knife is affixed to a leading edge,
the edge of the knife covers 1½ inch of the length
of the preceding segment. Into the border, which
is thus covered by the slicing-knife, are placed
from six to ten lancet shaft-cutters, their length
being just equal to the width of the slit, and
their distance apart proportioned to the number
employed, or the breadth at which the turnips are
required to be cross cut. The cross-cutters are
formed as represented in fig. 537, where a is an
edge, and b a side view of a cutter, with its tail and screw-nut, by which it is
fixed into the disc.
a
b
THE CROSS-CUITEKS OF THE DISC OF THE
WHEELBARROW TURNIP-8L10ER.
1
1492. It will be seen that the action of those compound cutters is very
similar to that of the gridiron, the slicing and cross-cutting knives acting to-
gether, though the slicing-knife is here also about inch in advance of the
cross-cutters; and from the construction of the disc, and arrangement of the
feeding-hoppers, the turnip is applied with great regularity and in close contact
with the spiral surface of the segments of the disc. The slope of the sole-plate.
in the hoppers gives the turnip a constant tendency to keep in contact with the
surface and the cutters, thereby securing regular and good performance by the
machine.
1493. Cylinder Turnip-Slicers.-Turnip-slicers for sheep have been also con-
structed in a variety of forms, with the cutters set in the surface of a cylinder,
and been in use for many years. In Roxburghshire it has been long and suc-
cessfully employed in the locomotive principle, not driven by any machinery
from the cart to which it is attached, but, being simply hooked to the cart, is
drawn forward, and the machine being of some weight, and moving upon wheels
of 3 feet or more in diameter, armed with spikes on their tires to prevent them
sliding over the surface of the ground, and to give motion to the cutting cylinder,
while a boy, sitting on the cart which contains the turnips that are to be cut,
GARDNER'S TURNIP-CUTTER.
439
throws them into the hopper of the machine, from which they are dropped over
the surface of the grass on which the sheep are feeding.
1494. Gardner's Turnip-Cut-
ter. A modification of the
cylinder-slicer was patented in
1839 by Mr Gardner, Banbury:
the principle of the patent lay
in the form and arrangement of
the cutters, which are set in
three divisions upon the surface
of the cylinder. The arrange-
ment of the cutters is peculiar,
and will be understood by the
inspection of figs. 538 and 539.
The cylinder on which the cut-
ters are placed is 15 inches in
diameter and 12 inches long.
Its periphery is divided into
three compartments, each form-
ing a portion of a spiral, so that
the commencement of one and
the termination of the next
leaves a slit across the peri-
phery, corresponding in some
degree with that described on
the disc of the wheel turnip-
cutter. The original cylindrical
C
Fig. 538.
k
d
d b
Ն
ల
m
h
g
k
END FLEVATION OF CYLINDRICAL TURNIP-CUTTER-SCALE,
し
​INCH TO FOOT.
slicers had the slicing-knife extending in an unbroken edge across the surface of
Fig. 539.
i
2
с
உ
P
22
п
k
C
У
SIDE ELEVATION OF CYLINDRICAL TURNIF-CUTTER-SCALE, 3 INCH TO THE FOOT.
440
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
the cylinder, and the cross-cutters placed under and behind it. The improve-
ment on which the patent was based may be described as cutting the slicing-
knife into a number of sections, say of 1 inch each in length. The two extreme
Fig. 540.
END VIEW OF OYLINDRICAL TURNIP-CUTTER-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 541.
CYLINDRICAL TURNIP-CUTTER IN PERSPECTIVE.
sections remain in the ori-
ginal position on the cy-
linder. The section next
to that on each side is re-
moved backward upon the
surface of the cylinder·
say 11 inch - and there
fixed. The section on each
side next to those is in like
manner set back, and so on,
till the whole are placed on
the surface of the cylinder.
By this arrangement the
slicing - cutters form two
converging lines, in eche-
lon, and this is repeated
three times on the peri-
phery of the cylinder. The
cross-cutters are formed by
a part of the slicing-cutter
being bent to a right angle
with the cross-cutter.
1495. Mr Samuelson, of
Banbury, has introduced
some improvements in Gard-
ner's turnip-slicer, which
we shall now describe. In
fig. 538 is given an end
elevation of a machine, in
which the top hopper is
removed, to show the cylin-
der; in fig. 539 a side ele-
vation, with side of hopper
and spout removed, to show
the cylinder and cranked
knives; in fig. 540 an end
elevation. The whole of
these are drawn to a scale
of 2 inch to a foot. Fig. 541
is a view in perspective.
1496. The cylinder a a,
figs. 538, 539, 14 inches
in diameter and 131 inches
in length, is armed with
thirty knives set in echelon
behind each other round its periphery. Each knife is bent so as to form two
sides of a rectangle, and has an opening corresponding to it in the cylinder,
through which the cut piece is voided, passing into the interior of the cylinder
as it revolves, and from the open ends of which it falls through a spout into
BUSHE AND BARTER'S ROOT-GRATER.
441
a "skep" placed under the hopper. The cylinder is keyed on the shaft b b,
fig. 538, 11 inch in diameter, and which revolves in bearings d d, fixed to the
wrought-iron framing c c c c. The framing is supported by two wheels g g,
15 inches diameter and 2 inches broad in the periphery. These wheels are
fixed on the shaft h, g of an inch diameter, revolving in bearings fixed to the
lower part of the frame. When the machine is at work, it rests on these wheels,
and the extremities of the two opposite supports of the frame act as feet.
When it is required to be moved from place to place, the handles i, fig. 539, are
brought into requisition for lifting the front part, the whole then resting on the
two wheels g g. On the shaft b b, fig. 538, is keyed the fly-wheel k k, 37
inches in diameter, to an arm of which is fixed the handle 7. The height
from the ground-line to the top of the framing on which the bearings d d rest,
is 2 feet 8 inches; to top of hopper, 4 feet 5 inches. The framing is strength-
ened by the flat wrought-iron stays m m, 1 inch broad, and by the round g-inch
iron stays n n, fig. 539. The upper part of the hopper o o, fig. 540, is grated,
to allow the earth which adheres to the roots to fall away from them as they
roll towards the cylinder. A vertical plate p p, figs. 539 and 540, against
which they are pressed while being cut, is also grated, and tends to scrape the
roots clean as they descend to the hopper.
1497. When the machine is used to cut roots for cattle, the slices being
required larger than when used for sheep, the cylinder is furnished with large
slicing-knives, instead of the bent ones described in par. 1496.
1498. In Gardner's double-action turnip-cutter, manufactured by Mr Samuel-
son, there are both slicing and angular knives, so that large slices or small
"fingers
may be cut by the same cylinder, according to the direction in
which it is turned.
""
3
Fig. 542.
1499. The price of Samuelson's Gardner's turnip-cutter, as in the figures, to
cut thirty pieces each revolution, inch by inch for sheep only, with handles
and wheels, is £5, 14s. 6d.;
without these, £5, 2s. 6d.
The price of the double-ac-
tion cutter is, with handles
and wheels, £6, 14s. 6d.;
without, £6, 2s. 6d.
1500. Bushe and Barter's
Root-Grater.-Machines to
cut the turnips into very
fine shreds have recently
come much into requisi-
tion. Those are termed
Root-graters, and a variety
of patented forms are now
before the public. We
select for illustration that
form known as Bushe and
Barter's, as manufactured
by Mr Samuelson. In fig.
542 is given a perspective.
view of this, in fig. 543
a front elevation, and in fig.
MEV
BUSHE AND BARTER'S ROOT-GRATER IN PERSPECTIVE.
544 an end section. Figs. 543 and 544 are drawn to a scale of of an inch to
the foot.
442
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
1501. A series of knives or cutters project from the disc a a in radial lines, as
f
Fig. 543.
FRONT ELEVATION OF ROOT-GRATER-8CALE,
с
Fig. 544.
b
INCH TO THE FOOT.
SIDE ELLVATION OF ROOT-GRATER-
-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
shown in fig. 543. The
disc a a is 27½ inches in
diameter, and is securely
bolted to the arms of
the wheel b b, 2 feet
9 inches in diameter,
keyed to a shaft inch
diameter, revolving in
bearings e, fixed to the
upper or cross beam d d,
4 feet long and 3 inches
deep. The height from
ground-line to the upper
side of d d is 2 feet 5
inches; from ground-
line to top of hopper ƒ
4 feet 4 inches. The
receptacle in which the
turnips lie, when ex-
posed to the action of
the cutters, is shown
tapered as in fig. 544,
the width at upper side
being 14 inches, and
at bottom the thickness
of the back-plate is 2
of an inch. The handle
c is 12 inches long.
The roots, as they come
in contact with the
knives or cutters on the
face of the disc b b,
which is made to re-
volve by the handle c,
are rapidly cut into thin
shreds, which fall to
the receptacle, g, fig.
543, formed in the
lower part of the fram-
ing. While the ma-
chine is at work this
receptacle is kept closed
by a board, held in its
place by two bolts h h.
1502. Price of Bushe
and Barter's root-grater
is £3, 10s.
4
1503. Bentall's Root-
Pulper. In the class
of machines known as
"Root - pulpers," the
BENTALL'S ROOT-PULPER.
443
roots are brought to a still finer state of subdivision than in the root-graters.
Of the class of turnip-pulpers we select for illustration that invented and
manufactured by Mr Bentall of Haybridge, Maldon, Essex.
9
O
Fig. 545.
In this a barrel
α
α
a a, fig. 545, 14½ inches long and
1 foot diameter, is fixed on a shaft
bc, turned by the handle i, as
shown in figs. 546 and 547, and re-
volving in bearings fixed in the
upper frame of the machine e e,
fig. 545. The barrel a a is pro-
vided with a series of knives,
or rather hooked teeth, wedged
into apertures or slots made in the
periphery of the barrel, and which
teeth are set in a helical form
round the periphery. Parallel to this barrel, and close to it, so that the teeth
of the barrel shall pass between the threads, an Archimedean screw d d, about
2 inches in diameter, revolves, motion being obtained from the shaft b c by
the toothed wheels f and g. The pitch of this screw corresponds with the
pitch of the helical line formed by the teeth in the barrel a a. As the barrel
a a revolves, the teeth pass between the threads of the screw d d, and the com-
bined action of the two (the tearing of the teeth and the squeezing of the worm-
screw) very speedily reduces the roots to a good pulp. The iron teeth are
wedged in by hardwood wedges, so that on any getting broken they can be
easily taken out, and new ones substituted.
PLAN OF BENTALL'S ROOT-PULPER.
1504. In fig. 546 is given a perspective view of the machine, with the hopper
removed, to show the connection of the different parts, and in fig. 547 a view as
it appears when ready for work. In fig. 546 a a is the barrel, b the shaft
Fig. 546.
d
N
i
~.
自
​b
C
d
ROOT-PULPER IN PERSPECTIVE, WITH HOPPER REMOVED.
444
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
on which this is fitted, resting in bearings on the beam c c, supported by the
standards dd; e the helical screw revolving in front of the barrel, ƒ the spur-
wheel keyed on to the shaft of the screw e, gearing with the pinion g on the
shaft of the barrel a a.
1505. In fig. 547 a is the hopper, with grating b, c the shaft of the working
barrel, d the helical screw, e e the beams supporting the bearings of the barrel
Fig. 547.
b
e
a
C
ROOT-PULPER IN PERSPECTIVE.
and screw; ƒ the spur-wheel on shaft of screw d, gearing with the pinion g on
shaft of barrel; h the fly-wheel, i the handle by which it is turned. Figs. 546
and 547 are drawn to a scale of inch to the foot.
Fig. 548.
1506. The price of Bentall's root-
pulper, capable of being worked by a
man, is £5, 5s.; for power with 10-inch
pulley, £6, 6s.
1507. Robinson's Root-Washer.-In
fig. 548 we give a view in perspective
of an excellent potato-washer, the in-
vention of Mr Richard Robinson, late of
Belfast. It consists of two cast-iron
frames a a, connected together by means
of three round malleable-iron rods. In
the forks of these frames is inserted a
wooden box or cistern b, wider at the
top than at the bottom, to contain the
water to wash the potatoes. The cylin-
der c, having a larger diameter at c than
at the other end, is sparred with fillets
of wood fastened on with iron hoops, at such distances as to prevent potatoes
slipping through between them. The cylinder c is hung on the box b by means
h
α
ROBINSON'S ROOT-WASHER IN PERSPECTIVE.
HAND CORN-BRUISER.
445
of an iron axle, which passes through both ends of the cylinder, and turns
upon plumber-blocks, the nearest end being extended as far as to allow the
trough g to be suspended between the box and the winch-handle e, which is
supported on its extremity. The hopper d receives the potatoes, which pass
over a grating in its inclined bottom, through which any earth or sand falls to
the ground.
1508. The washer is used in this manner: Water is poured into the box b
until it is nearly full. The potatoes are then put into the hopper d by means
of a shovel or basket, and after passing over the grating find their way into the
cylinder. On turning the winch-handle e, the cylinder revolves and takes the
potatoes with it through the water; and as the potatoes find their way along
its inclined bottom in the water, they are taken up by a twisted sparred inclined
plane, which carries them to the opening f in its boarded end, c, to a level of
the edge of the box, over which they run down the inclined plane of the slide
g, which conveys them as far as h, where a tub, barrow, or basket, is placed on
the ground to receive them in a thoroughly washed and clean state.
1509. The peculiar advantage of this machine is, that in turning the winch-
handle e to the right, and keeping the hopper d supplied with dirty potatoes, it
washes them, and throws them out clean in a continuous stream to the bottom of
the slide h. On turning the winch-handle e to the left, the potatoes are retained
within the cylinder until the washing is effected as completely as desired;
and then, by turning it to the right, the potatoes are got quit of instantly.
1510. In machines heretofore in use, the washing process is stopped to fill
and empty the cylinder, which must be raised out of the cistern for those pur-
poses, and lowered again into it, by a tedious and laborious process.
1511. The price of Robinson's root-washer is £3, 10s.
1512. SECTION SEVENTH.-Corn-Bruisers-Bean-Mills.
1513. Corn-Bruisers.-In following up an economical system of feeding, the
bruising of all grain so applied, forms an important branch of the system, and,
as might be expected, numerous are the varieties of machines applied to the
purpose. These naturally arrange themselves under three distinct kinds : 1st,
Machines which act on a principle that partakes of cutting and bruising, by
means of grooved metal cylinders, and is applied to those chiefly driven by
the hand; 2d, Machines adapted to bruise only by means of smooth cylinders:
this is applied exclusively to those driven by steam, or other agency more
powerful than the human hand; and, 3d, Breaking or grinding by the common
grain millstones, and, of course, only worked by power.
1514. The Hand Corn-Bruiser.—That variety of the first division which we
shall particularly notice is represented in perspective in fig. 549. It is con-
structed almost entirely of cast-iron, except the hopper and discharging-spout;
but its frame or standard may with propriety be formed of hardwood, when cir-
cumstances render the adoption of that material desirable. In the figure, a a a
is the framework, consisting of two separate sides, connected by two stretcher-
bolts, the screw-nuts of which are only seen near to a and a below. A case b b,
formed of cast-iron plates, is bolted upon the projecting ears at the top of the
frame, and contains the bruising cylinders. The cylinders are 4 inches in dia-
meter, and 6 inches in length, of cast-iron or of steel. They have an axle of
malleable iron passing through them, having turned journals, which run in
bearings formed on the cast-iron side-plates of the case, the bearings being
accurately bored out to fit the journals. The spur-wheels c and d are fitted
upon the axle of the cylinders, c having 14 teeth, and d 24 teeth. The cylinder
446
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
corresponding to d is perfectly smooth, while that of c is grooved at a pitch
of inch, and about inch deep, worked to sharp edges. The grooves lie
obliquely on the face of the cylinder, being at an angle of 10° with the axis.
2
k
a
a
3
Fig. 549.
THE HAND CORN-BRUISER IN PERSPECTIVE.
P
9
Fig. 550.
12.
n
m
C
p
9
TRANSVERSE SECTION, SHOWING THE RELATION OF THE
PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE HAND CORN-BRUISER.
e
α
The winch-handle e is attached to
the axle of the roller c, whose bear-
ings are permanent, while those of
d are movable, being formed in
separate plates, and fitted to slide
to a small extent in a seat, for the
adjustment of the cylinder to any
desired grist. This adjustment is
effected by means of the screws f,
which act upon the sliding-plates
of the bearings. g is one of the
bearings of a feeding-roller, placed
also within the case; it is turned
by means of a toothed-wheel fitted
upon the further end of its axle,
and which is driven by another
wheel of 24 teeth on the axle of the
cylinder d. The fly-wheel h is fit-
ted upon the axle of the cylinder
c, and is 31 feet in diameter; i is
the feeding-hopper, attached to the
top of the case by two small hooks;
and k is a wooden spout to convey
the bruised grain from the case.
1515. Fig. 550 is a section of the
case, and the cylinders, detached
from the frame. b b are the two
ends of the case cut by the section;
c is the grooved cylinder, d the
smooth, and 7 is the feeding-roller
—it is 3½ inches diameter, and has
cylindrical grooves formed on its
surface to convey the grain; o is
a cover of cast-iron fixed upon the
top of the case; it has two round
ears n n, with eye-holes, which
serve to steady the hopper, and to
which it is screwed by the hooks
already mentioned. A hopper-
shaped opening m is formed in the
cover; it is 6 inches long, 3 inches
wide at top, and 1 inch at bottom,
and the edges fit closely upon the
feeding - rollers. Two plate-iron
sliders are fitted upon the surface
of this little hopper, which serve to enlarge or contract the opening longi-
tudinally, and are fixed by screw-bolts in each plate; the head of one of the
bolts is seen at o. pppp are ears by which the case is bolted together, and
q q are prolongations of the side-plate of the case; r r are additional plates
'PLAIN ROLLER CORN-BRUISER.
447
of sheet-iron, to prevent the grain from being thrown over the cylinders
unbruised.
1516. This is a very efficient machine for bruising either oats or beans,
the adjustment of the plain cylinder to the requisite distance being easily
accomplished by the adjusting screws; and to prevent the abrasion of the
grooved cylinder, by coming in too close contact with the other, a stopper is
applied on each side, to keep the slides from overreaching the proper safety dis-
tance. From the different velocities of the two cylinders, the grooved one
being the fastest, it produces a cutting as well as a bruising action, which
renders its effects on the grain more perfect than simple pressure. It can be
worked by one man, who will bruise 4 bushels of oats in an hour.
1517. The price of the hand corn-bruiser is £6, 10s.
1518. Various other forms of this machine are in use, some with both cylin-
ders grooved, others with only one grooved cylinder acting against a grooved.
plate; in this last state it is much used for bruising beans.
1519. The Plain Wheel-edged Corn-bruiser. Amongst the varieties of
the bruising machine of the second division (see par. 1513), we may just
notice one that is found very efficient. It consists of two plain-edged wheels
or pulleys, as they may be termed, usually about 6 inches broad on the rim
or sole; the one ranges from 2 feet to 4 feet in diameter, and its fellow
only half the diameter of the larger. They require to be truly turned on the
rim, and work in contact. The smaller one is always driven by the power, and
the larger usually by contact with the smaller. The smaller wheel makes,
according to its diameter, from 150 to 200 revolutions per minute. Where plain
cylinders are employed for bruising, and their surfaces moving with equal
velocity, the effect is to press each grain into a flat hard cake; but when one
of the surfaces is left at liberty to move by simple contact, it is found that the
effect is different, for the grain passes, bruised indeed, though not into a hard
cake, but has apparently undergone a species of tearing, leaving it in an open and
friable state. This machine, however, does not answer well for bruising beans,
for here, again, they come through in the form of a flat cake. If beans, there-
fore, are used in an establishment where this bruiser is adopted, a separate one,
on the principle of fig. 549, is required for the beans alone; that machine,
though serviceable for a small establishment, being incapable, even with power,
to produce the quantity in a reasonable time that would be required in a
large one.
1520. Plain Roller Corn-bruiser for Power.-A very efficient corn-bruiser,
adapted for power, is shown in figs. 551, 552, 553; fig. 551 being an elevation,
fig. 552 a plan, and fig. 553 a section of the machine: the same letters apply to
such corresponding parts as are seen in all the three figures.
1521. In fig. 551, a a is one of the side-frames, of cast-iron, which are connected
together by stretcher-bolts b b, and the frame so formed is bolted to a floor through
the palms at c c. On the top bar of the frames there are two strong snugs d d
cast, sufficient to resist the pressure of the rollers, and are formed also to receive
the brass bushes in which the journals of the two rollers are made to run. The
two rollers e and ƒ are respectively 8 and 9 inch diameter, and are 18 inches
in length, fitted with malleable-iron shafts 12 inch diameter; the roller ƒ runs
in permanent bearings, but e has its bushes movable, for adjustment to the
degree of bruising required, and this adjustment is effected by the adjusting
screws gg. The shaft of each roller carries a wheel h, equal in diameter, which
is 9 inches. The roller e has also upon its shaft the driving-pulley i, which by
means of a belt s s from any shaft of a thrashing-machine, or other power having
448
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
a proper velocity, puts the rollers in motion. The rollers are enclosed in a square
wooden case k k, in the cover of which a narrow hopper-shaped opening l is
formed to direct the grain between the rollers. A hopper m for receiving the
k
h
9
a
с
Fig. 551.
n
20
m
n
t
0
12
6
0
1
C
a
k
[0]
n
୯
THE ELEVATION OF THE POWER CORN-BRUISER.
i
Fig. 552.
9
d
d
k
e
a
d
ተ
THE PLAN OF THE POWER CORN-BRUISER.
fect
p
b
n
n
grain is supported on the light
wooden framework n n, which also
supports the feeding-shoe o, joint-
ed to the frame at p, and sus-
pended by the straps q, which last
is adjustable by a screw at q to
regulate the quantity of feed. A
smooth-edged oblique wheel r, fig.
552, is mounted on the shaft of
the roller f, and by its oscillating
revolutions, acting upon a forked
arm which descends from the
shoe, a vibratory motion is given
to the latter, by which a regular
and continued supply of the grain.
is delivered from the hopper to
the rollers. After passing the
rollers, the grain is received into
a spout, which either delivers it
on the same floor, or through a
close spout in the floor below.
The velocity of the rollers, which
are driven by the belt s s, may be
250 revolutions per minute. The
dimensions of the frame a are 30
inches in length and 24 inches in
height, the width over all being
also 24 inches.
1522. The price of the plain
roller corn-bruiser for power, as
manufactured by A. and G. H.
Slight, Edinburgh, is £10.
1523. Turner's Roller-Mill.
An exceedingly compact and
well - constructed roller - mill is
manufactured by Messrs E. R. &
F. Turner, St Peter's Ironworks,
Ipswich. Fig. 554 is a perspec-
tive view; fig. 555 a side eleva-
tion, and fig. 556 an end eleva-
tion. Figs. 555 and 556 are drawn
to a scale of 1 inch to the foot.
1524. The framework is en-
tirely of cast-iron, well braced
and steadied; its height from the ground is 3 feet 2 inches, its length over all 5
feet 9 inches, its breadth at the foot is 2 feet 6 inches, and at top 13 inches.
A large wheel a a, fig. 555, 4 feet in diameter and 6 inches broad in the rim, the
periphery of which is turned with the greatest accuracy, revolves in bearings in
the back part of the framing. This roller revolves in contact with a smaller
TURNER'S ROLLER-MILL.
449
roller b, 112 inches diameter, the periphery of which is also accurately turned.
Motion is given to this roller by the roller a a, through the adhesion of the sur-
faces. Pressure is applied to the
bearings of the small roller b, so
as to bring it in contact with the
large roller a, by means of the
screw-wheel c acting through a
coiled-up spring d; the diameter
of the screw-wheel c is 9 inches.
The spring d serves the double
purpose of insuring a perfectly
uniform pressure on the sub-
stances passing between the two
rollers, and of allowing a hard
substance, such as a nail or
pebble, to pass through without
injuring the surfaces of the roll-
ers. To keep these surfaces
clean, each roller is provided
with a scraper, as e for the
roller b, and ƒ for a.
1525. A small feed-roller g,
fig. 555, 2 inches diameter,
runs at the back of the hopper,
and serves to distribute the corn
evenly between the rollers. The
quantity of feed is regulated
by a slide-door h, which is
opened and closed by a rack and
pinion. The pinion is fixed on
a small spindle having a barrel-
wheel l at one end for working
the pinion. The roller g receives
motion from the spindle of the
small roller b through the me-
dium of two pulleys a and b, fig.
556, 4 inches diameter, and a
driving-belt; a being keyed on
to the shaft of the roller g, fig.
555, and 6 to that of the roller
b, fig. 555. The crushed grain
is delivered to the shoot c, fig.
556. In fig. 556, d and e are
the fast and loose pulleys for
driving the mill by power; f
is the wheel corresponding to
the wheel, fig. 555; g is
the hopper, and h the screw-
wheel corresponding to c, fig.
555.
1526. The price of Turner's
b
a
k
Fig. 553.
9
Ն
n
୯
a
k
THE SECTION OF THE POWER CORN-BRUISER.
Fig. 554.
TURNER'S ROLLER-MILL IN PERSPECTIVE.
N
To
roller-mill, No. 2, to be worked by manual labour by the handle as in fig. 554,
2 F
450
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
is £8; of No. 1, for power, £11, 11s.: pulley for extra power, 12s.; if turned
and polished, 20s.
f
Fig. 555.
a
a
81DE ELEVATION OF TURNER'S ROLLER-MILL.
d
e
Fig 556.
g
h
a
b
END ELEVATION OF TURNER'S
ROLLER-MILL.
1527. Oilcake-Breaker.—Machines for preparing oilcake for more easy masti-
cation by cattle or sheep are made in a variety of forms. One of those is simi-
lar in principle to that of the early bone-crushing machines-namely, a revolving
axle armed with several series of teeth, which are so arranged as to pass in
succession through the interstices of a line of strong teeth or prongs, against
which the cake lies, and is reduced to fragments by the successive action of the
revolving teeth. Of this form there are various modifications, all serving the
same purpose with nearly equal success.
1528. A different form of the machine, and which is held to be superior in
the principle of its construction, is here exhibited in fig. 557, which is a view
of the machine in perspective, wherein a a a a are the four posts of a wooden
frame, on which the machinery is supported. The frame is 39 inches in length
and 20 inches in width over the posts at top, the height being 33 inches. bb
are two top-rails, 34 inches in length, and the scantling of their timbers should
not be less than 2 inches square. The posts are supported towards the bottom
by the four stay-rails c c c; and the top-rails are held in position by cross-
rails d, one only of which is seen in the figure. Of the machinery, the acting
part consists of two rollers, studded all over with pyramidal knobs or teeth.
These are arranged in zones upon each roller, and having a smooth space or
zone between each of the knobbed zones; the knobs of the one roller correspond-
ing to the smooth space in the other. The rollers e and ƒ are constructed with an
axle or shaft, that of e being 25 inches long, and of ƒ 23 inches, and each 14 inch
square. Journals are formed upon these shafts, to run in the bearings which are
placed on the top-rails bb; g g are two pinching-screws, which serve to regulate
the distance at which the rollers are to work, and, consequently, the degree of
coarseness to which the cake is to be broken. The wheel h, of 20 inches diameter,
is placed upon the shaft of the roller e, and the pinion i, of 3 inches diameter, with

THE OILCAKE-BREAKER.
451
its shaft, and the winch-handle k, act upon the wheel h, giving a very consider-
able mechanical advantage to the power which is applied to the machine. The
Fig. 557.
k
h
0
C
a
a
d
a
C
b
m
9
a
THE OILCAKE-BREAKER.
fly-wheel is likewise placed upon the shaft of the pinion i, and is requisite in
this machine to enable the power to overcome the unequal resistance of the work.
On the farther end of the shaft of each of the rollers there is mounted a wheel
of 4 inches diameter, for the purpose of carrying both rollers at the same
speed. These wheels, one of which is seen at m, are formed with long teeth,
to admit of the roller f approaching to or receding from the other, which is
stationary in place. A feeding-hopper n is placed over the line of division of the
two rollers; it is 16 inches long, 3 inches wide, and 14 inches deep. In
forming the hopper, two upright pieces, 3 inches by 2 inches, are bolted, to the
inside of the top-rail, their position being between the shafts of the two rollers,
and these form the ends of the hopper. They are then boarded on each side,
which completes the machine. The hopper is here represented in section, the
near portion of it being supposed entirely removed, in order to exhibit more
distinctly the construction of the rollers.
1529. Fig. 558 is a further illustration of the construction of the rollers,
being a transverse section of the two: a a are the shafts, the shaded part b one
452
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
of the plain discs which go to form the smooth zones on the body of the roller;
it is 4 inches diameter and 1 inch thick: c is one of the knobbed discs, its body
Fig. 558.
THE TRANSVERSE SECTION OF THE
ROLLERS.
Fig. 559.
b
THE PLAN OF PART OF THE
ROLLERS.
being of the same diameter
and thickness as the former;
but having the four-sided
pyramidal knobs set around
it, the diameter, measuring
to the apex of the knobs, is
extended to 6 inches. One
roller for the machine here
described requires five plain and six knobbed discs, beginning and ending with
a knobbed disc. In the other the arrangement is reversed, bringing out the
alternation of the plain and knobbed zones alluded to, par. 1528, as more dis-
tinctly represented in fig. 559, which is a plan of part of the rollers, c c being
two of the knobbed discs, and b b b three of the plain.
1530. Fig. 560 represents one of the bearings or plummer-blocks for the
Fig. 560.
d
b
C
e
a
PART OF THE TOP-RAIL. WITH PLUMMER-BLOCK.
journals of the rollers: a is
the bed of the plummer-
block, b and c the brass
bushes, and d the cover.
The bush b, which corre-
sponds to the roller e, fig. 557,
is always stationary, while
which is acted upon by
the screw f, is advanced to-
C,
wards or withdrawn from b, as the size to which the cake is to be broken
may require. These plummer-blocks are bolted down to the top-rails e of the
frame, to which also the separate bearings of the pinion-shaft are likewise bolted.
1531. The price of this oilcake-breaker is from £4 to £4, 10s.
1532. It may be proper to remark here, that the machine now described
is of a good medium size, and with a man to drive and a boy to feed in the
cakes, it will break about half a ton in an hour. The amount of its performance
can be augmented or diminished to only a small extent, for as its feed is neces-
sarily confined to one cake at a time, the only change that can be made on its
production must depend upon the celerity of its motions. Hence, it is one of
those machines that cannot easily be adapted to large and to small establishments
with any view to amelioration of form; for the almost only means of doing so
must be by giving it a quicker or slower motion, which can only affect the
expense of construction to a very small amount-so small as hardly to be appre-
ciable.
1533. In addition to what is shown of this machine in fig. 557, the rollers
are frequently covered with a movable wooden case, which gives a more tidy
appearance to it; and, moreover, it is always desirable that the frame below
should contain a shoot formed of light boarding, that will receive the broken
cake from the rollers, and deliver it at one side of the machine into a basket or
other utensil in which it can be removed to the feeding-stations.
1534. Ransome and Sims' Oilcake-Breaker.-A very compact form of oil-
cake-breaker is manufactured by Messrs Ransome and Sims, Ipswich, a side
elevation of which is given in fig. 561, and a plan in 562, both drawn to a
scale of of an inch to the foot: a perspective view in fig. 563, and a sec-
tion, fig. 564.
1535. The framing a a, fig. 561, is 2 feet 8 inches high, the standards or
RANSOME AND SIMS' OILCAKE-BREAKER.
453
uprights being 3 inches by 24 inches, mortised into side pieces bb, 2 feet
111 inches long, 3 inches deep, and 24 inches thick. This framing supports the
Fig. 561.
α
g
d
e
a
SIDE ELEVATION OF RANSOME AND SIMS' OILCAKE-BREAKER.
plates c c, carrying the bearings of the two rollers shown by the dotted circles d d ;
the distance between which is regulated by the two pinching-screws dd in fig. 562.
e
Fig. 562.
g
h
™
וי
PLAN OF RANSOME AND SIMS' OILCAKE-BREAKER.
454
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
To the fly-wheel shaft f, fig. 561, worked by the handle g, the levers of which are
Fig. 563.
KANSOME AND SIMS' OILCAKE-BREAKER IN PERSPECTIVE.
Fig. 564.
α
VERTICAL SECTION THROUGH LINE ih IN FIG. 562.
Fig. 566.
Ъ
a
f
C
THE LINSEED-BRUISER
α
Fig. 565.
a
SECTION OF
ONE OF THE
CUTTERS.
12 inches long from centre,
a small pinion e, fig. 562, 31
inches diameter, is keyed;
this engages with a spur-
wheelf, 11 inches in diame-
ter, keyed on the end of the
spindle of one of the rollers.
To the other extremity of this
the pinion g, 4 inches dia-
meter, is keyed on, engaging
with a similarly-sized pinion.
h, keyed on to the spindle of
the other roller. The rollers
are covered with a casing
h, fig. 561, and the oilcake,
after being crushed, passes
off by the delivery-spout or
shoot i.
1536. In fig. 564 is given
a vertical section through the
line ik in fig. 562, showing the
form of the cutters a and b, fig.
564. These are 5 inches in dia-
meter; the oilcake to be broken
is passed between the pieces
c d, 6 inches deep and 1 inch
thick; the rollers are covered
in at the sides by the wooden
cap e e connected to the
pieces c d. In fig. 565 is
a section through ƒ g, fig.
564, of one of the cutters,
a series of which forming the
rollers are fitted on square
arbors or spindles a, 11 inch
square.
1537. The price of this oil-
cake-breaker is £4, 10s.
1538. Linseed - Bruisers.
There are several efficient
enough machines for bruising
linseed into meal, though,
from the oleaginous nature
of the seed, the rollers are
apt to clog up and get out of
working order. A simple
and cheap machine for the
purpose is made by Mr A.
Dean, Birmingham, which is
driven by hand, and costs
£6, 5s., and is represented by
fig. 566, where a is the hop-
OPEN BOILER STEAMING APPARATUS.
455
per for containing the seed; ƒ the box containing the crushing-rollers; c the
spout down which the meal descends; d the winch-handle which gives motion
to the rollers; e the fly-wheel; and b the slide which regulates the feed to the
rollers.
1539. Turner's roller-mill, as in fig. 554, is also an efficient linseed-bruiser.
1540. SECTION EIGHTH.-Boiling and Steaming Apparatus.
1541. Cooking Food for Stock.-The means employed for cooking food for
horses and cattle are either boiling or steaming. In boiling, an open vessel is
of course employed, in which the roots or other substances are placed, with
a sufficient quantity of water. This method has been found inconvenient in
many respects; and when the establishment is extensive, the vessel is required
to be incommodiously large, and is withal not economical.
1542. Open Boiler Steaming Apparatus.-Steaming in a separate vessel has
been adopted in preference to boiling, and has been followed in a variety of forms,
but these may be ranked under two distinct kinds. The first is an open vessel, a
boiler, generally of cast-iron, having a channel or groove of 1 inch wide and 2
inches deep formed round its brim. The vessel is placed over a furnace properly
constructed, and is partly filled with water. The groove is also filled with water.
A sheet-iron cylindrical pan, of 3 to 4 feet in depth, and of a diameter suited to
pass into the groove of the water-vessel (which is generally about 3 feet dia-
meter), is also provided. The pan has a perforated bottom, to admit steam freely
from the lower vessel. It is also furnished with an iron bow, by which it can
be suspended, and by which it can be conveniently tilted while suspended.
This is the steaming-pan; and for the purpose of moving it to and from the
boiler, a crane, mounted with wheel and pinion and a chain, completes the
apparatus.
1543. To put this in operation, the pan is filled with the substances to be
steamed, and covered over either with a deal cover or with old canvass bags. It
is then placed upon the boiler by means of the crane, the fire being pretty
strongly urged till the water in the boiler gives off its steam, which, passing up
through the bottom of the pan, and acting upon the contents, produces in a few
hours all the results of boiling. The water in the groove of the boiler serves as
a sealing to prevent the escape of steam without passing through the pan. But
notwithstanding this, it is evident that the steam can hardly ever reach the tem-
perature of 212°; and hence this apparatus is always found to be very tardy in
its effects. When the contents of the pan have been found sufficiently done, the
whole is removed from the boiler by means of the crane, and tilted into a large
trough to be thoroughly mixed, and from thence served out to the stock.
1544. A general complaint has been urged against this construction of appa-
ratus, arising from the slowness of the process of cooking by it, and conse-
quent expense of fuel. Boilers of the form here described are not well calcu-
lated to absorb the maximum of caloric that may be afforded by a given quantity
of fuel, neither is the apparatus generally the best adaptation for the applica-
tion of steam to the substances upon which the steam has to act. Such boilers,
as already observed, can never produce steam of a higher temperature than
212°. If they did, the shallow water-luting, formed by the marginal groove,
would be at once thrown out by the steam-pressure; for it is well known that
the addition of 1° to the temperature of the steam increases its elasticity
equal to the resistance of a column of water about 7 inches high.
A groove,
therefore, of 7 inches in depth would be required to resist the pressure, which
would even then be only lb. of pressure on the square inch. Under such cir-
456
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
cumstances, the temperature in the steaming-pan will always be under 212°.
Hence the tedious nature of the process by using this apparatus.
1545. Closed Boiler Steaming Apparatus.-A better apparatus than the above
is represented in fig. 567. The principle of its construction is that of a closed
boiler, in which the steam is produced under a small pressure of 3 to 4 lb. on the
Fig. 567.
7
K
n
P
d
THE CLOSED-BOILER STFAMING APPARATUS.
C
inch. It is then delivered through a pipe to one or more separate vessels con-
taining the substances that are to be cooked; and these vessels are so arranged
as to be readily engaged or disengaged with the conducting steam-pipe. The
outline a b c d of fig. 567 represents a section of the steaming-house, with the
apparatus in the order of arrangement, and of the extent that may be capable
of supplying an establishment of from 10 to 16 horses. The boiler e is of a
cylindrical form, 20 inches in diameter and 4 feet in length. It is set in brick-
work f, over a furnace of 14 inches in width, with fire-grate and furnace-door.
The brick building requires to be 6 feet 6 inches in length, 4 feet 6 inches in
breadth, and the height about 3 feet 6 inches. The furnace is built with a cir-
culating flue, passing first to the further end of the boiler, then turning to right
or left according as the chimney may be situated, returns to the front of the
boiler, and terminates in the chimney on the side opposite to the first turning.
The flucs should be not less in width at the upper part than one-fourth the diameter
CLOSED BOILER STEAMING APPARATUS.
457
of the boiler; and their height will be about one-third the diameter. The
steam-pipe is attached to the boiler at its crown, takes a swan-neck bend down-
wards to within 12 inches of the floor at g, and terminates at p; it is furnished
with as many branch nozzles as there are intended to be steaming-vessels. The
steam-pipe may be either of cast-iron or lead, and 2 inches diameter in the bore.
The receptacles or steaming-vessels h h are usually casks of from 50 to 100 gal-
lons contents. They are mounted with two iron gudgeons or pivots, placed a
little above mid-height; they are besides furnished with a false bottom, sup-
ported about 3 inches above the true bottom; the false one being perforated with
a plentiful number of holes, to pass the steam which is introduced between the
two bottoms. The connection between the steam-pipe and the receptacle may be
either by a stop-cock and coupling-screw-which is the most perfect connection
or it may be by the simple insertion of the one nozzle within the other, in the
form of a spigot and faucet. If with spigot and faucet, the nozzle that leads from
the steam-pipe is stopped with a wooden plug, when the steaming-vessel is disen-
gaged. Besides the steam-pipe, the boiler is furnished with a pipe i, placed in
connection with a cistern of water k, the pipe entering into it by the bottom, and
its orifice closed by a valve opening upward, the lower extremity of the pipe
passing within the boiler to within 3 inches of its bottom. A slender rod 7 passes
also into the boiler through a small stuffing-box; and to its lower end, within the
boiler, is appended a float, which rests upon the surface of the water within the
boiler. The upper end of this rod is jointed to a small lever, which has its ful-
crum supported on the edge of the cistern a little above k; the opposite end of
the lever being jointed to a similar but shorter rod, rising from the valve in the
bottom of the cistern. This forms the feeding apparatus of the boiler, and is so
adjusted by weights, that when the water in the boiler is at a proper height, the
float is buoyed up so as to shut the valve in the cistern, preventing any further
supply of water to pass into the boiler, until, by evaporation, the surface of the
water has fallen so far as to leave the float unsupported, to such extent as to
form a counterpoise to the valve, which will then open, and admit water to
descend into the boiler, until it has again elevated the float to that extent that
will shut the valve in the cistern.
1546. By this arrangement, it will be perceived that the water in the
boiler will be kept nearly at a uniform height; but to accomplish all this,
the cistern must be placed at a certain fixed height above the water in the
boiler, and this height is regulated by the laws which govern the expansive
power of steam.
This law, without going into its mathematical details at
present, in so far as regards this point, may be stated in round numbers as fol-
lows: That the height of the surface of the water in the cistern must be raised
above the surface of that in the boiler, 3 feet for every pound-weight of pressure
that the steam will exert on a square inch of surface in the boiler. Thus, if it
is estimated to work with steam of 1 lb. on the inch, the cistern must be raised
3 feet; if 2 inches, 6 feet; 3 inches, 9 feet; and so on.
If the steam is by any
chance raised higher than the height of the cistern provides for, the whole of the
water in the boiler may be forced up through the pipe into the cistern, or until
the lower orifice of the pipe, within the boiler, is exposed to the steam which will
then also be ejected through the pipe, and the boiler may be left dry. Such an
accident, however, cannot occur to the extent here described, if the feeding appa-
ratus is in proper working order; and its occurrence to any extent is sufficiently
guarded against by a safety-valve.
1547. The safety-valve of the steam-boiler is usually a conical metal valve,
and always opening outward; it ought always to be of a diameter large in pro-
458
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
portion to the size of boiler and steam-pipe, so as to insure the free egress of any
rapid generation of steam. For a boiler of this size, par. 1545, it should
be 2 inches in diameter on its under surface-that being the surface acted upon
—this gives an area of fully 3 square inches; and if loaded directly, or without
the intervention of a lever, for steam of a pressure of 1 lb. on the inch it will
require 3 lb.; if 2 lb. on the inch, 6 lb.; if 3 lb. on the inch, 9 lb., and so on.
With these adjustments, the steam, should it rise above the proposed pressure,
will, instead of forcing the water through the feed-pipe, raise the safety-valve,
and escape into the atmosphere until the pressure is reduced to the intended
equilibrium.
1548. Another precautionary measure in the use of the steam-boiler is the
gauge-cock, of which there are usually two, but sometimes one, a two-way cock ;
they are the common stop-cock, with a lengthened tail passing downward, the
one having its tail terminating about 1½ inch below the proper water-level in the
boiler, the other terminating 1½ inch above that level, which allows a range of 3
inches for the surface of the water to rise or fall. The first, or water-cock, then,
when opened, will throw out water by the pressure of the steam upon its surface,
until the surface has sunk 1½ inch below its proper level, when steam will be dis-
charged, thus indicating the water in the boiler to be too low, and that measures
should be taken to increase the supply. When the second or steam-cock is
opened, it will always discharge steam alone, unless the water shall have risen
so high as to come above its orifice, in which case the cock will discharge
water, indicating a too large supply of water to the boiler, and that it should be
reduced; for which purpose the feed-pipe i is provided with a stop-cock m, fig.
567, whereby the admission of water can be entirely prevented at the pleasure
of the attendant.
1549. The foregoing description refers to a steaming apparatus of the best
description, and implies that the water-cistern can be supplied either from a
fountain-head, or that water can be pumped up to the cistern. But there may
be cases where neither of these are easily attainable. Under such circumstances
the feed-pipe may rise to the height of 4 or 4 feet, and be surmounted by a
funnel, and under it a stop-cock. In this case, also, a float with a wire stem,
rising through a stuffing-box on the top of the boiler, must be employed; the
stem may rise a few inches above the stuffing-box, in front of a graduated scale,
having the zero in its middle point. When the water is at the proper height
in the boiler, the top of the stem should point at zero, and any rise or fall in the
water will be indicated accordingly by the position of the stem.
1550. To supply a boiler mounted after this fashion, the first thing to be.
attended to, before setting the fire, is to fill up the boiler, through the funnel, to
the proper level, which will be indicated by the float pointing to zero; but it
should be raised, in this case, 2 or 3 inches higher. In this stage the gauge-
cocks are non-effective; but when the steam has been got up, they, as
well as the float, must be consulted frequently; and should the water, by eva-
poration, fall so low as 3 inches below zero, a supply must be introduced through
the funnel. To effect a supply in these circumstances, the steam must be
allowed to fall rather low, and the funnel being filled, and the stop-cock opened,
the water in the funnel will sink down through the tube, provided the steam
be sufficiently low to admit its entrance, but the first portion of water that can
be thus thrown in will go far to effect this, by sinking the temperature. The
sinking of the temperature by the addition of a large quantity of cold water, is
the objection to this mode of feeding; but this is obviated to some extent
from the circumstance, that unless the steaming receptacles are large or numer-
CLOSED BOILER STEAMING APPARATUS.
459
ous, the first charge of water will generally serve to cook the mess, when a
fresh charge can be put in for the next.
1551. In using this steaming apparatus, it has been noticed, in par. 1545, that
the casks are furnished with gudgeons, which play in the posts n n, fig. 567;
these are kept in position by the collar-beam o to which they are attached, the
casks being at liberty to be tilted upon these gudgeons. They are charged when
in the upright position, and the connection being formed by the steam-pipe, they
are covered at top with a close lid or a thick cloth, and the process of steaming
goes on.
When the substances are sufficiently cooked, the couplings r r are
disengaged, the upper part of the cask is swung forward, and their contents
discharged into a trough which is brought in front of them for that purpose.
1552. The connections with the steam-pipe are sometimes, for cheapness,
formed by a sliding tube of copper or brass, about 4 inches in length, which,
after the nozzle of the cask and that projecting from the steam-pipe are brought
directly opposite to each other, is slid over the junction, and as a moderate
degree of tightness only is requisite in such joints, a strip of sacking wrapped
round the ends of the slider is found sufficient. On breaking the connection,
and opening the exit nozzles, the steam will of course flow out, but this is
checked by a wooden plug, or even a potato or slice of turnip, thrust into the
orifice, may be sufficient. It is advisable, however, that a main stop-cock
should be placed in the steam-pipe anywhere between the boiler and the first
receptacle.
1553. The most perfect mode of connection between the steam-pipe and the
receptacles is a stop-cock and coupling-screw. These should be of 1½ inch bore;
they are more certain in their effect, and more convenient in their application,
though attended with more expense in the first cost of the apparatus. In this
case no main-cock is required. The extremity of the steam-pipe should, in all
cases, be closed by a small stop-cock, for the purpose of draining off any water
that may collect in the pipe from condensation. A precaution to the same effect
is requisite, in the bottom of each cask, to draw off the water that condenses
abundantly in it; or a few small perforations in the bottom will effect the
purpose.
1554. It must be remarked, in regard to steaming, that in those establish-
ments where grain of any kind is given in food in a cooked state, dry grain
cannot be cooked, or at least dressed to softness in dry steam, the only effect
produced being a species of parching; and if steam of high temperature is
employed, the parching is increased nearly to carbonisation. If it is wished,
therefore, to soften or even to boil grain by steam, it must be done by one of
the two following methods: The grain must either be soaked in water for a few
hours, and then exposed to the direct action of the steam in the receptacle; or
it may be put into the receptacle with as much water as will cover it, and then,
by attaching the receptacle to the steam-pipe by the coupling stop-cock, or in
the absence of stop-cocks, by passing a bent leaden pipe from the steam-pipe,
over the upper edge of the receptacle and descending again inside, to the space
between the false and the true bottoms: the steam discharged thus, by either
method, will shortly raise the temperature of the water to the boiling point, and
produce the desired effect.*
1555. The time required to prepare food in this way varies considerably,
according to the state of the apparatus, and the principle of its construction.
With the apparatus just described, potatoes can be steamed in casks of from
* See Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 33.

460
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
32 to 50 gallons contents, in thirty to fifty-four minutes. In casks extending to
80 gallons, an hour or more may be required.
1556. Turnips require considerably longer time to become fully ready; espe-
cially if subjected to the process in thick masses, the time may be stated at
double that of potatoes. When the apparatus is ill constructed, the time, in
some cases, required to cook turnips, extends to five hours. And, with reference
to the apparatus described in par. 1542, the time is seldom under five hours.
1557. The prices of steaming apparatus vary according to quality and extent;
but, on an average, the open boiler and pan apparatus, including a power-crane,
will range from £7 to £10; and of fig. 567, the price ranges from £8 to £16.
The expense of building the furnace, and supplying mixing troughs, will add
about £2, 10s. to each.
1558. In figs. 568 and 569, we give a perspective view of two exceedingly
compact forms of steaming apparatus-fig. 568 being that of Messrs Richmond
and Chandler, Salford, Manchester, an arrangement which has long had a
high reputation-fig. 569 being that recently introduced by Messrs A. and W.
Smith and Co., Glasgow.
1559. Richmond and Chandler's Steaming Apparatus.-In fig. 568 a a is the
furnace of brick, b the furnace-door, c the ash-pit. The boiler d is capable of
a
h
Fig. 568.
a
0
m
오
​2
RICHMOND AND CHANDLER'S STEAMING APPARATUS IN PERSPECTIVE.
holding 30 gallons, and is supplied with self-acting feed-apparatus f g h, by
which a due supply of water is maintained; e is the manhole door. The steam
is led off by the pipe i k l to the mash-tub or cylinder m m. This is capable of
holding 4 bushels, and is 30 inches long or deep, and 22 inches in diameter. It
is swung on swivel-joints to the uprights q q, 221 inches from the ground, bolted
to the timbers or sole-plates r r. The supply of steam is regulated by the stop-
THE COMMON BOILER.
461
cock on the pipe between i and k. The cover is kept on steam-tight by the pres-
sure of the screw p passing through the bearers o o. The best wrought-iron
plate is used in the construction of the boiler and receptacle; the feed-appa-
ratus and boiler mountings are of cast-iron.
1560. The price of Richmond and Chandler's steaming apparatus is £6, 9s.
If required, a second mash-tub can be placed at the other side of the boiler.
1561. Smith & Co.'s Steaming Apparatus.-In fig. 569, of Smith & Co.'s steam-
ing apparatus, the boiler
is on the Cornish or in-
ternal-flue principle. It
is fitted with a furnace,
two pans, and self-act-
ing feed-valve and pipe,
of which the illustration
.will convey a general
idea to the reader.
1562. The price, with
two pans to hold 85 gal-
lons each, is £26, with
flue-boiler; with plain
boiler, £23. To hold 50
gallons each, with Corn-
ish boiler, £18; with
plain boiler, £10.
Fig. 569.
SMITH AND CO.'S STEAMING APPARATUS IN ELEVATION.
1563. Trouble and inconvenience are often felt in the use of a steaming appa-
ratus of the most perfect construction, and far more of others of less ingenious
arrangement; and the consequence is, that many are abandoning the steaming
process altogether, and returning to the once contemned open boiler. It is
quite possible that more fuel is required in the boiler than in the steaming
apparatus to produce the same effects; but the boiler is so simple in its use,
so ready at all times, so free from danger and accident, and so efficient in its
results, that it may ultimately be the only apparatus in a farm that will be used
to prepare food for either cattle or horses. We have had opportunities of wit-
nessing the use of both apparatus in extensive farms where food is constantly
prepared, and has been for many years past; and our conviction is now entirely
in favour of the boiler. And now that potatoes, which are best cooked by steam-
ing, cannot be depended on as a crop, and may, in future, bear a high price
—and, on the contrary, as turnips, whose culture is extending every year, are
best cooked by boiling-the boiler promises to become the more useful apparatus
of the two.
1564. The Common Boiler.-Fig. 570 represents a common large boiler, fitted
up
in the best manner, where a is the cast-iron boiler, from 3 to 4 feet diameter
across the top; b the furnace-grate for containing the fire, with its door; c the
damper, in the flue for regulating the draught upon the fire; and d the stop-
cock for supplying the boiler with water. The use of a boiler is so well known
to country people that nothing need be said on it here.
1565. A sure method of preserving the front and top of the boiler from being
broken, is to cover the first coat of plaster with stout coarse linen, and rub
the second coat of plaster while moist through its texture, and to place a strong
flagstone around the mouth of the boiler.
1566. But the boiler is not always properly built upon its seat in the furnace.
It is furnished with two or three studs or ears, projecting from under the flange
462
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
around its mouth, by which it may easily be suspended. A not unfrequent,
but improper way of setting the boiler upon the furnace, is to cause the edge
of its bottom to rest upon the building from both sides of the furnace-door to
Fig. 570.
C
BOILER AND FURNACE.
the back part of the building, where
the flue is formed in connection with
the chimney. The effect of this mode
of setting is to cause the entire force
of the fire in the furnace to strike
against the bottom only of the boiler,
and the greatest force will affect that
part of the bottom which is nearest
the furnace - door, the heat from
whence must cook the entire contents
of the boiler, and where at times the
bottom must be so greatly heated—as .
when the contents of the boiler are re-
moved immediately after they are suffi-
ciently cooked, and cold water is poured
into the boiler, in preparation for the
cooking of another mess-that it is
either cracked by the sudden cooling of
the water, or is honeycombed by the
fire, when the liquid in the boiler will
ooze gradually through the corroded
metal into the fire.
1567. Now, the proper way of setting a boiler is this: When the building
has proceeded so far as to have formed the ash-pit, and received the grate and
dumb plate and furnace-door, to the height of the door, let a circular basin be
built of the form of and a few inches larger than the boiler, to contain the boiler
itself; and let it be so contracted, as it comes nearer to its height, as to sus-
pend the entire boiler within the basin by its ears; and let a flue be built from
behind, or at one side of the basin, as the case may be, into the chimney. The
advantage of this mode of setting is, that the heat of the fire is not confined to
one part of the boiler, but is diffused over the whole of its under surface; and
though the heat may not be so great at any one part, it cooks the contents more
equally, and preserves the boiler from overheating and injury.
1568. In any case a damper is a requisite part of a boiler and furnace, to
regulate the draught through the fire, according to the state of the air. It is
d
Fig. 571.
a
e
b
C
to be regretted that this regulator is little attended to
after the first time it has been adjusted; and the con-
sequence is, when the fire does not burn so briskly as
desired, more coals or wood are put into the furnace;
and when it burns too fiercely, it is regarded as a
happy incident, instead of the draught of air being
regulated by means of the damper, according to the
circumstances of the case.
1569. Clarke & Co.'s Portable Combined Furnace and
Caldron. In fig. 571 is given a section of a portable
combined furnace and caldron, manufactured by Messrs
Clarke and Co., Shakespeare Foundry, Wolverhamp-
The boiler or caldron is at a a b the fur-
nace, with semicircular top, to expose as much of the heating surface to the
PORTABLE COMBINED FURNACE AND
CALDRON.
ton.
CHURNING.
463
material as possible; c the ash-pit; d the crane or stop-cock, by which to with-
draw the contents of the boiler a a. In the form illustrated, the apparatus
rests on an ash-pit, which forms the base, and is lifted from place to place by
handles fixed to the boiler. To expedite removal, the apparatus may be
mounted on wheels.
1570. SECTION NINTH.-Dairy Apparatus.
1571. Churning.-The process of churning, or agitating milk and cream for
the production of butter, is performed in such a variety of machines, and in
vessels so variously formed, each of which has its advocates, and, probably,
with but little difference in the principal results, that it becomes a question of
no small difficulty to answer which of these numerous forms is the best.
That there will be slight differences, is at the same time sufficiently apparent;
but these will arise more from the capacity of the vessel, as affecting tempe-
rature, than from peculiarity of structure, and probably also from other condi-
tions affecting the chemical changes that take place during the process of
churning. It will also be obvious, on a full consideration of the subject, that
causes of difference will arise to some extent from the circumstances attending
the more or less perfect nature of the agitation produced, as arising from the
peculiar formation, and the motions, whether of the containing vessel or of the
agitators.
1572. The peculiarities of the form of churns may be viewed under four
distinct classes: 1. Those in which both the fluid and the containing vessel,
with its agitators, are in rotative motion; 2. In which the containing vessel is
at rest, and the agitators in rotative motion horizontally; 3. In which the con-
taining vessel is at rest, and the agitators in rotative motion vertically; and 4.
Wherein the containing vessel is at rest, and the agitator having a rectilineal
vertical motion.
1573. In the class which has both the fluid and the containing vessel, with
its agitators, in a rotative motion, is to be noticed those machines acting by
their gyration on a centre, such as the old barrel-churn, wherein the contained
fluid will have a tendency to acquire a motion of rotation approaching to that
of the vessel; and if this rotation were continued always in the same direction,
the process would be very much retarded from a deficiency of agitation: hence,
in such machines, very frequent changes in the direction of the rotative motion
is absolutely necessary to the completion of the process of making butter.
1574. The second class embraces those in which the vessel is permanent,
and an agitator of two or four arms revolves horizontally within it. If the
vessel is cylindrical, the agitation will be imperfect, for the fluid will very soon
acquire a motion en masse, and will be carried forward by the arms of the
agitator, undergoing such agitation only as will arise from the central portion,
acting by the centrifugal force, having always a tendency to fly towards the
circumference of the revolving mass. This will no doubt ultimately, though
slowly, produce the requisite effect, but it will be more speedily accomplished
if the vessel is of a square form; for in that case the rotation of the mass will
be interrupted at every angle, and eddies formed therein of such force as will
not only cause disturbance of the fluid in these angles, but in doing so will pro-
duce corresponding counter-motions in the entire mass.
From such causes,
churns of this class and of the square form are found, especially on the large
scale, to be very efficient, though, from the inconvenience of adopting manual
power to a horizontal motion, it is seldom resorted to in the small scale.
1575. In the third class of machines, where the vessel is permanent, but
464
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
having the agitators revolving in a vertical direction, the agitation is regular,
and pervades at all times the entire mass of fluid; and in this respect there is
little if any difference in effect, whether the bottom of the vessel be flat or
cylindrical, nor is there any necessity for changing the direction of motion.
We accordingly find that, whether on the large or small scale, churns of this
class find favour in almost all localities.
1576. The fourth class of this useful machine is the upright or plunge churn.
The vessel in this is also permanent, and its height, unlike all the others, is
considerable, as compared with its breadth. As a matter of convenience, it is
always made cylindrical, or rather slightly conical, which last property is given
to it for the convenience of hooping, for in every other respect its tapering form
is a defect. The plunger must necessarily always move vertically, without any
rotative motion, and, when extended throughout the entire column of fluid, the
agitation must be as complete as it is possible to attain.
1577. Plunge or vertical churns, therefore, are by many held as the most
perfect for the production of butter, as well as for saving time in the operation;
but there are objections to it as regards fitness for the adaptation of manual
power. It is obvious to even a careless observer, that the human arm, if applied
directly to the upright staff of this churn, the body being also upright, will be
employing that power under the greatest possible disadvantages. The muscles
of the arm, acting as they do in all cases under great natural disadvantages in
respect of their leverage, will, in this peculiar position, be deprived of nearly
all aid which the muscles of the trunk in many positions are calculated to give
out to assist those of the arm; hence it is that the labour of working these
churns by hand is found so oppressive, that the operator is unable to keep up
a constant action; and the principle on which the churn is based is blamed for
that delay in the operation, that ought rather to be attributed to the defect in
the medium through which the power is applied. In proof of this, we find that
when animal, or any of the inanimate powers, are applied to the vertical churn,
it attains a character superior to all others, both as to time and production,
and this character is sustained throughout some of the best dairy districts of
Scotland.
1578. The advantages of applying hand-power through a proper medium are
also observable in the case of this churn, when such power is applied through a
winch-handle with a fly-wheel. Examples of this arrangement have been
attended with the best effects, and with much ease, as compared with the direct
application of the power to the plunger-rod.
1579. The Barrel-Churn.-In proceeding to the details of the churning
machinery, the first class embraces those machines that act by their gyration
round a centre, the fluid and the containing vessel revolving together, or par-
tially so; of which the common barrel-churn may be taken as the type. The
barrel, which is of capacity suited to the dairy, is sometimes provided only with
a large square bunghole, secured by a clasped cover, by which it is charged and
emptied; while in other cases, one of its ends is movable, and made tight by
screwing it down on a packing of canvass cloth. In all cases, it is necessary
that the interior of the barrel should be armed with three or more longitudinal
ribs of wood standing as radii towards the centre, and perforated in various
forms; these constitute the agitators of the churn. Each end of the barrel
is furnished with an iron gudgeon or journal strongly fixed to it, and to one of
them is applied the winch-handle by which the machine is turned; while it is
supported on a wooden stand, having bearings for the two journals. More
than one imperfection attends this construction of churn. From the circum-
HORIZONTAL CHURN.
465
stance of its rotatory motion, it will always have less or more of a tendency
to carry the fluid round with the barrel and the agitators, more especially
if a rapid velocity of rotation is given to it; and to counteract this tendency,
it becomes necessary to reverse the motion at every few turns, which is
of itself an inconvenience. There is, besides, the great inconvenience of
getting access, either to remove the butter that may adhere to the agitators,
or to cleanse the interior of the barrel. This is especially the case where there
is no movable end; and even with this convenience for cleaning, the trouble of
opening and closing the end is considerable. To those imperfections it is, no
doubt, chiefly owing that this churn, once in high repute in East Lothian and
Berwickshire, has gradually fallen into comparative neglect; and from these
circumstances, it has been deemed unnecessary to give figures of this class of
churn.
1580. The Horizontal Churn.-The machines to be here noticed under the
second class are of a less varied character than any of the others, are seldom, if
ever, used with hand-labour, but are generally worked by horse-power, and
chiefly in town dairies, or in those around Edinburgh. From the comparatively
small importance of this churn, it has been deemed unnecessary to give a figure
of it; but its structure is so simple, that the following description will convey a
tolerably correct knowledge of its construction to the mechanical reader. The
horse-path, especially in towns, where space is valuable, seldom exceeds 16 feet;
the horse-beam, with yoke, is fixed to an upright central shaft, which carries a
spur-wheel placed at a height of about 3 feet from the floor, the wheel being
about 4 feet diameter. A churning-vessel, of dimensions varying with the extent
of the dairy, is attached to the machine-and sometimes two vessels. For a dairy
of 25 or 30 cows, where much of the produce is sold as sweet-milk, the vessel may
be 2 feet 8 inches square and 2 feet 8 inches deep: it is placed securely on the
floor at a proper distance from the central shaft, to suit the spur-wheel. A foot-
step of metal is placed in the centre of the bottom, and a cross-head is attached
to two uprights fixed on opposite sides of the vessel. The foot-step and cross-
head serve as the two bearings for an upright spindle, which carries the four-
armed agitator, and a pinion of 3 inches diameter adapted to the spur-wheel.
These parts, and a close cover for the vessel, complete the machine, which is
therefore extremely simple; and in a dairy which is too extensive for manual
power being applied effectually to churning, while want of space may preclude
the adoption of more bulky machines, the one here described may be resorted to
with advantage.
1581. Whitworth and Eastwood's Compound-Action Churn.-This churn is
manufactured by the owners at Blackburn, Lancashire, and belongs to the
second class. It has two agitators within the receptacle, which are moved by
bevelled wheels of the same size, causing each agitator to have the same action
and velocity. These wheels are mounted on a horizontal spindle, which is
moved by a winch-handle, and when the churn is large, the action may be assisted
by another winch-handle and a fly-wheel at the other end of the spindle. The
spindle has bearings on two studs, connected by a bar that keeps the bevelled
pinions on the top of the shafts of the agitators in their places, and the studs are
secured on opposite sides of the churn with pinching-screws. The whole work-
ing gearing is easily removed, to allow the butter to be taken out of the churn,
and the churn to be cleansed.
1582. This churn is equally adapted for the hand or for power, according to
its capacity.
1583. Its price varies from £1, 13s. to £6, as it may churn from two to
2 G
466
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
thirty gallons of milk or cream; 2s. per gallon extra being charged from thirty
to forty gallons, and 1s. 6d. a gallon above forty gallons.
1584. Churns of the third class are much more numerous than the two former
classes, and though in themselves not differing much in the essential points,
they yet exhibit a variety of structure in their details. They are usually dis-
tinguished by the name of box-churns, though the class embraces not only the
cubical and the oblong box, but also the cylinder or barrel, the distinctive
character being an agitator revolving in the vertical direction within a station-
ary case of any form.
1585. The Box Hand-Churn.-To illustrate this class, we have selected, first,
Fig. 572.
THE BOX HAND-CHURN.
Fig. 573.
4
the common box-hand churn, in very
general use. The present example, fig.
572, is 18 inches in length, 11 inches in
width, and 20 inches in depth, inside
measure. Birch or plane-tree are the
best material for the purpose, and it
requires to be very carefully joined so as
to be water-tight. It is of very small
moment whether the bottom is formed
to the circle of the agitator, or remains
flat, in as far as the production of butter
is to be considered; but for the pro-
cess of cleansing, the curved bottom
will present some little advantages. A
cover of the same material is fitted close
in the top of the box, with convenient a
handle.
1586. The agitator, fig. 573, is of the usual form; the dimensions of its parts
are unimportant, except that they have sufficient
strength, and present sufficient surface to produce the
requisite degree of agitation in the fluid. The two
pairs of arms are half lapped at the centre, and the
cross-bars mortised into them; the dimensions in
length and breadth being such as to allow it to move
with freedom within the box. At the centre a per-
foration is made through the sides to admit the iron
spindle, which, at this part, is a square bar, fitting
neatly into socket-plates of iron let into the agitator
on each side, as seen in the figure at a.
a
THE AGITATOR OF THE BOX-CHURN.
1587. The further end of the spindle projects about
an inch beyond the agitator, and is rounded to form a journal, which has its
bearing in a close brass plate-bush or socket, which is sunk into the side of the
box, and fixed with screws. The outward end of the spindle is furnished with
a conical journal, the smallest diameter of which is equal to the diagonal of
the square part of the spindle, and is furnished with a raised collar or ruff; the
conical journal lying in a thorough brass plate-bush, leaving the collar outside,
but embraced by a cup of the bush, upon which a coupling-ring is screwed,
covering the collar, and, pressing home the conical journal, preventing thus the
spindle from being withdrawn until the coupling-ring is removed. The spindle
extends beyond the collar about 2 inches, and is here formed into a square
stud, upon which the eye of the winch-handle f, fig. 572, is shipped when in work.
1588. In rigging this apparatus, the agitator is placed within the box, and

THE PLUNGER-CHURN.
467
the spindle is pushed through the outer bush and the agitator, until its two
journals rest in the bushes; the coupling-ring is then screwed on to the outer
bush, until the spindle with the agitator just turns round with freedom in the
conical bush. To prevent the ring from turning round by the motion of the
spindle, a smooth ring or washer of steel may be interposed between the collar
and the brass ring.
1589. Various other modes of securing the spindle are employed, but in all,
the object is to prevent leakage at the bush.
1590. To prevent taint from galvanic influence, also, it is not uncommon to
apply bone or other animal substance for the bushes.
1591. The Box-Churn with Power.-Churns of this kind are made of all sizes,
without any change in the principle of their construction. They are applied to
all kinds of power, and the capacity is proportioned to the extent of the dairy;
but the entire capacity of the churn must be in general about double the
quantity in gallons of the fluid intended to be acted upon. In operating with
the box-churn, it may be filled to the height of the spindle, or, if that member
is well fitted, the milk may rise considerably above it, though in general prac-
tice it rises but little above. To adapt the churn to power, it is only neces-
sary to put a pulley for a strap, or a chain, upon the end of the spindle, in place
of the handle; or the spindle may be attached to another shaft, having the
proper velocity, by means of a slip-coupling. The velocity of the agitator must
depend upon the size of the churn: one of 24 inches diameter may make 60
revolutions per minute on the average, but may be higher or lower in the diffe-
rent stages of the process.
Fig. 574.
1592. Anthony's American Washer-Churn.-In fig. 574 we give a perspec-
tive view of Anthony's Ameri-
can washer-churn (agents, Messrs
Burgess and Key), with a part
of two sides removed to show
the arrangement of the inte-
rior. This churn has a high
reputation as a quick butter-
maker. The dimensions of the
14-lb. churn are-width 12
inches, length 19 inches, ex-
treme depth in the centre 12
inches; depth to the top of the
bevel at the sides 9 inches ;
length of crank of handle 8
inches.
ANTHONY'S AMERICAN CHURN IN PERSPECTIVE.
WW Sc
1593. The price of this size of the American washer-churn is £2, 15s.
1594. The Plunger-Churn.-In the fourth class of our subdivision there is
only to be considered the plunger-churn; for in this class there is no variety,
except as to the dimensions. The means of working the plunger, and the
different media through which the power is applied, whether of man or of
animals, are of a character much more varied than in all the others put
together; and all these varieties seem to have been suggested, with a view to
overcome the very unfavourable position in which a man applies his force
directly to the plunger-rod of this churn. Amongst these varieties of construc-
tion in the mechanical media through which power, of whatever kind, may be
applied, we find all possible varieties of the lever and its combinations, the
loaded pendulum, with combinations of the lever of rack-gearing, crank and
468
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
lever, and crank with connecting-rods; but it would be profitless to enumerate.
all the forms that have been devised for the improvement of this particular
kind, and much more so to attempt to describe them. We will, therefore, rest
satisfied with one that has long been in extensive use, and is equally well
adapted to the hand, or to power of any kind.
Fig. 575.
1595. The upright or plunge churning-vessel is always a piece of cooper-work,
varying in capacity, according to the extent of the dairy in which it is to be
employed, from 10 to 130 gallons. It is illus-
trated in fig. 575. It is built slightly tapering
upward for the convenience of being tightly
hooped, having a strong bottom and a movable
cover, which may be fastened down with an iron
clasp-hoop; a perforation is formed in the centre
of the cover for the passage of the churn-staff
or plunger-rod, and this is surrounded by a
wooden cup, to prevent the lashing over of the
fluid in the act of churning.
1596. The plunger or agitator, which is at-
tached to the bottom of the plunger-rod, is a
circular reticulated frame of wood; the meshes
may be from 14 inch to 2 inches square, and the
bars forming the reticulation about § inch thick
and 1½ inch deep, the whole embraced by a
wooden hoop, whose diameter will just enter the
top of the churn. The structure of the plunger
is by no means important, the only essential
point being, that it shall not present too much
resistance to the passage of the fluid through
its interstices, nor too little, to give it a too easy passage, which might render
the agitation so slight as to be ineffectual: a good medium is to make the
horizontal area of all the interstices 1.5 times the area of the solid parts, and
this rule will apply to the agitators of all churns. Such is the simple con-
struction of this churning-vessel, which is capable of adaptation to any kind of
power, and to any extent of dairy.
PLUNGER-CHURN.
1597. Plunger-Churn with Hand-power Machine.-In figs. 576, 577, we illus-
trate a form extensively used in Lanarkshire and the neighbouring counties,
where they are usually worked by one horse. Fig. 576 is a side elevation of the
churn, and the mechanism required within the churn-room of the dairy. It is here
represented as being for hand-power; but the arrangements of the machine, so
far as here exhibited, are the same whether for man or horse. Fig. 577 is a
back view of the same, and the same letters apply to the corresponding parts
in each figure.
1598. The floor-line of the churning-room is represented by the line a a,
and b c is an upright frame of cast-iron, which is bolted to the floor. The
frame consists of two cheeks, which are bolted together on the flanged
bars ddd; it is 5 feet 9 inches high, and 16 inches wide. The reciprocating
cast-iron lever ef is supported by its fulcra on the top of the frame, by means
of a centre-shaft passing through the lever. The length from the fulcrum to
the head ƒ is 4 feet 2 inches, and from the same point backward to the extremity
is 2 feet 3 inches: a counterpoise is here placed upon the lever to bring it
nearly to an equilibrium. The connecting-rod g h is jointed upon a bolt that is
fitted to move along the oblique groove g i formed in the lever, and the crank k
THE PLUNGER-CHURN WITH HAND-POWER.
469
is formed on a shaft that turns in bearings in the upright frame; its throw is
i
Fig. 576.
CL
P
9
g
И
h
m
S
回
​n
(0)
b
12
6 0
1
2
cet
SIDE ELEVATION OF THE PLUNGER-CHURN WITH HAND-POWER MACHINE.
t
8 inches, less or more, proportioned to the height of the churning vessel, and
the foot h of the connecting-rod is fitted to
the crank-pin. 7 is a light sheers of malleable
iron, whose forked ends embrace the head of
the connecting-rod, which is also forked at the
head, and the pin of the groove passes through
all three. The adjusting-screw m, with its
winch-handle n, is supported in a swivel socket
in the bracket o; while its screwed end m
works in the bend of the sheers 7, which is
screwed as a nut to receive it, for the purpose
of shortening or lengthening the distance m g,
and so changing the position of the head of the
connecting-rod. The head f of the lever is
mounted with a pair of side-links p p, jointed
on a cross-head in f; the links are again
jointed on a wooden cross-head u, into which
the head of the plunger-rod q is inserted, and
fixed by a pin or key; these side-links, jointed
as they are at top and bottom, produce a very
imperfect parallel motion, but sufficient to
answer the rise and fall of the plunger-rod.
The handle s is fixed on one end of the crank-
shaft, and on the other is placed the fly-wheel
t, to equalise the motion of the lever, and
compensate the inequality of the resistance to
the plunger in its ascent and descent. The
n
S
Ֆ
Fig. 577.
d
e
U
h
d
に
​с
b
n
BACK VIEW OF THE PLUNGER-CHURN WITH
HAND-POWER MACHINE.
470
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
churning-vessel r is 3 feet high, with an average diameter of 15 inches, and
capacity about 23 gallons.
1599. In extensive dairies, it is common to have two churning-vessels attached
to the machine, in which case the wooden cross-head u is elongated so as to
receive the head of the plunger-rods of both vessels, the vessels standing side
by side during the operation.
1600. When this machine is in operation, the revolutions of the crank pro-
duce a reciprocating action in the connecting-rod, which is communicated to the
lever, and thence to the plungers; and it will be seen that, by moving the
head g of the connecting-rod in the oblique groove of the lever, the strokes or
reciprocations of the plunger will be long or short, as the joint g is moved
upward or downward in the groove g i. It is found from experience, that there
are advantages to the process derivable from this; hence, at the commencement
of the operation, the head of the rod g h is kept at the lower extremity of the
slit, producing the shortest stroke; as the fluid becomes heated, and from the
consequent effervescence its bulk is increased, the stroke is gradually lengthened
by turning the handle n of the screw, and by thus shortening the distance g m,
the pin at g is brought to the head of the slit, producing a stroke of the greatest
length;
and when the effervescence ceases and the butter has begun to form,
this state is reversed, the stroke is gradually shortened, till the process is
finished with the shortest stroke.
1601. The application of power to this machine is easy and commodious. It
may be effected by a pulley placed on the crank-shaft instead of the handle s,
and so driving with a strap or chain; or it may be driven by a spur-wheel
placed on the same point, calculated to the speed that may be afforded by the
power, whether horse, water, or steam.
1602. The usual rate of the plunger in these churns is about 50 to 55 double
strokes per minute, subject to the usual variation that is required in the different
stages of the process.
1603. The price of the hand-machine, as in fig. 576, is from £6 to £8; and
when completed with horse-wheel and gearing, it is from £15 to £18.
1604. Plunger-Churn with Horse-Power Machine.-Fig. 578 illustrates the
arrangement of the mechanism when horse-power is used.
1605. It gives a view in perspective of the horse-course and churning-room
in relation to one another, and which is the more clearly shown by removing a
portion of the wall that separates them. The power in this case is that of the
horse, which seems necessary to be adopted where no water is available for the pur-
pose, and where one or two churns only are to be driven; for a steam-engine, which
would only be employed in such a case as this every other day for three or four
hours, and be restricted to give out only one-horse power, would be too expen-
sive an erection for so diminutive an application of power. Where a thrashing-
machine is used, and chaff-cutters and a bruising-machine employed along with
the churn, a steam-engine would be an economical source of power. Taking
the horse-power in this instance as the best in the absence of water, a b is the
lever in the horse-course, to which the horse is yoked by the swing-tree at a;
c is the pit containing the bevelled wheel, and the four arms of the frame which
support the upright axle to which the lever a b is attached. This wheel moves
horizontally, and acts upon a bevelled pinion fixed on the nearest end of the
lying shaft d, which, being represented in dotted lines, must be supposed to
work underground; and its further end is attached to and moves a spur-wheel,
situated in the churning-room, close to the working gear of the churns. On the
bottom of a corresponding pit in the churning-room rise two parallel frames of
THE PLUNGER-CHURN WITH HORSE-POWER.
471
cast-iron, connected together at the top, and kept asunder by a flanged iron-bar.
The reciprocating cast-iron lever ƒ is supported by its fulcra near the top of the
frame, by means of a centre shaft passing through the frames. A counterpoise
is placed at the short end of the lever f, to bring it nearly to an equilibrium.
Fig. 578.
b
с
d
g
k
α
PLUNGER-CHURN WITH HORSE-POWER MACHINF.
The connecting-rod g is jointed upon a bolt that is fitted to move along the
oblique groove h formed in the lever f, and the crank to which the lower end of
the connecting-rod g is jointed is formed on a shaft that turns in bearings in the
upright frames, and which shaft, at the nearest end, bears a toothed pinion
which is moved by the spur-wheel on d, and at the other end carries a fly-wheel
k, to equalise the motion of the lever ƒ, and compensate for the inequality of the
resistance to the plunger-rods in their ascent and descent. The light sheers 7
embrace the connecting-rod within its forked end at h, and at the other end is
connected with an adjusting-screw for the purpose of lengthening and shorten-
ing the distance 1 h, and so changing the position of the head of the connecting-
rod. The head ƒ of the lever is mounted with a pair of side-links, jointed at one
end to the cross-head at f, and at the other with the wooden cross-head into
which the ends of the plunger-rods of the churns i are placed side by side. These
side-links, jointed as they are at top and bottom, produce an imperfect parallel
motion, but sufficient to answer the rise and fall of the plunger-rods.
They
1606. Oscillating Churn.-Besides the four established classes of churns now
described, there are a few other anomalous cases which have of late years been
brought forward by inventors; and though they ultimately may be found to
possess merit, they cannot yet be received as of established character. The
machines to which we here allude may be named "oscillating churns."
possess no distinct agitator, but produce their effects by a species of oscillation
produced in the fluid. Amongst these may be mentioned a vessel of an oblong
form, placed upon skids, curved in a manner that, when the vessel is touched with
even a gentle force, it will assume a motion resembling the well-known swing of
a child's cradle, which will thereby produce a constant succession of irregular
472
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
oscillatory motions in the contained fluid, which will produce the effect of
churning. Mr Paterson of Beverley patented a churn on this rocking or
oscillating principle. It consists of a rectangular box, supported on two
levers, one at each end, these being jointed to the framing and under side of
the box. As the box is pushed and pulled to and fro by the hand, it oscillates
or vibrates from right to left, and its contents are alternately dashed in contrary
directions.
1607. Keevil's Cheese-making Apparatus.-We now describe and illustrate a
very important invention, namely, Keevil's cheese-making apparatus for cutting,
filtering, and pressing curd. If this apparatus fulfils the high character which
its success up to the present date would seem to justify, its introduction will be
a great boon to dairy farmers in facilitating what is now, and has long been,
most laborious processes. It is manufactured by Messrs Griffiths, of Bradford
Street, Birmingham.
1608. The apparatus consists of a circular vessel of zinc, or, if preferred, of
brass, placed on a wooden platform i, fig. 579.
The upper part of this
e
α
C
Fig. 579
KEEVIL'S CHEESE-MAKING APPARATUS IN PERSPECTIVE
platform is fitted to the bottom of the circular vessel, giving it a solid
bearing on the wood, and so enabling it to sustain the great pressure produced
by the action of the screw hereafter described. It also serves as a frame to
fasten down the beam b while the screw is in use, by means of the connect-
ing-rods at each side, one of which is shown at m. The platform is fixed on
iron rockers, so that the vessel may be tilted forward to allow the whey to draw
more freely to the tap g; when not required to be tilted, it is kept level by the
bolt k. Across the vessel, a beam b is fixed, the centre of which carries a
bearing for a vertical axis or spindle. On this spindle knives a a are hung, one
set of which is placed horizontally, the other vertically. A handle c c is used to
give motion to the knives.
KEEVIL'S CHEESE-MAKING APPARATUS.
473
}
1609. At one side of the circular tub or vessel, a subsidiary receptacle of a
semicircular form, as shown at e, is provided; this is of the same depth
and height as the main vessel, and communicates with it by means of a
filter-plate, d. This semicircular case is provided with a plug, furnished
with a handle e; a stop-cock g is also provided at the foot of the vessel.
So long as the plug e remains in the semicircular vessel, the whey from the
main vessel is prevented passing through the filter-plate d to the stop-cock g:
on removing it, however, by means of the handle, the whey flows through the
filter-plate d into the semicircular vessel, from whence it may be withdrawn at
pleasure by the stop-cock g.
1610. As soon as the curd is set, the handle c is turned slowly round, causing
the knives on the spindle to cut the curd very gently; when the curd is cut suffi-
ciently small, the knives are removed and the curd allowed to settle. The face
of the filter-plate d is then carefully cleaned, by means of the skimming-dish,
from all adhering curd, the plug e removed from the outer case, and the tap g
opened. When the top whey is removed, leaving the curd visible, a tub-cloth
is laid over its surface, the edges being carefully placed between the curd
and the vessel. A pressing-plate, fig. 580, provided with a number of holes on
Fig. 580.
PRESSING-PLATE
Fig. 581.
Fig. 582.
CROSS-ARMS FOR PRESSING PLATE.
PRESSING-
SCREW.
its surface, is then placed over the tub-cloth. The beam b, fig. 579, is then
made to carry a screw, shown separately in fig. 581, which is worked by the handle
c c, fig. 579, and the pressure transmitted equally
over the whole surface of the plate through the
medium of the cross arms, fig. 582, the lower part
of which rests on the plate in fig. 580.
1611. Figs. 579 to 582 are about th of the full
size. In fig. 583 is given the filter-plate d, and the
movable plug e, on a larger scale.
1612. The price of this apparatus, to hold 90
gallons, is £25; to hold 126 gallons, £32.
1613. The Cheese-Press comes next in order of
business; and of that machine the varieties are very
numerous, though they may all be resolved into two
kinds, namely, the stone-press and the "lever-
press,
"of which class the varieties are the most
numerous, from the simple lever to the more compli-
cated arrangement of rack, pinion, and levers.
1614. Stone Cheese-Press. An example of this
kind is shown in fig. 584: it consists of a strong
frame of wood, of which a is the sill, 2 feet long, 18
....
.....
......
.....
Fig. 583.
.......
α
e
......
.....
......
.......
.......
.......
.....
FILTER-PLATE AND PLUG.
474
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
inches broad, and 4 inches thick. Two uprights b b are mortised or dovetailed
into it; these are each 6 inches broad by 24 inches thick, 3 feet high, and are
Fig. 584.
C
e
9
connected by a cross-head c, mortised
upon the posts. A cubical block of
stone de is squared to pass freely be-
tween the posts; an iron stem, 1 inch
diameter, is fixed into the upper surface
of the block, and furnished with a screw
at the upper end. It passes through the
top bar, and the lever-nut ƒ is applied to
it for raising or lowering the block d e.
In each end of the block a vertical groove
is cut, corresponding to the middle of the
posts; and a baton of wood is nailed
upon the latter, in such form and posi-
tion as will admit the block to rise and
fall freely, while it is prevented falling to
either side. When put in operation, the
block is raised by means of the screw,
until the cheese-mould, with its contents,
can be placed upon the sill a under the
block. This being done, the nut is
screwed backward till the block rests
lightly on the cover of the mould; it is
let down by small additions, as the curd
consolidates, until it is thought safe to let
the entire weight press upon the mould,
which is done by withdrawing the nut f.
1615. Instead of the solid block of stone d e, which, when left to itself, will
always produce the same pressure, it is better to have one block dg into which
the suspending bolt is fixed, and the remainder of the mass made up of smaller
pieces, as shown in the figure, by which means the amount of free pressure can
be regulated to the particular size and state of the cheese; or blocks of cast-iron
are sometimes used in the form last described, which are more commodious, and
less liable to be broken.
d
a
رنة.
STONE CHLESE-PRESS IN PERSPECTIVE.
1616. Lever-Press.-The next class of this machine, the lever-press, to speak
in general terms, possesses the sill of the stone cheese-press in some shape or
other, but generally of wood, with two uprights as before; but instead of a heavy
block of stone, a simple movable sill of plank is employed, having an iron or a
wooden stem attached to it, upon which simple or compound levers are made to
act in producing the pressure. An improved form of this lever-press was brought
out by the Shotts Iron Company,* made entirely of iron, of a more commodious
and compact construction than had hitherto been attempted, and, with slight
alterations, is here presented as the type of the class.
1617. The Combined Lever Cheese-Press.-This cheese-press of iron is repre-
sented in the perspective view, fig. 585, and is constructed in the following
manner: a a are a pair of cast-iron feet, on which the machine is supported; they
have a socket formed at the crown to receive the malleable-iron pillars bb. The
sill-plate c is 18 inches in diameter, cast with two perforated ears, through which
the feet of the pillars b b also pass, and secure the sill to the feet, the cross
Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. x. p. 52. ·
1
THE LEVER CHEESE - PRESS.
475
lines in the sill indicate channels for the escape of the expressed whey. The
movable sill d is of the same size as the one below, with corresponding ears
perforated and fitted to slide on the pil-
lars, and having the rack-bar ƒ fixed in
its centre. A top frame e, 18 inches by
9 inches, and 3 inches deep, is seated
upon the top of the pillars, where it is
fixed by two screw-nuts, and adapted
to carry the gearing of the machine.
ጎኒ
Fig. 585.
f
h
b
b
α
1618. The action of the rack and its
sill is effected in the following manner :
The ratchet-wheel g is fixed upon an
axle that has its bearings in the top
frame; on the same axle is fixed a
pinion of eight teeth, not seen in the
figure, which works in the wheel i of
twenty-four teeth, fixed upon an axle
which has its bearing also in the top
frame; and this axle carries also a
pinion of eight teeth, which acts upon
the rack, but is also hid from view in
the figure. The ratchet-wheel g stands
clear of the top frame about an inch,
and its axle is prolonged beyond the
wheel double that extent. The lever k
is forked at the extremity g, and the
terminations of the furcation are re-
ceived upon the axle of the wheel 9,
-the wheel being embraced by the
fork of the lever, but the lever moving
freely upon the axle. The furcation is
also lengthened towards k to an extent
that receives a pawl at h; between and in the throat of the fork, the pawl is
jointed upon a pin that passes through both, the edge of the pawl pointing
downwards to catch the ratchet, while it has a nob-handle standing upward,
by which it can be conveniently disengaged from its wheel. A small winch-
handle 7 is also fitted upon the axle of the ratchet-wheel, and a pin seen near h
is adapted to a perforation in the top frame, by the insertion of which the
descent of the lever is checked, when such is required, and this completes the
mechanism of the press.
THE COMBINED LEVER CHEESE-PRESS,
1619. In pressing with this machine, the cheese-mould is placed upon the
lower sill c, and the lever being supported on the pin at h, the winch-handle 7 is
turned to the left, depressing the rack and its sill till the sill presses upon the
cover of the mould. The lever is now lifted by the hand, and the pawl allowed
to take into the ratchet; while the lever, being loaded by the weight m, will cause
the ratchet to turn and produce the descent of the rack. If necessary, this is
repeated again and again, till a considerable pressure is produced; and if it is
wished that a continued pressure is to go on, the lever is again raised consider-
ably above the horizontal line, and left to descend gradually, following the
consolidation of the cheese. If it is wished that the load shall not follow
the shrinking of the cheese, the pin h is inserted, which, when the lever
comes to rest upon it, checks further descent. The amount of pressure is
476
MACHINES FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
also regulated by the disposal of the weight m in the different notches of the
lever.
1620. The usual selling price of this machine is £4, when constructed of
iron, as in the figure; but with wooden framework, and the rack and other
gearing of cast-iron, the price is £3, 5s.
1621. Cheese-Turner.—We now notice a useful article in the cheese department
of the dairy machinery-the tumbling cheese-rack, or cheese-turner. This
machine is the invention of Mr William Blurton of Fieldhall, Uttoxeter, and
its merits are believed to be sufficient to warrant its adoption on dairy
farms. The object of the machine is to save much of the labour re-
quired in the daily turning of a large number of cheeses in the drying-
room, and this it does very effectually, for with a rack containing fifty cheeses,
they are turned over in very little more time than would be required to turn a
single one.
1622. Fig. 586 is a view of the cheese-turner as constructed to stand alone,
WHUIR ABIVAL
e
Fig. 586.
h
القديمة
d
and on its own feet, though this is not
the best mode of constructing the ma-
chine. It consists, first, of an external
frame a b c d, of which the two parts
a b and c d are 6 feet high, and 7
inches by 2 inches; they are here
represented each with a cross foot a
and d, and connected at top by a top-
rail b c. If constructed in a cheese-
room, the posts should be at once
fixed to the floor at bottom, and to the
joisting or tie-beams overhead, becom-
ing thus a fixture in so far as regards.
the external frame. The second part
of the machine is a movable frame or
rack, formed by the two interior posts
e and f, which are framed upon the
twelve shelves g h; the posts are 6
feet high, and are again 7 by 21
inches, the shelves being 7 feet long
and 14 inches broad, or more, according to the size of the cheeses manufactured,
by 1 inch thick. The shelves extend to 5 feet in height over all, and
are tenoned into and lipped over the posts, and each shelf is finished on
both sides with a knife-edged lath, nailed along the back edge; these laths
are 2 inches broad, and inch thick at the back, thus increasing the thick-
ness of that edge of the shelves to 1½ inch. As the figure represents a rack
that will contain five cheeses on each shelf, a corresponding number of pairs
of vertical laths, k, are nailed upon the back edge of the shelves. These
laths are 1½ inch broad and 1 inch thick, chamfered off to one side to the thick-
ness of inch or thereby at the edges, against which the cheeses are laid, and
are checked upon the shelves, and securely nailed. The shelf-frame thus formed.
is provided with two strong iron gudgeons or pivots fixed in the side-posts at
mid-height, and these are received into corresponding holes in the outer or
bearing posts, so that the shelf-frame swings poised upon the two pivots; and
it is further provided with an iron latch at top and bottom on one end, by which
it may be tilted and secured with either the shelf g or h uppermost. The
catches of the two latches are both placed at top on the external post at one side,
THE CHEESE-TURNER.
4
THE COMMON SCYTHE.
477
suited to the motion of the shelf-frame, and to prevent its being turned with the
back edge of the shelves upward.
1623. When cheeses are placed upon the shelves, it will be found that the
knife-edge laths keep them free of the body of the shelf, and thus permit air to
pass under them, while the pair of vertical laths keep the cheese in its proper
position on the shelf. The height between the shelves is such as to leave a free
space of 1 inch between the cheese and the shelf above it; and whatever num-
ber of cheeses may be lying upon the shelves, the simple act of tilting the frame
will place every cheese which was resting on a shelf, on its opposite side, upon
that shelf which immediately before was above the cheese, but by the tilting is now
below it. It will be observed, that the vertical laths serve to prevent the cheeses
from falling out while the frame is tilting, and each cheese has only to fall one
inch in that operation, or from the one shelf to the other, in a reversed position.
1624. It will be also observed, that the fixed external frame is best adapted
for an extensive cheese-room, where the racks may be placed in rows extending
the length of the room, leaving free passage between the rows. The width of
the passage requires to be equal to half the height of the shelf-frame, or 3 feet;
a room, therefore, 20 feet wide would contain 4 rows of such racks; and if the
length were equal to 10 diameters of the cheeses, or containing that number in
the length, the room would contain in all 440 cheeses in the best possible con-
dition for their being prepared for market, having free ventilation, and access
for the dairy-maids to handle and wipe any cheese at any time.
1625. SECTION TENTH.-Manual Implements connected with the above Sections,
as Scythes, Forks, Barn Implements, Dairy Utensils.
A few
b
Fig. 587
1626. The Common Scythe.-Grass is cut with the common scythe, which is
so well known an implement that a particular
description of it seems unnecessary.
words, however, on the choice of scythes, and of
the manner of mounting them, may be useful.
The handle, or sned or sneath, fig. 587, a b, is
made either curved to suit the sweep of the in-
strument by the hands round the body (as in the
figure), or straight. The curved sned is usually
made of willow, which, being shaped in hot
water, and constrained, on being released when
the wood becomes cold, retains the shape. Of
scythes there are various kinds : the common kind
keeps its edge but a short time, and in the long
run is more expensive than the patent kind,
which consists of a steel plate riveted between
two small rods of iron, and which plate will con-
tinue to cut keenly until it is worn to the back-
bone. The length of the blade of scythes varies
from 28 inches to 46 inches. There are besides
these other kinds, termed crown, labelled, and
extra-warranted scythes.
a
d
THE PATENT SCYTHE WITH BENT SNED.
1627. The price of the common kind varies
between these lengths from 2s. 4d. to 3s. 3d. each; and the patent, from
3s. 2d. to 4s. 8d. each. Bent sneds cost from 1s. 3d. to 1s. 6d. each; straight
ones, 1s. each. The straight are made of any sort of wood; we have seen good
ones of larch.
478
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
1628. The blade of a scythe is mounted in this manner: The sned is fur-
nished with an iron ring at the end, to which the blade is attached; the pro-
jecting hook at the butt-end of the blade is imbedded flush into the sned by
taking away a portion of the wood, and the ring is then slipped over the im-
bedded hook, and is held tight in its position by an iron wedge as at a. The
particular position which the blade bears to the sned is determined by measur-
ing the length of the blade a c straight along the sued from a to d, where is
fastened the handle for the right hand, and the same length from d to c fixes
the point of the scythe, so that a dc forms an equilateral triangle; and of course
the blade subtends an angle of 60° with the sned. Theory would advise the
placing of the plane of the blade parallel with the ground, when the scythe is
held as intended for cutting, but practice requires the cutting-edge to be a little
elevated above the ground, and above the back of the scythe which sweeps along
the surface of the ground; and the reason for keeping the edge elevated is, that
it would not only be apt to run into the ground if swung parallel with it, but
the scythe would be worked with greater labour, as the stems of the plants to
be cut would present an obstacle directly at right angles against the blade,
whereas the edge set upwards cuts the stems in a somewhat oblique direction.
The blade is still farther secured in its position by the grass-nail ƒ, which is
hooked by one end into a hole in the blade, and is nailed through
an eye by the other to the sned; and one great use of the grass-
nail, besides that of strengthening the position of the blade,
is to prevent any plants cut from being entangled between the
blade and sned. The left-hand handle e is placed to suit the con-
venience of the workman.
a
Fig. 588.
b
SUYTHE-STONES.
:
1629. Scythe-Stones.-Scythe-stones, fig. 588, are 14 or 15
inches long, tapering in shape, and of sufficient thickness to fill
the grasp of the hand. They are either of a round form, a, or
square, b, and are composed of the same sort of sandstone as
grindstones are, and cost 4d. each. They are only occasionally
used in order to set a new edge on the blade.
1630. The scythe-stone is an essential appendage of the scythe,
with which it is kept in proper cutting order. A soft fine-
grained sandstone is the proper material from which it should be selected; and
as for applying it, it were difficult in words to describe the proper mode of doing
so, but the following may suffice to give some notion of the process. The scythe
is placed on the left side of the mower, with the point of the blade resting on a
small stone on the ground, the heel of the blade and helve being supported by
the left hand the scythe-stone, which is about 14 inches long, is grasped by one
end in the right hand, and is thus applied, crossing the blade. The effect of the
sharping is produced by making sliding strokes with the stone along the blade on
each side alternately downward towards the point of the blade. The object of
this mode of treatment is based on the principle that the scythe cuts after the
manner of a saw though the teeth are not very prominent, still the fine
serrature is there; and to make it cut with the best effect, it must be hooked
towards the point of the blade, or in the direction of its motion when cutting;
and the application of the stone, as above described, produces this direction
of the minute teeth in the cutting-edge. The strokes of the stone cannot
conveniently be carried over the whole length of the blade at one throw of the
hand, hence the sharping begins at the heel, and proceeds downwards; but from
the position described, there still remains a few inches at the point untouched,
and to reach this part with the stone, the mower lifts up the blade by seizing
FORKS.
479
it about the middle with the left hand, and, bringing it to a horizontal position,
the helve still resting partly on the ground and partly against his body, he is
enabled to complete the process of sharping. Throughout this operation it is to
be specially observed, that, in applying the stone, it must always be held flat upon
both sides of the blade: if this is not attended to, either the edge will not be
improved, or it will be rounded off; and the consequence of the
rounding will be, that the scythe will speedily be unfit for
cutting until it be re-ground.
Fig. 589.
α
b
1631. Scythe Strike or Strickle. The strike or strickle, fig.
589, which is also used in the sharpening of the scythe, prin-
cipally for giving it a finer edge, though this is very frequently
a mistaken notion, is formed of a piece of hardwood, about 15
inches long, one end of which is shaped into a handle; the body
of it is sometimes 1½ inch square, but in most cases it is about 2
inches broad by 3-inch thick. It is coated over with granulated
emery, imbedded in a cement such as glue; and to produce the
best effects, the emery should be of a medium degree of fineness.
The strickle being a light instrument, it is always attached to
the top of the helve of the scythe, as at a, upon a T-headed
nail, and upon a spike at b, and is therefore always at hand,
ready to be applied in the event of any accidental injury to the
edge of the scythe being sustained; while the stone, from its
greater weight, can only be resorted to at the place of starting
work, where it lies in readiness. The cost of a strickle is 6d.
1632. Straw-Fork.-The straw-fork is such as in fig. 590. This fork has
rather longer prongs, and is too sharp for a stable
fork, which is most handy for shaking up straw when
about 5 feet in length, and least dangerous of in-
juring the legs of the horses by puncture when blunt.
The united prongs terminate at their upper end in a
pointed spike or tine, as better seen in fig. 591, and
which is driven into a ferruled ash shaft. This mode
of mounting a fork is much better than with socket
and nail, the nail being apt to become loose and
catch the straw.
1633. Lincolnshire Steel Straw-Fork.-Fig. 591 re-
presents the steel fork commonly used in Lincoln-
shire, without its shaft. This is a light handy im-
plement for working amongst hay and straw.
Fig. 590.
A SCYTHE STRICKLE.
Fig. 591.
THE LINCOLNSHIRE
STEEL FORK.
1634. Wooden Hay-Fork.-A simple form of hay-
fork, used on the Continent, is illustrated in fig.
592. A piece of wood a, of the length and diameter
required, is split up at the end to form the two forks c c, which are pointed. A
THE STRAW FORK.
а
Fig. 592.
FOREIGN WOODEN HAY-FORK.
d
C
ferrule b is passed over the end at c, and a wedge driven in at d to separate the
points. This is a very light implement for working among hay or straw.
1635. Hand Hay-Rake.—The hand hay-rake is an implement of great sim-
plicity; but though almost elementary in its construction, it has been subjected
480
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
to numerous variations, chiefly in one point, with a view to its improve-
ment. It consists of a head c d, fig. 594, or g h, fig. 593, of from 24 to 27
inches in length, made of hardwood, 1 inch broad in the middle, tapering a
little to each end, and from 1 to 11 inch thick. The head is armed with
Fig. 593.
Fig. 594.
h
THE HAND HAY-RAKES.
QL.
C
b
8
twelve or thirteen wooden teeth a or e, made of oak or ash 3 inch in diameter,
and, when first made, about 3 inches long. They ought to be formed with a
slight swelling in the middle, or rather towards one end, the shorter end being
adapted to fit into holes previously bored at 2 inches apart centres; and when
the teeth are driven into their holes the swell on the tooth fills up the hole
tightly, giving the tooth much greater strength than if it were quite cylindrical.
The teeth are then properly secured by wedging, and the wedges and ends.
dressed of; the points of the teeth are likewise dressed off to a uniform length,
21 inches or thereby, and sharpened off from the back. The shaft or helve,
which is 5 feet long, is usually made of ash; but as lightness is an object, its
thickness ought not to exceed 1 inch, dressed neatly smooth and round except
where it enters the head: here, and for a length of 12 inches, it is usually kept
square. This part of it is either let into the middle of the head by a tenon, as
in fig. 594, or it is split as in fig. 593, and enters it by two tenons. It is in this
point of the construction that the variations have occurred. In par. 13, fig. 7,
we have gone into the consideration of the faulty and correct methods of attach-
ing the handle to the head of the rake, to which we now refer the reader.
1636. Tubular Iron Hand-Rake.-In fig. 595 we illustrate a form of hand-
expressing
a
Fig. 595.
с
d
C
SHARMAN'S TUBULAR-IRON HAND-RAKE.
a
b
-
rake manufactured by Mr War-
ner Sharman, Melton Mowbray.
In this, great strength is ob-
tained, with considerable light-
ness, by the employment of tubu-
lar iron. The sides, cross-bar, and
handle, are so fitted as to take
to pieces at pleasure. a a is the
cross-bar, to which the tines bb
are fixed; c c the side-bars,
strengthened by the stay d, and
passing through eyes of the cross-
piece e, to which the handle fis
attached. The dimensions are as follow:-The cross-bar a a 5 feet long,
of one-inch tubular iron; the extreme length over all, from bar a a to point of
handle ƒ, 5 feet. The length of the stay d is 1 foot 101 inches; the cross-bar e
9 inches. The extreme length of tooth, from centre of bar a a to the point,
is 12 inches; the number of teeth, twenty-four.
1637. The Sickle.-The sickle is a very simple, but at the same time, so far
SICKLES.
481
as it goes, a very efficient instrument for reaping corn. It is employed in
various states, not differing much in the general form, though exhibiting marked
differences in the detail; but these varieties are confined under two very dis-
tinct forms, the toothed and the smooth-edged sickles.
Fig. 596.
1638. The Toothed Sickle.-Fig. 596 represents the toothed sickle, an instru-
ment so well known that it requires little description
here. The blade, in the common toothed sickle, is prin-
cipally made of iron, but with an edging of steel; the
teeth are formed by striking with a chisel and hammer,
in the manner of file-cutting, the cutting being only on
the lower side; but when the blade has been bent to the
proper form, tempered, and ground on the smooth side,
the serratures are brought prominently out on the edge
of the blade; and as the striking of the teeth is per-
formed in a position oblique to the edge of the blade, at
an angle of about 70°, the serratures on the edge acquire
what is called a hook towards the helve, thus causing
the instrument to cut keenly in that direction, when
drawn through the standing corn. When the blade has been thus finished, a
wooden helve of the simplest form is fitted upon the pointed tine formed at its
root for that purpose.
THE TOOTHED 81OKLE
1639. Sorby's Cast-Steel Toothed Sickle.-The toothed sickle is made with
various degrees of curvature and of weight, but chiefly as represented in the
figure, and it has been the subject of several patents, chiefly depending on the
formation of the blade. One of these is only of a few years' standing. Messrs
Sorby and Son, of Sheffield, are the patentees; and the principle upon which
their patent is based, is a blade of rolled cast-steel swedged into à form that
gives a sufficient degree of stiffness to the blade, without the increase of weight
that accompanies the thick-backed or the other patent ribbed-back sickles. In
the new patent, the advantage of a small quantity of the very best material-
cast-steel-is combined with extreme lightness and a due degree of strength
and stiffness, the stiffness arising from the swedged or moulded back.
1640. The Smooth-edged Sickle.-The smooth-edged sickle, or scythe-hook, as it
is sometimes called, differs from the toothed sickle in being broader in the blade,
and longer withal, but in curvature it resembles it; and its chief difference lies
in being ground on both sides, to form a fine and thin sharp edge.
1641. Like the toothed sickle, the blade has undergone various improvements;
and Mr Sorby's cast-steel swedged-blade is also extended
to the smooth-edged sickle.
1642. The Principle of the Curvature of the Sickle.-
Fig. 597.
In the formation of the sickle, the curvature of the
blade is a point of more importance than to a careless
observer may appear; and though the ordinary reaper
is seldom qualified to judge in this matter, he may feel
pleased to be informed, that there is a certain curvature
that will give to the muscles of his right arm the least
possible cause for exertion, while there are other curves
that, if given to the blade of the sickle, would cause
him to expend a great amount of unnecessary exertion
in the arm, and a consequent unnecessary fatigue
would follow. Fig. 597, which represents the smooth-
edged sickle, has a curvature approaching very near to that which, in this
a
THE SMOOTH-EDGED SIUKLE.
2 H
482
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
instrument, may be termed the curve of least exertion; and throughout that
portion of the sickle that performs the cutting process, it possesses this pecu-
liar property, from the following circumstance that, lines diverging from the
centre of the handle of the sickle at a, and intersecting the curve of the cutting-
edge, all the diverging lines will form equal angles with the tangents to the
curve at the points of intersection. This property gives to the cutting-edge
a uniform tendency to cut at every point in its length, without any other
exertion than a direct pull upon the helve. Were the curvature less at any
point, a pressure of the hand would be required to keep the edge to the work;
and were the curvature greater at any point, or on the whole, the exertion to
make the cut would be greater, as it would then become more direct, instead
of the oblique drawing or sawing cut, which, in all cases, is the most effective,
and productive of least resistance.
1643. Dinging-in or Bagging.-A mode of using the smooth-edged sickle has
of late years come into some repute, known in Scotland by the provincial term
dinging-in (striking-in), and in England bagging. In this process the sickle is
not drawn through the straw, but is struck against it, somewhat in the manner
of using a scythe; indeed, the practice originated in the attempt that was made
some years ago to introduce the Hainault scythe in the harvest operations of
this country, but without success. In the dinging-in practice, the left hand is
employed, with its back towards the right, in slightly bending down the grain,
and holding it to the blow of the sickle. A man practised in this mode of
working will do one-half more work than is usually done in the common way;
but the stubble is left less regular, and, except by very expert hands, there
is a want of tidiness in the process. It is obvious that this is the same mode of
cutting corn as bagging.
1644. The Common Reaping-Scythe.—The scythe is also extensively used as a
reaping instrument, but more especially in England,
and in some of the northern counties of Scotland,
chiefly for the barley and oat crops, though in some
localities also for wheat. The common hay-scythe
is used for this purpose, in most cases, with the
addition only of a very light rail or cradle, some-
times attached to the handle, and in other cases to
the heel of the blade, as at a in the annexed cut, fig.
598, which is the common scythe fitted for reap-
ing. In the scythe mounted in this manner, the
use of the rail or cradle will be obvious, being the
collecting of the swath into a compact body, and
depositing the same in as regular a manner as pos-
sible, preparatory to the binding of it into a sheaf.
Fig. 598.
a
THE COMMON REAPING-SCYTHE.
1645. The Cradle-Scythe. For a considerable
period, a scythe, mounted in a different form, has
been in use for the purpose of reaping, and it is be-
lieved that its introduction can be traced to Banffshire or Aberdeenshire, where
the scythe is extensively used for reaping. Some years ago this form of scythe
came more prominently before the public,* and for a time gained considerable
repute, under the name of the Cradle-scythe. Of this form of mounting a reaping-
scythe there are many varieties; but they all agree in one point, that of having
two short helves, the one branching out of the other, instead of the common
long helve or sned. Fig. 599 is a view of the cradle-scythe in one of its most
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. v. p. 106.
CRADLE REAPING - SCYTHE.
e
d
Fig. 599.
483
approved forms, wherein a is the scythe-blade, b the principal helve, to which
the blade is attached in the usual way (par. 1628), the hook of the tine being.
sunk into the wood, and an iron ferrule brought down over the tine, binding it
firmly to the wood; but the blade is
further supported by the addition of the
light stay c, termed by mowers the grass-
nail. The minor helve d is tenoned into
the principal one, and the two handles
eƒ are adjusted by wedges in the usual
way to the height and mode of working
of the mower. The cradle, or rake, con-
sists of a little wooden standard 9, about
8 inches high, jointed to the heel of the
blade, so as to fold a little up or down
across the blade; into this is inserted
three or four slender teeth, following the
direction of the blade, and may be from
6 to 15 inches long: the head of the
standard is supported by a slender rod
of iron, which stretches about 18 inches up the minor handle d, where it is
secured by a small screw-nut, capable of being shifted up or down to alter the
position of the standard and its teeth to suit the lay of the corn.
g
a
THE CRADLE-SOYTHE FOR REAPING.
1646. The standard or rake-head was at one time recommended to be made in
the segment of a circle,* for which there seems no good reason, either practical
or philosophical; but the idea was seized upon, and the cradle-scythe mounted
in that form was widely distributed; but instead of this supposed improvement
tending to increase the favourable opinion of scythe-reaping, the practice seems
rather on the decline; and there is good reason to believe that this malforma-
tion of the rake may have had no small share in producing a distaste for scythe-
reaping as a practice; whereas, under proper management, and a judicious
choice of implements, there can be no donbt of considerable advantages being
attainable from scythe-reaping, as compared with the sickle.
1647. It is believed by very competent judges, that the figure here given of
the cradle-scythe possesses all the advantages that are derivable from using this
instrument; and, in addition to the details already given, we may add that the
length of the blade a, fig. 599, is from 3 feet 4 inches to 3 feet 6 inches; the left,
or principal helve b is about 4 feet, the other d 3 feet, measuring direct from
the heel in both cases; the distance between the helves, where the handles are
applied, from e to f, is 24 inches; and in setting the blade the following rule is
to be observed: When the framed helves are laid flat on a level surface, the point
of the blade should be from 18 to 20 inches above that surface, and measuring
from a point on the left helve b, 3 feet distant from the heel of the blade, in a
straight line, as at b, the extremity of the blade should be also 3 feet distant
from the point b.
1648. Iron has, in many cases, been substituted for wood in the construction
of the helves, but it does not by any means appear to be so well adapted to
the purpose as the wooden helves. When constructed of iron, if they are made
sufficiently light, there is too much elasticity in the fabric, which is fatiguing to
the workman, by reason of the tremor produced at every stroke of the scythe.
1649. Sheaf-Gauge.-When corn is cut by the piece in sheaves and stooks or
shocks, it is necessary that each sheaf shall have a definite dimension, and, to
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 30.
*
!
484
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
Fig. 600.
ascertain that, a gauge is requisite. The sheaf should be 3 feet in circum-
ference at the fastened band, or 1 foot diameter. The sheaf-gauge is
made of the height of 3 feet, to be used in the hand of the superin-
tendent as a staff. The top is formed of a short cross-head of
wood, the shank of rod-iron, the lower part of which, being the
gauge, is branched so as the two limbs shall be 1 foot asunder; a b c d,
fig. 600, the gauge, will thus form a square of 1 foot, which the sheaf
at the band shall just fill up, when of the proper size.
d
a
V
THE SHEAF-
GAUGE
1650. The Hand Stubble-Rake.—The gleaning of the stubble is an
object of considerable value, and to secure it for the farmer different
implements are employed. The principal and most effective of them
is the horse-rake, two varieties of which were illustrated in Section
Second, Division Second of the Second Book, but in the absence of
that machine the hand stubble-rake, fig. 601, is found a very effective
implement. The head a b is 5 feet long, of good tough ash, 2½ by 2
inches; the helve c d may be 6 feet long, of the same material as the
head. It should be furnished with a handle e that can be fixed in any
desired position by driving in a wedge between the helve c d and the ring or
ferrule at the termination of the handle. The helve is tenoned into the head,
and supported by the brace f c g. The teeth are of iron, 7 inches in length,
and set 4 inches apart, but formed in
the lower part so that the bend lies on
the ground, which arrangement prevents
the points from penetrating the ground
and dragging it up and mixing it with
the gleanings. The best method of
fixing the teeth is by a screw-nut, as in
the horse-rake, as they are thereby easily
removed in the case of being broken,
without risk of injuring the head. It is
also advisable to have the ends of the
head hooped, to prevent the iron teeth
splitting it.
b
Fig. 601
9
THE HAND STUBBLE-RAKE
a
d
1651. In fig. 595 we have illustrated a
form of hand-rake which may be used on
stubble, constructed of tubular iron.
The principal furniture of the stackyard is
Its immediate use is to keep the stacks off
prevent the harbouring of vermin.
Stathels
1652. The Stathel for Stacks.
the "stathel," or "rick-stand."
the ground from damp, and to
are made of stone supports and a wooden frame; of iron supports and a wooden
frame; or of iron altogether. The frame is of the form of an octagon, and under
its centre and each angle is placed a support. The framework consists of a
plank a a, fig. 602, 15 feet in length, and of others 7 feet in length, 9 inches
in depth, and 2 inches in thickness, if made of Scots fir; but less will suffice
with larch for stacks of 15 feet diameter. The diameter may be more, or
less, as the size of the stacks are larger or smaller than 15 feet. The supports
consist of a stone b, sunk to the level of the ground, to form a solid foundation
for the upright support c, 18 inches in height, and 8 inches square, to stand
upon; and on the top of this is placed a flat rounded stone or bonnet d, of at
least 2 inches in thickness. The upright stone is bedded in lime, both with
the found-stone and bonnet. All the tops of these stone supports must be on
the same level. Upon these are placed on edge the scantlings a a, to the outer
end of which are fastened with strong nails the bearers e e, also 9 inches in
WOODEN AND IRON RICK-STANDS.
485
depth and 2 inches in thickness. The spaces between the scantlings a are
filled up with fillets of wood ff nailed upon them.
Fig. 602.
e
组
​d
a
A WOODEN STATHEL FOR STACKS.
Fig. 603.
1653. If the wood of the framework were previously preserved by Kyan's or
Burnett's process, it would last perhaps twenty years,
even if made of any kind of home timber, such as
larch or Scots fir.
1654. It has been recommended to divide the
frame of the stathels into two parts, so that they
might be put under cover when not in use in the
stackyard. Were the stathels made removable, they
would be more convenient in two pieces than in one :
but the propriety of removing them is questionable,
when it is accompanied with the necessity of remov-
ing the supports also; for it is clear that the sup-
ports could not be left standing in the stackyard with
the slightest chance of remaining in that position for
any length of time.
1655. Iron Rick-stand Pillar.-In fig. 603 we give
a cast-iron rick-stand pillar, manufactured by Messrs
Hill and Smith, Brierly Hall, Staffordshire. These
are prepared to receive a framework of wood, the
pillars being supplied in sets, the purchaser finding
the wooden frame. A set of nine pillars and caps for a
stand of 12 feet diameter costs £1, 11s. 6d.; a set of
twelve, for a stand of 22 feet, £3, 16s.
1656. Iron Rick-Stand. — The same firm manu-
factures a circular rick-stand, complete as shown in
fig. 604; the price of one 12 feet in diameter, on
eight pillars, being £4; one 22 feet in diameter, on
twenty-three pillars, £12, 10s. Oblong stack-stands
are principally used for hay and barley: for a stand
of 12 feet long by 10 feet wide, on nine pillars, the
CAST-IRON RICK-STAND PILLAR.
486
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
price is £4, 7s. 6d.; for one 42 feet by 20 feet, on forty pillars, £23, 17s. 6d.
The peculiar construction of these rick-stands is simply to put them together
Fig. 604.
· A …!
A
ww
1.104
CAST-IRON RICK-STAND.
without the use of screw-bolts or pins. They are vermin-proof, no rat or mouse
being able to pass the dome-cap of the pillars, even should it manage-a by
no means likely thing-to climb up the iron stalk.
Fig. 605.
g
a
Fig. 606.
α
1657. Iron Clips for Rick-Stands.—Iron
clips are useful in erecting rick-stands
with iron pillars and wooden framing.
A form of this we illustrate in fig. 605:
a is the dome of the rick-pillar, b the
central pin, c a section of the iron clip
which rests on the top of the dome; the
plan of the clip is shown at e, fig. 606,
the angles being such that, when eight
pillars are used, the frame shall be octagonal. The timber forming the frame is
placed in the arms e d, fig. 606, of the clip, and are kept securely
thereon by the sides. g and h show part of the side or boundary
timbers of the frame; ƒ part of one of the central timbers, which
stretch from angle to angle of the octagonal frame.
ELEVATION OF CLIP
FOR RICK-STAND.
Fig. 607.
A STACK-1RIMMER.
PLAN OF CLIP FOR RICK-STAND.
1658. Rick-stands made of cast-iron, though neat and efficient
and durable, must be expensive, and liable to be broken by acci-
dental concussion from carts. Malleable iron stathels would re-
move the objection of liability to fracture, but not that of expense.
1659. Stack-Trimmer.-As each cart is unloaded, the stacker
descends to the ground by means of a ladder, and trims the stack,
by pushing in with a fork the end of any sheaf that projects further
than the rest, and by pulling out any that may have been placed
too far in. As the stack rises in height with cart-load after cart-
load, the trimming cannot be conveniently done with a fork; a
half-inch-thick flat board, about 20 inches in length and 10 inches
broad, nailed firmly to a long shaft, fig. 607, is an appropriate instru-
STACK-BOSSES.
487
ment for beating in the projecting ends of the sheaves, and giving the body of
the stack a uniform roundness or flatness as the case may be.
1660. Stack-Bosses.-As a safeguard against heating, a structure of wood is
erected, around and upon which the stack is built. These structures are in
Scotland named bosses, which signifies hollows; and the object of using them is
to occupy the space which would otherwise be filled with the collected heads
of the sheaves of corn, with a void into which air shall be conducted from the
exterior of the stack. When stacks are built on bosses erected on stathels, figs.
602 and 604, the air finds ingress into them through the framework of the stathel;
but when built upon the ground, a conduit, in the form of a tressle, is formed
of woodwork, by which the air is led
into the interior of the stack. When
such tressles are placed at both sides
of a boss, a ventilation is maintained
through the body of the stack.
1661. The Pyramidal Stack-Boss.-
The most common form of boss is a
three-sided pyramid, formed of three
small trees, weedings of a plantation, of
larch or Scots fir, tied together at the
smaller ends, and the thicker ends placed
at equal distances upon the stathel or
the ground. Fig. 608 represents one of
these common bosses, where the three
trees are tied together at the top at a,
standing about 8 feet in height, and 3
feet asunder from each other; and b b
are fillets of wood nailed on the trees,
for the purpose both of retaining them
in the pyramidal form, and of preventing
C
Fig. 608.
a
b
A PYRAMIDAL BOSS AND TRESSLE
the sheaves falling into the interior of the boss. A tressle c, about 2 feet high,
is placed on one side to conduct the air into the boss. The inconvenience
of this form of boss is, that, as the stack subsides, the sharp
apex a penetrates through the sheaves lying above it, and
in thus disturbing their arrangement, has the chance
of disfiguring the form of the upper part of the stack.
Fig. 609.
1662. The Prismatic Stack-Boss.-Fig. 609 represents a
form of boss which we prefer to the pyramidal. It consists
of three stems of trees-of weedings-7 feet long, held
together in the form of a prism, whose side is 3 feet in
width, by fillets of wood of that length being nailed to them.
The prism is set on end, and on a ståthel only requires to
be nailed to it at the bottom; but as a farther means of
stability, a spur from each tree should be nailed to the
stathel within the prism. On the ground it requires two
tressles as well as the pyramidal boss, to complete the
ventilation of the air within the stack. The prismatic
boss has the advantage over the pyramidal of supporting
the top of the stack evenly, when it subsides upon the
upper end of the prism, thereby relieving the body of the stack of the weight
of its top.
A PRISMATIC BOSS.
1663. Stack Boss of Straw.-Other means than a boss are employed to form a
488
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
Fig. 610.
hollow in the heart of a stack, by setting the upright sheaves, which form the
foundation of the stack, around a long cylindrical bundle of straw, firmly wound
with straw rope; and as the stack rises in height, the bundle is drawn up through
its centre to the top, where it is removed, leaving a hole through the height of
the stack. This hole creates a current of air through the stack, allowing the
heated air to escape, while the cool air enters from below by means of a tressle
or stathel.
1664. Common Throw-Crook.-The throw-crook, fig. 610, is an instrument that
has been long in use for the purpose of spinning or twisting straw-
ropes, and is one of those primitive inventions that required only
the cutting of the first crooked sapling that might come to hand;
for though our figure represents an artificially-formed implement,
any piece of bent material will answer equally well, all that is
required being such a form as will give it the character of what we
now denominate a crank, and to have a swivel-joint at the end, to
allow it to turn freely, and independent of that appendage by which
it is attached to the body, or to the left hand of the person who
turns it. The implement represented in fig. 610 is made of a piece
of tough ash, about 3 feet long; the bent part is thinned off until
it is capable of being bent to the curve, and is there retained by
the iron stay a, the part b being left projecting beyond the stay,
for the attachment of the first end of the rope that is to be made.
The end c is furnished with ferrule and swivel-ring, by which it is
attached to the person, by a cord passed round the waist, or it is
held in the left hand. In using the implement, the rope-maker is
stationary, usually sitting beside the straw, and the spinner moves
backward as the rope extends.
b
a
THE COMMON
THROW-CROOK.
Fig. 611.
Fig. 612.
1665. Fig. 611 represents another form of throw-crook, where the hollow
cylinder of wood b is held in the left hand of the
twister, and on moving round the handle d with the right
hand, the iron shank a is made to revolve and twist the
straw attached to its hooked end into a rope.
α
d
STRAW-ROPE TWISTERS.
a
d
1666. Fig. 612 gives still another form of throw-crook,
where the iron ring c is held in the left hand of the
twister, and the hollow cylinder of wood b grasped by
the right hand, and made to revolve round the line de by
means of the swivel-joint at d, and to cause the revolution
also of the iron shank a, with its hook to which the straw
is attached, which is to be twisted into a rope.
1667. Straw-Rope Spinner.-The straw-rope spinner,
fig. 613, is a machine of recent introduction to the ope-
rations of the harvest season, and is of considerable im-
portance in facilitating the process of straw-rope-making. Comparing it
with the old instrument, the throw-crook, fig. 610, the advantage is con-
siderable; for with that two people must be occupied in the making of one rope,
whereas with the spinner four people only are required to make three ropes,
being a saving of one-third of the time occupied by the old practice. The
spinner has been constructed in various forms, though exhibiting but two dis-
tinct varieties of the machine, the first distinguished by the spinner being
stationary, and the ropemaker moving away from him; the second, by the rope-
maker being stationary, and the spinner moving away from him. The spinner
being stationary is found to be the best in practice, and we have therefore chosen
STRAW-ROPE SPINNER.
Fig. 613.
e
d
e
e
489
an example of it for illustration. Fig. 613 is a view of the machine, consisting
of a sole-frame, a a, measuring about 2 feet each way, with an upright post b
tenoned into the sole, and carrying
the cross-head c d. The cross-head is
a hollow box or case, adapted to con-
tain the machinery of the spinner, con-
sisting of 5 light spur-wheels, about 6
inches diameter, placed as seen in the
case c d. Of these, the central and the
two extreme wheels are mounted upon
axles, which terminate in the hooks
e e e, the other two wheels being
merely placed intermediate, to produce
revolution in the three principals in
one direction. A winch-handle ƒ is
The
a
b
THE STRAW-ROPE SPINNER.
fixed
upon the axle of the central wheel,
on the side opposite to the hooks; and
to prevent the machine from moving
with the strain of the ropes, a few
stones, or other weighty substances,
are laid upon the sole-frame a a.
machine is then put in operation by the driver turning the handle f, and the
three ropemakers, each with a quantity of straw under his arm, commences his
rope by binding a few straws round the hook appropriated to himself. He
then proceeds backward, letting out the straw as he advances, and the rope
takes the twist, until the length required is completed, when each man coils up
his rope into an oval ball.
1668. Some machines of this form are mounted on wheels, thereby coming
under the character of the second kind (par. 1667), where the ropemaker is
stationary; but great inconvenience must attend any attempt at working in
this manner.
1669. Another form of the machine adapted to work as one of the second
kind (par. 1667), is that which is strapped to the body of the spinner, he
moving away from the stationary ropemakers. This method also is attended
with inconvenience, especially to the spinner, who, having the machine strapped
in front of his body, the handle being at the end, and the machinery consisting
of bevel-gear, the handle is brought so near to his body
that much of the muscular force of the arm is lost by
this misapplication.
1670. By using a well-constructed machine for straw-
rope spinning, not only is there a saving of expense
effected, but the ropes are much better twisted, and,
of course, stronger than those made by the old imple-
ment.
1671. The price of a straw-rope spinner is from
£2, 5s. to £2, 10s.
Fig. 614.
1672. Fig. 614 represents a rope of straw coiled up
for use.
The spinner, after he has let out as much
straw as makes the length of rope required for the
size of stack upon which it is to be used, winds it
up upon his left hand and arm into a coil of the
form and mode represented in the figure, and which is so firmly put together
COILED STRAW-ROPE.
490
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
کے
that a man can throw such a coil to the top of the highest stack in the stack-
yard to the man who is thatching the stack.
с
Fig. 615.
THE LADDER.
Fig. 616.
ADE
a
1673. Ladders.-Ladders are best formed
of tapering Norway pine spars sawn up the
middle. A useful form of ladder for farm pur-
poses is shown in fig. 615, where the rounded
parts of the divided spar a a are placed out-
most, and are connected together by steps b,
of clean ash driven through auger-holes, and
firmly wedged into the spars. The steps are
9 inches apart, and are 16 inches long at the
bottom, and 13 inches at the top, between the
spars of a ladder of 15 feet in length, which
is the most useful size for the use of a stack-
yard. To prevent the ladder from falling to
pieces, in consequence of the shrinking and
loosening of the round steps, a small rod of
iron is placed under the upper, middle, and
lower steps, where its ends are passed
through the spars, keeping them asunder
by means of its shoulders, and holding them
firmly together with nut and screw at each
of its ends. When well finished and painted,
such a ladder will last many years. Longer
ladders are used for reaching the tops of
stacks.
1674. Coil of Cart-Rope.-Fig. 616 repre-
sents the mode in which the rope of a har-
vest cart is coiled up after the load of corn
has been brought into the stackyard from
the harvest field. Two of such ropes are
suspended at the hind end of each cart.
1675. The Flail.-The flail consists of two
parts, the hand-staff or helve a b, and the
supple or beater b c, fig. 617. The hand-staff
is a light rod of ash about 5 feet in length,
slightly increased in breadth at the lower
extremity, where it is perforated for the
passage of the thongs that bind the beater
to it. The beater is a rod of from 30 to 36
inches in length, frequently also made of
ash, though a more compact wood, such as
thorn, is better adapted for it. If not
properly applied, the ash beater will very
soon separate into thin plates, which are
portions of the concentric layers of the
wood, and their separation arises from the
beater falling upon the flat or convex side
of these annular layers—or the reed of the
wood, as vulgarly called. To prevent this
disintegration of the wood, the beater
should be constructed to fall upon the edge of the segmental portions of the reed,
COILED CART-ROPE.
THE FLAIL-THE HAND-HUMMELLER.
491
which is easily accomplished in its formation. The usual form of the beater
is cylindrical, but frequently thickened.
a little towards the extreme end, the
diameter being from 1 to 1½ inch.
For the most part, it is attached to
the hand-staff by a strap of leather,
or more frequently of hide untanned.
When mounted in this manner, the
beater is formed with two projecting
ears, standing at right angles to the
side on which it is intended to fall, and
about 1 inch from the end by which
it is attached, serving the purpose of
retaining the end of the beater within
the strap. The strap is about 8 inches
long and 1 inch broad; it is bent over
the end of the beater, and the tails
brought to embrace the sides of it
beyond the ears. The strap being pre-
viously perforated with four holes in
each tail, it is bound by a thong of
leather laced through the holes and
round the neck of the beater
upper turn of the lacing-thong catch-
ing the ears, prevents the strap from
slipping off. The strap, thus applied,
forms a loop standing about 1 inch
beyond the end of the beater; and
through that, and the perforation in
the end of the hand-staff, another and
stronger thong, sometimes made of eel
the
C
Ն
Fig. 617.
Caddy
THE FLAIL.
a
Fig. 618.
skin, is passed several turns and secured, forming thus a kind of loose swing-
joint that allows free action to the beater in its gyra-
tion round the head of the thrasher, and its descents
upon the thrashing-floor.
1676. Another mode of mounting the beater is by
applying a strap of iron in place of leather, which is
fixed to the wood by riveting, leaving a loop as
before, which must be nicely rounded and smooth,
to prevent the too rapid chafing of the thong by which
it is bound to the hand-staff, in the same manner as
described above. Fig. 617 given here exhibits the
iron strap above b.
1677. For an explanation of the action, and of the
proper form of the beater of the flail, see par. 8, fig. 2.
1678. The Hand-Hummeller.-In the smaller class
of farms, hand-hummellers are pretty generally used,
and are of various forms, but all retaining one prin-
ciple of construction and of effect. They are round,
square, and oblong; but in all three forms they con-
sist of a number of parallel bars of iron, placed in a
frame of one of the forms above named. Fig. 618
THE HAND-HUMMELLER.
492
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
1
8
is a square hummeller in perspective. It consists of a square frame of iron, 12
inches each way, 2 inches in depth, and inch thick. Bars of similar dimen-
sions are riveted into the sides of the frame, and crossing each other, forming
compartments of from 14 inch to 2 inches square. A branched iron stem is
riveted to the frame below and at top, and forms a socket into which a wooden
helve is fixed, having a cross-head by which it is held in the hand.
1679. Such hummellers are frequently made with parallel bars only, in which
case they are less expensive, but much less effective.
Fig. 619.
1680. Corn-Barrow. In fig. 619 is shown the corn-barrow, a very convenient
means of conveying the sheaves
from the stack to the barn to
be thrashed, the construction of
which is so obvious that a spe-
cified description seems unne-
cessary, farther than that it is
about 6 feet in length, and
stands 2 feet in height to the
top of the slanting bracket.
The sheaves are laid across the
barrow in rows, with the corn
and butt-ends alternately, and
THE CORN-BARROW
they are kept from sliding off in the act of being wheeled, by the slanting
bracket which is supported by iron stays. In this way, from ten to fifteen
sheaves, according to their bulk, may be wheeled away at once by a woman.
The legs of the barrow are also strengthened with iron stays.
1681. Riddles.—The most complete implements for separating heavy articles.
from corn of any kind are riddles. They are formed either entirely of wood, or
partly of wood and wire. Wooden riddles have long been in use, though, we be-
lieve, in the hands of a skilful riddler, the wire riddle makes the best work. The
wooden are made of fir or willow, but American elm is the best. The wire riddles
have hitherto been made of iron wire, on account, perhaps, of its cheapness; but
we should suppose that copper wire would make a better and more durable riddle.
A riddle, whether of wood or wire, consists of a bottom of open meshwork, and
of a cylindrical rim of wood, the diameter of which is usually 23 or 24 inches,
and its depth 3 inches. Rims are made either of fir, or oak, or beech, beech
being most used. In fir rims, the wooden withes of the bottom are passed
through slits, thereby endangering the splitting of the rim itself all round, which
Fig. 620.
THE WOODEN WHEAT-RIDDLE.
not unfrequently happens; but in the oak rim the
withes are passed through bored holes, which never
cause splitting. There is little danger of wire split-
ting the rims of any sort of wood.
1682. The following figures of riddles are por-
tions only of the bottom of each kind, but the meshes
are at full sizes, according to the grain to be riddled.
1683. Wheat Riddle of Wood, fig. 620.-The
meshes of this riddle are a quarter of an inch
square; the breadth of the wood splits three-six-
teenths of an inch, and its price is 3s. 6d. with an
oak rim.
1684. Wooden Barley-Riddle, fig. 621.-This riddle has a mesh of five-six-
teenths of an inch square, the breadth of the withes being a quarter of an inch.
The price is 3s. with an oak rim.
1685. Wooden Riddle for Oats, fig. 622, with three-eighths of an inch square
RIDDLES.
493
of mesh, and the breadth of the withes a quarter of an inch. The price is 2s. 4d.
with an oak rim.
Fig.621.
Fig. 622.
电
​THE WOODEN BARLEY-RIDDLE.
进
​THE WOODEN OAT-KIDDLE.
1686. Wooden Riddle for Beans, fig. 623, having five-sixteenths of an inch
square in the mesh, with withes of three-sixteenths of an inch in width. The
price is 3s. 6d. with an oak rim.
1687. Wooden Riddle for Roughs.–For riddling the roughs of wheat and oats–
Fig.623.
进
​THE WOODEN BEAN-RIDELE.
Fig.624.
行
​THE WOODEN RIDDLE FOR THE ROUGHS OF WHEAT AND OATS
the roughs of barley not being riddled-a wooden riddle, fig. 624, has meshes
of one inch square, and the
breadth of the withes three-
eighths of an inch. The price
is 2s. with an oak rim.
1688. Iron-wre Riddle for
Wheat, fig. 625. This riddle
has 25 meshes in the square
inch, including the thickness
of the wires. The price is 5s.
with a beech rim.
Fig. 625.
THE IRON-WIRE WHEAT-RIDDLE.
Fig.626.
THE IRON-WIRE BARLEY-RIDDLE.
1689. Iron-wire Riddle for
Barley, fig. 626, having 16 meshes to the square inch, including the thickness
of the wire. The price is 4s. with a beech rim.
494
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
Fig. 627.
1690. A barley wire-riddle answers for riddling beans, but an opposite process
is performed,—the small and shrivelled beans and other
refuse pass through the meshes, while the good grain
is left in the riddle, together with any lumps of clay and
stones that may have accompanied the good grain, and
which must be removed by the hand.
THE IRON-WIRE OAT-RIDDLE,
1691. Iron-wire Riddle for Oats, fig. 627, having 12
meshes to the square inch, including the thickness of
the wire. The price is 3s. 6d. with a beech rim.
1692. Slap Riddle. Fig. 628 is a wire riddle for
roughs, having the meshes inch square. The price
Riddles for roughs are also
is 2s. 6d. with a beech rim.
1
called slap-riddles. When elevators are used in a thrashing-machine, no slap-
riddles are required.
Fig. 628.
THE IRON-WIRE RIDDLE FOR KOUGHS.
Fig. 629.
THE WOODEN SIEVE. }
Fig. 630.
THE IRON-WIRE SIEVE.
1693. Wooden Sieves.—Fig. 629 is a wooden sieve for sifting out dust, earth,
and small seeds from corn, having meshes of one-eighth of an inch square, and
the breadth of the withes also one-eighth of an inch. The price is 3s. 6d. with
an oak rim.
1694. Iron-wire Sieve.-Fig. 630 is an iron-wire sieve, having 64 meshes to
the square inch, including the thickness of the wire. The size is 22 inches
diameter, called No. 8, and, with a beech rim, is sold for 5s. 6d.
Fig. 631.
TRIANGULAR MESHED IRON-WIRE SIEVE.
1695. In fig. 631 is illustrated a triangular-
meshed iron-wire sieve, with an oak rim.
1696. These are all the sizes and varieties
of riddles and sieves required on a farm. Of
slap-riddles and sieves, only one of each size is
used; but of the riddles for wheat, barley, oats,
and beans, two of each kind are required,
whether of wood or wire. We have tried both
kinds, and prefer the wire, as making better
work, although we are aware they require more
dexterous riddlers, to use them with advantage,
than the wooden riddles.
1697. Wechts or Maunds.-For taking up corn from the bin or floor, wechts,
AW
WECHT-STOOL-SCOOP.
Fig. 632.
495
of the form of fig. 632, are made either of withes or of skin attached on a rim of
wood. One of fir withes, with a rim of oak, costs
2s. 6d. A young calf's skin with the hair on, or
a sheep's skin without the wool, tacked to the rim
in a wet state, after becoming dry and hard, makes
a better and more durable wecht than wood.
1698. Wechts should be made of different sizes;
two as large as two fulls shall fill the bushel with
ease, and others of smaller diameter, and less depth
of rim, to take up the corn from the fanners, to give
to the riddlers, or from the bin to supply the hop-
per of the fanners with corn.
WECHT OR MAUNd.
1699. Barn Basket.· Baskets of close and
beautiful wicker-work, such as fig. 633, are used in barns in parts of England
instead of wechts.
1700. Barn Stool.-A stout four-legged stool, 2 feet long, 9 inches broad,
and 9 inches high, as fig. 634, made of ash, is useful in a barn, to allow the
Fig.633.
Fig. 634.
THE CORN-BASKET OF WICKER-WORK.
THE BARN STOOL.
For want of a stool the
women to reach the hopper of the fanners easily.
inverted bushel is often taken to stand upon, much to its injury.
Fig. 635.
Fig. 636.
1701. Barn Hoe.-A wooden hoe, fig. 635, made of plane-tree, 7 inches long,
and 4 inches deep in the blade, fixed to a shaft
9 inches long, is easier and quicker than the
hands to fill wechts with corn from the floor.
THE BARN WOODEN HOE.
1702. Wooden Scoops.-A couple of wooden
scoops, such as fig. 636, to shovel up the corn
in heaps, are indispensable implements in a
corn-barn. The scoop is 3 feet 3 inches in height, with a head
like a common spade; a helve 18 inches in length, and the blade
14 inches wide and 16 inches long. The blade, helve, and handle,
are all of one piece of wood, of plane-tree, the belly of the scoop
being a little hollowed out, and its back thinned away to the
sides and face. This is a convenient size of scoop for women's
use, and who have most occasion to use it, and it is also light.
1703. In the granaries in towns, scoops are made longer, with
a handle of a separate piece of ash, and, consisting of more than
one piece of wood, are clumsy implements.
1704. A wooden scoop does not injure a floor as much as an iron
spade, and better retains the corn upon its blade when used.
THE CORN-SCOOP.
1705. Brooms.—Brooms are useful implements in a steading, to sweep the
different sorts of floors, and they are formed of materials best suited to clean
the particular sort of floor. For sweeping the floor of causewayed or paved
stables and byres, the twigs of the birch-tree form the most elastic and durable
496
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
brooms, such as is shown in fig. 637. They are tied together with stout twine
in bundles of about 4 inches in diameter at the tied end, and 2 feet in length.
A wooden handle of about 3 feet in length is driven into the tied end, and is
kept in its place by a pin passed through it and the twigs. The sweeping
end receives such a trimming with the knife as to give it a flattened
face to the ground sloped away to a point.
Fig. 637.
STABLE-BROOM.
1706. Barn Brooms.-The most handy broom for a corn-barn is
made of half-dried twigs of broom, of the form of the stable-broom,
fig. 637, without the long shank.
1707. The Imperial Bushel.-Corn is now invariably measured by
the imperial bushel. It is of cooper-work, made of oak and hooped.
with iron, and, according to the Weights and Measures Act, must be
stamped by competent authority before it can be legally used; and,
having been declared the standard measure of capacity in the country
for dry measure, it forms the basis of all contracts dependent on
Fig. 638.
measures of capacity when otherwise
indefinitely expressed. By 5th Geo.
IV., c. 74, sec. 15, the bushel must
contain just 2218.19 cubic inches,
though its form may vary.
1708. The form represented in fig.
638 we consider most convenient,
being somewhat broader at the base
than at the top, and furnished with
two fixed handles. It is not too
broad for the mouth of an ordinary
half-quarter sack, nor too deep to
compress the grain too much; and its two handles are placed pretty
high, so that it may be carried full without the risk of capsizing.
THE IMPERIAL BUSHEL OF A CONVENIENT FORM.
1709. Some bushels are made inconveniently broad for any sack,
LONG-SHANKED for the sake of being shallow, that the corn may not be compressed
in them. We have seen others spread out so much in the mouth as
to render them unsteady. Some have no handles at all, and are obliged to
be lifted by the arms. Others have only one handle for the person who over-
turns the bushel to lay hold of, and that sometimes a jointed one, and there
being no handle on the other side for the sack to pass under it, the sack is
apt to slip over the mouth of the bushel while being emptied. Others have
the handles too low for the sack to pass under in the act of the bushel being
emptied. These different modes of making bushels become essential conveniences
or inconveniences when much corn has to be measured up in a short time;
Fig. 639.
b
a
and when convenience is studied in the
form of the bushel, it contributes much
to save time.
1710. Corn-Strikes. — In connection
with the bushel is the strike for sweep-
ing off the superfluous corn above the
edge of the bushel. It is usually made
of two forms; the one a flat piece of wood,
like a in fig. 639; the other of the form
of a roller, like b. The Weights and
Measures Act prescribes that the strike shall be of a round form, of a piece of
light wood, 2 inches in diameter; but he who put the notion into the heads of
THE FLAT AND CYLINDER OORN-STRIKES.
SACKS OF CORN IN A BARN.
497
those who drew up the Act, that this is the best form of strike, must have had
little experience of using one. If the object is to separate one stratum of grains
of corn from another-and this is the only object of using a strike-the sharp
edge of the flat strike is evidently best fitted for the purpose. A cylinder,
when passed with a uniform motion over a bushel, though not rolling, must
push down some of the grain that is in front, under it; and, if it is rolled across
the bushel, it must press down still more grain, in the manner of a roller passing
over clods in friable land, and, of course, make the bushel hold more grain than
it would naturally do. We would advise all sellers of grain to use the flat strike,
whatever purchasers may wish them to do.
1711. On striking wheat, the strike is drawn straight across the bushel, the
grains being nearly round, and yielding easily to the forward motion of the
strike; but in the case of barley, oats, pease, and beans, the strike should be
moved across the bushel in a zigzag manner, because, those grains being large,
long, or rough, a straight motion, particularly a rapid one, is apt to tear away
some of them to a level below that of the edge of the bushel.
1712. The strike should be made of wood in the best seasoned state, and of
that kind which is least likely to lose its straightness of edge, while it should
be light to carry in the hand, and hard to resist blows. Perhaps plane-tree may
afford the nearest approach to all these properties.
1713. Sacks of Corn in a Barn.—To make sacks of corn stand so as each
may be taken away with ease from a number, they should be set, the first
one in a corner, with one shoulder against one wall, and the other shoulder
against the other wall, as seen at a, fig. 640; and every sack in the same
row, as b and c, will stand with the left shoulder against the wall, and
Fig. 640.
b
e
H. S.
d
FILLED SAUKS AS THEY SHOULD BE PLACED ON THE BARN FLOOR.
the right shoulder against the side of the sack set down before it. In the
succeeding row, the first sack, as d, will have its right shoulder against the
wall, and its left shoulder against the side of the first sack a that was set
up in the corner; and the succeeding sacks, e and f, will have their left
2 I
498
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
shoulders in the hollows between the sacks, b and c, in the first row, and their
right shoulders against the sides of the sacks that were set down just before
each of them; and so on, row after row. In short, the sacks stand shoulder to
shoulder, instead of side to side. Now, the utility of this arrangement is, that
the sacks, in the first place, are as closely set together as they can possibly be;
for the left shoulders of d and e, as may be seen, fill up the hollows between the
right shoulders of a b and b c. In the next place, as each sack is removed in
the reversed order in which they were placed, it presents its broad side either
to the barrow to be wheeled away, without the slightest entanglement with any
other sack, or to be lifted at once as it stands upon the man's back, without the
usual trouble of having to be kneed forward to a more convenient spot. Thus,
look upon f, with the initials H. S. upon it, the last-placed sack, and the first to
be removed. It is obvious that its side is presented in the most proper position
for the sack-barrow; and its lower corners g and h are quite ready for the hands
of the persons who are to assist in raising it to a man's back.
1714. The figures show also the difference between tight and slovenly
sacking-up of corn: f shows a slackness of putting the first bushel into it,
where there are creases between g and h, and the corners at g and h project
too much out, because the corn above them is too slack. On the other hand, d
shows a well-filled sack. When filled sacks are wheeled aside, their mouths
should be folded in and closed up, as represented in the outer row d e f. On
tying sacks, which they must be when intended to be sent away by cart, the tie
should be made as near the corn as possible, whatever proportion of the sack
may be left over, in order to keep the whole sack firm, as seen in a, b, and c.
1715. The Sack-Barrow.-Sacks, when filled, are most conveniently placed in
any part of the barn by means of a barrow made for
the purpose. A good form of one may be seen in fig.
641. Its height is 3½ feet, and its breadth over the
wheels 1½ foot. The frame a is made of ash, the
wheels of cast-iron; and the scoop b, and the shields
C, which save the sacks rubbing against the wheels,
are made of wrought-iron. To be handy, the sack-
barrow should stand upright of itself, as seen in the
position in the figure.
C
Fig. 641.
a
1716. There are two modes of using the sack-
barrow-one when the sacks stand upright on being
filled, and the other when they stand as in fig. 640.
On taking hold of one of the handles a with the right
hand, behind the wheels, the left hand seizes the
mouth of the sack, and pushes it so far off as to
allow the scoop b of the barrow to pass between the
bottom of the sack and the floor; and then, on pulling
the sack towards the barrow, while the foot on the axle pushes the barrow for-
ward, the sack is placed on the scoop and is ready for removal. In the case
of the sacks, as in fig. 640, all that is required is to push the scoop b with the
foot under the bottom of the sack f, and to pull the sack upon the barrow.
THE SACK-BARROW.
1717. Lifting Sacks of Corn.-There are three modes of lifting a sack to a
man's back. One is, for the person who is to carry the load to bow his head
down in front of the sack, placing his back to its broad side, and bending his left
arm behind his own back, across his loins, and his right hand upon his right
knee, to await in this position the assistance that is to be given him. Two people
assist in raising the sack, by standing face to face, one on each side of it, bowing
SACK-LIFTERS.
499
down so as to clasp hands across the sack near its bottom, as from g to h, fig. 640,
below the carrier's head, and thrusting the fingers of the other hands into the
corners g and h, which yield and go inwards, and thereby afford a firm hold. Each
lifter then presses his shoulder against the edge of the sack, and with a combined
exertion upwards, which the carrier seconds by raising his body up; the bottom
of the sack is raised uppermost, and the tied mouth downmost, resting against
the back of the carrier. The lifters now leaving hold, the carrier keeps the sack
steady on his back, with his left arm across its mouth.
1718. Another plan is, for the carrier to lay hold of the top of the shoulder of
the sack with both his hands, his arms crossing each other. His two assistants
do as directed before; and while they lift the sack between them, the carrier
quickly turns his back round to the sack and receives it there, retaining his firm
hold of the parts he had at first.
1719. A third plan is for the assistants to raise the sack upon another one,
and then the carrier lowers his back down against the side of the sack, laying
hold of its shoulders, over his own shoulders, and rising up straight with it on his
back. In all these cases a firmly filled and tied sack is the most easily carried.
Fig. 642.
1720. The last plan requires most strength from the carrier, he having to rise
up with the load; the second most from the lifters, they having to lift the load
up; and in the first the strength of both parties is nearly equally divided.
1721. The Sack-Lifter. The sack-lifter, fig. 642, is the hand-barrow of the
corn-barn. It simply consists of two
pieces of ash, 3 feet 9 inches long, ter-
minating at both ends in the form of
handles, clear of the floor, well united.
together at 15 inches apart, by means
of three cross-bars of wood tenoned
and mortised into the handles. A board-
SACK LIFTER.
ing is placed over the bars for the sacks to stand upon. The sack is placed
on the lifter on the floor, and two persons lift the sack with the lifter as high
as to be on a level with the man's back who is to carry it.
Fig. 643.
и
C
1722. Gilbert's Sack Filler and Lifter.-In fig. 643 we illustrate an apparatus,
patented by Mr Gilbert, to enable
one person to fill sacks with corn,
and to lift them. The sack has
its mouth expanded and held
open by the two jointed clamps
or bars a a, and is sustained
throughout its length by the bars
bb, and cross-bars c c. The stay
d d is jointed to the bars b b,
and rests on the floor at its lower
extremity at e. Wheels, ff, are
provided, by which the frame and
filled sack can be transported
from place to place. The length
of the bars b b is 4 feet 5 inches;
the length of elliptical aperture
in which the sack is held is 30
inches, and its breadth 12 inches;
d
b
GILBERT'S SACK FILLER AND LIFTER, IN PERSPECTIVE.
the diameter of wheels, ƒƒ, 8 inches. As manufactured by Messrs Richmond
and Chandler, the price of the frame without wheels is 23s.; with wheels, 32s.
500
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
Fig. 644.
1723. Potato-Graip.-When potatoes are raised from the drill by the hand,
the potato-graip, fig. 644, is the best implement for the purpose. It consists of
three flattened prongs of iron, to which is attached a socket, in which
a stout helve with a short cross-head is fastened by means of a nail.
This graip is used by inserting it into the side of a drill of potatoes
with a push of the foot, and the graipful of earth thus obtained is
turned over in the hollow of the
drill, where the potatoes are ex-
posed to view and gathered. As
the raising of potatoes with this
graip is a laborious work, men
only use it. The price is 3s.
POTATO-
GRAIP.
Fig. 645.
POTATO-BASKET.
1724. Potato-Basket. As the
potatoes are exposed to view by
the potato-graip, the potato-bas-
ket, fig. 645, is used by women
and youngsters to gather them in.
The basket is made of wicker-
work, of a round shape, and as small as easily to be carried about
in one hand, whether filled with new taken-up potatoes or potato sets.
1725. Potato Brander-Shovel.—A shovel, with a helve and cross-
head, having its blade made of narrow bars of iron, as close set together as to
retain ordinary-sized potatoes, but to let through small ones, as also earth and
stones, is a useful implement at a potato-pit when potatoes are being prepared
for the market.
1726. English and Scotch Cart-Harness.—Fig. 646 represents the Scotch mode
Fig. 646.
11t
SCOTCH MODE OF YOKING A DOUBLE OART.
of yoking horses to a double horse-cart, and fig. 647 shows the English mode of
Fig. 647.
LENTED
UTIL
ENGLISH MODE OF YOKING A DOUBLE CART
HAND STRAW OR HAY CUTTER.
501
doing the same. The component parts of the harness consist of the same in
both countries-namely, a bridle, collar, haims, back-band, belly-band, and
rump-strap for the trace-horse; and bridle, collar, haims, saddle, belly-band,
and breeching for the tram horse. Two distinctive particulars, however, may
be observed between the two modes of yoking. In the Scotch mode, fig. 646,
double reins are employed to guide the horses when the driver may choose to
ride on the cart, while the English mode affords no reins. On the other hand,
both the trace and tram horses of the English mode of yoking, fig. 647, are
provided with cruppers, while the Scotch mode dispenses with cruppers.
Cruppers are disliked for farm-horses in Scotland, as they are apt to gall the
skin round the onset of the horse's tail.
Fig. 648.
1727. The Hay-Knife.—Fig. 648 affords a good idea of a hay-knife. The hay-
knife is used for cutting off a portion of the hay-stack when
hay is wanted for consumption. It consists of a sharp-edged
broad blade of steeled-iron, with a swedged back and sharp
point, having a tine attached to the swedge. The handle con-
sists of a double-handed cross-head, through the middle of
which the tine of the blade is passed, and fixed by riveting.
1728. It will be observed in the figure that the back of
the blade is less than a right angle to the handle, a position
which gives the cutting edge of the knife an inclination to
the line of section, which, when the knife is used up and
down in a perpendicular motion with both hands, causes
it to cut a longer space than the breadth of the blade. This
form of hay-knife requires a considerable degree of strength in its use, and
unless the edge is kept remarkably keen with a whetstone, and the hay is firm,
it does not make good or quick work.
HAY-KNIFE.
1729. Hand Straw or Hay Cutter.-A simple form of hand straw or hay cutter
is illustrated in fig. 649. It may easily be made by a mechanic in the rural
districts or in the colonies,
as there is an entire absence
of all complicated mechan-
ism, all the working parts
being of easy construction.
The height of the framework
is 3 feet, the distance be-
tween a b being 22 inches;
the four uprights are 3 inches
by 2 inches, and the length
of the trough c, in which
the straw is to be cut, is 42
inches. The width at the
further end c is 8 inches, and
at the feed end d 7 inches.
The length of the knife m is
25 inches, and its breadth 21
inches. The knife is jointed
at its lower extremity to the
JUHNSON DEL
Fig. 649.
d
M
HAND STRAW OR HAY CUTTER, IN PERSPECTIVE.
end ƒ of a lever which works on a stud, passed through an eye forged at one
end e.
This lever is made with a slotted or forked end f, working up and
down on the guide-pace g, nailed to the upright a in such a way as to admit of
a space a little wider than the thickness of one side of the fork of the lever f.
502
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
The extremity of the knife is provided with a handle h. While not in use,
the knife rests on the guard i. The hay or straw to be cut is fed through the
end of the trough d, the length of the cut being regulated by the attendant;
and while being cut, it is held in its place by the block j, acted on by the pres-
sure of the foot of the attendant on the pedal k, through the medium of the
chain l. The cutting is performed by the operator lifting, in the first instance,
the knife by the handle out of the guard i, and pushing it towards d, so that
the edge will be beyond the straw projecting from the feed-mouth. The knife
is then lifted upwards, along with the end of the lever f, till the end of the
knife near ƒ is on a level with the straw protruding through the feed-mouth;
the end m of the knife is then brought down towards the rest or guard i, the end
f of the lever fe being at the same time depressed. The double action, first
of the knife m on its centre f, and of the lever ƒ e on its centre e-the handle
of the knife h, and the end ƒ of the lever e f, describing arcs of circles-imparts.
Fig. 650.
FEEL-MOUTH OF HAND STRAW-OUTTER.
Fig. 651.
C
PEDAL OF HAND STRAW-CUTTER.
=
to the cutting edge the downward and lateral
movement essential to a quick and clean cut.
1730. Further simplification of construction.
might be attained by dispensing with the lever
fe, and jointing the end of the knife to the frame-
work; but in this case, by depressing the handle
h, the edge of the knife would be pressed against
the straw, and a tearing rather than a cutting
action would be the result. By the arrangement
in fig. 649, the knife having a lateral movement
towards f, and a downward one towards i, the
razor-like action so well known to produce a
clean and rapid cut is attained.
1731. In fig. 650 we give two views of the feed-
mouth, a being a side, and b a front view; and in
fig. 651 is a view of the pedal a, showing connec-
tion of the chain b by the stirrup c, by which the
pressure is produced on the block j, fig. 649, the
duty of which block is to keep the straw in its
place while being cut.
1732. The price of this hand hay and straw cutter may be set down at
from 30s. to 40s.
1733. Hand Lever Turnip-Slicer for Cattle.-One of the cheapest and most
efficient turnip-slicers is represented in fig. 652. It was brought before the
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland by Mr Wallace of Kirkconnel, as
an improvement on a pre-existing machine of the same kind.* It has since
undergone some further improvements in the hands of A. and G. H. Slight,
Edinburgh; and for the purpose of regular and perfect slicing of turnips, it
may be held as the best and cheapest now employed.
1734. In fig. 652 a b is the sole of the machine, about 34 inches long, 6 inches
broad, and 2 inches thick. The sole a b is in two pieces, connected by an iron
bar or strap a c, which is repeated on the opposite side, and the whole bolted
together as in the figure. The two pieces forming the sole are separated longi-
tudinally from each other, so as, with the two side-straps of iron, to form a rect-
angular opening of 9 inches by 6 inches, bounded on the two ends by parts
of the sole, and on the two sides by the side-straps. The sole is supported at
* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xiv. p. 363.
HAND LEVER TURNIP-SLICER FOR CATTLE.
503
the height of two feet upon four legs, and the lever d e is jointed at d by means
of a bolt passing through it and the ears of the side-straps, as seen at d. The
lever d e is 4 feet in length, its breadth and thickness equal to that of the sole,
but is reduced at the end
e to a convenient size for
the hand.
1735. The improve-
ments introduced by the
Messrs Slight consist in
the application of a cast-
iron knife-block f, with
eight instead of six cut-
ter-knives, which give a
more convenient size of
slice. This cast-iron
knife-block gives greater
strength to the machine,
and a more steady and
secure feature to the in-
terior knives.
1736. Fig. 653 is a
section of the cradle as
a
d
Fig. 652.
j
b
HAND LEVER TURNIP-SLICER FOR CATTLE, IN PERSPECTIVE.
it appears with the cast-iron knife-block: a is the body of the block, which is
attached to the sole a b, fig. 652, through the medium of a flange behind, and
fixed by bolts. The external cutters b b are a part of the side-straps a c, fig.
652, and the interior cutters are fixed in pairs,
.cc, d d, e e, by their respective bolts passing
through the cutters and the block.
b
с
d
с
Fig. 653.
e
البشارة
α
SECTION OF ORADLE.
es
b
1737. In using this machine, the workman takes
hold of the lever de with the right hand, and,
having raised it sufficiently high, he with the left
hand throws a turnip into the cradle f. The lever
is now brought down by the right hand, which,
with a moderate impetus, and by means of the
block g, sends the turnip down upon the cutters,
through the openings of which it passes while the cutters are dividing it, and
the whole falls away in perfectly uniform slices below, where they may be
received in a basket. In most cases, it is found more convenient to have a
boy to throw in the turnips, and this will somewhat expedite the work. Two
advantages this turnip-slicer possesses, and they are both important—one is, that
with unerring certainty it cuts every slice of uniform thickness: the slab-
slices, indeed, may of course vary, but all are free of the smallest portion of
waste; and the other advantage is its cheapness, especially when it is con-
sidered that, in a given time, it will slice weight for weight of turnips with the
most elaborate machine in use, the power applied being also equal; and its
price is only from 28s. to 30s. The implement is also extremely portable,
and can be carried about by one person. An objection has been urged to this
slicer-namely, that the turnips must be all put into it one by one; but it is
perhaps unnecessary to remark, that this objection applies to all turnip-slicers;
for though the hopper of some may be capable of containing a large number of
turnips at a time, yet only one turnip is sliced at a time.
1738. Samuelson's Hand Lever Turnip-Slicer.-In fig. 654 we give a perspective
504
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
view of a hand-lever turnip-slicer, adapted for small occupations, where only
b
Fig. 654.
a
с
а
с
SAMUELSON'S HAND-LEVER TURNIP-SLICER, IN PERSPECTIVE.
b
two or three cows and a few
sheep are kept. Different
forms of knives are used, ac-
cording as slices are wanted
for cattle, or "fingers" for
sheep. This implement is
manufactured by Mr Samuel-
son of Banbury, and costs
£1, 15s. The hopper a a, fig.
654, 3 feet 3 inches long, 11
inches deep, 3 feet 3 inches
broad at its upper, and 18
inches at its lower end, and
having a sparred bottom of iron
rods to admit earth through
them, is fixed to the beam
or bar b b, 5 feet 4 inches long,
15 inches broad, and 34
inches thick. This is carried by four supports c c, c c, 3 feet 6 inches high,
α
Fig. 655.
b
THE BEST FORM OF TURNIP-PICKER IN USE.
Fig. 656.
OBJECTIONABLE FORM OF TURNIP-PICKER.
C
and 5 inches broad by 4 inches thick.
The cutting-knife works on the centre
d, the handle e working in the slot of
the curved guide ƒ.
1739. Turnip-Picker.-Until of late
years, sheep were allowed to help
themselves to turnips, and when the
bulbs were scooped out as far as the
ground would permit, their shells, as
their bottoms fast in the ground are
called, were picked out with a turnip-
picker, the mode of using which may
be seen in fig. 655. Its handle a is 4
feet long, and blade b 10 inches, in-
cluding the eye for the handle, and
its face is brought to a sharp edge of
steel c. By its mode of action, the tap-
root of the turnip is cut through and left in the ground, and the shell separated
Fig. 657.
Fig. 658.
IMPLEMENTS FOR TOPPING AND
TAILING TURNIPS.
from the ground, at one stroke.
1740. A common but bad form of these pickers is
with the mouth cleft in two, as in fig. 656, which, when
picking up the shell, pulls up the tap-root with it. The
tap-root, when thus exposed and eaten, is very pungent
to the taste, and is apt to engender purging in sheep.
1741. Topping and Tailing Turnips.-Figs. 657 and
658 represent the instruments for topping and tailing
turnips in their simplest form. Fig. 657 is an old scythe
reaping-hook, with the point broken off. This makes a
light instrument, and answers the purpose pretty well;
but fig. 658 is a better. It is made of the point end of a
worn-out patent scythe, the very point being broken off,
and part of the iron back to which the blade is riveted,
TURNIP TRIMMERS AND CHOPPERS.
C
Fig. 659.
b
505
forming a tine, is driven into a helve like that of fig. 657. This instrument is
rather heavier than that of fig. 657, on which account it removes the top more easily.
1742. The Turnip Trimming-Knife.-A superior instrument was contrived by
Mr James Kinninmonth, at Inverteil in Fife, under the
name of the “ turnip trimming-knife," fig. 659. The
necessity for another instrument of the kind arises from
the fact, that when the top of a turnip has dwindled into
a comparatively small size, it affords but an inadequate
hold for pulling the turnip from the ground; and when the
attempt is felt by the worker likely to fail, she naturally
strikes the point of the instrument into the bulb to assist
her, and the consequence is, that a deep gash is made
in the turnip, which, being stored for months, generally
suffers in its useful qualities, by producing premature
decay in the wounded part. In fig. 659, a is the handle,
b the cutting edge, steeled and properly tempered, and c
an appendage welded to the extremity of the back, in the
form of a narrow edge or hoe.
effort to draw it, the front of
right hand gently under the
lifting it with the left hand by the top of the turnip such
as it is, is effected with the greatest ease and certainty.
If the turnip requires any
the hoe c is inserted by the
bulb, and the operation of
TURNIP TRIMMING-KNIFE.
α
1743. The price of this knife, when made on purpose, is 1s. 6d., but were it
brought out as a regular article of manufacture, its price might be considerably
less.*
Fig. 660.
C
1744. Cross Turnip-Chopper.-There is another very simple and useful turnip-
cutter, which is frequently used when thin slicing is thought
of less importance, but is more especially useful where the
cooking system is adopted for either cows or horses, thin
slicing being in such cases not called for. This instrument
is represented in fig. 660. The cutting part of it consists of
2 steel-edged blades, 8 inches in length, and 4 inches in
depth. They are slit half-and-half at their middle point,
so as to penetrate each other, standing at right angles,
forming the cross-cutter, a a a a. They are then embraced
in a four-split palm, and riveted. The palm terminates in
a short shank e, which is again inserted into the hooped
end of a wooden handle b, 3 feet in length, and this is finished
with a cross-head c. The price of this instrument is 8s. 6d.
The mode of using it is obvious. It is held by the hand
in a vertical position; and when placed upon a turnip, one
thrust downward cuts it in quarters.
1745. This instrument is also varied in its construction,
being sometimes made with three and even with four blades,
dividing the turnip into six or into eight portions.
Another in-
b
и
α
1746. Parallel-bladed Turnip-Chopper.
dividual form of the same species is represented by
fig. 661. It has two blades a a; but they, instead of
crossing, stand parallel to each other, and therefore divide
the turnips into three portions, resembling slices, of consi-
derable thickness, the middle one being 14 inch thick. In the construction
* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society for July 1844, p. 286.
THE CROSS TURNIP-CHOPPER
506
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
of this cutter, a blunted stud is formed at the extremities of each blade, and
these project below the cutting edge about 1 inch, serving as guards to save
the cutting edges from receiving injury when they have passed through the
turnip, or otherwise striking any hard surface. These guards,
Ն
Fig. 661.
C
a
TURNIP-SLICER WITH
PARALLEL BLADES.
it
may
be remarked, would form a useful addition to all this class
of cutters. The arms b of the blades rise to a height of 9
inches, widening upwards to 34 inches, to give freedom to the
middle slice to fall out. The two arms coalesce above, and are
then formed into the
socket c, to receive the
handle, which termi-
nates in a cross-head.
Fig. 662.
WHEEL-BARROW.
1747. Common Wheel-
Barrow. In cleaning
out byres and stables,
a wheel-barrow, as in
fig. 662, is necessary.
This is of the common
form, with close-boarded
bottom, sides, and back, and of a capacity sufficient to carry a
good load of litter, but not of greater breadth than will easily
pass with a load through an ordinary door.
1748. The broad-mouthed shovel, fig. 411, is also necessary for cleaning out
byres and stables.
1749. Scull-Basket.-Turnips are carried to the cows in baskets called sculls,
which are hollow hemispherical-shaped baskets of basket-willow, having an
Fig. 663.
WILLOW SCULL OR BASKET.
opening on each side, to take hold of
the stout rim for handles, such as in fig.
663: they are 2 feet in diameter, and cost
about 1s. 6d.
1750. The Cooler. After the cattle-
food is prepared in the boiling apparatus
of the dairy, it is taken to the byre in a
cooler. This is an oblong box, fig. 664,
having the sides perpendicular, and the ends bevelled, and provided with two
wheels, mounted on a bent axle, which passes under the bottom of the box, and
토
​ރ
Fig. 664.
COOLER FOR A BYRE.
two handles, for the purpose of moving
the cooler to where it is wanted. The
cooler may be constructed of any dimen-
sions, to suit the size of the dairy; and
one 6 feet long, 2 feet wide, 21 feet deep,
will contain as much food as will serve
twenty cows at one meal.
1751. The Milk-Pail.-The vessel for
receiving the milk from the cow is simple,
and is shown in fig. 665, which represents
one of the most convenient form, and the
size may be made to suit the dairymaid's taste. It is made of thin oak staves
bound together with three thin iron hoops, which should always be kept bright.
Pitchers of tin are mostly used to milk in in the dairies of towns. A pail, as
fig. 665, is of a convenient size when 9 inches in diameter at the bottom, 11
inches at the top, and 10 inches deep, with a handle 5 inches high, and having
MILK-PAIL-MILKING-STOOL.
507
a capacious enough mouth to receive the milk as it descends, and of a sufficient
height to rest on the edge of its bottom when held firmly between the knees of
the dairymaid, as she sits in milking upon a three-legged stool. As the pail
should not be milked full, it should be large enough to contain all the milk a
cow will give at a milking, since it is undesirable to disturb the cow by rising
from her before the milking is finished, or by exchanging one pail for another.
Fig. 665.
Fig. 666.
MILKING-STOOL
MILK-PAIL.
1752. The Milking-Stool.-The byre-stool, seen in fig. 666, is made of ash,
to stand 9 inches in height, or any other height to suit the convenience of the
dairymaid, with the top 9 inches in diameter, having a segment cut off one side,
and the legs a little spread out below to give the stool stability. Some milkers
do not care to have the assistance of a stool in milking, and prefer sitting on
their haunches; but a stool keeps the body so steady and secure, that the arms
have greater freedom of action, and are more ready to prevent accidents to the
milk in case of any dispute with the cow.
1753. Milk-Dishes.-Milk-dishes are composed of stoneware, glass, wood,
metal, and stone. The stoneware consists of common ware and Wedgewood;
the wooden of cooper-work; the metal of block-tin and of zinc; the stone of
slate, pavement, and marble polished. Besides these simple elements, a
combination of materials is used, as, wooden vessels lined with block-tin
and zinc, and German cast-iron lined with porcelain. Of all these, the stone
and wooden ones lined with metal are stationary, and the others movable.
Wooden ones require much labour to keep them thoroughly clean, but are
the least liable to be injured in the use. Metal ones also require much cleans-
ing, and are liable to be bruised. Stoneware is easily fractured, though
very easily cleaned. Glass is as easily cleaned, and perhaps more frangible.
The form of all milk-dishes should be broad and shallow, for the purpose of
exposing a large surface with a small depth of milk, to facilitate the disen-
gagement of the cream from the milk.
1754. A difference in opinion exists, which substance as a milk-dish has the
greatest influence in disengaging the largest quantity of cream from the milk.
1755. Common Stoneware Milk-Dish.-These milk-dishes are brown outside,
and glazed yellow inside, of round form, tapering to the bottom, and without a
mouth to pour the milk by. When 15 inches in diameter, and 4 inches deep,
inside measure, they cost 9d. each. They are easily cleaned and broken, and
the glazing is not durable.
1756. Wedgewood-ware Milk-Dish.-Fig. 667 represents a milk-dish of white
Wedgewood-ware, of an oval form, 16 inches long and 3 inches deep, inside

508
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
measure, with a mouth. This ware is hard, not easily broken, the glazing
durable, and easily cleaned. A dish of this size costs 6s. Wedgewood or
Fig. 667.
WEDGEWOOD-WARE MILK-DISH.
white ware is also made of the form
of the wooden one of cooper-work, fig.
669, with the addition of two handles
to lift the vessel by.
1757. Glass Milk-Dish.-A milk-dish
made of light-green coloured glass, of
a circular form, 16 inches in diameter
and 4 inches deep, tapering to the
bottom, and with a mouth, is seen in
fig. 668. It is easily cleaned, and easily
broken if carelessly handled. The cost
of a dish of this size is 4s. 6d.
1758. Wooden Milk-Dish.-Fig. 669 is the common wooden milk-dish, made of
round cooper-work, composed of staves of oak and flat hoops of iron.
It is
Fig. 668.
Fig. 669.
GREEN GLASS MILK-DISH.
WOODEN MILK-DISH
16 inches in diameter, and 4 inches deep, inside measure, and costs 2s. This is
the most durable of all milk-dishes, although it requires much scrubbing when
in use to keep it clean, and the iron hoops bright, which they should always be.
1759. Fig. 670 exhibits a milk-dish made of zinc, of a circular form, 18
Fig. 670.
ZINO MILK-DISH.
inches in diameter, and 3 inches deep, pro-
vided with a mouth, and costs, of this size,
2s.-the price varying 3d., more or less, for
every inch in the diameter. Zinc requires
much cleansing, and is apt to be bruised,
though not easily broken.
1760. Dr Taylor has these observations
in regard to the use of vessels made of
zinc for dairy purposes: "Zinc has been
lately used in making utensils for holding
milk during the separation of cream. It is probable that some of the lactate
of zinc is here formed, as well as a combination of the oxide of zinc with
casein. I have been informed that milk and cream, which were allowed to
stand in such vessels, have given rise to nausea and vomiting. This practice
would not be allowed under a proper system of medical police. When an acid
liquid has been placed in a zinc vessel, there is a strong chemical action, and
the liquid becomes invariably impregnated with a salt of zinc. A cider-mer-
chant kept for three months a quantity of cider in vessels made of zinc. It was
observed that the liquid had then acquired an acrid and styptic taste. On
FIXED MILK-COOLERS.
509
analysis, it was found to contain a large quantity of acetate of zinc. It had,
therefore, become decidedly poisonous. Milk kept in zinc vessels until it be-
comes sour, would, we have no doubt, produce a similar poison. When milk is
so delicate a fluid, and so easily affected by any deleterious substance, great
caution is requisite in using any metallic vessel in the dairy that might possibly
injure its quality.
1761. Tin is not known to be acted on by milk.
Fig. 671.
1762. Fixed Milk-Cooler of Marble.—A fixed milk-cooler is represented by
fig. 671, made of marble, the best ma-
terial for a cooler, being cool, cleanly,
and handsome. An orifice is made in
the bottom a, at the near side, through
which the milk runs out of the cooler,
and where also the water issues which
has been used to wash the cooler clean.
The dimensions may be made at plea-
sure, 3 feet long and 2 feet broad being
a good size; but the depth should not
exceed 4 inches, to contain from 2 to 3
inches of milk.
1763. When the cooler is made of
wood lined with block-tin or tin, the
form is the same as the marble one.
1764. It is only in large dairies that
fixed coolers are used.
A FIXED MILK-COOLER OF MARBLE, OR OF WOOD
LINED WITH METAL.
1765. The Milk-Sieve.-Another uten-
sil required for the use of the milk is a milk-sieve, fig. 672, which consists of a
bowl of wood formed of plane-tree, having an orifice in the bottom, which is
filled in with gauze, in order to detain the hairs that may have fallen into the
milking-pails from the cows on being milked. The gauze is commonly made of
brass-wire, and, when kept bright, answers the purpose; but silver wire is much
less likely to become corroded by use. Such a sieve, 9 inches in diameter, with
brass-wire gauze, costs 1s. 3d.
1766. The Creaming-Dish.—The creaming-dish, fig. 673, made of china, and
Fig. 672.
Fig. 673.
MILK-SIFVE.
CREAM-SKIMMER.
sometimes called the skimmer or creamer, is for taking the cream off the milk,
It is thin, circular, broad, and shallow, having on one side a sharp edge to pass
easily between the cream and the milk. At the bottom are a number of small
* TAYLOR On Poisons.
510
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
holes to allow the milk to pass through and leave the cream pure and thick in
the skimmer. Such a skimmer costs 1s.
Fig. 674.
1767. Cream-Jar.-The cream, until it is churned, is kept in a jar of stone-
ware, as in fig. 674, about 18 inches in height, and 10 inches in diameter, pro-
vided with a movable top, having an opening in its centre, covered with muslin
to keep out dust and let in air. Such a jar costs
8s. to 10s. of white ware; of common ware cheaper.
1768. Butter Moulds.-Fig. 675 represents a
stamp 1½ inch diameter, for small prints of butter
used at table; the design upon which is cut in
accordance with fancy and taste. The couple of
hands, ribbed on their faces with longitudinal par-
allel ridged lines, are for forming small figured balls
and rolls of butter, also for the table. The hands
are 6 inches long, and 4 inches broad in the face,
and 4 inches long in the handles.
CREAM-JAR.
Fig. 675.
1769. The Butter-Spade.-Objections have been
urged against the use of the human hand in making
up butter, and a small wooden spade recommended
to be employed instead. The use of water has also
been objected to, as it is said to deprive the butter
of its pleasing aroma. A woman who has hot
clammy hands should never be a dairymaid, as
butter is very susceptible of taint, and its flavour
will doubtless be injured by the heavy smell of
sweaty hands; but naturally cool hands-made
clean by washing in warm water and oatmeal, not
soap, and then rinsed and steeped in cold water,
will make up butter freer of buttermilk, and more
solid than any instrument whether of wood or
other material. As to cold water injuring butter,
it is scarcely possible, there being no affinity be-
tween fatty matter and cold water; water cannot
dissolve any essential ingredient out of butter;
at any rate, water will more effectually unite with,
and thereby take away the milky substance from
butter, than any instrument manipulated dryly with
But less handling may be given to butter with
the partial use of the spade, which may be employed in the
first process of the washing, by dividing and rubbing, and roll-
ing it amongst the water on the bottom of a flat tub, before
it is beaten with the hands; and it is this beating which ex-
pels the remnants of the buttermilk which cannot be farther
reached by the water, and which, if left, would spoil the taste
of the butter in a very few days, that is best done by the hand.
Fig. 676 represents a butter-spade of a shape long used in a
dairy, the face being 4 inches square, and the handle 4 inches.
long. The lower side of the face is thinned away to a sharp
edge. That such a spade may last in use, and not warp,
being thin, it should be made of hardwood, and the wood of
the apple-tree is found to be the most tenacious.
BUTTER PRINT-MOULD AND HANDS.
all the art the hand can use.
Fig. 676.
BUTTER-SPADE.
1770. The Dutch use an implement for washing butter without the immediate
LACTOMETER-CHEESE-VAT.
511
contact of the hand, which is much more effective than this spade. It consists
of a board of wood about 1 foot in length and 4 inches in breadth, deeply
grooved longitudinally. Another board, of similar construction and dimensions,
is hinged upon one end of it, and terminates in a handle. The instrument is
placed in a flat kit, with water. While the butter is placed by one hand at
quick intervals of time, with such a spade as fig. 676, upon the lower board, the
other hand moves the upper board up and down in repeated action upon the
butter, which is alternately and successively divided by the grooves meeting
into one another, and kneaded thin by the frequent contact of the grooves of the
boards. By repeated operations in this manner the butter is considered to be
freed entirely of the buttermilk. Still the most expert manager of this process
cannot free the butter of buttermilk so completely as can the manipulator by a
pair of cool active hands.
1771. A Lactometer.-A lactometer, to test the creaming qualities of milk
drawn from different cows, is useful
in dairies. It consists of a frame,
fig. 677, containing a series of glass
tubes of equal length and diameter.
These are graduated as shown in the
figure, and are filled to an equal
height with milk from different
cows, when, after remaining some
time quiescent, the stratum of cream
is easily marked off in each.
When
1772. The Curd-Cutter.
milk is sufficiently coagulated, the
Fig. €77.
LACTOMETER IN PERSPECTIVE.
curd is cut in the tub with the curd-cutter, fig. 678, which consists of an oval
hoop of copper a b, 9 inches long and 6 inches wide, and 1 inch deep,
embracing a slip of copper, of the same depth, along its longitudinal axis.
The stem c, of round copper rod, is branched and stemmed, and is 18 inches
in height, surmounted by a wooden handle d, 6 inches in
length. On the instrument being used in a perpendicular
direction, it cuts the curd in the tub into pieces.
Fig. 679.
1773. The Cheese-Vat.—Fig. 679 shows the common
cheese-vat or chessart, as it is called, the form being varied
according to that adapted to
the cheese. This vat is built
with elm staves, as being least
liable to burst with pressure, and
strongly hooped, and is fur-
nished with a substantial bot-
tom, pierced with holes to allow
the whey expressed to flow away,
and a strong wooden cover cross
doubled. It is of advantage that
CHEESE-VAT.
the cover fit the vat exactly, and that the vat have as little
taper interiorly as possible. In some parts, as in Cheshire,
cheese-vats are made of tin, with holes in the bottom.
Fig. 678.
d
C
CURD-CUTTER
1774. The Curd-Breaker.—The curd-breaker,* of which fig. 680 is a plan, and
fig. 681 a transverse section, consists of a hopper-shaped vessel a b, 17 by 14
*
Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 384.
512
IMPLEMENTS FOR THE PRODUCTS OF THE SOIL.
which are
inches at top, and 10 inches deep. It is fixed upon two bearers e e,
set upon a stand or tub when in operation. A wooden cylinder ƒ, having an
a
NE 6 SE SE
Fig. 680.
3936
3 3 8 3ETT
CURD-BREAKER.
Fig. 681.
a
d
h
SECTION OF THE CURD-BREAKER.
e
b
e
iron axle passing through
the bearers e e, is turned
by a winch-handle d. The
axle is kept in its bearings.
by means of slots h on each
side, which slide in grooves
in the bearers, and are held
in their place by a slider at
e h. The cylinder f is 7
inches long and 3½ inches
diameter, studded all over
with pegs of hardwood 1
inch square, and projecting
4
inch. These pegs or teeth
are set in eight regular zones
round the cylinder, each zone.
containing eighteen teeth.
Two wedge-shaped pieces
cc are attached to the sides
of the hopper below, serving
at the same time to reduce
the opening between the cylinder and the hopper, and to carry a row of pegs
similar to those of the cylinder, but falling into the spaces between the zones
of pegs, as seen in fig. 680 at c and c.
1775. In using this machine, it is placed over the tub or other recipient for
the broken curd; the hopper is filled with the curd that requires to be broken;
and while one hand is turning the winch-handle, which may be turned either
way, the other hand may occasionally be required to press the curd down upon
the cylinder. To prevent the curd passing beyond the ends of the cylinder,
the cylinder is covered at each end, to the extent of inch, with an overlap of
the sides of the hopper. The cost of this curd-breaker is 8s.
1776. The Dung-Spade.-The litter in the courts of hammels is much more
compressed than that in large courts, as a consequence of heavy cattle stand-
ing and moving over it frequently within a limited space. It is
sometimes so compressed as almost to resist the entrance of the
graip. To enable it to be easily lifted with the graip, it should be
cut into parallel daces with the dung-spade, fig. 682. This spade
consists of a heart-shaped blade of steel thinned to a sharp edge
along both sides and pointed, with a stout short helve having a
long cross-head fastened into a split socket. The height of the
spade is 3 feet, length of cross-head 18 inches, length of helve
18 inches, length of blade 16 inches and breadth 10 inches. It
is kept sharp with a scythe-stone.
Fig. 682.
DUNG-SPADE.
1777. In using this spade, it is lifted up with both hands
by the cross-head, and its point thrust with force into the
dung-heap along a line across its entire breadth. The upper
part of the blade of this spade, it will be observed, is rounded, and not left
square with ears like a common spade, because when used to cut a dung-heap
of greater depth than the length of its blade, the rounded part does not catch
the litter on the instrument being pulled up out of it.
GRAIPS-LANTERN.
513
1778. The Common Graip.-The common graip is used for lifting all dry.
strawy materials. It is used to throw the dung heap into the cart after it has
been cut and prepared by the dung-spade. It consists of three rounded sharp
prongs, about 12 inches long, forged together, and to which is attached a
slightly curved forward shanked socket, into which the helve is fastened, and
furnished with a cross-head, as in fig. 683.
1779. The Three-pronged Dung-Graip.-Fig. 684
represents a light useful small implement for spread-
ing dung along drills, or minutely broadcast. It
consists of three short sharp prongs, welded together
and to a socket, into which a helve about 4 feet long,
without a cross-head, is fastened. This implement
is generally used by women-workers.
1780. The Dung-Drag.-This implement is some-
times called the dung-hawk. It consists of two or
three short sharp prongs, forged together, with a
socket at right angles to the prongs, furnished
with a helve about 5 feet in length, without a
cross-head, as in fig. 685.
It is used for drag-
Fig. 685.
Fig. 683.
Fig. 684.
THE DUNG HAWK OR DRAG
ging the dung out of the tilt-cart into heaps along
drills, or upon the plain surface.
THE GRAIP.
THE THREE-PRONGED
DUNG-GRAIP.
1781. The Mud Hoe or Harle.-The harle con-
sists of a thin blade of iron, about 15 inches in length and 4 inches broad,
attached to a socket at right angles to the blade, and furnished with a helve
6 feet in length, without a cross-head, as in fig. 686. Its use is to scrape
Fig. 686.
Fig 687
THE MUD HOE OR HARLE.
together and collect all the wet mud to be found on the
roads and alleys around the steading in wet weather in
winter.
1782. SECTION ELEVENTH.-Machines not directly connected
with any of the above Ten Sections, but useful on the Farm.
1783. The Lantern.-A proper form of lantern that will dis-
tribute a sufficient intensity of light all around, and be safe
to carry to any part of a steading, amongst straw or other
highly inflammable material, is yet, perhaps, a desideratum.
The nearest approach to safety in those circumstances of
any form of lantern we have seen is that in fig. 687, which
consists chiefly of a stout glass globe, which may be knocked
against a piece of timber and yet not be fractured. It has an oil-lamp, which
screws and unscrews into its place from below, within the foot upon which it
A SAFE LANTERN
2 K
514
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
stands, and a ring by which it is carried; and the hand is elevated enough to
be protected from the heat which escapes along with the smoke from the ven-
tilator. A lantern of tin, with a globe about 9 inches diameter, a suitable
size, costs 6s. 6d.
1784. The Oil-Can.-The form of oil-can given in fig. 688 is a convenient one
Fig. 688.
THE OIL-CAN.
for use in oiling the gudgeons belonging to the
thrashing - machine, or the bearings of the
spindles of the smaller machines. It consists of
a body of tin of the ellipsoidal form, having a
handle at one end, and a long spout of small bore
at the opposite one; and the mouth on the top is
stopped with a lid.
1785. Turnip-Troughs for Courts.-These are placed against the walls, as in
b
Fig. 689.
fig. 689, where a is the wall against
which the trough is built, and b a
building of stone and lime 2 feet
thick, to support the bottom of the
trough, of which the lime need not be
used for more than 9 inches in the
front and sides of the wall, and the
remaining 15 inches may be filled
up with any hard material: c is the
flagging placed on the top of this
wall, to form the bottom of the
trough. Some board the bottom with
wood; and where wood is plentiful,
it is cheap, and answers the purpose,
and is pleasanter for the cattle in wet
and frosty weather; but where flags
can be easily procured, they are more
durable: d is a plank 3 inches thick
and 9 inches in depth, to keep in the
turnips. Oak-planking from wrecks,
and old spruce-trees, however knotty,
have been found a cheap and durable front for turnip-troughs. The planks are
spliced together at their ends, and held on edge by rods of iron e batted with
lead into the wall, and with nut and screw in front, The height in front should
not exceed 2 feet 9 inches for calves, and 3 feet for the other beasts, and it will
become less as the straw daily accumulates. The trough, here shown short,
may extend to any length along the side of a court.
TURNIP-TROUGH FOR COURTS.
1786. Water-Troughs for Cattle.-Fig. 690 gives an arrangement of water-
troughs connected together though placed in different courts. Let a be the supply-
f
Fig. 690.
h
ს
WATER - TROUGHS FOR CATTLE.
d
a.
с
trough in one court immediately beside the pump; let b be the trough in any
other court to be supplied with water from a, and let b be placed 3 inches
STRAW - RACKS.
515
below a. Let a lead-pipe d be passed under ground to the trough b, and emerge
from the ground by the side of and over the top of bat e. When a is filling
with water from the pump, the moment the water rises in a to the level of the
end of the pipe at e, it will begin to flow into b, and will continue to do so till b
is filled if the pumping is continued. The water in a, below the level of the
end of the pipe e, may be used in a without affecting that in b, and the water
in b may be entirely used without affecting that in a. In like manner water
may be supplied to ƒ from b.
1787. Water-troughs are made of various materials: a is hewn out of a solid
block of sandstone, which makes the closest, most durable, and best trough;
b is made of flagstone, the side being sunk into the bottom in grooves luted
with white-lead, and held together at the corners by iron clamps h. This
makes a good trough, but it is apt to leak at the joints: ƒ is made of wood
dovetailed at the corners, and held together by clamps of iron i. When made
of good timber, and kept painted, wooden troughs last many years.
1788. Wooden Straw-Rack.— A common kind of rack is in fig. 691, made of wood,
5 feet square and 4 feet high, sparred round
the sides and bottom to keep in the straw.
It stands in the middle of a court. The cattle
draw the straw through the spars as long
as its top is too high for them to reach over
it, but after the dung accumulates, and the
rack thereby becomes low, the cattle get at
the straw over the top. This rack may be
pulled up higher when the dung accumulates
much.
1789. Iron Straw-Rack.—Fig. 692 is a
rack of malleable iron to supply the straw
always over its top, and is rodded in the
sides to keep in the straw. It remains
constantly on the ground, and is not drawn
up as the dung accumulates, as in the case
of the wooden rack. It is 5 feet in length,
4 in breadth, and 4 in height; the upper
rails and legs are of 1-inch-square iron,
and the other rails inch. This is, of
course, the most durable straw-rack.
3
1790. Straw-Rack for Sheds.-Figs. 691
10 mon
Fig. 691.
WOODEN STRAW-RACK FOR COURTS.
Fig. 692.
IRON STRAW-RACK FOR COURTS.
and 692 represent straw-racks to be constantly exposed in the air; fig. 693 is
a form of wooden rack adapted
to supply fodder to cattle under
cover in sheds. It consists of an
upper and a lower bar of wood,
parallel to each other, and in-
to which are notched behind a
series of rails as far asunder as
to allow of the straw being
pulled through between them
by the cattle. The rack has
an inclination of about 2
feet forward at the top, which
17
1.1
Fig. 693.
Sala o
STRAW-RACK FOR SHEDS.
affords the capacity of holding the food, both its rails being batted to the wall.
516
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
Fig. 694.
1791. The Bullock Holder.—The bullock-holder is well represented by fig. 694,
where a is the joint which allows its two parts at b to open so far
as each to enter a nostril of the animal. The lever-nut c brings
the two knobbed points b as close as to embrace and hold firm the
septum of the nose. The leading rein is fastened to the under
ring e. This form of bullock-holder would allow the points b to be
screwed to any degree of tightness, until they meet each other;
and it is, in our opinion, so far objectionable, as the screwing may
be carried as far by a rash hand as to hurt the animal when the
instrument was moved in the least degree to either side.
α
THE BULLOCK-
FOLDER.
缝
​1792. Another form which we have seen, and approve of, never
allows the two knobs b of the instrument to be screwed closer than
just to embrace the septum of the nose, allowing the holder to
swing from the nose at ease whilst it grasps the nose firmly whenever
the animal attempts to move away.
1793. The cost of a bullock-holder of either of these forms is 4s.
1794. American Cattle-Leader.-In fig. 695 we give a view of an American
cattle-leader, which presents some points of novelty. The septum is pressed on
by the balls a a. The thumb and finger are pressed over the parts b b, or
immediately over the spring e d; the distance between the balls a is thus
a
d
Fig. 696.
b
SWIVELLED
SPRING-HOOK
α
Fig. 695.
304
d
AMERICAN CATTLE-HOLDER.
widened, and the apparatus is
then slipped upon the septum,
and the spring gently closes it;
c being the rope or leading rein.
1795. Spring - Hook Swivel.
J
The leading rein is best.
fastened to a ring or holder
by means of a spring-hook
swivel, such as fig. 696. The
movable part a is jointed at d,
and kept in its place by the spring behind it. When the hook
is desired to be attached to the ring, the thumb presses on a,
which yields, and allows the ring to be taken into the circular void
of the hook. The rein-rope b is spliced on the end of the ring
of the hook. This ring, turning upon the swivel c, prevents the
rope twisting. With such a hook a leading-rope can be attached
and released from the bull's ring in much less time and with more
ease than any sort of tying.
1796. The Bull's Ring.-In fig. 697 is given a view of a bull's
b
Fig. 697.
a
THE BULL 8 RING IN A STATE TO BE
INSERTED INTO THE BULL'S NOSE
Fig. 698.
ii
O
THE BULL'S RING AS FASTENED
IN THE BULL'S NOSE.
ring in an open state, ready to be inserted into the bull's nose, the joint a
allowing the two sides of the ring to open as wide as that the end b may be
inserted into the hole burned through the septum of the nose. Fig. 698 shows
&
PROBANG-MOUTH-PIECE.
517
the ring closed, after it has been passed into the nose, a being the joint, and b
the two ends of the ring lapped over and secured together by two counter-sunk
screws. The ring is formed of inch of rod-iron, and its diameter over all is
24 inches, and it should be highly finished.
Fig. 699
1797. The Cattle Probang.-When cattle are feeding on turnips or potatoes, it
occasionally happens that a piece larger than will enter the gullet easily is
attempted to be swallowed, and obstructed in its passage. The accident chiefly
occurs to cattle receiving a limited supply of turnips, and young
beasts are more subject to it than old. When a number of young
beasts in the same court only get a specified quantity of turnips
or potatoes once or twice a-day, each becomes apprehensive, when
the food is distributed, that it will not get its own share, and there-
fore eats what it can with much apparent greediness, and, not
taking sufficient time to masticate, swallows its food hastily. A
large piece of turnip, or a small potato, thus easily escapes beyond
the power of the tongue, and, assisted as it is by the saliva, is
sent to the top of the gullet, where it remains. In cases of this
kind, the common probang is used, the cup-end being employed.
Fig 700
a
THE CATTLE
PROBANG.
1798. The common probang is represented in fig. 699, a being
the cup-end, which is so formed that it may partially lay hold
of the piece of turnip or potato, and not slip between it and the
gullet, to the risk of rupturing the integument; and being of larger
diameter than the usual state of the gullet, on being pressed for-
ward it distends the gullet, and makes room for the obstructing
body to proceed to the stomach. Formerly the probang was
covered with twisted cane, but is now with India-rubber, which
is more pliable. It is used in this manner: Let the piece of wood,
fig. 700, be placed into the open mouth of the animal as a bit, the
projecting part b lying upon the tongue; c is the cord attached
to it, and to be tied tightly over the neck behind the horns, to
keep the bit steady in its place. The use of the bit is not only to
keep the mouth open without trouble, but to prevent the animal
injuring the probang with its teeth, and it offers the most direct passage for
the probang towards the throat by the opening a. Let a few men seize the
animal on both sides by the horns or otherways, and
let its mouth be held projecting forward in an easy
position, but no fingers introduced into the nostrils.
to obstruct the breathing of the animal, nor the
tongue forcibly pulled out of the side of the mouth.
Introduce now the cup-end a of the probang, fig. 699,
through the round hole a b of the mouth-piece, fig.
700, and push it gently towards the throat until the
obstructing piece of the turnip is felt; push then
with a firm and persevering hand, cautioning the
men, previous to the push, to hold on firmly-for the
starting of the piece of turnip by the instrument may
cause the animal smart pain, and to wince and even
leap aside. The obstruction will now most likely
give way, especially if the operation has been performed before the parts
around it began to swell; but if not, the probang must be used with still more
force, whilst another person rubs with his hands up and down upon the dis-
tended throat of the animal. If these attempts fail, a veterinary surgeon should
be sent for instantly.
d
d
U
C
THE MOUTH-PIECE FOR THE CATTLE
PROBANG.
518
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM,
1799. The probang, fig. 699, is 5 feet 1 inch in length, of an inch in diameter,
with pewter cup, and a ball-end 1 inch diameter, pierced with holes to allow
gas to escape from the stomach. The mouth-piece a b, fig. 700, is 5 inches long
and 3 inches wide, with two rounded projections d d, 4 inches long each. The
price of the probang is 12s., and with the mouth-piece 14s.
1800. Cattle Hoven.-The direct cause of the symptoms of cattle hoven is
undue accumulation of gases in the paunch or large stomach, which, not finding
a ready vent, causes great pain and uneasiness to the animal, and, if not removed
in time, rupture of the paunch and death ensue. Placing an instrument, such
as in fig. 700, across the mouth, to keep it open, is an American cure which is
said never to have failed. But the gas may be generated so rapidly that
neither medicines nor the probang may be able to prevent or convey it away,
in which case the apparently desperate remedy of paunching must be had
recourse to. "The place for puncturing the paunch," directs Professor Dick,
"is on the left side, in the central point between the lateral processes of the
lumbar vertebra, the spine of the ileum, and the last rib. Here the trochar may
be introduced without fear."
Fig. 701
a
1801. The Cattle Trochar.-The trochar is represented in fig. 701. It consists
of a round rod of iron a, 5 inches in length, terminat-
ing at one end in a triangular pyramidal-shaped point,
and furnished with a wooden handle at the other.
The trochar is sheathed in a cylindrical cover or case
b, called the canula, one end of which permits the
point of the trochar to project, and the other end
is furnished with a broad circular flange. The
canula is kept tight on the trochar by means of a
slit at its free end, and the point being somewhat larger
in diameter than its own body, expands the slitted
end of the canula until the point projects, when the slit
collapses to its ordinary state, and the canula is kept secure behind the enlarged
point, as at c. On using the trochar, in the state as seen at c, it is forced
with a thrust into the place pointed out in par. 1800, through the skin into the
paunch; and on withdrawing the trochar by its handle-which is easily done,
notwithstanding the contrivance to keep it on—the canula is left in the opening,
and retained in its place by the flange, to permit the gas to escape through the
canula. On account of the distended state of the skin, the trochar may rebound
from the thrust; and in such an event, a considerable force must be used to
penetrate the skin. The spear of the trochar is 5 inches long, and the handle
4 inches; and price, 3s. 6d.
THE TROCHAR.
1802. Read's Stomach-Pump.-The instrument represented in fig. 702 is on a
scale of of full size. It consists of a sucking and forcing pump a, the body
being about 1 inch diameter and 13 inches long over the nozzle or valve-
chamber. A flexible tube b 7 feet long, with brass ends, is screwed to the
nozzle, and at the extreme end has attached a small rose or bulb c pierced
with holes. When the tube is passed into the stomach, it passes through a
wooden mouthpiece d, put into the mouth of the animal to prevent the tube
being injured. The fluid drawn from the stomach is ejected from the pump by
a hole at the side of the handle above the upper valve.
1803. When the pump is to be used for giving injections, the flexible tube b is
screwed to the hole in the side of the barrel, the rose c removed from the end,
and a wooden end ƒ 10 inches long put on instead, while on the end of the pump e
is screwed a brass tube g 84 inches long: the end of this tube is closed, but a num-
READ'S STOMACH-PUMP-FLAKES.
ber of holes are pierced in the side to form a rose.
similar to an ordinary enema syringe, and
is used in the same way.
1804. The price of Read's stomach-
pump, complete in a case, is £2, 10s.
1805. Wooden Hurdles for Sheep.-Fig.
703 represents two hurdles or flakes set as
they should be. The mode of setting them
is this, but in doing it the shepherd re-
quires the assistance of another person:
The flakes are set down with the lower
ends of their posts in the line of the in-
tended fence. The first flake is then
raised up by its upper rail, and the ends.
of the post are sunk a little into the
ground with a spade, to give them a firm
hold. The second flake is then raised up
and let into the ground in the same way,
both being held in that position by the
assistant. One end of a stay ƒ is then
placed between the flakes near the tops of
their posts, and these and the stay are
made fast together by the insertion,
through the holes in them, of the peg h.
The peg i is then inserted through near
the bottom of the same posts. The
flakes are then inclined backwards away
from the ground fenced, until their upper
rail shall be 3 feet 9 inches above the
ground. The stake e is driven into the
ground by the wooden mallet, fig. 706,
d
519
In this state the pump is
ს
Fig. 702.
g
+
READ'S STOMACH-PUMP.
a
e
inches
at such a point as, where the stay ƒ is stretched out from the flakes at the
above inclination, that a peg shall fasten stake and stay together, as seen at g.
Fig. 703.
d
C
d
Ъ
α
HURDLES OR FLAKES SET FOR CONFINING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
У
After the first two flakes are thus set, the operation is easier for the next, as
flake is raised after flake, and fastened to the last standing one in the manner
described, until the entire line is completed.
1806. Each flake of this construction, with its fixtures, consists of fourteen
pieces, viz., two side-posts a, four rails b, and three braces c and d d, which go to
form the single flake; and one stay f, one stake g or e, and three pegs h or i,
which are required for the fixing up of each flake. The scantling of the parts
are the side-posts a, 44 feet long, 4 inches broad by 2 inches thick. The rails b, 9
feet long, 3 inches broad by 1 inch thick. The braces d d, two diagonals 5 feet 2
520
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
3
4
inches long, 24 inches broad by inch thick, and one upright c, 4 feet long, and
of like breadth and thickness. The stayf is 4 feet long, 4 inches broad, and 2
inches thick, and bored at both ends for the pegs; the stake g, 14 foot long,
pointed and bored. The pegs h, 1 foot long, 1 inch diameter.
1807. The preparation of the parts consists in mortising the side-posts, the
mortises being usually left round in the ends, and they are bored at equal dis-
tances from the joining and stay pegs. The ends of the rails are roughly
rounded on the edges, which completes the preparation of the parts; and when
the flake is completed, its dimensions are 9 feet in length, and 3 feet 4 inches
in breadth over the rails; the bottom rail being 9 inches from the foot of the
post, and the upper rail 5 inches from the head.
1808. Another form of flake, which is by far more extensively employed,
though by no means the best, consists of the same parts, except that it has
always five rails, and the only material difference in the scantling is, that the
rails are all 1 inch square. An essential difference also occurs in the prepara-
tion or manufacture of this kind of flake. The ends of the rails are all turned
round by machinery, and the side-posts are bored for their reception, as well as
for the pegs, by like machinery. The five rails in the flake are divided in
height as follows: The bottom rail 9 inches from the foot of the posts; the
spaces between the first and second, and the second and third rails, are each 7
inches, and the two upper spaces are respectively 8 and 9 inches, leaving, as
before, 5 inches of the post above the upper rail.
1809. Flakes of this last description are extensively manufactured in Perth-
shire, where young larches are abundant, for of that wood they are generally
made. Their price, when sold in retail by fifties or hundreds, is 1s. 9d. to 2s.
each flake, including all the parts; sold in pieces, the expense of putting the
parts together is usually 2d. each flake, including nails.
1810. The bar-flake, described in par. 1808, is not generally to be found in the
market, and is chiefly made to order; the price about 2s. 6d. each flake, with
fixtures.
1811. Sheep Nets and Stakes. The other method of enclosing sheep on
turnips or green forage is with nets made of twine of the requisite strength.
These nets having square meshes when stretched upon the stakes, usually
extend to 50 yards in length, and stand 3 feet in height. They are furnished
with a rope along both sides passing through the outer meshes, which are
called the "top" and "bottom rope," as the position of either may be at the
time. These ropes are wound round the stakes by a peculiar sort of knot
called the "shepherd's knot."
1812. The stakes are best formed of thinnings of ash-trees that have been
planted very thick together, and grown up long and small, and they should be
3 inches in diameter and 4 feet 9 inches long; allowing 9 inches of a hold in
the ground, 3 inches between the ground and the bottom of the net, and 3
inches from the top of the net to the top of the stake. Or they may be made
of larch weedings, 4 inches in diameter and 4 feet 9 inches long; but every
kind of wood of which they may be made should be seasoned with the bark
on before being cut into stakes. They are pointed at one end with the axe,
and that end should be chosen to be pointed which will make the stake stand
in the same position as when it was growing in the tree; for its bark, it has
been found, is then in the best state for repelling rain.
1813. Stakes are driven in this way: If the ground is in its usual soft state,
the stakes may simply be driven into the ground with a hardwood mallet, fig. 706,
in the line fixed on for setting the net, at distances of 3 paces asunder. Should
SHEEP-NET SETTING.
521
the soil be thin and the subsoil moderately hard, a hole sufficiently large for a
stake may be made in the subsoil with the foot-pick, fig. 382; but should the
subsoil be so very hard as to require a larger hole to be made than what can
easily be formed by the tramp-pick, or should the ground be so dry and hard as
to require the use of any instrument at all, the most efficient one for the pur-
pose is the driver, fig. 707. The stakes are thus driven so that their tops
may not be less than 4 feet high, along as many sides of the enclosure as
are required at the place to form a complete fence for the sheep.
1814. A net is set in this manner: Being in a bundle, having been rolled up
on the arms and fastened together by the spare ends of the top and bottom
ropes, these are unloosened and tied to the stake that has been driven close to
the fence, whatever that may be, and then the net is run out in hand towards
the right as far as it will extend in a loose manner, on the side of the stakes
facing the ground the sheep are to occupy. On coming to the next stake from
the commencement, the bottom rope gets a turn to the left round the stake, and
the top rope above it a similar turn round the same stake, so as to keep the
leading coil of the rope uppermost. The bottom rope is then fastened with the
shepherd's knot to the stake, 3 inches from the ground, and the top rope is
fastened with a similar knot near the top of the stake, stretching the net even
and upwards; and in this way the net is fastened to one stake after another,
until the whole of it is set up, as it is called, care being taken to make the top
of the net run uniformly throughout its entire length.
d
Fig. 704.
b
C
a
THE SHEPHERD'S KNOT
1815. The shepherd's knot is made in this way: Let a, fig. 704, be the con-
tinuation of the rope which is fastened to the first
stake, then press the second stake with the hand to-
wards a or the fastened end, and at the same time
tighten the turn round the stake with the other hand
by taking a hold of the loose end of the rope d, and
moving it so as to cause it to pass under a at c, and
screwing it round the stake to b, where the elastic force
of the stake will secure it tight under a at b when the
stake is let go. The bottom rope is fastened first, to
keep the net at the proper distance from the ground, and then the top rope is
fastened to the same stake in the same manner. Proceed in this manner at each
successive stake until the whole net is set up. A net may be thus set up either
towards the right or the left as the starting-point may be situate, but in pro-
ceeding in either direction care must be taken to pass the top and bottom ropes
round the stakes, so as the leading coil of the rope is always uppermost towards
the direction in which the net is to be set up. Thus, in fig. 704, the rope d
was uppermost until it was passed under a, because the setting of the net in this
case is from right to left, and it continues to be uppermost until it reaches the
next stake to the left. If both the cord and stake are dry, the knot may slip as
soon as made, but if the part of the stake at b where the knot is fastened is
wetted a little, it will make the rope keep its hold until the cord has acquired
the set of the knot. With a new rope that is greasy, and the stake smooth, it is
difficult for the knot to retain its hold even with the assistance of water.
1816. There are some precautions required in setting a net, besides this
of the ropes.
If the net is new, the cords may be as tight as desired,
because they will stretch considerably; but if old, the least damp or rain after-
wards will stretch them so as to cause them to break. If the net is at all in a
damp state, it should be set very tight, because rain cannot make it tighter;
and if not set very tight, the first dry weather will so slacken the cords as to
522
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
loosen all the knots, and make the net slip down the stakes; but even if it
should not be slackened to that extent, it will be so slackened as to shake about
with the wind, and bag down and touch the ground. Such an occurrence will
create the trouble to the shepherd of resetting the whole net, and the best way
of avoiding this trouble is to have the nets in a dry state when they are set.
In wet weather, shepherds take the opportunity of a dry moment to set a
dry net in anticipation along a new break of turnips, and they also hang up
wet nets to dry on the outside of the stakes away from the sheep. Nets should
never be wound up in a wet state, even for a short time, as they will soon mould
and rot.
1817. On commencing the setting of another net, its top and bottom ropes
are fastened to those of the last net, and the ends of the nets themselves are
brought together by interlacing the meshes of both with a piece of string, as at a
to b, fig. 705. Here the knots in the top and bottom ropes are seen, and the twine
interlacing the meshes is made to appear stronger than that of the net only to
Fig. 705.
a
SHEEP-NET SET FOR CONFINING SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
let it be perceived. Thus one net is set after another, until the whole intended
area is enclosed.
1818. Where there is a turn in the line of nets in going from one side of the
enclosure to another, if there is much of the net left at the turn, it should be
brought down the next side; in which case the stake at the corner should be
driven very securely down, as there will be a considerable strain upon it from the
nets pulling from different directions, and this will especially be the case in damp
weather. But the safer and perhaps better plan is to take a fresh net at the turn,
and fasten it to a stake, and run on the other net in its own line until it is expended
in setting for future use, or to coil it around the top of a stake. All surplus ends
of nets should be carefully hung upon the back of the stakes when wet, to dry and
get the air. Part of the nets will thus cross ridges, and part will run along a ridge.
Where they cross ridges that have been but once gathered up, or ploughed
crown-and-furrow, the bottom of the nets will be nearly close to the open fur-
rows; but where they cross a gaw-cut in rather strong land, a stake or two should
be made to lie upon the bottom rope to keep it down, for some sheep have a
trick of creeping under the net when they find a suitable opening; and where
nets cross ridges which have been twice gathered up, one stake should be driven
at one side of the open furrow, and another at the crown of the ridge, and the
bottom rope will then run nearly parallel to the surface of the ground.
1819. In setting nets, in whatever position, care should be taken to keep each
side of the enclosure in the same plane-that is, each side exactly in a straight
line, and the surface of its nets perpendicular; and the different lines should
meet at right angles to one another, so that every break of turnips occupied by
MALLET — DRIVER - ENGLISH HURDLE.
523
the sheep should either be a rectangle or a square; because the strain upon the
ends will then be equalised over the entire cords and stakes of each side, and
no undue pressure be exerted on any one stake. A shepherd who knows his busi-
ness so as to pay attention to these particulars, will preserve his nets and stakes
a much longer time in a serviceable
state, than one who is ignorant or
careless about them.
- The
1820. The Wooden Mallet.
shepherd's wooden mallet, fig. 706,
is best made of apple-tree, being
least apt to split. The mallet is 12
inches long and 6 inches diameter,
and the shaft is 3 feet long.
Fig. 706.
THE SHEPHERD'S WOODEN MALLET.
Fig. 707.
1821. The Driver.-The driver, fig. 707, is formed of a piece of pointed hard-
wood, and strongly shod with iron, in a conical shape, and
sharply pointed, and its upper end is protected from splitting by the
strokes of the mallet, fig. 706, by a strong hoop of iron. The
driver is altogether about 2 feet long.
1822. The English Hurdle.-The English hurdle is made of the
crack-willow (Salix fragilis), and where that willow will grow, the
farmer may have poles enough every year for making two or three
dozen hurdles to keep up his stock. Hurdles can be bought ready-
made at 16s. the dozen; when made at home they can be made for
4d. a-piece; and when the shepherd makes them they cost only
his time. Hurdle-makers go round the country, and make at 4d.
a-piece, and mend at 2d. each, finding their own tools.
Fig. 708.
THE DRIVER.
1823. Willow - poles are thus treated in making hurdles: The
butt-end of the pole is first sawed off; 4 feet lengths make a pair of heads
a a, fig. 708; 9 feet lengths make a pair of slots b; 5 feet lengths make a pair
of stay-slots c c; and 3 feet lengths make a pair of uprights d. The hurdle
consists of two heads, six slots, two
stay-slots, and one upright. The slots
b are mortised into the heads a, and the
mortises are made with centre-bit and
tomahawk. The lower slots are placed
nearer each other, as seen in the fig-
ure, and the strongest pair of slots are
chosen for the highest and lowest of
the hurdle. The top and bottom slots
are nailed to the head, and then the
upright is nailed on in the middle of
the hurdle, and then the two stay-slots are nailed on to the slots. The nails
are passed through gimlet-holes and clenched. The nails used are of the
best iron, large-headed, and are what are called fine-drawn, not square, but
rather flattened, to facilitate clenching, on which much of the strength of the
hurdle depends.
а
ს
d
THE ENGLISH WILLOW HURDLE
a
1824. The cost stands thus: 100 poles at 16s. make 36 hurdles, which,
including workmanship and nails, cost £1, 11s. 6d., or 10s. 6d. per dozen.
Although the horizontal slots are cut 9 feet long, the hurdle when finished is
only somewhat more than 8 feet, the slot-ends going through the heads: 2
hurdles to 1 rod of 16 feet, or 8 to 1 chain of 22 yards, are the usual allowance.
1825. A larger kind of hurdle called the park hurdle, worth 2s. each, is made for
524
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
Fig. 709.
subdividing meadows or pastures, and forms a sufficient fence for cattle. The
small hurdle, fig. 708, is used for sheep, the larger to fence cattle, whereas the
Scotch flake answers both purposes equally well, and is therefore more economical.
1826. An English hurdle is set in this way: The hurdles being carted to the
field, they are laid down flat end to end, with their heads next to,
but clear of, the line in which they are to be set, and, being light,
they are easily handled for any purpose. A right-handed man
works with the row of hurdles on his left. Having made a hole
close to the fence for the foot of the first hurdle with the fold-
pitcher, fig. 709, which is an iron dibber 4 feet long, having a
well-pointed, flattened bit, in shape similar to the feet of the
hurdles, he marks on the ground the place where the other foot is
to be inserted, and then with his dibber he makes the second hole,
which, like all the others, is made 9 inches deep. With the left
hand the hurdle is put into its place, and held upright while
lightly pressed down by the left foot on the lowest slot. This
being done, the third hole is made opposite to and about 6 inches
from the last. The dibber is then put out of hand by being struck
in the ground near where the next hole is to be made. The
second hurdle is then placed in position, one foot in the open hole,
and the other foot marks the place for the next hole, and so on
throughout the whole row. When the place of the second foot
of a hurdle is marked on the ground, the hurdle itself is moved
out of the way by the left hand, while the hole is made by both
hands. When the whole row is set, it is usual to go back over it,
giving each head a slight tap with the dibber to regulate their
height, and give them a firmer hold of the ground.
THE FOLD-PITCHER
OR DIBBER FOR
SETTING BURDLES.
1827. To secure the hurdles against the rubbing of sheep,
couplings, or as they are commonly called, copses, are put over the
heads of each pair of hurdles where they meet, which is a sufficient security.
These couplings are made of the twigs of willow, holly, birch, or any other
tough shoots of trees, wound in a wreath of about 5 inches diameter.
1828. Young's Wrought-iron Hurdles.-Fig. 710 represents wrought-iron
Fig. 710.
WROUGHT-IRON HURDLE.
hurdles of five round bars, as
manufactured by Messrs C. D.
Young and Co., Edinburgh. Each
hurdle consists of three strong up-
rights, one at each end, and one
intermediate between these. The
lower extremities of the end sup-
ports are made with a strong double
knee, terminating in a prong, this
varying in length from a foot up-
wards. The middle upright is
simply continued to a point, and twisted so as to present its flat side to the
pressure. The horizontal bars-in the majority of instances round, but in
some cases square, set diagonally-are "tannered" at the ends by machinery,
which takes off the least possible proportion to form a shoulder for riveting
them to the uprights.
1829. In erecting the hurdles, the two end uprights are placed against each
other, the knees being in opposite directions; a series of double prongs is thus
formed, which, being fixed in the ground, render the hurdles self-supporting, and
WIRE-FENCING.
525
obviate the necessity of using stays. In course of erection, the hurdles are
fastened together by means of bolts and nuts, the bolts passing through bolt-
holes made in the end uprights.
1830. For horses, cattle, sheep, and lambs, the price of this form of hurdle is
from 2s. to 4s. per lineal yard; for sheep and lambs
only, 2s. 6d. to 3s.
1831. Barnard and Bishop's Sheepfold Hurdles.-
Messrs Barnard and Bishop manufacture a sheepfold.
iron hurdle invented by Henry Gilbert of Kensington,
Middlesex. They are 12 feet long, are perfectly flat,
and are easily removed from place to place by means.
of a light iron wheel, which is readily attached to
each hurdle. Price, 16s.; the cost of a wheel, 10s.
1832. Wire-Netting.-As a substitute for the twine
nets used for enclosing sheep on turnips, wire-netting
is now much used. In fig. 711 we give an illustration
of Messrs Young's strong premium wire-netting for
sheep; its height is 3 feet, and the price per lineal
yard is 1s. 3d.
1833. Fig. 712 illustrates the "mixed mesh-wire
game-netting," manufactured by Messrs Barnard and
Bishop, Norfolk Wireworks, Norwich. By making the
upper part of the netting of a larger-sized mesh than
the lower, the price is proportionably reduced; to
work together, the upper mesh must be twice the size
of the lower. This can be made to any height under
8 feet. With meshes 1 and 2 inches, wire No. 19,
the price per lineal yard, 2 feet wide or high, is 9d.
when japanned, 103d. when galvanised; with meshes
1½ inch and 3 inches, No. 19 gauge, 5d. and 6d. ; with
meshes 2 inches and 4 inches, No. 19, 44d. and 51d.
1834. In fig. 713 is given the -inch mesh wire-
netting, manufactured also by Messrs Barnard and
Bishop, suitable for various purposes; the price per
square foot, wire No. 20, being 51d. japanned, and 6d.
galvanised.
Fig. 711.
WIRE-NETTING AND STAKE
Fig. 712.
MIXED GAUZE WIRE-NETTING
Fig. 713.
WIRE-NETTING.
1835. In fig. 714 is illustrated a recently-introduced form of spiral wirework,
invented by Mr J. Reynolds,
of 27 New Compton Street,
Soho, London. It is made of
hard twisted wire, galvanised
after being manufactured.
From the way in which the
twisted wires are interlaced,
no other fixing is required.
1836. Macpherson's Portable
Sheep-Hurdle.-A new kind of
sheep-fence has lately been
invented by Mr Alexander
Macpherson, Old Mill Cot-
tage, Carstairs, Lanarkshire.
Fig. 714.
XXXX
SPIRAL WIRE-WORK.
It consists of a series of four parallel ropes,
embracing within their strands thin fillets of wood placed at such distances
526
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
as are desirable for a fence. Figs. 715 and 716 show the appearance of this
fence, where a, a are stakes, to which the ropes b b, are fastened by means of
b
a
Fig. 715.
с
Fig. 716.
с
с
b
a
Ъ
MACPHERSON'S PORTABLE SHEEP-HURDLE.
hooks to staples driven into the stakes: c c are fillets of wood embraced in
the strands of the ropes. The fence is made by machinery, the ropes being
spun from tarred twine, and the fillets are inserted between the strands of the
twine while the rope is being spun at such distances and of such lengths as
is desired to make a fence of determined dimensions. In fig. 715 the fillets c are
of larch prepared in a saw-mill, and those c of fig. 716 are of spruce branches,
which are well known to be the most durable of small round timber.
§
4
1837. In setting this fence the material is divided into lengths of 10 yards,
where stakes a are driven provided with staples. The ends of the ropes b of that
length have hooks, which lay hold of the staples on the stakes, and the ropes are
supported by a stake at every 2 yards. The fillets of timber are 3 feet long and
or inch square. If desired, the intermediate fillets may be made shorter, as
seen in the figures. The staples of each stake take in the ends of two lengths
of rope of 10 yards long. Two men will erect from 800 or 1000 yards a-day,
and 1000 yards weigh 40 cwt. with their stakes. The tarred hemp for every 100
yards of fencing costs from 12s. to 24s., according to weight and strength. The
cost of the fence is from 6d. to 10d. per yard according to the same conditions.
1838. Mr Macpherson's fence-machine can spin wire instead of the hemp-cord,
and make a fence with annealed or galvanised wire that will last
for many years.
Fig. 717.
а
1839. It seems to us that this sort of fence with wire, or even
with the tarred hemp-cord, would make an excellent fence in
high pastoral districts along march-fences, where both wood and
stone may not be at hand, its closeness securing sheep better
than a common wire-fence; and if it were erected on a turf wall,
even black-faced sheep might be confined within the bounds of
their hirsels, without much trouble to the shepherds and their
dogs, and much quietness to themselves.
1840. The Shepherd's Crook.-The crook is a useful implement
to the shepherd for securing any individual sheep he may desire
to seize without disturbing the flock. It consists of a round rod
of iron bent in the form as shown in fig. 717, and terminating at
one end in a knob, and at the other in a socket which receives
a helve of 5 or 6 feet in length. The crook, as placed in the
figure, is held by the shepherd so as to seize the near or left
hind-leg of the sheep, which enters by the narrow passage a
into the wider space towards the top of the crook, out of which the leg easily
escapes when the sheep has been seized by the shepherd.
THE SHEPHERD'S
OROOK.
SHEEP-TROUGHS-CORN-BOX.
Fig. 718.
THE TURNIP-TROUGH FOR SHEEP-FEEDING.
527
1841. Turnip-Trough for Sheep.-Fig. 718 is a simple and convenient form of
trough for containing the turnips as
they fall sliced from any of the turnip-
slicers. Its most convenient length is
8 feet, and it should be acute at the
bottom, for the more easy seizure of the
pieces of turnip by the mouths of the
sheep, and it is so made by nailing two boards, of 9 inches in breadth, upon the
two triangular-shaped ends, and in the niches formed in the two billets of wood
to serve for feet. The troughs are set in a line along the outside of the two
rows of turnips about to be pulled for slicing. The wheelbarrow tur-
nip-slicer, fig. 535, is wheeled to
Fig. 719.
each trough successively by one
field-worker, who works the handle,
and the hopper is filled by another
worker who tops and tails the tur-
nips. The sheep range themselves
on both sides of the trough.
1842. Corn-Trough for Feeding
Sheep. Sheep, while on turnips,
are fed with other substances, such
as oilcake or corn. Either of these
is best served in a covered trough,
such as fig. 719, to protect it from
the weather. Its construction is
very much like fig. 718, with the ad-
dition of the ends and backs being
raised, and the top covered in.
e
THE OILOAKE OR CORN-TROUGH FOR FEEDING SHEEP.
..
C
h
Fig. 720.
a
Y
d
g
THE CORN-BOX FOR SHEEP ON TURNIPS.
1843. The Platform Corn-Box for
Sheep. An ingenious mode of
preserving corn dry for sheep on
turnips has been tried with success
in Fife. It consists of a box like a
hay-rack, fig. 720, in which the
corn is at all times kept closely
shut up, except when the sheep wish to eat it, when they get at it by a simple
contrivance. Into the box a b the corn is poured through the small hinged
lid y.
The cover c d, concealing the corn, is also hinged, and when elevated
the sheep have access to the corn. Its elevation is effected by the pressure of
the sheep's fore-feet upon the platform eƒ, which, moving as a lever, acts upon
the lower ends of the upright rods g and h, raises them up, and elevates the
fore part of the cover c d, under which the heads of the
sheep then find admittance into the box. A similar
apparatus gives them access to the other side of the
box. The whole machine can be moved about to con-
venient places by means of the four wheels.
Fig. 721.
се
f
с
1844. The construction of the interior of the box
being somewhat peculiar, another, fig. 721, is given of
a vertical section of it, where b is the hinged lid by which
the corn is put into the box, whence it is at once received
into the hopper d, the bottom of which, being open, and
brought near that of the box, a small space only is left for the corn to pass into
THE VERTICAL SECTION OF THE
INTERIOR OF THE CORN-EOX.
528
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
the box, the hopper d forming the corn-store; a is the cover of the box raised on
its hinges by the rod f, acted upon by the platform ef, fig. 720, and when in
this position, the sheep put their heads below a at c, fig. 721, and eat the corn
at d.
1845. Kirkwood's Wire Sheep-Fodder Rack.-In fig. 722 we give a view of a
Fig. 722.
wire sheep-fodder rack manufactured
by Mr James Kirkwood of Tranent. It
consists of wirework, the body being 6
feet long, 2 feet 9 inches wide at top, 8
inches wide at bottom, and 2 feet 31
inches in depth. The cover consists of
sheet-iron, curved to throw off the rain,
and the fodder is put into the rack by
throwing open the hatch a in the cover.
The refuse from the fodder, such as
hay, falls upon the troughs b b, made
also of sheet-iron, and may be eaten by
the sheep, and at all events saved from
being trodden into the ground. The troughs are provided with a hole at each
end to allow the rain to drain off, and might be used in dry weather for hold-
ing salt, oilcake, or corn for the day. The machine is mounted on axles
and wheels, and may be moved to any desired spot. The price of it is
£4, 11s.
KIRKWOOD'S WIRE SHEEP-FODDER RACK.
1846. Sheep Straw or Hay Rack.-Fig. 723 gives a very convenient form
Fig. 723.
THE SHEEP STRAW OR HAY RACK
of straw-rack for sheep on
turnips, containing plenty
of straw at a time, admit-
ting the straw easily into it,
being easily carried about, of
easy access to the sheep, and
being so near the ground as
to afford excellent shelter to
them. Three or four of these
racks may be so placed as to
afford ample shelter to a large
number of sheep in a stormy
period.
1847. It is made of wood, 9 feet in length, 4 feet in height, and 3 feet in
width, having a double-sparred rack, and covered with an angle roof to throw
off the rain. The rack is supported on two triangular-shaped tressles b b, shod
with iron at the points, which are pushed into the ground and take a firm hold
of it, and act as stays against the wind. The billet c, attached to the middle
of the bottom bar of the rack, rests upon the ground, and supports the rack from
being bent down in the middle. The lid a is opened on hinges when straw is
even when full of fodder, are easily moved
means of shelter, their position should be
put into the rack. Such racks,
about by two persons, and, as
changed with a change of wind.
a
1848. The Ewe-House.-In case of an individual ewe of a large flock of a
pastoral farm straying from its shelter-shed, or suffering in hard labour, or
having a weakly lamb or twins which are apt to stray from her, or being over-
taken by a rude blast after lambing, a temporary shelter to such a ewe may be
the means of saving the lives of herself and lambs. Mr Nicholas Burnett,
EWE-HOUSE-WOOL-SHEARS.
529
Blaik Hedley, near Gateshead, has used such a shelter with success; and as
such a structure as is seen in fig.
724 is not costly, a number may be
used at a time.
1849. It consists of an enclosure
of boards, or a box, fig. 724, where
a is the front, removable by hooks
to admit the ewe and her lamb; bis
a manger to contain cut turnips, or
corn, or oilcake; c a rack for hay.
To fill both rack and manger, access
is found by the lid d on its hinges.
1850. Its dimensions are 5 feet
long, breadth 3 feet, height 3 feet;
breadth of the covered part d 2 feet
7 inches, and rise of the slope at d 7
inches. The hook e serves to se-
cure the ewe to the ground by the
neck while lambing, but is not a ne-
cessary appendage to the ewe-house.
b
Fig. 724.
d
EWE-HOUSE.
୪
1851. The Bathing-Stool.-A useful implement in bathing sheep is the
bathing-stool, fig. 725, which is made of the best ash.
for the shepherd to sit on while bathing
the sheep, 1 foot square; the sparred
part is 3 feet long, and 30 inches wide
in front from 6 to c, its greatest width
being across at d. The legs e e are 18
inches high, and fixed by means of iron
rods passed through their upper part
and the frame of the stool, and secured
with nut and screw.
1852. The Bath-Jug.-A tin flask,
easily holding a quart, and provided.
with a handle and a long crane-like
spout, small at the end, is used to pour
the bath along the shedded rows of the
fleece, and is represented by fig. 726.
1853. The Wool-Shears.-The instru-
ment by which wool is clipped off sheep
is named wool-shears, as seen in fig. 727.
They require no particular description
farther than to explain that the bowl a,
which connects the two blades, acts as
a spring to keep them separate, while the
pressure of the hand on each side of
the handle b overcomes the spring and
brings the cutting edges of the blades.
together. There are wool-shears which
have additional springs placed between
the handles b to separate the blades
more forcibly, but are not so agreeable
to the hand as the simple bent spring a.
a
e
C
It consists of a seat a,
Fig. 725.
d
b
BATHING-STOOL FOR SHEEP.
e
Fig. 726.
BATH JUG.
Fig. 727.
Ն
a
WOOL-SHEARS.
Sometimes the spring of a is as strong
2 L
530
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
as soon to tire the hand, to relieve which a piece of cord is wound slackly round
the handles. Strong shears are more easily worked if held near the blades; but if
the backs of the blades are pressed upon, they will soon hurt the hand. When
not in use, the blades are held together by their points being passed through a
ring of leather. A rag-stone is used to sharpen wool-shears. The cost of the
shears is from 2s. 6d. to 3s. 6d. a pair. A shepherd requires two or three pairs
to do other jobs, as to remove clotted locks of wool, and he makes it a rule to
use the clipping-shears on no other occasion than at the regular shearing.
1854. The Punching - Nippers.-Fig. 728 are the punching-nippers, used for
α
b
Fig. 728.
PUNCHING-NIPPERS.
marking lambs, of which the in-
verted hollow cone a, having its
small end sharpened, is employed to
cut the hole out of the ears; and to
save the ears from being unduly
pinched, a pad of horn b is inserted
into the straight under-arm of the
nippers, and the pieces nipped out
rise out of the orifice c, which is en-
larged at the upper end. The fig-
ure at once shows how the instrument is used, being similar to the one used
by shoemakers to punch holes into the lappets of shoes, through which the
shoe-ties are passed. It costs 2s. 9d.
Fig. 729.
Fig. 730.
1855. The Buisting-Iron.-Buisting consists of stamping a letter or letters,
expressive of the initials of the name of the owner or of that
of the farm, or of both, upon the body of a sheep. The buist
or mark is effected by a simple instrument a, fig. 729, which
carries the capital letter S. The material of which the buist
is made is boiled tar, made viscid by a little pitch, and is put
on when hot.
1856. The Branding Iron.-Fig. 730 represents an iron
having the letter S on it, which is used for branding the
initials of the owner or of the farm upon the horns of cattle
and sheep. It is made red hot in the fire when the brand
is effected on the horn. On the continent of Europe such
a brand is not unfrequently seen upon the skins of horses
and cattle.
Sheep are at times.
It is caused by
The hydatid is
1857. The Trochar for Hydatids.
affected by a complaint named the sturdy.
the lodgment of an hydatid on the brain.
removed and the cure of the sheep effected by the instru-
ments represented in fig. 731. The disease causes the sheep to appear stupid,
BUISTING AND BRAND-
ING IRONS.
Fig. 731.
α
с
TROCHAR FOR HYDATIDS.
d
turn round and separate itself from its neighbours.
On examining the head between the ears a softening of
the skull will probably be discovered on a limited
spot, which is the seat of the disease. The trochar
a, with its canula b, is inserted through the soft part
of the skull, and it will pierce the hydatid. On
withdrawing the trochar and leaving the canula, the
pipe of the syringe c is introduced through the canula
to the hydatid, and its watery substance is sucked up
by the syringe. The canula is then withdrawn, and
the sac of the hydatid is extracted by the pliers d.
CORN-CHEST-CURRY-COMB.
531
When the bone of the skull is not very soft, the piercer e is used to make the hole
in it for the trochar, the guard of the piercer being placed at such a distance up
its screwed shank as to allow the piercer to reach no farther than the hydatid.
1858. The Corn-Chest.-The most convenient form of corn-chest for horses is
when it is high and narrow, as is shown
in fig. 732, which takes up less room
on the floor than when low and broad.
It is 5 feet long, 4
back above the feet.
feet in height at the
A part of the front
b folds down to gain easier access to the
corn as it gets low in the chest. Part
of the lid a is made fast to receive the
end of the spout c, which has its upper
end in the floor of the granary above;
and to make the movable part lighter to
open and shut, the lid is fastened with
a hasp and padlock.
1859. The Whin-Bruiser.—Fig. 733
represents a sort of rammer that may
be used for bruising whins or furze
when horses are fed on that species of
food. It consists of a shank of wood a,
Fig. 732.
al
CORN-CHEST.
Hi..
3 feet 8 inches in length, a bulged-out part b, to give the instrument weight
on being used, and a base c, which is contracted into a square, and shod with
an iron shoe embracing parallel iron-cutters, 1 inch asunder and 3 inches deep,
and sharpened at their lower edge.
1860. Old whin-plants growing in a fir plantation afford the longest and most
succulent and tender shoots for being bruised into fodder for horses.
Fig. 733.
a
Fig. 734.
لالالالالالالك
CURRY-COMB, BRUSH, FOOT-PICKER, AND MANE-COM 68.
WHIN-BRUISER.
1861. The Curry-Comb, &c.-Fig. 734 gives a collection of necessary imple-
ments for the stable, whether of the farm horse or the riding stable: a is the
532
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
foot-picker for picking the feet clean, 6 the curry-comb for removing the grosser
dirt from the hair, c the brush for sweeping the loose dirt out of the hair, and
d the mane-comb for dressing the long hair of the mane and tail. Every
ploughman and groom should be provided with these necessary implements.
1862. The Water - Brush.-The water-brush, fig. 735, is useful in washing
down the mud off a horse's legs and
belly with warm or cold water in winter,
instead of wading the horse through
a pond, and it removes the mud from the
skin much more quickly and effectually
than any amount of wading in water.
Fig. 735.
WATER-BRUSH.
1863. Docking-Iron. - Young horses
are docked before being put to work on
the farm. Docking consists in ampu-
tating the last six joints of the tail, and is effected by the instrument repre-
sented in fig. 736. A docking-iron consists, first, of a semicircular plate of iron
with a sharp edge on the curved side, to one side of which is fixed a handle of
Fig. 736.
wood in a split socket, and at the other side is
forged an eye for a joint; and, secondly, of a piece
of hardwood, out of one end of which is cut a
semicircular notch of less diameter than the cut-
ting plate of iron, and the other end is lengthened
out into a handle. A double-eyed stud of iron is
fixed at the farther end of the notch, and into
this is jointed the eye of the cutting-plate.
The tail of the horse, as far as it is desired to be amputated, is made to rest in
the semicircular notch, and the cutting-plate being brought upon it, is pressed
with a firm and decisive force on bringing together both the
handles. The horse's tail is prepared for the operation by
clipping away the hair from the part on which the cutting
instrument is to act.
Fig. 737.
a
d
DOCKING-IRON.
e
Š
1864. Fleam and Blooding-Stick. In case of sudden
inflammation in either cattle or horses, a fleam and blood-
ing-stick, to let out blood, are necessary instruments to be
always in the possession of the farmer. Fig. 737 repre-
sents these instruments: a is a fleam for young animals,-
b, that for the horse being small; c that for cattle being
large; d is a lancet; e is the blooding-stick, of hardwood
cylindrical end enlarged for weight to give impetus to the blow
Fleams are sharp-pointed triangular blades of steel inserted
each into the edge of a thick short bar of iron.
FLEAM AND BLOODING-STICK.
turned, having a
upon the fleam.
Fig. 738.
e
r
C
BALLING-IRON.
a
1865. The Balling-Iron.-It is necessary at times to give a
medicinal ball to a horse, and as few grooms are expert at admin-
istering a ball without assistance, a balling-iron affords them that
assistance. Fig. 738 represents the form of a good balling-iron :
a a, a branched round rod of iron, is fixed to a hooped handle
b by means of a tine, and a circular ring c of the same description
of iron is fixed between the branches. The instrument is used
by inserting it by the handle in a horizontal position into the
horse's mouth, and on turning the handle down, the circular ring
acting on the inside of the mouth, opens it, the lower jaw pass-
ing into the opening d, while the upper rests on the ring at e.
BALL-SYRINGE-ROUND PIGS' TROUGH.
533
The hand, with the ball, can then with safety be introduced into the mouth
through the ring c.
d
b
Fig. 739.
BALL-SYRINGE.
C
e
1866. The Ball-Syringe.-Even with the assistance of the balling-iron, fig.
738, a ball may not be easily administered to a refractory horse; a ball-syringe,
fig. 739, may then be used with advantage. It consists of a hollow tube a of
wood, terminating with a cylindrical cup, b or c,
of a different size at each end. An iron rod
traverses the hollow of the tube, of a length
longer than the tube, and furnished at each end
with a circular hollow disc d or e, of a diameter equal to that of the cylindrical
cup which receives it. The ball to be given to the horse is put either into b or c,
a small one into c and a large one into b, the rod being drawn back to permit the
full entrance of the ball into the cup. The tube is then introduced into the
horse's mouth through the ring c, fig. 738, as far as practicable, and the ball is
projected into the gullet beyond the tongue by a push of the rod d e.
1867. The Clyster-Funnel.—The old syringe, and bladder, and pipe, will now
be laid aside to use the funnel as constructed in
fig. 740, when a clyster is to be administered to a
The funnel consists of an ordi-
horse or cow.
nary-shaped cone of tin, furnished with a tin
pipe bent at right angles, and terminating in a
nozzle of wood. On inserting the nozzle, the fluid
is poured into the funnel, and simply by gravity
finds its way by gentle degrees into the bowels
of the animal.
Fig. 740.
CLYSTER-FUNNEL.
1868. The Round Pigs'-Trough.-In fig. 741 we illustrate a form of pigs'
trough for standing in the
middle of a court. It is
made of cast-iron in one
piece. The diameter of
this trough is 30 inches, a
the edge ab is finished with
a round baton, serving
both for strength and com-
fort to the animals who
eat out of it; the depth
is about 9 inches, and
it is divided into eight
compartments by the divi-
sions C₂ which are formed
Fig. 741.
C
ROUND PIGS -TROUGH, TO STAND IN A COURT.
༤
b
with a convexity on the upper edge, to prevent the food being thrown from
one compartment into the other. This trough stands upon the top of the litter,
is not easily overturned, the cattle cannot hurt themselves upon it, while
it is easily pushed about to the most convenient spot for it to stand.
1869. The Subdivided Pig-Troughs.—A very convenient trough for a number of
feeding pigs has been long manufactured by the Shotts Iron Company, of which
fig. 742 is a view in perspective from the interior of the court. It is nearly all made
of cast-iron, and possesses the great convenience of allowing the troughs to be
filled with food from the outside of the building, the feeder being at the same
time free of any annoyance from the inmates. Troughs of this kind are placed
in proper-sized openings in the external wall of the piggery court, in the man-
ner shown in the figure, where a marks the wall on one side of the opening-
534
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
that on the hither side being left out of the figure, in order to exhibit the form
of the trough. The trough, part of which is seen at b, is 4 feet in length, 16
inches wide at top, and 8 inches at bottom, and is 9 inches deep. The two ends
Ic
h
h
Fig. 742.
e
¿
d
ጎረ
PIGS' TROUGHS, WITH SUBDIVISIONS, TO STAND) IN AN OPENING OF THE OUTER WALL OF THE STY.
c and d rise in a triangular form to the height of 3 feet, and are connected at
the top by the stretcher-bolt e. The lower part of each end extends inward to
fg, making a breadth of 3 feet 4 inches when complete; but this part of the
end g in the figure is broken off, to show part of the trough b. Two interme-
diate divisions h h divide the trough into three compartments-these divisions
extend to the same length as the ends fg, and are all 21 inches in height. By
means of these divisions, each animal, when there are more than one together,
has its own stall, and can take its food undisturbed by its neighbours. A
swing-door i is jointed in the pivots k k to complete the form by filling up the
opening of the wall. In the figure this is thrown outward to the full extent,
where it always stands during the time the animals are feeding, and is fixed
there by a slide-bolt in the inside. When food is to be introduced, the bolt is
withdrawn, and the door moved from that position to l, and then bolted till the
compartments of the trough are cleaned and filled, when the door is again
swung back to its original position, and the food is placed before the animals.
The door has slits in it corresponding to the divisions h h, to allow of its swing-
ing freely, and yet to have depth sufficient to close the entire opening down to
the outward edge of the trough. A dowel or stud m is let into the wall to
secure the upper part of the trough.
1870. The Dead-Hedge.-A dead-hedge is formed of the smaller branches of
a hedge that has been cut down. It is represented by fig. 743. Bundles of
the cut thorns are made about 4 feet long. A trench is made in the ground as
at a, by the spade, in the line in which it is desired to erect the dead-hedge.
The thick end of the bundle is inserted into the trench, and earth from the
succeeding trench is thrown upon the end of the bundle. The trench will be
about 9 inches in depth, so that the dead-fence will stand about 3 feet 3 inches
DEAD-HEDGE-PALING.
535
in height. The figure does not give the dead-hedge in so massive a form as it
really has, but the ground on which it
stands being given in section, the
position of one bundle with the others
is distinctly enough shown.
1871. The Stake-and-Rice Fence.— A
stake-and-rice fence is formed of ordi-
nary stakes and the branches of forest
trees. It is seen in fig. 744, where a a
are stakes, 4 feet long and 4 inches
square, and, after being pointed with the
axe, are driven into the ground in the line
of fence desired to be erected, from 4 to
6 feet asunder, according to the length
of the branches. The branches are then
set with their butt-ends upon the ground
as at b, and inclined in the fence at an
angle of 45°, and wound alternately be-
fore and behind the stakes as far as
they will reach. A neat and stout
finish is given to the fence by nailing
a single rail of paling along the top of
the stakes, as at c.
나
​α
α
Fig. 743.
DEAD-HEDGE.
Fig. 744.
C
α
STAKE-AND-RICE FENCE.
Fig. 745.
b
COMMON WOODEN PALING.
α
1872. The Common Wooden Paling.-The paling is a very common mode of
fencing where wood is at all plentiful; and where such is the case, it forms a cheap
fence at first, and will last several years. Fig. 745 represents a three-railed paling.
Fir trees of 8 inches in diameter afford
good materials for palings on being quar-
tered for stakes of 4 feet in length, and
cut up in deals of 3½ inches broad for pal-
ings. The stakes a are driven 12 inches
into the ground with a mallet, fig. 706,
at 5 or 6 feet asunder; and when the
ground is hard, a hole should be made for them by the foot-pick, fig. 382, or
with the driver, fig. 707, and such stakes will support a paling of 3 feet 3 inches
in height. Two rails are sufficient to fence cattle, but three are required to
make a close enough fence for sheep. The rails are nailed on the face of the
stakes next the field to be fenced, and they should be made to break joint, so
as the ends of all the three rails should not be nailed on the same stake; nor
should the broad ends of the rails be nailed together, but the broadest and
narrowest as at b b b, that the strength and weight of the rails may be equalised.
To make the paling more secure where desired, a stake should be driven as a
stay in a sloping direction behind the rails, and nailed to every third stake.
The upper edge of the upper rail should be fastened near the top of the stake,
the lowest edge of the lowest one 6 inches, and the upper edge of the middle
one 20 inches from the ground. The best nails for palings are called “Scotch-
made stout paling-nails," from 3 to 3 inches in length. Such a paling, when
wood is plentiful, costs 1s. 2d. per rood of 6 yards, and where it is scarce, 2s.
per rood. Charring the points of the stakes increases the cost, but renders
them much more durable. Painting them as far as they are driven into the
ground with coal-tar allowed to become dry, is perhaps as good a means of
preservation.
536
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
1873. The Common Wooden Field-Gate.-The wooden field-gate, represented
by fig. 746, is the most common form of field-gate in this country. It consists
ა
a
Fig. 746.
b
COMMON WOODEN FIELD-GATE.
(
of a strong stile a e, upon which the
gate acts; a light stile c d; five hori-
zontal bars, such as e c and a d; an up-
right bar in the middle b; and two
diagonals a b and d b. The principal
stile a e is furnished at the top-rail with
a band of iron, the tails of which em-
brace both sides of the stile and rail,
and is fastened to them by bolts and nuts.
The eye of the band is hung upon the
crook fastened to the hanging-post d of the gate, fig. 73 (which see). The lower
end of the stile a e is supported upon a heel-post of iron, consisting of tails
which embrace the stile, and are fastened to it with bolts and nuts, and of a
triangular palm of iron kneed at right angles to the tails, as seen at a in
the figure, and at the apex of which palm is forged at right angles a pin which
rotates, as the gate is opened or shut, in a shallow hole on a strong hard stone
placed there on purpose to support the entire weight of the gate. In order to
allow the gate to remain steady in any position, the centre of the eye of the band
e, and the axis of the pin of the heel-post a, must range in a perpendicular
line. We have shown, in par. 254, that this form of wooden gate is con-
structed contrary to principle.
Fig. 747.
с
d
b
g
1874. The Iron Field-Gate.--Gates of iron in the fields are not so common
as of wood, but they are increasing,
and it is not improbable they may yet
supersede the wooden. Fig. 747 repre-
sents a good form of iron gate for fields.
The gate consists of six parallel bars
of iron, such as fb and a g. These
are fastened together at both ends by
means of the stiles of iron a ƒ and b g.
The bars are prevented from twisting by the three transverse bars of iron,
such as c d. The fore stile b g cannot drop because of the diagonal bar of
iron a b. The gate is supported by the strong post of iron at a ƒ, and which
is strengthened in its position by the stay e, rising from the ground to two-
thirds of the height of the post. The gate closes upon the iron post at b 9.
For a demonstration of the correctness of the principles upon which this
iron gate is constructed, see par. 329.
IRON FIELD-GATE.
Fig. 748.
a
b
1875. Hedge-Bills and Axe.-Hedge-
bills have flat, broad, curved, pointed,
blades of iron, hardened into cutting edges,
and terminating at one extremity by a
split socket, into which a flattened helve
of ash is fixed. a, fig. 748, is the switch-
ing-bill for switching off the superfluous
shoots of hedges; its curved blade is 9
inches long and 1 inch broad; its helve
2 feet 3 inches in length: this bill weighs
21 lb. b is the breasting-bill for breast-
ing over hedges; it is shorter in the blade,
but is stronger and heavier than the switcher, and costs from 3s. the English
C
HEDGE-BILLS AND AXE.
two.
MOLE-TRAP-ROOK - BATTERY.
537
to 7s. 6d. the Scotch price. The Scotch-made implement is much the better of the
The hedger's axe c, weighs 3 lb., and its helve is 3 feet in length, and
costs from 1s. 8d. to 2s. 6d. without the helve, ranging from No. 1 to No. 4.
It is used for cutting down old hedges to the ground.
Fig. 749.
1876. The Mole-Trap.—The long used cylindrical wooden mole-trap is becom-
ing obsolete, and new forms and material have been introduced to supersede it.
Among the best of these introductions is that in fig. 749, which is
made entirely of iron. It consist of two jaws a a, as shown in the
figure, connected together at b by a joint. Above the joint b, and
between the arms, is placed a double plate of steel c, which acts
as a spring. The instrument is set upright, as in the figure, in
the run of the mole, and the mole, meeting with the obstruction,
pushes forward, and displaces the small notched plate d, which is
set between the jaws to keep them separate, and the spring c
close; and on the removal of the plate d by the mole, the spring
c, on being released, forces the jaws a a to close upon the mole
and to kill it.
α
Fig. 750.
a
b
d
MOLE-TRAP.
KO
a
1877. Rook-Battery.-In fig. 750 we illustrate a form of rook-battery. Gun-
powder is the most effectual means of any of scaring birds from fields. Rags
steeped in a solution of gunpowder, dried, and placed on the windward side
of a field, will act as a scare as long as they
last, but the renewal of them is troublesome.
We contrived an apparatus, which we named a
rook-battery, to keep up a fire throughout the
day, with little trouble. It is seen in perspec-
tive in fig. 750. It consists of a circular plate
of strong tin, a b, eighteen inches in diameter,
upon the circumference of which is soldered a
hoop of equally strong tin, 3 inches in height,
and through which are pierced twenty-four em-
brasures, three quarters of an inch square each,
at equal distances from one another. At each
embrasure is mounted a brass cannon, 4 inches
in length, upon a carriage soldered to the
bottom - plate, and removable at pleasure by
means of a clasp. The plate and rim are covered
by a conical tin top, c, similar to the cover of a street lamp, with an eave pro-
jecting one inch to prevent the drip of rain running down the rim. The cover
is surmounted with a cylindrical lantern d, 2 inches high, pierced with holes.
The cannon are loaded with fine gunpowder, and wadded with woollen wadding
to prevent its ignition. They are fired with a match consisting of cotton thread
dipped in a solution of saltpetre; and the thread is brought over and held
upon the touch-hole of each cannon, by a bit of copper-wire attached to the
carriage. The match-thread is made longer and shorter as the time is deter-
mined on between the discharge of each cannon; and to dispose of it for this
purpose, the central part of the plate a b is divided by perpendicular partitions
of tin, so arranged as to form numerous alleys, along which the match-thread is
made to traverse at such length as to burn down in time to reach the touch-
hole at the given hour. Plate a b is affixed to a circular board e, 9 inches in
diameter, and 1 inch in thickness, and in its circumference are attached three
legs, fff, which support the apparatus in tripod form, at such a height as to
elevate the apparatus above the standing corn.
ROOK-BATTERY.
538
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
1878. The battery is placed in the part of the field most frequented by the
rooks, and where it may best be seen. Suppose that the guns are loaded and
the match lighted at five in the morning, and that by eight at night it is time
to cease firing, which is fifteen hours, in which time thirty-seven and a half
minutes will require to elapse between the discharge of each of the twenty-
four cannons. Such discharges are much more to be depended on for regularity
than the firing of any fowling-piece by a herd-boy. Batteries could be made of
any size, and to fire as often as desired; and the smaller-sized ones, when longer
in use than the firing of all the cannons can reach the time, these might be
loaded oftener than once a-day.
1879. In addition to the discharges of the guns, if a piece of woollen rag,
steeped in a solution of gunpowder and dried, were placed in a cup of tin at d,
immediately below the lantern of the cover, and set fire to, the smoke arising
from it would still further intimidate the rooks, and enable the discharge of the
cannons at longer intervals to suffice. Both these means would also serve to
intimidate pigeons and small birds.
1880. The position of the battery should be changed every day, and a piece
of laid corn is the best spot for erecting it on to be most seen from a distance.
It may be set amongst potatoes, as also in a plot of turnips growing for seed.
1881. The number of such apparatuses required for a farm would depend
on the number of the cornfields subject to the attacks of birds, and also on the
succession in ripening of the different crops.
d
b
Fig. 751.
с
α
1882. Suction-Pump.—In fig. 751 we illustrate a
form of the sucking or suction pump; the following
is a description of its parts and mode of operation.
The pressure of the atmosphere explains the action
of the common sucking-pump. The plunger, by its
upward movement, withdraws the air from the
chamber of the pump, and the air, pressing on the
water in the well, causes it to rise and fill the chamber
vacated by the air. The air cannot force the water
higher than 33.87 feet. The pump-barrel is at a a,
the water-chamber and cover with exit-pipe at bb;
cc the working handle, vibrating on a stud on the
snug d; e the piston-rod attached to the piston ƒ,
the valve of which opens upwards; g the lower valve,
also opening upwards; h the pipe leading to the
well, the length of which should not, of course, for
the reason just given, exceed 33.87 feet. The action
of the pump is as follows: Supposing the piston ƒ at
the bottom of the working-barrel a a to be drawn
upwards by depressing the outer extremity of the
handle c, this movement causes the valve g to open
upwards, through which the action of the ascending
piston draws air, which, creating a vacuum, admits of
the water being forced by the atmospheric pressure
up the tube h, and is afterwards "drawn," as the tech-
nical term has it, up by the piston f; on the piston-rod
e reaching the top of the working-barrel a a, the space
between the piston ƒ and the valve g is filled, or nearly
so, with water. On depressing the piston f, by rais-
ing the outer extremity of the pump-handle c, the pressure of the water opens
a
i
g
h
SUCKING OR SUCTION PUMP-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
PUMP-PLUNGER OR PISTON.
539
the valve of the piston, and closes the valve g; and as the piston descends, the
water passes from the lower to the upper side of the piston f. On the piston f
reaching the bottom of its stroke, the water occupies the space in the work-
ing-barrel above the piston. On raising the piston f by the piston-rod e
and handle c, a double action ensues; the valve of the piston ƒ is closed, and
the water above it is gradually lifted from the working-barrel a a, and passed
to the chamber bb, from which it flows by the exit-pipe b; while this is going
on, the valve g is opened, and the vacuum beneath the piston being again
formed, the water from the well, passing up the tube h, follows the piston f, and
fills-on the piston reaching the upper part of its stroke-the pump-barrel, as
before. In the figure the piston ƒ is shown in the act of descending.
1883. Pump-Plunger or Piston.-In fig. 752 is illustrated the construction of
the pump-piston adapted for the form
h
с
Fig. 752.
h'
e
ď
h
b
α
b
३
of pump described in last par. The
body of the piston a a is usually made
of elm or beech, and of a slightly coni-
cal form. It is provided with a central
aperture bb, the usual form of which
is shown in the section of the piston
cc at d. The body of the plunger is
not of uniform thickness, but is partly
turned down so as to form a neck or
shoulder near each extremity, as shown
at a and a. Round this part a strip of
thick leather is wound, the edges of
which meet, and are forced in close
contact when the piston is inserted in
the pump-barrel. The edges should
not be sewn together, as is sometimes
practised, as this creates bumps and in-
equalities which materially injure the
action of the piston. At either end of
the central aperture d, an aperture or
slot is cut, as at e e, extending from top
to bottom of the body of the piston. These slots admit of the ends ff of the
forked extremity of the piston-rod g being passed through, and secured by nuts
or washers, as shown at ff. Before the forks ƒ ƒ are thus secured, the valve
or flap h h is placed on the upper face of the piston, and one of the forks f
passed through an aperture made in one end of the valve, which by this means
is secured to the piston. The flap or valve is usually made of stiff leather, of
the form as shown in the lower figure at h' h'. The upper end at h' is prolonged,
and is provided with a slot, through which one of the forks ƒ passes as above
described. The valve or piece of leather is made larger than the aperture d,
so that when it is forced downwards it will completely cover the aperture, and
lie flat against the surface of the plunger, thus securing a water-tight joint.
To facilitate the action of the valve, a thick piece of iron or brass is riveted to
the upper side.
h'
PUMP-PLUNGER OR PISTON-SCALE, 2 INCHES TO THE FOOT.
1884. The lower valve g, fig. 751, is constructed much in the same way as that
now described. It is fixed firmly at the bottom of the working-barrel, and should
be provided with a cross or curved arm similar to that shown at i, by which it
can be withdrawn from its seat for repair as desired. This is effected by with-
drawing the piston, and passing down the barrel an iron rod provided with a
540
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
hook at one end, which catches the guard i, and by pulling at which the valve
can be released from its seat.
Fig. 753.
FRONT ELEVATION OF PER-
REAUX'S INDIA-RUBBER
PUMP-VALVE.
Fig. 754.
1885. Perreaux's India-rubber Pump-Valve.-In fig. 753 we give a sketch of
one Perreaux's India-rubber pump-valve, corresponding
to the foot-valve g in fig. 751, and in fig. 754 section of
bracket or plunger-valves corresponding to ƒ in fig. 751.
"These valves are constructed entirely of India-rubber,
vulcanised for the purpose, and take the form of a tube
flattened at one extremity, something similar to the mouth-
piece of a hautboy, and approaching as nearly as possible
in form and action the valves contained in the human
heart. The thickness of the sides of the upper part diminishes gradually to the
top, where the two sides meet and form two lips, which, when the valve is in a
state of rest, are in close contact, and prevent the downward passage of the
fluid. With any upward pressure the lips freely separate, and allow the
upward passage of the fluid. The gradual diminution in thickness or tapering
of the sides, forming the lips of the passage,
enables the valve to open and close with the
slightest variation of pressure, and, by pro-
perly proportioning, to resist any required
amount of downward pressure. The passage for
the fluid is larger in these valves than in any
others of equal dimensions; they also possess
the advantage of having a 'clear way,' there
being nothing whatever to retard the passage
or flow of water, and owing to the self-acting
principle imparted by the elasticity of the mate-
rial, they close perfectly and instantaneously the moment the pressure from
below ceases. The lips of the valve being flexible and elastic, any foreign sub-
stance which may enter the suction-pipe, such as sand, gravel, coal, dust, cinders,
grain, cotton, tow, rags, chips of wood, &c., passes freely through without in the
least interfering with or deranging the action of the valve. A further advan-
tage they possess is, that, however long the pump may have remained dry, they
require no priming, by the application of water, &c., to make them act. The
peculiar form of these valves enables them to work equally well in any position,
whether vertical or horizontal. The material of which these valves are con-
structed, perfectly resists the action of acids, alkalies, sea-water, spirits, liquid-
manure, ammonia, heat or cold, nor will it suffer from any period of disuse.'
SECTIONS OF BRACKET-VALVE.
""
1886. Clarkson's Square Pump.-A new form of pump for agricultural pur-
poses has been introduced very recently by Mr Clarkson of London, in which
the pump, barrel, and piston are of a square form. The piston gives a per-
fectly clear water-way, and passes with great facility large masses of matter.
In this way the inventor claims for it considerable merit as a liquid-manure
pump. It seems also well adapted for keeping bog-holes dry while the peat is
being cut out of them.
1887. Force-Pump. In the suction-pump there is, as has been already
explained, in par. 1882, a limit to which the water can be raised. In the force-
pump water can be raised to a very much greater height. The force-pump acts
both by the elasticity and the pressure of the air. The pressure causes the water
to be lifted to a height not exceeding 33 feet, but the elastic force of the air in
the condenser of the force-pump causes the water to rise from it to a very con-
siderable height. It is on this principle that the fire-engine causes the water
to rise to the roofs of houses.
FORCE-PUMP.
541
Fig. 755.
b
1888. The arrangement of the force-pump and its mode of action are illus-
trated in fig. 755. a a is the pipe leading from the well, which must not exceed
34 feet in length; bb is the pump-barrel,—where the
pipe a a joins this, a valve c opening upwards is fixed;
the piston d is solid; e e, the piston-rod, works in
a stuffing-box f; g is the side delivery-pipe, furnished
with a valve h opening upwards. Supposing the
piston d to be at the bottom of the working-barrel b b,
and to be drawn upwards, the valve c is raised, and
the water from the well, passing through the pipe
a a, follows the piston d. On this reaching the top
of its stroke, the pump-barrel beneath it is filled with
water. On depressing the piston d, the pressure of
the water closing the valve c, it has no other mode of
escape than by the side-pipe g. As the water passes
through this, it presses on the under side of the valve
h, opens it upwards, and is forced up the pipe i to any
desired height.
1889. The valves c and h are known as the "coni-
cal" form. Their mode of construction will be found
in the section on Steam-engines, while describing
the "force-pump" of a high-pressure engine.
α
"
b
SECTION OF FORCE-PUMP-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
1890. The solid piston d, fig. 755, may be con-
structed of two discs of metal, adjusted at any position at the extremity of the
piston-rod, which is screwed for this purpose, discs of leather, vulcanised India-
rubber, felt, or hemp, being firmly secured between them.
Fig. 756.
C
f
f
g
b
1891. Another form of piston is illustrated in fig. 756, where a a, b b, is the
body of the piston, a a being a circular flange. The piston-
rod c c is passed down a central aperture made in b b, and
secured by a key or cottar d. An upper plate e e is secured
to the body bb by the bolts ff. Before securing this plate
or flange e e, the discs or rings of felt or hemp are placed round
the body bb, as shown by the dotted lines g g. On the requi-
site number of these being placed on, the plate e e is then
secured, and the piston ready for use. The external diameter
of the upper and lower flanges a a, e e, is a little less than
the bore or internal diameter of the working-barrel of the
pump; the internal diameter of the rings of felt, &c., g 9,
being equal to the diameter of the body b b of the piston;
their external diameter equal to, or a little larger than, the
bore of the working-barrel, as shown by the dotted circle in
the lower figure c, which is a plan of upper side of piston.
α
8
FORCE-PUMP PISTON
OR PLUNGER, SECTION
AND PLAN-SCALE, 2
INCHES TO THE FOOT
1892. In both forms of pump, the suction and the forcing,
the flow of water is intermittent, taking place in the suction-
pump, fig. 751, while the piston is ascending; and in the force-pump, fig.
755, while the piston is descending. To insure a continuous flow, a contriv-
ance, known as the "air-vessel," is employed in conjunction with force-
pumps. This is illustrated in fig. 757, where a a represents the side delivery-
into
pipe, corresponding to g, fig. 755. To this is attached a hollow vessel b b,
which the water is passed through a valve placed at c; a pipe d, correspond-
ing to i, fig. 755, passes down the interior of this, to within a short distance of
the valve c.
The water is generally maintained in the vessel b b about the

542
IMPLEMENTS USEFUL ON THE FARM.
level e e, thus keeping a place ff filled with compressed air, the elasticity of
Fig. 757.
g
h
h
a
d
a
b
AIR-VESSELS FOR FORCE-PUMPS -SCALE,INCH TO THE FOOT.
Fig. 758.
which forces the water up the pipe d.
1893. From the peculiarity of opera-
tion of the force-pump, a loss of power
is sustained, equal to, according to M.
Morin, from 55 to 80 per cent of the
working power. Some of this loss is
obviated by using a second air-vessel;
this being applied to the suction-pipe
immediately below the barrel, as shown
in fig. 757, where g g is the air-vessel
attached to the suction-pipe h h, corre-
sponding to a a, fig. 755.
1894. Gwynne's Farm Hand-Pump.-
In fig. 758 we give an arrangement of
hand-pump for farm purposes, designed
and manufactured by Messrs Gwynne, of Essex Wharf, Strand, London. In
this illustration a a is the pump-well; b b the suction-pipe leading to the plat-
form c, to which is secured the force-pump d; e the air-
vessel; ff the pump-rod, worked by a crank in the axle
or shaft of the fly-wheel g turned by the handle h.
The frame ii for supporting the fly-wheel shaft is bolted
to the bed-plate covering the mouth of the well. The
water is forced up the pipe k k from the air-vessel e.
This pump would be serviceable in a deep well.
a
22
f
ს
b
f
k
a
k
GWYNNE'S FARM HAND-PUMP.
1895. Centrifugal Pump.-Various forms of pumps have
been introduced from time to time to insure a continuous
stream. Of these, by far the most efficient and econo-
mical is that known as the centrifugal pump by Messrs
Gwynne. It is quick in action, small in size for the work
it performs, easily applied to work, and has no compli-
cated array of valves and parts, which are liable easily
to get out of repair, or become choked by the passage
of extraneous matter in the fluid on which it operates.
Fig. 759.
The mechanical details of
construction, and the mode
of operation, will be under-
stood from the following illus-
tration and description. Fig.
759 is a side-elevation in sec-
tion of the pump; fig. 760
an end elevation, one side
being in section. The hol-
low rotating disc a a, fig. 759,
is made fast upon the hori-
zontal shaft a a, fig. 760, and
works within the case or re-
ceiver bb bb, fig. 759; arms
or impellers, b, shown in dotted lines, are placed in the
disc. One end of the shaft or spindle a a, fig. 760, is
supported in a bearing in the end or cover of the pump-
case bb; the other end passes through a gland and
SECTION OF GWYNNE'S CENTRIFUGAL PUMP.

HYDRAULIC RAM.
may be of any desired length.
Fig. 760.
b
b
a
b
α
d
543
stuffing-box c c in the opposite cover, and revolves in a standard or bearing d d,
bolted on to the cast-iron bed-plate
e e, upon which the pump-case b b is
made fast. The pulley ff is keyed
upon the end of the spindle or shaft
a a; g is the discharge-pipe, which
The
suction-pipe h may also be placed as
desired, and the end is put into
the water to be raised, where a foot-
valve is placed. When the pump
and case are filled with water, and
a rapid motion given to the disc
by a band on the pulley ff, the cen-
trifugal force generated drives the water out of the disc b and up the discharge-
pipe g. Water from the suction-pipe h takes the place of that ejected, and so the
pump continues to receive and discharge in a continuous stream so long as the
velocity is kept up. The quantity of water is regulated by the speed of the
disc. The greater the speed, of course, the greater the quantity. The small
passage c, fig. 759, at the top of the hollow disc a, allows any air that may
enter the case to get into the discharge-pipe, and to pass away.
END ELEVATION OF GWYNNE'S CENTRIFUGAL PUMP.
Fig. 761,
1896. The Hydraulic Ram.-The hydraulic ram is an exceedingly useful
machine for elevating water to a considerable height. It is simple in original con-
struction, has no parts liable to get out of order, and will work continuously for
years without repairs after once being put in operation, all that is required being
a small stream with a few feet
of fall. The machine depends
for its operation on the mo-
mentum of the falling stream,
which, confined in a pipe, is
led to a chamber in which
valves are placed, and which
act as follows: In fig. 761,
which is a longitudinal sec-
tion of a form manufactured
by Messrs Gwynne, of Essex
Wharf, Strand, London, a a is
the supply-pipe, which leads
the running stream down to
the chamber b b, bolted to the
a
a
C
b
b
d
SECTION OF HYDRAULIC RAM.
g
C
e,
which
bed-plate c c. A valve d d is provided to the chamber b b, and which has a
tendency to fall from its seat so as to keep the water-way open, till the stream,
flowing through the pipe a a, acquires sufficient momentum to close it. The
velocity of the stream being thus checked, the water raises the valve
moves the reverse way of the valve d d, and enters the air-vessel ff, from which
it is finally passed by the pipe g g, which can be led to any desired elevation
above the level of the ram. On the water passing into the air-chamber ff, it is
pressed upon by the air in the upper part of the vessel, which closes the
valve e.
The momentum of the flowing stream in the pipe a a and vessel bb,
being thus exhausted, the valve d d falls, and allows the water to escape from
the vessel bb, through the valve opening, till the flowing stream again acquires
such momentum as to close the valve d d. When this happens, the valve e
544
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
is again opened, and a second quantity of water discharged into the air-vessel
ff. The action thus described goes on continually, resulting in a regular
Amm
a
Fig. 762.
e
GRINDSTONE.
b
α
necting-rod e acting on a crank.
tured by Messrs Ibbotson Brothers
beating or pulsation of the valves e, d d,
each rising and falling alternately.
1897. The hydraulic ram may be use-
ful in raising water to an elevated cistern,
from which it may be led to drive a small
turbine placed at the lowest available level.
1898. The Grindstone.-In fig. 762 we
illustrate a convenient and cleanly form of
grindstone, the framing a a of which is
of cast-iron. The stone is covered with a
casing bb, leaving part only of the stone ex-
posed, as at c. This arrangement prevents
a the water from being scattered abroad.
The revolution of the stone is caused by the
action of the foot of the operator on the
pedal dd, through the medium of the con-
The form, as here illustrated, is manufac-
and Company, of Sheffield, tool-makers.
DIVISION THIRD.-MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
1899. SECTION FIRST.-Horse-Power.
1900. The Horse-Wheel.-Until of late years the thrashing-machine was in most
cases impelled by horses moving in a circular course; and as this power continues
to be employed on the smaller class of farms, it is still of that importance to demand
being here brought under notice. Horse-wheels are of various construction, as
under-foot and over-head; the former being chiefly used where small powers are
required, and the latter where four horses and upwards are employed. In general,
in the under-foot wheel, the horses draw by means of trace-chains and swing-tree.
In the over-head wheel, of old construction, we also find occasionally the same
method of yoking practised; but in all modern over-head wheels the horses draw
by a yoke descending over their back, from a horizontal beam placed over-head.
Custom seems, as usual, to have produced a preference for this mode of yoking,
though there appears good reason for calling its propriety in question, espe-
cially if the course has a diameter of 22 feet or upwards. The argument in
support of the over-head draught is, that the horse exerts his force in the direc-
tion of a tangent, or very nearly so, to the curve in which he walks, or at
right angles to the beam by which he draws; while, in the swing-tree
draught, his shoulders being considerably more in advance of the point of
attachment, his exertions must necessarily tend in a direction that will form
an angle more acute than a right angle, but which will vary with the radius
of the course. It is quite true that this is the case, and that the horse will
draw at a disadvantage, to a certain extent, but the amount of this disadvan-
tage is small. In a 26-feet course, which is a good medium, giving the
over-head draught the full advantage of the right-angle (90°), the other will
draw at an angle of about 72° with the radius or beam; and it is easy to show
that the amount of disadvantage arising from this is as 21 to 20. If the
HORSE-WHEEL.
545
draught of a horse in a wheel amounts to 170 lb. under the favourable posi-
tion, it will require an exertion of 178 lb. from the same horse, when yoked
unfavourably—that is, by a swing-tree. With this disadvantage, which is but
small, if we compare the freedom of action and uniformity of the resistance in
the case of the swing-tree draught, with the constrained action and jolting
effects which the horse undergoes in the over-head yoke-and to these if we
add the chances of disadvantage to horses of low stature, being constrained to
draw at an unfavourable vertical angle-we shall soon find an amount of disad-
vantage greater than in the former case. The question is not now of that im-
portance which it once possessed, in consequence of the extensive application of
steam; but it appears still to be deserving of consideration.
1901. In the construction of the horse-wheel also, a question arises as to the
diameter of the actual wheel, whether it should be equal in diameter to the entire
horse-walk, and work as a spur-wheel, or have a diameter considerably under
the walk, and be applied as a face or bevelled wheel. It appears to us that
the large spur-wheel, of 25 or 30 feet in diameter, has been conceived under a
false impression, and that, on principle, its application is erroneous. It is also
probable that a consideration of the overshot water-wheel, which, from its con-
struction, and the nature of the element employed, requires that its power
should be given off at or near the extremity of its arms, may have given rise
to this formation; but the causes that combine to render this not only advisable,
but imperative, in the water-wheel, if everything is duly considered, do not
apply to horse-power. When the horse-wheel has a diameter larger than the
mean diameter of the horse-path, it gives the first motion a higher velocity than
that of the moving power, by its more extended radius; and if any inequality
occurs in the moving power, it will sensibly affect the succeeding motions.
Horses do not exert a perfectly uniform force when yoked in a wheel; the very
act of stepping forth, by removing the exertion from one shoulder to the other,
produces small increments and decrements, alternately, to the power, and these
must be communicated to the wheel which extends beyond that point of the
lever by which the horse draws. Besides this effect on the machine, it must
have an equally bad effect upon the horses; for, in consequence of the con-
struction of the large wheel, and from the yoke being applied to a point where all
elasticity is removed, the draft becomes what is termed dead; that is to say, there
are no elastic or yielding parts betwixt the power and the first impulse, that
might tend to soften the sudden strains that come upon the horses, unless other
means are resorted to, to produce that result. Wheels of this construction will,
therefore, be found more fatiguing to the horses than those of smaller diameter.
1902. Of horse-wheels with a small circle of teeth, the diameter best suited
for all purposes, and which might produce a maximum effect, has not yet been
defined; but, from analogy, and taking into view the properties of the centre of
percussion, we may infer that the radius of the segments forming the toothed-
wheel should be two-thirds of the radius of the beam, measuring to the centre
of draught, which may be taken at 11 feet when the course is 26 feet diameter,
giving to the toothed segments a diameter of 14 feet 3 inches. The diameter
thus found is subject to modification, arising from considerations of strength,
and the too great obliquity of the diagonal braces of the wheel, that would
follow upon a large diameter. Such considerations will induce a reduction of
diameter to 12 or 13 feet, as a good medium size of wheel. The projection of
the horse beams beyond the point of action of the toothed segments, produces
that degree of elasticity pointed out in par. 1901, the absence of which forms a
defect in wheels of large diameter.
2 M
546
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
•
1903. The horse-wheel represented in figs. 1 and 2, Plate XXIX., is con-
structed on data derived from the foregoing considerations: fig. 1 is an elevation,
and fig. 2 a plan of the wheel, the same letters of reference applying to both
figures. It is constructed for four horses, the course is 26 feet diameter within
the pillars, and the wheel is 13 feet diameter, with a hollow cast-iron central
shaft, having a flange at top and bottom 2 feet diameter, to which the arms and
stays of the wheel are bolted. The position of the horse-wheel must be always
adjoining to the barn; it may or may not be on the side towards the stackyard,
but generally towards it. In the figures, then, the barn-wall is marked a a, and
the two main pillars, which support the main collar-beam, are marked 6 6, the two
minor pillars, erected solely for completing the bearings of the roof are c c, and
dd is the floor or horse-walk. The footstep of the horse-wheel is supported on the
stone block e, the step being adjustable by four screws, to bring the wheel to the
true level; and ƒƒ is the collar-beam, 12 by 8 inches, which is laid upon and
bolted to the main pillars, and carries the plummer-block for the head of the
central shaft. The sheers g g are 12 by 4 inches, framed into the collar-beam,
and resting on the wall a a; the dotted lines h h represent two diagonal braces
to the sheers, to resist the shake from the action of the wheel upon the pinion
of the lying shaft; and the cast-iron bridge i is bolted down upon the sheers
carrying the end of the lying shaft. The flanges of the central shaft k
and 7 form the foundation of the wheel; to l are bolted the horizontal arms
m, 6 by 24 inches, as well as the horse-beams o, which are 10 by 6 inches,
and these are supported by the diagonals n n, 4 by 2 inches, seated in and
draw-bolted to the flange k. The horizontal braces p of the horse-beams are
6 by 24 inches; they are framed into the ends of the arms m, and secured
with cast-iron knee-plates at their junction with the wheel and with the horse-
beams o. The yoke-bars q q are made of hardwood, strongly bolted to the horse-
beams o, and are each mounted with an iron pulley near the lower end, over which
the draught-chain passes. The yoke-bars q are 6 by 3 inches, and taper towards
the lower ends; at the point where the draught-chain passes through them their
height from the horse-path should be 3 feet 6 inches, liable to slight variation,
arising from the stature of the horse that is to be yoked into it. The wheel r is
now always made of cast-iron, in segments, and, when the wheel is very care-
fully made, the segments are fitted and bolted to a bed-plate of the same
material, previously bolted to the arms m and horse-beams o. The breadth of
the bed-plate may be 6 inches, with low flanges to keep the segments in place.
The toothed segments should be 4 inches in breadth, and their pitch 2 inches,
the diameter of the wheel being, as before stated, 13 feet. The horse-wheel
pinion s is 14 inches nearly in diameter, mounted on the lying shaft s t, whose
inward bearing is upon the barn wall a a, in an opening formed for the purpose,
and this shaft carries the spur-wheel u inside the barn.
1904. The calculations of this machine would stand thus: The horses will
walk the course three times in a minute, being at the rate nearly of 21 miles
per hour; the lying shaft s t will make eleven revolutions for one of the wheel,
or thirty-three per minute; and the drum pinion, which is driven by the
spur-wheel u, if made 8.6 inches diameter, the wheel being 7 feet, would give
the drum 320 revolutions per minute, a fair average velocity for a four-horse
machine, which can be increased by a quicker step of the horses, say to 2 miles
per hour, which would give 340 revolutions per minute to the drum.
1905. Some horses, when yoked in a wheel, are observed, after a short prac-
tice, to take advantage of lagging back, and allowing those who are more
willing to take the heavy end of the work. To counteract this, methods have
THE RING - CHAIN.
547
been adopted to make the horses draw by chains, so arranged as to make them
work against each other in pairs; or make any number of them draw from a
ring-chain common to the whole.
1906. Another method was to make each horse draw against a certain weight
suspended over pulleys; but all these have their imperfections in one way or
another.
*
1907. The Ring-Chain.-A new and more perfect arrangement of the ring-
chain was introduced by Mr Christie, Rhynd, Fifeshire, which received the appro-
bation of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. This arrange-
ment is exhibited in fig. 2. The principle of the arrangement is, that the
ring-chain forms a figure of as many equal sides or angles as there are horses in
the wheel, and that the angles shall always remain equal. The arrangement to pro-
duce these properties is this: At the points vvvv on the horse-beams o, are
firmly attached the wood or iron pulley-cases, each having two small pulleys
moving horizontally; and at the points w w w w, four other cases, each having a
pulley moving horizontally, and likewise one vertically; each of the vertical
ones, with its pulleys, being suspended on a slide-rod of 2 feet in length. At
each of the points v a loop of the ring-chain is passed through the case betwixt
the two pulleys, and is drawn forward till it pass over the horizontal pulley at w.
The draught-chains are now passed each through its own vertical pulley in the
case w, the ends being carried forward and over the leading pulleys at the head
of the yoke-trees; they are then led down and passed through the draught-pulleys
in q q, fig. 1, the chains terminating at c' d', to which the horses are yoked.
1908. The reeving of the pulleys and chains will be more clearly seen in the
perspective views, figs. 3 and 4, Plate XXIX., where the same letters as before
are applied. Thus, fig. 3 shows the pulleys and case, as fixed to the horse-
beam at v, with a part of the beam broken off at both ends, c' d' being parts of
two sides of the square formed by the chain, and the double portion v' that part
of the loop that would join w in fig. 4; here the loop passes round the horizontal
pulley of w, and the portion of chain a' b' in this figure is the loop of the
draught-chain passing round the vertical pulley of w, and onward to the yoke-
trees. In fig. 4 y is the slide-rod, and x the hook by which the pulley-case is
suspended and slides upon y.
1909. It will be perceived that in this arrangement the primary figure of the
chain cannot change, for though one horse pull so much as to go ahead an inch
or a foot, some other horse, or perhaps the whole, must have retired in propor-
tion, but the whole effect will be simply to lengthen or shorten these loops, without
affecting the fundamental figure; every horse must, therefore, continue to pull an
equal portion of the load, without change, unless any one is allowed to bring
his pulley w, fig. 4, to the end of the slide-rod y, a circumstance that can hardly
occur. In the usual methods of yoking upon a ring-chain, the chain is only
passed over the pulleys v, and the horse draws by the pulley, which in these
arrangements is movable, the loop of the draught-chain, if double, passing round
it, or, if single, is simply hooked to the pulley-case; hence, the primary figure
is variable: and suppose that one horse, or two opposite horses, were to slacken
their exertions for a few seconds-and a lazy horse will be always disposed to
do this—the two other horses must go ahead to tighten the chain, and these
motions will produce a figure in the primary chain, having two acute and two
obtuse angles, the lazy horses having the obtuse, and the willing horses the acute
angles. It were easy to demonstrate, by the resolution of forces, that the two
* Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, vol. xii. p. 264.
548
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
lazy horses, as long as they continued to pull lightly, would have much less
exertion demanded of them to keep the chains in equilibrium than the other
two horses, and the forces could only be restored to equality when the angles of
the primary figure became again equal. This defect of yoking upon the
catenarian system does not appear to have attracted the attention of any inquirer,
but without knowing why, it seems to have deterred practical men from
employing it, for it is now seldom in use; but Mr Christie's method, from the
perfection of its principles, is deserving of application.
1910. A method of equalising the resistance to the shoulders of each indi-
vidual horse has been long practised, and which, from its simplicity, as well as
its beneficial effects upon the horses, is deserving of general adoption. The
apparatus consists of an iron lever with equal arms, about 30 inches in length,
and 2 inches by inch at the centre; this is suspended upon a bolt by a
perforation through the centre of the lever forming the fulcrum, and the ends
are formed into hooks to which the draft-chains are attached. Fig. 763 repre-
a
O
b
Fig. 763.
c
ს
sents the application of this to the horse-
beam, wherein a is a part of the beam,
and b b the yoke-trees; c is the lever
above described, suspended upon the
back of the horse-beam; d d the draught-
chains, hooked to the lever, and passed
under the pulleys of the yoke-trees, be-
yond which the horse is yoked to the
extremity of the chains. The advan-
tages of this mode of yoking will at once
be obvious; for, suppose that, from in-
advertence, the horse may have been
unequally yoked, whenever he exerts
his force, the chain that had been yoked
short-suppose it to be the left shoul-
der-will immediately pull down the
end of the lever to which it is hooked,
and bring the longer chain to bear with
equal resistance upon the right shoulder. The lever will also vibrate at every
step taken by the horse, as his efforts are changed at every step from the one
shoulder to the other: the lever will therefore tend to equalise his exertions in
respect to his muscular economy, and to the motion of the machine.
¿
THE LEVER FOR EQUALIBING DRAUGHT.
d
1911. It is worthy of remark that the pillars of the shed in which the horse-
wheel is placed, being generally of slender dimensions—those which support
the collar-beams not exceeding perhaps 8 feet in height, 2 feet in thickness,
and 7 feet in breadth-it is found that the action of the horse-wheel has a ten-
dency to shake them, and on the consequent vibration of the collar-beam
additional weight is thrown upon the horses to overcome. To obviate this
injurious tendency, a method has been adopted in Forfarshire to render the collar-
beams more secure. Fig. 764 shows how this is effected: b b is a strong block
of stone 12 or 15 inches thick, upon which the collar-beam a rests. The com-
mon practice, which is complained of, is to fasten the beam to this stone by
means of a strap of iron, terminating in bolts, which pass through the stone, and
are secured under it with nuts. The improvement adopted is to place a cap
of cast-iron upon the collar-beam a, provided with a flange at each side, having
a hole at each corner to permit a bolt cc to pass through it and the stone b b,
to and through the lower block of stone d d, into the space below it e, where the
DRAY'S UNDER-FOOT HORSE-WORKS.
Fig. 764.
a
C
C
549
bolts are screwed fast with nuts. The bolts may be made of any length desired,
and the ashlar-work comprised in the entire
series of stones b b, d d, and ff, is confined to
the interior face of the two pillars which support
the collar-beam, and which should be well
dressed and jointed together. The lower part of
fig. 764 shows a plan of the above arrangement,
where a a is the end of the collar-beam, b b the
block of stone, and c c c c the flanges and bolt
bevels of the cap.
In
f
b
d
d
1912. Dray's Under-foot Horse- Works.-We
now direct our attention to the illustration and
description of "under-foot" horse-works.
fig. 765 is given a side elevation, and in fig.
766 a plan, of horse-works manufactured by
Messrs Dray & Co., Swan Lane, London, adapted
to drive a two-horse-power portable thrashing-
machine. The upper frame a a, and lower
frame bb, are connected together by iron pillars
ccc; the length of the frames being 5 feet 4
inches, the breadth 3 feet 11 inches. The
height between the two frames is 17 inches; the
diameter of the connecting pillars e ce being 2
inches. The breadth of the side and end pieces
of the framing is 6 inches, the thickness being
11
1 inch. The framing a a, b b, is supported
on two wheels d d, 3 feet diameter, these
being used for convenience of transport. The
horses are attached to the whipple-trees e bolted
to the levers ƒƒ. The terminations of these
are inserted into the cast-iron cup g fixed to the
end of the vertical shaft h, revolving at its lower
extremity in a step attached to the lower frame
bb; and near its upper extremity, in the central
bearing of the cross bracket i, the shaft h carries
a spur-wheel jj, 3 feet 4 inches in diameter, engaging with a pinion k, 5½
Fig. 765.
b
a
C
о
C
с
α
b
MODE OF INSURING STEADINESS IN THE COLLAR-
BEAM OF HORSE-WHEELS.
g
تم.
i
f
k
J
j
h
ろ
​d
m
C
し
​-
ก.
1
P
SIDE ELEVATION OF DRAY'S HORSE-WORK-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
550
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
inches diameter. This pinion is keyed on the vertical shaft l, the lower part
回回
​a
回 ​回
​· 2
f
回回
​от
g
回
​се
回 ​回
​d
Fig. 766.
PLAN OF DRAY'S HORSE-WORK-SCALF,
回 ​回
​回
​d
M
M
INCH TO THE FOOT.
f
回 ​回
​a
α
of which carries a bevel-
wheel m m, 2 feet 9
inches diameter, and
which engages with a
pinion n, 6 inches in
diameter. This pinion.
n is keyed on a horizon-
tal shaft revolving in
bearings o o, keyed to
the lower frame b b.
To the end of the shaft
the universal joint p is
fixed, giving motion to
the lying shaft, the
opposite extremity of
which works in bear-
ings rr fixed to the
beam s s, fig. 767. The
length of the shaft q,
fig. 765 (broken off in
the figure to save space) is, from centre to centre of the coupling-joints p and
И
с
a
S
a
S
グ
​Fig. 767.
PART PLAN OF DRAY'S HORSE-WORK.
с
Fig. 768.
b
b
α
C
A
SIDE ELEVATION OF SAFETY HORSE-GEAR-SCALE, INCH TO
THE FOOT.
t, fig. 767, 9 feet. The length of the
bearing s s, fig. 767, is 3 feet 9 inches,
its breadth 4 inches, and thickness 2
inches. The shaft u is jointed at one
end to the coupling-joint t, and at the
other to a third coupling-joint attached
to the driving-shaft of the machine to
be worked. The length of the levers
ƒ ƒ, fig. 765, from the centre of the
cap g to the centre of attachment of
the whipple-trees e, fig. 767, is 10 feet
10 inches.
1913. The cost of an apparatus of
the form here described for one-horse
power is £12; for two-horse, £18, 10s. ;
for four-horse, £22.
1914. Barrett, Exall, and Andrews'
Safety Horse-Gear.-From figs. 768 to
771 is a form of horse-work which,
from its compactness and excellent
arrangement, has obtained a high re-
putation. It is known as the "safety
horse-gear," and is manufactured by
the inventors, Messrs Barrett, Exall, &
Andrews, of Reading. In fig. 768 we
give a side elevation, in fig. 769 a ver-
tical section, in fig. 770 a plan of top,
and in fig. 771 a sectional plan, show-
ing the working-gear. The working
parts are completely enclosed in a
cast-iron case a a, fig. 768, so that no
SAFETY HORSE-GEAR.
551
extraneous matter can gain admittance. The cap b b contains three sockets
or eyes cc cc, as shown also at b b b in fig. 770, in which are inserted the ends of
the driving-levers, to which the horses are yoked with whipple-trees. A door
Fig. 770.
a
i
g
Fig. 769.
d
g
N
a
b
с
α
b
し
​M
ď
k
i
i
I
-h
SECTION OF SAFETY HORSE-GEAR-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOO1.
d
b
எ
C
b
O
d
a
PLAN OF TOP OF SAFETY HORSE-GEAR.
or trap, e, fig. 768, can be taken off when required, to gain admittance to oil
the lower bearings. The power is taken off by the lying-shaft through the
coupling-joint d.
Fig. 771.
1915. The driving-gear is shown more particularly in the section, fig. 769.
The outer casing is shown at a a, b the door or trap. The cap c c revolves
easily on the top of the casing; two of the sockets for connecting the driving-
levers with the cap are shown at d d. The cap c c is keyed to a vertical shaft
e e, the foot-step of which is at f. This shaft carries a bevel-wheel g g, engaging
with a bevel-pinion h h, keyed on a
horizontal shaft ii, revolving in
bearings kk, connected with the
lower part of the casing a a. The
universal joint 7 m is attached to
the outer extremity of the shaft i i.
The method in which motion is given
to the shaft e e will be explained by
reference to fig. 771. The revolving
cap c c, fig. 769, carries three, studs,
of which one is shown at n, and the
relative position of which is shown at
d d´d in fig. 770. These studs carry
small pinions, c c c, fig. 771, which
engage at once with a pinion d, fixed
in the vertical shaft e e in fig. 769,
and with an internal wheel, b b b, fig. 771, cast in the upper part of the outer
casing a a a, fig. 769. Supposing there are sixty teeth in the internal wheel
bbb, and twenty in the spur-wheel c, fig. 771, for each time the spur-wheel
c is made to travel round the wheel b b b, the spur-wheel c will revolve
three times; and supposing the pinion d on the vertical shaft to have half
of the number of teeth of the wheel c, for each revolution of c it will have
HORIZONTAL SECTION OF SAFETY HORSE-GEAR.
552
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
two revolutions. Thus, for one revolution of the cap there will be six revolu-
tions of the wheel d. Then supposing the bevel-wheel g g, fig. 769, to be
five times the diameter of the pinion h, for each revolution of the shaft e e the
shaft i i will revolve five times. Suppose, further, the horses to make the cap c c,
fig. 769, revolve three times per minute, the wheels cc c, fig. 771, will make nine
revolutions, the pinion d, fig. 771, and wheel g g, fig. 769, eighteen times, and
the shaft i i and pinion h ninety times per minute. In fig. 770, which is a plan
of the cap, a a is the outer case, bbb three sockets to receive the ends of
the driving-levers, c a movable cap which covers the end of the vertical
shaft e e, fig. 769, and e e' h similar caps for the shafts of the three pinions c c c,
fig. 771.
These can be lifted up when the bearings require to be oiled, and
when closed, prevent the ingress of dust, &c. Three sets of wheels, c c c, fig.
771, are given, which tend to equalise the motion.
1916. Hartas's Inclined-Plane Horse-Work.-A modification of the American
horse-works, on the principle of the treadmill, the horse working on a movable
inclined plane or endless platform, has been lately introduced into England, and,
to judge from the reports of competent engineers, with some prospect of being
a useful addition to agricultural mechanism.
1917. The old form of this mechanism, which, for dogs as well as horses, is
much used in America, is open to several objections. "Among others, it has been
found that, if the horse is suddenly stopped, either the mechanism becomes
deranged by some undue strain thereon, owing to the exertion of the horse to
stop the machine (which will continue in action for a short time by the momen-
tum gained by the fly-wheel), or there will be great liability for the horse to be
thrown down and injured." To obviate these objections is the object of the
patented improvements of Mr Isaac Hartas of Wrelton Hall, Yorkshire, and of
which we now offer a brief description. In fig.
a
Fig. 772.
W
U
k
M
h
N2
f
P
И
զ
S
a
t
772 is given a side elevation
of the machine-a a the
framework, supported on two
wheels, bb. The travelling-
floor e c, or inclined endless
platform in which the horse
walks, consists of a narrow
gangway formed by a suc-
cession of cross boards, con-
nected by pitch-chains work-
ing over rollers at the end of
the framework. The platform
is furnished with small pul-
leys or rollers, which run on
rails at the side of the ma-
chine, and is provided with a
flexible toothed rack on its under side. This rack engages with a toothed wheel
keyed on the central shaft e. To the shaft e a cylindrical case or box ƒ is
also firmly secured; this carries in its interior a point or click g, which is kept
in contact with the face of the teeth of the ratchet-wheel h by means of a
spring. The ratchet-wheel h is keyed to a hollow shaft which revolves
loosely in the central shaft e; the hollow shaft carries the fly-wheel k k. To the
opposite end of the central shaft e, on which the box h is keyed, a friction-
wheel 77 is keyed. This is acted on by the friction-block m, secured to the
under side of the lever n. This lever is provided at its further extremity with
a weight o, and a cord p; this passes over pulleys p q, fixed to the side-framing
K
SIDE ELEVATION OF HARTAS'S HORSE,WORKS.
INCLINED-PLANE HORSE - WORKS.
553
of the machine, and is connected at its extremity with the eye r of the lever
rt, this lever being maintained in any desired position by the curved ratchet-
bracket s.
The side-framing, which confines the horse while working, is shown
at u u.
1918. The action of the mechanism thus described is as follows: The horse's
head being confined to the head-rail of the side-framing u u, the attendant eases
the friction-brake m by depressing the handle r t, and lifting the weight o of the
levern; and as the travelling-floor cc is considerably inclined in front, the weight
of the horse sets it in motion, which prompts him to commence walking, a con-
tinuation of which keeps the platform in motion. The rack of the platform c c,
engaging with the toothed wheel in the central shaft e, gives motion to the
cylindrical case or box ƒ, and its attached pawl or click g. This, taking into the
teeth of the ratchet-wheel h, gives revolution to the hollow shaft in which it is
fixed, and to the fly-wheel k k. When the horse ceases to walk, the motion of
the fly-wheel is not suddenly arrested, as in the old forms of this machine; for
although the motion of the platform c c, and cylindrical case ƒ, ceases with the
motion of the platform, as the fly-wheel k k is keyed to the hollow shaft which
revolves loosely in the central shaft e, it continues to revolve without affecting
the other parts of the mechanism. With the revolution of the fly-wheel, that
of the ratchet-wheel h also continues; but as the motion of the cylindrical box f
has ceased, the only result is that the end of click or point g passes freely over
the face of the teeth of the ratchet-wheel h. Power is taken to the machine,
which it is desired to work through the medium of a driving-belt passing through
a drum fixed to the end of the central shaft e, next to the friction-wheel 7 7.
1919. It may be useful here to append the report of Mr Amos, Consulting
Engineer to the Royal Agricultural Society of England, who instituted several
experiments with a view to ascertain the effective power of this machine as
compared with a horse-power in which the horses walked round a circle in the
usual way. "In the first experiment, one of Richmond and Chandler's oat-
crushers or linseed-mills was attached to the horse-works, with a dynamometer
intervening to record the work done. The horse, walking at the rate of 2.04
miles per hour, did work equivalent to the raising of 33,110 lb. 1 foot high per
minute. During this experiment, at the rate the horse walked, and taking into
consideration the angle of elevation of the platform, the horse would have raised
himself to the height of 33.66 feet in one minute—that is, had the platform been
stationary, and prolonged indefinitely. The horse with his harness weighing
1084.5 lb., and this multiplied by 33.66 feet, the height the horse would have
raised himself, equals 36,504 lb. lifted 1 foot high per minute. In the second
experiment, the horse walked 1.7 mile per hour, and did work, as shown by the
dynamometer, equivalent to raising 31,350 lb. 1 foot high per minute, during
which time he would have climbed 28.21 feet, which is equivalent to the raising
of 30,594 lb. 1 foot high per minute. In this experiment, the horse walked and
worked exceedingly steadily, and the work he did at that time (31,350 lb. lifted
1 foot per minute) fairly represented the work a horse can do by this machine.
To compare the above with a common horse-work, the horse used in the last
experiment was yoked with another, of similar power and quality, to a two-
horse-power works, made by Mr John Barker, of Dunnington. The power was
applied to the same mill and dynamometer, and the work done by each horse
was equivalent to 26,500 lb. lifted 1 foot high per minute, being about 16 per
cent less than the duty done by Mr Hartas's horse-works."
1920. The price of Mr Hartas's machine for one-horse-power is £23, delivered
in London; delivered in York, £18, 18s.
554
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
1921. SECTION SECOND.-Water-Power.
1922. The Water-wheel.-Water, when it can be commanded, is the cheapest
and most uniform of all powers; and on many farms it might be commanded
by carefully collecting and storing in a dam. Water-wheels have been com-
monly treated as of three kinds, but, with great deference, we conceive they may
be classed under two heads. The under-shot, or open float-board wheel, which
can only be advantageously employed where the supply of water is considerable
and the fall low; it can therefore rarely answer for farm purposes, and need not
be discussed. The second is the bucket-wheel, which may be over-shot or breast,
according to the height of the fall. It is this wheel that is adopted in all cases
where water is scarce or valuable, and the fall amounting to 6 or 7 feet or more,
though it is sometimes employed with even less fall than 6 feet. It is the most
effective mode of employing water, except where the fall is excessively high,
or exceeding 50 feet, when, in such cases, it is applied to motive machines that
are becoming much employed for agricultural purposes-such as the turbine and
the vortex wheel, which we shall hereafter describe.
1923. When it is proposed to employ a stream of water for the purpose of
power, the first step is to determine the quantity delivered by the stream in a
given time: this, if the stream is not large, is easily accomplished by an actual
measurement of the discharge, and is done by damming up the stream to a small
height, say 1 or 2 feet, giving time to collect, so as to send the full discharge
through a shoot, from which it is received into a vessel of any known capacity, the
precise time that is required to fill it being carefully noted. This will give a
correct measure of the water that could be delivered constantly for any purpose;
if in too small a quantity to be serviceable at all times, the result may be found
by a calculation of the time required to fill a dam of such dimensions as might
serve to drive a thrashing-machine for any required number of hours.
1924. If the discharge of the stream is more than could be received into any
moderately-sized vessel, a near approximation may be made to the amount of
discharge by the following method: Select a part of its course, where the bottom
and sides are tolerably even, for a distance of 50 or 100 feet; ascertain the
velocity with which it runs through this space, or any measured portion of it,
by floating light substances on its surface, noting the time required for the
substance to pass over the length of the space. A section of the stream is then
to be taken, to determine the number of superficial feet or inches of sectional
area that is flowing along the channel, and this, multiplied into five-sixths of the
velocity of the stream, will give a tolerable approximation to the true quantity
of discharge of the surface velocity, at the middle of the stream, being very
nearly the mean velocity of the entire section. Suppose the substance floated
upon the surface of the stream passed over a distance of 100 feet in 20 seconds,
and that the stream is 3 feet broad, with an average depth of 4 inches, here the
area of the section being exactly 1 foot, and the velocity being 100 feet in 20
seconds, gives 300 feet per minute, less = 250 feet, and this, multiplied by
the sectional area in feet, or 1 foot, is 250 cubic feet per minute for the discharge.
It is to be kept in mind that this is only an approximation, but it is simple,
and from repeated experiments we have found it to come near the truth.
1925. For those who wish to go more elaborately into the subject, we may
here state a formula derived from Sir John Leslie, for finding the mean velocity,
and, having also the transverse section, to find the discharge of a stream or
river.
Multiply the constant 1.6 into the hydraulic depth and into the slope of
WATER-WHEEL.
555
the surface of the water per mile, the square root of the product will
give the mean velocity of the stream in feet per second; and the root,
multiplied by the section of the stream in square feet, is the discharge
per second.
The hydraulic depth is the transverse section of the stream
in square feet, divided by the periphery of the stream, less the surface
breadth.
Example.-If the surface breadth be 3 feet, the bottom breadth 21 feet,
and the slope of the sides each 9 inches, a transverse section of these
dimensions will contain 2 square feet nearly, which, divided by the peri-
phery, which is
3+.75+.75 +2.57, the periphery,
then the area of the section = 2 feet;
put 2÷(7-3)=.56 inches, the hydraulic depth.
And suppose the slope at the place of section to be 1½ inch on 100 feet,
or 6.5 feet per mile, apply the formula-
√√/1.6 × .5 × 6.5 = 2.3 feet, the velocity per second, nearly,
and the delivery will be 2.3 × 2 × 60 = 276 cubic feet per minute.
1926. The next step is to ascertain by levelling from the most convenient
point at which the stream can be taken off, to the site where the water-wheel
can be set down, and to that point in the continuation of the stream where the
water can be discharged from the wheel, or what is called the outfall of the
tail-race. If the water has to be conveyed to any considerable distance from
the point where it is diverted from the stream to the wheel, a lead must be
formed for it which should have a fall of not less than 1½ inch in 100 feet, and
this is to be deducted from the entire fall. Suppose, after this deduction, the
clear fall to be 12 feet, and that the water is to be received on a bucket-wheel
whose power shall be equal to four horses,
The rule for finding the power due to a stream of water whose discharge
is already known is, multiply the discharge in cubic feet, per minute,
by the height of the fall, and again by 62.5—the lb. weight of a cubic
foot of water—dividing by 44,000, gives the number of horse-power.
In the present case, having the height of the fall given and the power
wanted, we have the question in this form,
44,000 × 4
62.5 × 12
234 cubic feet;
the quantity of water required per minute to produce four horses' power.
If the stream does not produce this quantity, a dam must be formed by embank-
ing or otherwise, to contain such quantity as will supply the wheel for three or
six hours, or such period as may be thought necessary. The quantity required
for the wheel here supposed, for three hours, would be 42,120 cubic feet; but
suppose the stream to supply one-fourth part of this, the remainder, or 31,590
feet, must be provided for in a dam, which, to contain this, at a depth not ex-
ceeding 4 feet, would be 88 feet square. But the constant supply of water is
often much smaller than here supposed, and in such cases the dam must be
proportionally large.
1927. The Dam.-The dam may either be formed upon the course of the
stream, by a stone-weir thrown across it, and proper sluices formed at one side
556
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
to lead off the water when required, or, what is much better, the stream may
be diverted from its course by a low weir into an intermediate dam, which may
be formed by digging and embankments of earth, furnished with sluice and
waste-weir, and from this the lead to the wheel would be formed. The small
weir on the stream, while it served to divert the water, when required, through
a sluice to the dam, would in time of floods pass the water over the weir, the
regulating sluice being shut to prevent flooding the dam. This last method
of forming the dam is generally the most economical and convenient, besides
avoiding the risk which attends a heavy weir upon a stream that may be subject
to floods. When water is collected from drains or springs, it is received into a
dam formed in any convenient situation, and which must also be furnished with
a waste-weir to pass off flood-waters, besides the ordinary sluice.
1928. The Bucket Water-Wheel.-The water-wheel should be on the bucket
principle, and, for a fall such as we have supposed, should not be less than
14 feet diameter; the water, therefore, would be received on the breast of the
wheel. Its circumference, with a diameter of 14 feet, will be 3.1416 × 14 = 44
feet; its velocity, at 5 feet per second, is 44 × 5=220 feet a minute; and 234
cubic feet, per minute (par. 1926), of water spread over this, gives a sectional
area for the water laid upon the wheel of
should not be more than half filled, this area is to be doubled = 2.12 feet; and
as the breadth of the wheel may be restricted to 3 feet, then
234
220
=
1.6 feet; but as the buckets
2.12
3
=
.704 foot is
the depth of the shrouding, equal to 8 inches nearly, and if the wheel is to
have a wooden soling, 1 inch should be added to this depth already found, making
94 inches.
1929. The ark or race in which the wheel is to be placed, "must have a
width sufficient to receive the wheel with the toothed segments attached to
the side of the shrouding. For a bucket-wheel it is not necessary that it
be built in the arc of a circle, but simply a square chamber; one side of it
being formed by the wall of the barn, the other by a wall of solid masonry,
at least 2 feet thick; one end also is built up solid, while the opposite end,
towards the tail-race, is either left entirely open, or if the water is to be carried
away by a tunnel, the water-way is arched over, and the space above levelled
in with earth. It is requisite that the wheel-race here described should
be built of square-dressed stones, not common ashlar, but having a breadth
of bed not less than 12 inches, laid flush in mortar, and pointed with Roman
cement.
1930. Fig. 773 exhibits a sectional elevation of the wheel, representing one-
half of the wheel in section, the other in elevation: a' a' is the barn-wall,
b'b' is the sole of the ark c' or chamber, formed of solid ashlar-stone,
having an increased slope immediately under the wheel, to clear it speedily of
water.
1931. In fig. 774 the plan is represented of dimensions agreeing to the
supposed case in par. 1929: a a is the wall of the barn, b' b' the outward wall,
and c the end of the ark; a recess d being formed in the wall a a for the bear-
ing of the water-wheel shaft e.
1932. The shaft, the arms, and shrouding, fig. 773, are all of cast-iron, the
buckets and sole being of wood; and to prevent risk of fracture, the arms are cast
separate from the shrouding. The width of the wheel being 3 feet, the toothed
segments 4 inches broad, and they being 1 inch clear of the shrouding, gives a
OVERSHOT WATER-WHEEL.
557
breadth over all of 3 feet 5 inches, and, when in the race, there should be
at least 1 inch of clear space on each side, free of the walls. The shaft e,
fig. 774, is not required to be longer than just to pass through the bearings, for
in wheels of this kind it is improper to take any motion directly from the shaft.
The eye-flanges b, fig. 773, 2 feet diameter, are separate castings, to which the
arms c are bolted; the flanges being first keyed firmly upon the shaft. The
shrouding d d is cast in segments, and bolted to the arms and to each other at
Fig. 773.
И
q
C'
ཆེ
n
a'
k
m
ปี
с
h
h
p
b'
e
B
D
C
[C
C
d
a
d
a
e
b'
a
THE SECTION AND ELEVATION OF A BUCKET WATER-WHEEL.
their joinings. On the inside of the shroud-plates are formed the grooves for
securing the ends of the buckets and of the sole-boarding, in the form as shown.
in the section from e to e. The form of the buckets should be such as to afford
the greatest possible space for water, at the greatest possible distance from the
centre of the wheel, with sufficient space for the entrance of the water and dis-
placement of the air. In discharging the water from the wheel also, the
buckets should retain the water to the lowest possible point. These conditions
are attained by making the pitch fff of the buckets, or their distance from lip
to lip, 1 time the depth of the shrouding; the depth of the front of the
bucket f g inside, equal to the pitch; and the breadth of the bottom g h as
great as can be attained consistently with free access of the water to the bucket
immediately preceding; this breadth, inside, should not exceed of the depth
of the shrouding.
1933. The shrouding plates are bolted upon the buckets and soling by bolts
passing from side to side; and in order to prevent resiliance in the wheel, the
arms are supported with diagonal braces. The toothed segments i, fig. 774, are
bolted to the side of the shrouding through palms cast upon them for that purpose,
558
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
and the true position of these segments requires that their pitch-line should coin-
cide with the circle of gyration of the wheel; when so placed, the resistance to
C
Fig. 774.
a
b!
2
3
d
Q
•
PLAN OF A BUCKET WATER-WHEEL.
ان
the wheel's action is made to bear upon its parts, without any undue tendency
to cross strains. For that reason it is improper to place the pitch-line beyond
the circle of gyration, which is frequently done, even upon the periphery of the
water-wheel. The determination of the true place of the circle of gyration is
too abstruse to be introduced here; nor is it necessary to be so minute in the
small wheels to which our attention is chiefly directed; suffice it for the pre-
sent purpose to state, that the pitch-line of the segment wheel should fall
between and of the breadth of the shrouding, from the extreme edge of the
124
wheel.
1934. Another important point is that where the power is taken off from the
wheel; that is, the placing of the pinion k, fig. 774. The most advantageous part
for placing this pinion is in a line horizontal to the axis of the water-wheel; here
the whole weight of the water acts in impelling the pinion, while no strain is
brought on the shaft beyond the natural weight of the wheel. In every position
above this, unnecessary strains are brought upon the shaft and other parts of the
wheel, and these increase with the distance from the first point k, till, if placed
at the opposite point horizontal to the axis, the load upon the shaft would be
double the weight of all the water upon the wheel, over and above the weight of
the wheel itself.
1935. Laying the water upon the wheel is another point of some consequence;
but whether it be delivered over the crown of the wheel, or at any point below
that, the water should be allowed to fall through such a space as will give it a
velocity equal to that of the periphery of the wheel when in full work. Thus,
if the wheel move at the rate of 5 feet per second, the water must fall upon it
through a space of not less than .4 foot; for, by the laws of falling bodies, the
velocities acquired are as the times and whole spaces fallen through, as the
squares of the time. Thus the velocity acquired in 1" being 32 feet, a velocity
of 5 feet will be acquired by falling .156″; for 32: 1"::5: .156″, and 1″2:16::
.156"2.4 foot, the fall to produce a velocity of 5 feet. But this being the
minimum, the fall from the trough to the wheel may be made double this result,
or about 10 inches. The trough which delivers the water upon the wheel
should be at least 6 inches less in breadth than the wheel, to give space for the
air escaping from the buckets, and to prevent the water dashing over at the sides;
l, figs. 773, 774, is the trough, and m, fig. 773, the spout that conveys the water
to the wheel. It is convenient to have a regulating sluice n, figs. 773, 774, that
VENTILATING BUCKETS.
559
serves to give more or less water to the wheel; and this is worked by a small
shaft passing to the inside of the barn. The shaft carries a pinion q, fig. 773, work-
ing the rack of sluice-stem r, a small friction-roller s being placed in proper bear-
ings on the cross-head t of the sluice-frame; and this apparatus is worked inside.
the barn by means of a lever-handle upon the shaft of the pinion q. As a waste-
sluice, the most convenient and simple, in a mill of this kind, is the trap-sluice o,
which is simply a board hinged in the sole of the trough, and opening from the
wheel; it is made to shut close down to the level of the sole, and when so shut,
the water passes freely over it to the wheel. The lifting of this sluice is effected
by means of the connecting-rod u and crank-lever v, the latter being fixed upon
another small shaft, which passes through the wall to the interior of the barn,
where it is worked in the same manner as the regulating-sluice n. When it is
found necessary to set the wheel, the trap is lifted, and the whole supply of
water falls through the shoot op, leading it to the bottom of the wheel-race b′ b',
by which it runs off, until the sluice at the dam can be shut, which stops further
supply. The wheel here described, if it moves at the rate of 5 feet per second,
will make 62 revolutions per minute. The pinion-shaft w, fig. 774, will carry
a spur-wheel at x, by which all the other parts of the machine can be put in
motion. The rate of the spur-wheel at x depends on the relation of the
water-wheel and its pinion. In the present case they are in the proportion of
8 to 1, and, as the water-wheel makes 62 revolutions per minute, this, multiplied
by 8, will give 54 to the spur-wheel.
4
Fig. 775.
1936. Ventilating Buckets.-Water-wheels, with wooden buckets of the form in
fig. 773, labour under great disadvantages while working in "back-water,” that
is, when the river is flooded, and the water rises against the wheel. When this is
the case, the wheel is not only resisted by the direct pressure of the water, but
the rising buckets lift a great deal of water—in some cases they are nearly filled—
and cannot be relieved till the bucket clears the water. In other cases less water
is taken up, but the bucket contains air, which rarifies, and is the cause of some
water being dragged up. But even where no loss arises from back-water, in
descending, the bucket is prevented from receiving the water freely, from the
contained air having a difficulty in escaping. All inconveniences arising from
these defects are now obviated by using the ventilating buckets, the object of
which is to admit of the escape of the air while the bucket is receiving its load,
and, on the other hand, to admit of its
easy readmission while being emptied of
its load. The general substitution of
iron for wood has also enabled great
improvements to be effected in the form
and mode of setting of the buckets,
these being generally curved, as at a a,
b b, in fig. 775. The curved bucket has
been adopted, as it enables the water
to be longer retained, which adds so
much to the power of the wheel. The
sooner the water is discharged, the
greater the loss. This loss decreases
with the increase of the size of the
wheel. When the bucket is of cast-
iron, the ends are inserted in grooves
of corresponding curve cast in the
shrouding, as d d, fig. 775. When the buckets and the shrouding are both of
GEIL
b
d
浪
​t
VENTILATING BUCKETS.
a
a
1
560
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
wrought iron-the most satisfactory material which can be employed-the ends.
of the buckets should be turned up at right angles, as at ƒƒ, to admit of rivet-
holes being punched in them, by which they can be fastened to the shroud-
ing. In designing these curved buckets, the object in view should be to
obtain a form which, while it retains the water as long as it can act on the
wheel, should admit the water freely while the bucket is receiving its load, and
discharge it easily when its work is performed. Mr Fairbairn recommends.
the proportion as under to be followed for wheels for high and for low falls :
For high falls, the proportion of opening of the bucket to the contents should
be as 5 to 24—that is, for a bucket containing 24 cubic feet, the area of the
opening of the bucket should be 5 square feet. For low falls the proportion
should be as 1 to 3, or 8 to 24. The breadth of the shrouding d d, fig. 773, should
be for these proportions three times the width of the opening of the bucket.
1937. Principle of the Ventilating Buckets.-The principle of the ventilating
buckets is illustrated in fig. 776. As the water enters at a a, the air is forced
a
Fig. 776.
d
d
d
through the passage b, and out at c, on to the inte-
rior of the wheel. Another method is also shown
in fig. 776. On this the tail of the bucket d d is
turned up as at de, leaving a space between it
and the back of the sole-plate ƒ ƒ, the tail ter-
minating within a short distance of the bucket
above. As the water enters, the air is driven
through the aperture e to the bucket above. On
discharging the load, the air enters the bucket
at ff, and, passing down the channel, issues into
the bucket and facilitates the discharge of
the water. The advantages gained by this
method of construction will amply repay the
additional cost which it will incur. In a case
in practice, where, before the ventilating buckets
were added, the buckets acted as water-blasts and forced the water a consider-
able distance up in the air, after they were fitted the buckets filled and
emptied rapidly, and a gain of 25 per cent of power was obtained.
VENTILATING BUCKETS.
1938. The Turbine.-A new water-motor-the turbine-has, within the last
few years, been introduced into use in this country. It has long been success-
fully adopted on the Continent and in America; and, possessing many advan-
tages which peculiarly fit it for agricultural purposes, it is deserving of attention.
It is applicable to falls of water either too high or too low for an ordinary
water-wheel to be erected; and from the shaft being vertical, and the velocity
of the wheel being with high falls very great, power can be at once taken from
it without the intervention of intermediate gearing. Turbines may be sunk in
back-water to a considerable depth without any material loss of power. In
cases where the fall is great, although the supply may be small, the height
through which the water descends compensates for its small bulk, and a very
small machine may give power sufficient to work a thrashing-machine, chaff-
cutters, &c. The low-pressure turbines give good results with even so low a fall
as 9 inches.
1939. The elementary principle of action of the turbine is to be found in
that contrivance known as Barker's centrifugal mill, which is figured in nearly
every work on Natural Philosophy, and which is doubtless familiar to all of our
readers. This contrivance, it may be here stated, consists of two horizontal
tubes attached near the foot to the opposite sides, and communicating with the
THE TURBINE.
561
interior of a vertical pipe, the foot of which revolves in a pivot, and the upper part
in bearings attached to the framework of the machine. The whole resembles
the letter T inverted-thus, L. The horizontal arms are closed at their outer
extremities, but are provided with apertures at the sides near each end, and so
placed that they are on opposite sides of the tube. The upper extremity of the
vertical tube is provided with a funnel-shaped termination, into which is kept
flowing a stream of water, which keeps the vertical pipe continually full. The
water issues from the opposite holes in a horizontal direction, causing the arms
to revolve with a velocity nearly equal to the flow of the water through the
apertures. The force exerted is in proportion to the pressure of the column
of water in the vertical pipe, and to the area of the apertures in the horizontal
arms. While the lateral pressure is exerting its full force on the opposite side
of the arm, there is no solid body at the other aperture on which the lateral
pressure can be exerted. This gives one unbalanced pressure, which, according
to Dr Robison, is "equal to the weight of a column having the orifice for its
base, and twice the depth under the surface of the water in the trunk for its
height. If the orifice were closed, the pressure upon it would equal the weight
of a column reaching to the surface; but when open, the water issues with a
velocity nearly equal to that acquired by falling from the surface; and the
quantity of motion which is produced is that of a column twice this length
moving with this velocity. The revolution of the machine causes the water-
which, having descended the vertical pipe, moves along the arms—to partake
of the circular motion, thus producing a centrifugal force that is exerted against
the ends of the arms of the machine. According to the laws of motion, this
force increases in proportion to the square of the distance from the centre at
which it is developed. Thus the velocity of the efflux is increased, and also the
velocity of the revolution. But as the circular motion has to be imparted to
every particle of water as it enters the horizontal arm, which is done at the
expense of the motion already acquired by the arm, there is a limit to the velo-
city even of an unloaded machine.'
1940. In 1775, M. Mathon de la Cour proposed a modification of Barker's
centrifugal mill, just described, in which a pipe was brought down from an
elevated reservoir, and bent upwards at its lower extremity, to which was
attached a short pipe with two horizontal arms.
1941. A modification of this plan, by which any depth of fall was rendered
available, was patented by Mr Whitelaw of Paisley, who published an account
of his experiments with it, in 1845. The horizontal arms were bent somewhat
like the letter S, the curve being that of an Archimedean spiral. The depth
of the arms was at every point the same, but the breadth increased towards
the centre. This enabled them to contain a quantity of water at any one point
inversely proportionate to the velocity at that point, thus making as much of
the centrifugal force available as possible. From wheels on this principle Mr
Whitelaw obtained nearly 73 per cent of the power employed.
1942. The invention of the turbine is due to M. Fourneyron, who erected
the first example at Pont sur l'Ognon, in 1837. The success of this was so
decided that, although prejudice, as usual, for a long time prevented its speedy
adoption, the attention of practical men was directed to the principle of opera-
tion; and in process of time it was adopted very extensively both on the Continent.
and in America. In its usual form the revolving wheel is placed horizontally,
and is provided with a series of curved buckets or channels. Within this
revolving wheel a fixed circular disc is placed, provided with a series of curved
guides. This disc or platform is secured to a vertical pipe or cylindrical chamber;
2 N
562
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
this is stationary, and hollow, the moving shaft of the revolving wheel passing
upwards through it. The water enters at the centre of the disc or platform,
passes simultaneously through all the curved guides, and, diverging from the
centre, enters all the curved buckets of the wheel, and escapes at the outer
orifices in the periphery or circumference of the wheel. A cylindrical sluice
is used to regulate the admission of water from the central guides of the disc or
platform to the curved buckets of the wheel. This sluice is in the form of a
hoop, the inner diameter of which is equal to the circle formed by the inner
extremities of the curved guides in the fixed platform; the under side of the
hoop is provided with a series of "stops," which, as the cylinder is lowered-
by appropriate means hereafter to be illustrated-enter the spaces between the
guides, stopping all communication between the guides of the platform and the
buckets of the wheel.
1943. Fourneyron's Turbine.—In Plate XXX. we give in fig. 1 a vertical sec-
tion, and in fig. 2 a plan, of a Fourneyron turbine of three-horse power, manufac-
tured by Messrs Williamson, of Canal Ironworks, Kendal. It has been erected
at the farm of William Wilson, Esq. of High Park, near Kendal. It is employed
to drive the machinery of the barn, as the thrashing-machine, a pair of stones for
grinding meal, straw-cutters, root-slicers, &c. The following is a description of
the figures in the plate: a is the pipe by which the water is conveyed into the
wheel-case or cistern b b, in the lower part of which are cast the guide-curves
c c, shown partially on the ground-plan, fig. 2, at cc. The water passes between
these guide-curves, and is directed by them so as to strike against the buckets of
the wheel d d. The wheel is formed chiefly of cast-iron, the buckets or vanes
being of galvanised wrought-iron. The curve of these vanes should be so formed
that the water may press steadily against them during its passage through the
wheel, afterwards escaping from them without velocity. Between the guide-
curves and the wheel is a circular sluice e e, fig. 1, which can be raised or
depressed by means of brass screws f. These screws have at the upper end
pinions g, all working into a centre wheel h h, which works loose on a project-
ing part of the case. One of the pinion-spindles is lengthened, and has on it a
hand-wheel, which, when turned, acts through the wheel simultaneously on the
three screws, and raises or depresses the sluice-ring e e. This gearing is shown
in dotted circles on the plan, fig. 2. The foundation-plate is at i i, from
which the wheel-cistern is carried by three wrought-iron columns kk. The
wheel is keyed on a wrought-iron shaft l, the lower part of which is bushed with
brass to receive the pivot m. This pivot is of steel, and admits of adjustment
by brass nuts. A groove n n is formed in the bush, and a suitable opening
provided, to keep the pivot constantly cool and clean by a flow of water over its
surface.
1944. Thompson's Vortex-Wheel.-In some modifications of the turbine recently
introduced, the water is received at its circumference and discharged at its
centre. Of this class the form known as the "vortex wheel," patented by Mr
James Thompson, A.M., of Belfast, has obtained a high reputation. In fig. 3,
Plate XXX., we give a section, and in fig. 4 a plan, of a five-horse power vortex-
wheel, manufactured also by Messrs Williamson of Kendal. This machine
has been erected at Holmscales Farm, near Kendal, the property of W. E.
Maude, Esq., of Liverpool. It is nominally of five-horse power, and is
worked with a fall of 30 feet, the water being confined within a 9-inch pipe;
the diameter of the wheel is only 10 inches, and 21 inches in depth. It is em-
ployed to drive, a very complete set of barn machinery, as thrashing-machine,
as also straw-cutter, cake-crusher, turnip-pulper, and a circular saw.
a a is
GWYNNE'S TURBINE.
563
a portion of the pipe by which the water is brought down into the wheel-case b b,
which is simply an annular cast-iron box, closed externally, but having at its
internal circumference four guide-blades c c c, between which the water passes,
and by which it is directed in such a manner as to strike the buckets of the
wheel. In the example before us, these passages between the guide-blades are
made of the exact size required for the passage of the quantity of water which
it is intended that the wheel shall consume when at full work, but under circum-
stances where the supply of water is irregular, and where economy in the con-
sumption, in seasons when the supply is deficient, is of more importance than
some additional first cost in the machine, the blades are made in such a man-
ner that the opening can be enlarged or diminished at pleasure to correspond
with the supply of water. d is the upright shaft by which motion is trans-
mitted to the machinery, and on which the wheel ee is keyed. This wheel is com-
posed of a thin plate of wrought-iron, on each side of which is built a circle of
buckets, shown in dotted lines on the plan fig. 4. These buckets are closed on each
end, but are open at their inner and outer circumferences, and the water enter-
ing at the exterior is discharged at the interior, and escapes through correspond-
ing openings in the wheel-case. f, fig. 3, is the pivot of lignum vitæ on which
the upright shaft d is supported; it is fixed in a cast-iron bridge, and so con-
structed that it may be raised and depressed by a brass set bolt g. This pivot
is kept constantly immersed in water, and grooved in such a manner as to
maintain a regular flow over its surface, in order to keep it perfectly cool and
clean.
1945. In figs. 5 and 6, Plate XXX., we give a vertical section and plan
showing the arrangement of the pit in which the turbine is fitted up. The well
or pit a a, fig. 5, is sunk close to the wall of the barn; b is the drain by which
the pipes containing the water are brought to the wheel, and c c of fig. 6 is the
discharge-conduit or tail-race. d d are the pipes, 9 inches diameter, for con-
dd
veying the water into the wheel-case e, and are supported in the well by two
brackets ff, bolted to strong beams built in the walls. By this means easy
access can be obtained to the pivot below the case, and the case itself can be
readily removed without disturbing the pipes. g g is the upright shaft, on the
lower part of which is keyed the vortex-wheel, and which is steadied by
pedestals on brackets fixed to the pipe d d and to the wall of the barn. At the
upper end of g are the bevel-wheels h h, by which motion is given to the horizontal
shaft i i.
This shaft traverses the barn, and on it are a range of drums, for
giving motion to the various machines.
1946. The price of a six-horse power vortex-wheel, 10 inches diameter, 21
inches thick, adapted for a fall of 44 feet, and consuming 95 cubic feet of water
per minute, is £40.
1947. Gwynne's Turbine.-In fig. 777 we give an elevation, and in fig. 778 a
vertical section of a turbine, invented and manufactured by Messrs Gwynne
and Co., of Essex Wharf, Strand, London.
1948. Fig. 777 is an end elevation of the improved turbine or horizontal water-
wheel. The construction is somewhat similar to that of the centrifugal pump,
described in par. 1895, but the action is the opposite. a a is the feed or supply
pipe, which brings the water from the fall or other source of supply: it may be
placed in any other position, as shown by the dotted lines bb; c is the case or
receiver of the wheel, fixed on a solid stone foundation'; the wheel works inside the
case c, and is keyed upon the vertical shaft d; the arms of the wheel are formed
somewhat similar to those in the centrifugal pump, but as they approach the
centre they sweep gradually round like a screw, and terminate downwards into
564
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
the pipe e at right angles to the commencement of the arms.
Fig. 777.
When the water
g
d
g
a
ર
a
b
END ELEVATION OF GWYNNE'S TURBINE-SCALE, INUH TO THE FOOT.
enters through the pipe a a, it acts upon the arms while passing through the
case to the only exit e, where it escapes; and the screw-like termination of the
arms, seen at g, fig. 778, absorbs from the escape of water any velocity it may re-
Fig. 778.
e
d
tain exceeding that at which
the wheel is moving; so that
in this way the maximum
power is obtained from the
direct pressure of the water;
it also acts upon the wheel
by its reactive motion. An
improved governor is shown
at f, fig. 777, by which the
speed of the wheel is regu-
lated. The power of the
wheel may be conveyed as
desired by the bevel-wheels
gg, and the upright shaft d
may be of any desired length.
1949. Fig. 778 is a section of the turbine, where a a is the bed-plate by which
it is bolted to the foundation; b the wheel-case, obtaining its supply of water
from the pipe cc; d d the wheel; e the vertical shaft supported in bearings f
α
α
VERTICAL SECTION OF GWYNNE'S TURBINE-SCALE, INCH TO THE FOOT.
and g.
1950. The price of Gwynne's turbine may be set down at £40. The power
will depend upon the fall.
1951. SECTION THIRD.-Steam Power.
1952. The Steam Engine.-We deem it scarcely necessary to enter into a detail
of the important uses to which the steam-engine can be put, in the general
PROPERTIES OF STEAM.
565
business of the farm; yet, considering the numerous employments in other
pursuits in which it is a powerful aid, it is somewhat surprising that its adapta-
tion to agriculture has been so amazingly tardy. In the varied branches of our
manufactures the steam-engine plays an important part. With its aid we pro-
duce the plainly useful as well as the beautifully elegant of our textile fabrics.
Aiding untiringly in simple operations, as the turning of the potter's or the
knife-grinder's wheel, it directs, with equal ease and unvarying precision, the
complicated motions of our rarest and most cunningly-devised mechanism. But
not only have we to admire the power of the steam-engine; the ease with which
it can be controlled claims also our consideration. While treating of its force,
we must not forget its gentleness; performing labour with untiring energy,
which the might of a hundred men would be useless to effect, this power is
controlled by the aid of an infant's hand. With a power so great and so
untiring, yet so easily controllable, and with a facility of adaptation to almost
any kind of labour which the energy of man or the muscles of our horses have
been accustomed to perform, the steam-engine is apparently destined to aid
the farmer, as it has so ably aided the manufacturer; and it is gratifying to
notice the increased and increasing attention which our agriculturists are giving
to this important aid to progress. Scarcely can we enter into the discussion of
an agricultural society, or peruse the records of an agricultural journal, but
what in some way or other the steam-engine is mentioned, either in the way of
recommendation of its economy, or in corroboration of its powers.
1953. Properties of Steam.-In giving our remarks on this important depart-
ment of agricultural mechanism, the subject we shall first consider is the "Pro-
perties of Steam." Steam, theoretically, is the vapour produced from water at
any degree of temperature. For practical purposes, however, steam is defined
as the vapour of water when heated by artificial means to the boiling-point, or
212° Fahr., and upwards. It is distinguished from other gaseous or aëriform
fluids by its property of convertibility into the form of water, from which it is
produced, other gases having the property of permanent retention of their
aëriform condition. From this property of steam is derived one of the sources
of its mechanical power. The elasticity of steam is that property by which it
expands its bulk or volume, and tends to free itself from the space in which
it may be confined. In the steam-engine boiler the amount of elastic force is
estimated by the pressure against the safety-valve, or by the maintenance of a
column of water in the feed-apparatus, or of mercury in the steam-gauge.
Generally the elasticity is measured by or compared with that of the ordinary
atmosphere, the density of this being represented by a barometrical column of
mercury 30 inches high. The elasticity of steam depends upon its temperature,
the elastic force being increased in proportion to the rise of temperature. The
following table shows the rate of increase, or the connection between the tem-
perature and elastic force of steam. Thus at 212° of temperature the elastic
force of steam is estimated at one atmosphere, or 15 lb. to the square inch;
at 250° of temperature, it is estimated at two atmospheres, or 30 lb. to the
square inch, and so on as follows, discarding fractions, and extending to ten
atmospheres, or 150 lb. to the square inch:
Temperature.
275°
307
332
351
Elastic Force.
3 atmospheres.
5
7
9
Temperature.
Elastic Force.
294
4 atmospheres.
320
6
""
342
8
359
10
1954. Water, on being converted into steam, increases in bulk or volume to a
566
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
large extent: a cubic inch of water forming a cubic foot of steam; or, in other
words, it expands into 1728 times its former bulk; this is on the supposition
that the pressure is at 15 lb. to the square inch. In common with other gases,
the degree of expansion is in proportion to the pressure; with double pressure
the degree of expansion is nearly one-half. The expansibility or expansive
force of steam is another source of mechanical power, and may be defined as the
power possessed by the particles of steam of receding from one another, so as
to occupy greater space with the same weight. As above stated, the bulk or
volume of the steam produced from a given quantity of water varies in propor-
tion to the pressure under which the steam is raised. At 20 lb. on the square
inch, the bulk is not 1728 times that of the water, as is the case when the pres-
sure is 15 lb. to the square inch, but is decreased to 1280 times. At 25 lb. to
the square inch, the bulk is 1044; at 35 lb., 767 times; at 40 lb., 678; at 45
lb., 610; and at 50 lb., 554 times.
1955. Another remarkable feature of steam is its latent or concealed heat: by
this term is meant the amount of heat consumed in producing the evaporation,
over and above that which is necessary for the raising of the temperature; and
it is termed latent in consequence of its not being evident to the thermometer.
From practical experiment, the latent heat of steam has been estimated to amount
to 1000°. Supposing a quantity of water is raised from the temperature of
32° to 212°, or the boiling point, in a certain time, to raise this quantity of
boiling water into steam the time consumed will be 5 times that formerly
required, the amount of heat given out by the fuel used being all the time
invariable in intensity. From this it may be seen that it takes 5 times the
amount of heat to raise a given quantity of water into steam that is required
to raise the same quantity of water from the freezing-point, 32°, to the boiling-
point, 212°; or, as generally expressed, to raise 1 lb. of water into steam from
the temperature of boiling water, takes as much heat as will raise 5½ lb. of
water from the freezing to the boiling point. Hence is deduced the amount of
the latent heat of steam: the boiling-point, 212º, is 180° above the freezing, 32°;
180 multiplied by 5 gives 990, or 1000, as it is generally stated. It is from
a knowledge of this fact of latent heat that the large quantity of fuel expended
in raising steam in steam-engine boilers is easily accounted for. The amount
of latent heat of steam now mentioned is that where it is generated under the
ordinary pressure of 15 lb. to the square inch; at higher temperatures or pres-
sures the amount of latent heat is decreased, and this in proportion to the
increase of pressure. At all pressures, the total amount of latent heat, and
that indicated by the thermometer, is invariably a constant sum-namely, 1212º.
Thus, where the pressure is increased so as to raise the temperature to any
certain amount, the latent heat of the steam will be equal to the amount left
after subtracting the temperature of the steam from 1212°: thus, if the tem-
perature of the steam is 400°, the latent heat of the steam is 812°; if the tem-
perature is 300°, the latent heat is 912º, and so on. From this is deduced the
important truth, that by no alteration of pressure will a greater economy of fuel
be obtained: but that, on the contrary, the consumption of fuel in raising a
given quantity of water into steam is the same, whatever be the amount of
pressure.
1956. High and Low Pressure Steam.-Steam, as used for mechanical purposes,
may be divided into two classes-"high pressure" and "low pressure." By the
latter is meant steam raised under a pressure a little above that of the atmo-
spheric pressure, and which varies from 19 to 25 and 30 lb. to the square inch.
When loaded to 20 lb. on the square inch, the steam passed into the cylinder is
EFFECTS OF CONDENSATION OF STEAM.
567
calculated, in good engines on the low-pressure system, to give 17 lb. on the
square inch of the piston. Steam of 25 lb. on the boiler-valve, with 20 lb. on
the piston, will be efficient in low-pressure engines. High-pressure steam is
that raised under a pressure of from 30 lb. to 90 lb. on the square inch. Steam
raised at the temperature of 212° is called steam of one atmosphere, and its
pressure is 15 lb. ; steam of 30 lb. pressure is called steam of two atmospheres; of
45 lb. of pressure, steam of three atmospheres. The pressure at first fixed by the
Royal Agricultural Society was 45 lb. to the square inch; it is now 50 lb. In
view of the important results derivable from the system of working at high
pressure, there is little doubt but that this limit must be soon exceeded. Mr
Waller is of opinion that it might be raised to 70 lb. or 75 lb. with advantage.
Mr Bethell proposes to work at a pressure of 200 lb. to the square inch; while
Mr Collinson Hall, in his compact portable engine exhibited at the Salisbury
Show in 1857, works at the enormous pressure of from 300 lb. to 320 lb. on
the square inch, working at this with safety, and with an expenditure of fuel
unprecedentedly low. All experience shows that we are about to enter on a
wide field of "steam-engine working" by the employment of high pressure, far
above what is now considered by many safe or advisable.
1957. Although condensing engines are called low-pressure engines, it does
not follow that they are worked with low-pressure steam: now that the expan-
sive principle of working is so much carried out, condensing engine-boilers are
often loaded with 40, 50, 60 lb., and, in some instances, as high as 70 lb. to the
inch.
1958. Where evaporation of water is carried on quickly, the violent ebullition
causes the steam to take up with it a quantity of watery particles; this is a fruitful
source of mischief in the working of engines, as will hereafter be noticed. Where
means are taken to allow the water to detach itself from the steam before the
latter is passed to the engine, the steam is termed dry or anhydrous. An arrange-
ment will be figured hereafter by which this important end can be carried out.
1959. It is important to note that impurities in water not only, in some
instances, cause great deterioration in the boiler, but also retard very considerably
the formation of steam. Mr Templeton, in his useful work entitled the Workshop
Companion, gives a "Table," from which we draw up the following statement:
The boiling-point of pure water being taken at 212°, sea-water containing salts, the
proportionate quantity of the solid parts of which in 100 parts by weight of water
is 3.03, does not boil at 212°, but at 213°.2. Where common water has an impu-
rity of sulphate of soda equal to 31.5 parts in every 100 parts by weight of water,
the boiling-point is 213°. When there are 64 parts of sulphate of iron, the boil-
ing-point is 216°. When the water has 52 parts of alum, the boiling-point is
220°; with 45 of sulphate of lime, the same; with 57½ of sulphate of magnesia,
222°; with 30 of muriate of soda, 224°; with 60 of nitrate of soda, 246°; and
with 60 of acetate of soda, 256°. And the degree to which the impurity of
water may impair the elasticity of steam may be gathered from the following—
that, with common water, the boiling-point of which is at 212°, the elastic force
of steam, in inches of mercury, is measured at 30 inches; that of sea water,
under the same circumstances, is only 23.05 inches. Common water at 220°
shows an elastic force of 35.1 inches; sea water at 200° only 26.5 inches.
1960. Effect of the Condensation of Steam.-In the condensing or low-pressure
engine the mechanical effect is produced by the condensation of the steam, and by
its expansive action. The rationale of the mechanical effect produced by condensa-
tion is very simple. As before stated, par. 1953, steam differs from other gases in
being capable of being retained in the aëriform state only by a retention of its tem-
568
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
perature; by lowering this, either gradually or instantaneously, the vapour is
reduced to its original form of water—a cubic foot of steam taking the form of a
cubic inch of water. Let us suppose a cylinder provided with a tight-fitting
piston, and having a capacity, when the piston was raised to its full height, of 1
cubic foot-suppose this filled with steam at the ordinary atmospheric pressure,—
on being condensed, the steam will be reduced to the space of 1 cubic inch of
water, which will occupy the lower portion of the cylinder, all the remaining
portion between the surface of the water and the under side of the piston being
a vacuum more or less perfect. The upper side of the piston, being open to the
external atmosphere, is pressed down into the cylinder with a force of 15 lb. to
the square inch, and, if supplied with proper appliances, would pull up a certain
amount of weight hung by a chain over a pulley, the weight so raised being a
measure of the mechanical effect produced. Here it is evident that the real
amount of mechanical effect produced by the condensation of 1 cubic foot of
steam into 1 cubic inch of water, will be precisely the same as the effect pro-
duced by the raising of a cubic inch of water into a cubic foot of steam.
1961. What this mechanical effect is will be seen from the following. As
before stated, par. 1954, a cubic inch of water expands into steam sufficient to
fill the space of a cubic foot, or 1728 cubic inches. Now, supposing a cylinder
to be provided with a piston loaded with a weight of 15 lb. to its area of 1
square inch, and a cubic inch of water placed beneath it—by raising the water
into steam the piston would be raised 1728 inches high, supposing the cylinder
to be long enough; here the mechanical effect produced has been the raising of
15 lb. 144 feet high, or 2160 lb. raised 1 foot high. Hence the calculation
which has been made is, that, by the evaporation of 1 cubic inch of water, the
mechanical force produced is nearly equivalent to the raising of 1 ton 1 foot
high (2240 lb. = 1 ton - 2160 lb. = 80 lb.) This theoretical effect is the same
in all cases, whatever be the pressure under which the steam is raised: thus
steam raised at 45 lb. to the square inch will only raise the piston one-third the
height, or 48 feet; but 48 x 45 (the pressure) is equal to the same as 15 x 144,
or 2160. Of course, in practice large deductions are to be made, for friction and
other causes, from this the theoretical effect produced by the evaporation of a
cubic inch of water into steam.
1962. Effect of the Expansion of Steam.-The expansive properties of steam
afford another source of mechanical power in the condensing steam-engine. We
shall here point out this property only generally, giving it further investigation
when we have explained the mechanism of the condensing engine. The pressure
of air or of gaseous fluids varies according to the spaces into which they are com-
pressed: thus, a quantity of air forced into a vessel so as to occupy only half
the previous bulk, its elastic pressure is increased to twice the amount; if com-
pressed so as to go into one-fourth the space, the elastic pressure is increased
four times. On the other hand, if a gas is allowed to expand into a space
twice its original bulk, the pressure is decreased one-half; if allowed to expand
four times its original space, the pressure is diminished to one-fourth of its
original pressure. Steam, in common with other gases, obeys the same laws.
Suppose steam of a certain pressure is admitted to press upon the piston of a
steam-engine, and that at the middle of its stroke—or when half of the space
of the cylinder remains to be passed through-the entrance of the steam to the
cylinder is cut off,-by virtue of the expansive properties of steam, the piston is
propelled to the extremity of the cylinder through a space equal to half its
length: the space into which the steam is passed is, however, twice its original
bulk, and, in virtue of the law of expansion of gases just pointed out, the
EFFICIENCY OF FUEL.
569
pressure is reduced one-half. Supposing the force of the pressure of the steam
to have been originally half a ton, on finishing its stroke the pressure on the
piston would only be a quarter of a ton. By this method of working it is
evident that half a cylinder of steam is saved, and that although the power
by which the piston is impelled is gradually decreasing as it approaches the
completion of the stroke, it is clear that this power, whatever be its aggregate
amount, is gained without any expenditure of steam, and consequently fuel.
"The power of the engine," says an authority on this point, "is of course
diminished by this procedure; for the piston will descend with less force when
urged merely by the diminishing effort of the expanding steam, than if pressed
upon by steam of the full pressure, entering to the end of the stroke from the
boiler. But steam, or in other words fuel, is saved in a greater proportion than
the power of the engine is diminished; so that the expansive principle augments,
and very materially too, the motive efficacy of the fuel." While explaining the
methods adopted of working steam expansively, we shall enter further into the
investigation of this important principle.
1963. Efficiency of Fuel.-Steam, for practical purposes, is raised by the
combustion of fuel of various kinds and qualities; an investigation into the
methods to be adopted for getting the greatest efficiency out of the least quan-
tity of fuel is therefore of the greatest importance. This inquiry necessitates
an investigation into the various appliances connected with furnaces and
boilers. The mechanical effect produced by the combustion of a given quantity
of fuel is generally stated somewhat as follows: In ordinary land-boilers the
combustion of 1 lb. of coal will raise from 6 to 8 lb. of water into steam; in
some Cornish boilers the quantity raised by the combustion of 1 lb. is much
higher-as high as 9 and 10 lb. A horse-power is calculated to be equivalent
to raising 33,000 lb. 1 foot high per minute, and is attained by the evaporation
of 1 cubic foot of water into steam per hour-6 lb. of coal being required to raise
this quantity of steam. By the consumption, then, of 6 lb. of coal per hour, a
mechanical effect of 1-horse power may be obtained. A much greater degree
of economy is, however, attained in large engines working expansively. In
some of the Cornish mining engines, 1-horse power is attained by the combustion
of little more than 3 lb. of coal per hour; and in some to such an extent has
economical working been carried, that, by the combustion of about 12 lb. of
coal per hour, a mechanical effect equivalent to 1-horse power has been obtained;
showing the enormous duty of 100,000,000 of lb. raised 1 foot high per minute
by the consumption of 94 lb. of coal. It is gratifying to be able to state that the
engines manufactured by agricultural-implement-makers show results which
rival those of the celebrated Cornish engines just referred to. The trials of
many of them showed that so small a consumption of fuel as 31, 4, and 42
lb. per horse-power per hour was attained, while, under circumstances of ordinary
working, 5 and 6 lb. were sufficient to give out a horse-power. Mr Hall states
that in his engine, previously alluded to (par. 1956), the consumption is only
11 lb. of coal per indicated horse-power per hour. Amazingly economical of
fuel as this plan of working appears to be, an able authority states that he
believes it is able to be carried out with high pressure and sufficient expansion.
1964. The evaporative effects of various fuels differ in different qualities.
Thus Newcastle caking-coal takes 8 lb. nearly to raise a cubic foot of water
into steam; Staffordshire takes more than 11 lb. Government recently insti-
tuted an inquiry into the evaporative effects of fuel and their management.
From the Report* issued, which contains a vast amount of practical information,
Report of Experimental Investigations on Coals for the Steam Navy. By Sir H. DE LA BECHE
and Dr LYON PLAYFAIR.
*
570
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
we derive the following useful table, showing the economic values of various
coals experimented on :-
NAMES OF Coals useD IN THE
EXPERIMENT.
Economic
evaporating
power,or num-
ber of pounds
of water eva- |
porated from
212° by 1 lb.
of coal.
Weight of 1
cubic foot of
the coals, as
used for fuel.
Weight of 1
cubic foot, as
calculated
Weight of
water evapo-
rated from
212 by 1
from density. | cubic foot of
coal.
Rate of eva-
poration, or
number of
pounds of
water evapo-
rated per
hour.
WELSH COALS.
lb.
lb.
Mean.
Graigola,
9.35
60.166
80.107
581.20
441.48
Anthracite, Jones & Co.,
9.46
58.25
85.786
565.02
409.37
Old Castle Fiery Vein,
8.94
50.916
80.42
455.18
464.30
Ward's Fiery Vein,
9.40
57.433
83.85
608.78
529.90
Binea,
9.94
57.08
81.357
587.92
486.95
•
Llangennech,
8.86
56.93
81,85
523.75
373.22
Pentrepoth,
8.72
57.72
81.73
518.32
381.50
•
Pentrefelin,
6.36
66.166
84.726
489.62
247.24
Duffryn,
10.14
53.22
82.72
540.12
409.32
Mynydd Newydd,
9.52
56.33
81.73
536.26
470.69
Three Quarter RockVein,
8.84
56.388
83.60
498.46
486.86
;
Cwm Frood do.,
8.70
55.277
78.299
480.90
379.80
Cwm Nanty Gros, .
8.42
56.0
79.859
471.52
404.18
Resolven,
9.53
58.66
82.354
559.02
390.25
Pontypool,
7.47
55.7
82.35
416.07
250.40
Bedwas,
9.79
50.5
82.6
494.39
476.96
Ebbw Vale,
10.21
53.3
78.81
544.19
460.22
Porth Mawr,
7.53
53.3
86.722
401.34
347.44
Coleshill,
8.0
53.0
80.483
424.0
406.41
SCOTCH COALS.
Dalkeith Jewel Seam,
7.08
49.8
79.672
352.58
355.18
Coronation do.,
7.71
51.66
78.611
398.29
370.08
Wallsend Elgin,
8.46
54.6
78.611
460.82
435.77
Fordel Splint,
7.56
55.0
78.611
415.80
464.98
Grangemouth,
7.40
54.25
80.48
401.45
380.40
ENGLISH COALS.
Broomhill,
7.3
52.5
Lydney, Forest of Dean,
8.52
54.444
IRISH COAL.
Slievasdagh anthracite, .
9.85
62.8
99.57
618.58
473.18
PATENT COALS.
Wyolam's,
8.92
65.08
68.629
580.51
418.89
Bell's,
.53
65.3
71.124
557.0
549.11
Warlick's,
10.36
69.05
72.248
715.35
457.84
1965. It is but right to state that the results here tabulated are considered
by some authorities as by no means conveying a correct notion of the evapora-
tive values of the various coals referred to.
1966. It might be advantageous were some of our agricultural societies to
institute experiments relative to the evaporative powers and the best method
of management of various qualities of coal used in our agricultural districts.
With the prospect of a large increase of steam power among our farms, this
investigation would be highly valuable. None but those who have had practical
experience in the management of steam-engines can have an accurate idea of the
importance of good fuel, and of good methods of management. It must be very
evident, even to the most superficial observer, that on the economical operation
of the furnace depends in great measure the economical working of the steam-
engine.
1967. We conclude this department of our subject, by giving the following
VARIETIES OF BOILERS.
571
table, for which we are indebted to the valuable work of Tredgold (Walton &
Maberley, London) on Warming and Ventilating; it will be useful as affording
a ready means of judging of the comparative evaporative powers and cost of
various fuels.
KIND OF FUEL.
Quantity in lb.
that will heat
one cubic foot of
Quantity in lb.
that will convert
one cubic foot of
water one degree. | water into steam.
Newcastle caking-coal,
Splint coal (nearly the same),
Staffordshire coal (cherry coal),
Culm,
Wood (dry pine),
0.0075
8.4
0.0100
11.2
•
0.0196
22.0
0.0172
19.25
Wood (dry beech),
0.0242
27.0
Wood (dry oak),
0.0265
30.0
•
·
Peat (of good quality),
0.0475
53.6
Charcoal,
0.0095
10.6
Coke,
0.0069
7.7
Charred peat,
0.0205
23.0
1968. By the above, the superiority of coke over coal is shown: thus,
taking 8.4 lb. of Newcastle coal to raise a cubic foot of steam, 7.7 lb. only of
coke is required.
1969. Varieties of Boilers.-We now come to describe and illustrate the two
varieties of boilers principally used for agricultural purposes; namely, the cylin-
drical and the flued or tubular boiler.
1970. Cylindrical Boiler.-The form of cylindrical boiler most generally used
for small high-pressure engines is shown in Plate XXXI. It is in shape a true
cylinder, with hemispherical ends. When hung with a "direct draft," or on
"the oven plan," as it is termed, the flame and smoke pass at once from the
furnace b, fig. 2, across the bridge c, along the bottom d, and to the chimney
through the flue e. This method of setting cylindrical boilers is much to be
deprecated, from the liability to explosion from the flame and heated air
getting access to the boiler above the water-line. This will be more fully
entered into while treating on boiler explosions, their causes and remedies.
1971. Another way to set a cylindrical boiler is to have side-flues, as e e, fig.
1, Plate XXXI., so as to form a wheel-draught, the course being over the bridge c,
and along the bottom of the boiler to the further end, where it rises at
the back, and from the back to the front of the fur-
nace, through one of the side-flues, round the front
of the boiler, and, turning into the other side-flue,
finally passes into the chimney.
1972. Cylindrical boilers for high-pressure en-
gines are sometimes made with an internal flue, as
a, fig. 779. With this form of boiler the draft is
what is termed a "split draft," the flame and
heated smoke passing from the furnace along the
bottom of boiler, to the end of the furnace, and,
rising up to the internal flue a, passes to the front
of the boiler, where it divides and traverses the
two side-flues, and from thence into the main
chimney-flue.
Fig. 779.
FLUED CYLINDRICAL BOILER.
1973. Multitubular Boiler.-A form of boiler rapidly extending in use, and
572
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
Fig. 780.
6
ԱՅ
based upon that of the locomotive, is known as the multitubular or fire-box
boiler. This form of boiler is one generally adapted to the portable engines of
the farm, but is equally applicable, under slight modifications, to stationary
engines. In fig. 780 we give a longitu-
dinal section of the multitubular boiler,
now being largely introduced by Messrs
Gordon and Co., engineers, of Stockport.
With this boiler, steam can be raised in a
very short space of time. a is the fur-
nace-door, b the dead-plate, c c the fur-
Fig. 781.
C
C
MULTITUBULAR OR FIRE-BOX BOILER.
e
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF MULTITUBULAR BOILER.
a
b
Fig. 782.
d
α
е
END ELEVATION OF MULTITUBULAR BOILER.
nace-bars, d bridge, with valve for ad-
mitting air to consume the smoke beneath
it, e e tubes passing through the boiler, ƒƒ stays to strengthen the boiler, g the
man-hole door. In fig. 781 we give a transverse section of boiler, showing
position of tubes and stays; and in fig. 782 end elevation, showing fire-doors
a a, b ash-pit, c c end of boiler, d man-hole door, e e standards on which the boiler
is supported. In Plate XXXII. we give views of a boiler on this principle.
1974. Details of the Cylindrical Boiler.-We proceed to describe in detail the
various parts of these two classes of boilers, and, first, of the cylindrical,
DETAILS OF CYLINDRICAL BOILER.
573
illustrated in Plate XXXI. This is generally constructed of the best Stafford-
shire plate, the plates being generally bent to the circle while in a cold state by
the aid of rollers. The joinings are all effected by riveting with short bolts
gths of an inch in diameter, the rivet-holes being previously made by the aid of
a punching-machine. The rivets are inserted and closed up in the hot state, so
that, besides the effect of riveting to draw the contiguous surfaces of the plates
into close contact, there is the powerful contraction of the iron while cooling to
produce still more perfect contact. To insure perfect tightness in the joinings
or landings, technically so called, the whole of the joints, after they are riveted
up, undergo a process of caulking, which is simply stamping up the edges of
the adjoining plates into intimate contact by means of flat-edged chisels struck
with a hammer.
1975. The figs. 1, 2, and 3, Plate XXXI., represent a plan and two sec-
tions of a steam-boiler for a 6-horse engine. Fig. 3 is the plan, the one-half of
it taken above the level of the boiler's bottom, the other half below that level.
a is the furnace-door and dead-plate, b b the furnace-bars, and c the bridge or
throat of the furnace, over which the flame is drawn with great force, proceed-
ing along the flat flue d to the extremity e, where it is turned into the first
side-flue ƒ. The figure exhibits also the top of the boiler g, but without any of
its furniture; h h is the continuation of the flue round the end of the boiler,
leading into the other side-flue i i, which terminates in the chimney k; ll are
walls of the boiler-seat, and m m the flue-ports, which are movable plates, to
admit of access to the flues for the purpose of cleaning. The damper i' is a
metal plate suspended by a chain, and its purpose is the increase or diminu-
tion of the draught.
1976. Fig. 2 is a longitudinal section, in which a again marks the furnace-
door, b the furnace-bars, c the throat, and d the flat flue, e being the first bend
of the flue, and h that part of it that turns the front of the boiler. The boiler
9 g appears here in complete section, r being the feed-pipe from the engine-
pump, delivering the water near the bottom of the boiler; o is the man-hole
door, and p the steam-pipe, for conveying the steam to the engine; q is the
safety-valve, which should not be less than 3 inches diameter; and n is one
of the gauge-cocks. The parts ll represent the brickwork of the boiler-seat;
m is the ash-pit, and n' a closed port for the removal of dust from the dust-
hole d'.
1977. Fig. 1 is the cross section, wherein a is the ash-pit, 3 feet in height;
b the furnace-bars, c the bridge, and d the throat, which should not exceed
8 inches in height; e e are the side-flues—their breadth at bottom, measuring
from the sides of the furnace, should be not less than 16 inches. The boiler is
here represented by g, and the waste steam-pipe by p, o being the clasps of
the man-hole cover, q the safety-valve, and n the feed-pipe; k is the chimney
flue, and m is an entrance-port.
1978. Details of the Multitubular Boiler.—In Plate XXXII. we give figures,
of a multitubular and flued boiler, of six-horse power, manufactured by Messrs
Carret, Marshall, & Co., Leeds. Fig. 1 is a part transverse section, fig. 2 an
end elevation, and fig. 3 a longitudinal section. a a the central flue, b the fire-
bars, cash-pit; d d, fig. 1, the tubes through which the heated air passes to the
chimney p, figs. 2 and 3, in front of the boiler; e e are standards on which the boiler
is supported, free from all brickwork setting; ff, fig. 1, glass water-gauge, gg
steam-dome, h pillar for supporting water-indicator wheel and alarm apparatus.
As the weight i rises and falls according as the level of water in boiler acts upon
the float with which it is connected, it causes the float-rod to operate upon the
574
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
lever 0, and to open or shut the steam-whistle n. The apparatus thus acts as a
water-indicator and a safety alarm. The furnace-door is at r; s, fig. 3, the
spring safety-valve on top of dome, t t lever and spring-box, v cock of steam-
pipe leading to engine, x x stays to strengthen the boiler, w furnace-bridge.
This is an exceedingly compact and well-arranged portable boiler. On the
principle of the "split draft," the heated air, after passing along the main flue,
returns on either side through the smaller tubes d d to the chimney p, which is
placed in front of the boiler. It has a favourable reputation as an economical
and quick steam-raising boiler.
1979. As this boiler is perfectly independent of all brickwork-a feature
which it possesses in common with the majority of other forms of multitubular
boilers—it may be called a portable boiler, as it can be easily set down in different
positions.
1980. Vertical Tubular Boiler.—A form of tubular boiler coming into use, and
the principle of which is most favourably noticed by a first authority, is that
known as the Vertical Tubular Boiler.
1981. Vertical tubes pass through the water-space; the heated air and smoke
pass out at the upper end; an outer case of brick might be made to surround the
boiler, and the smoke and heated air led downwards so as to circulate between
the shell of the boiler and the casing, and finally passed to the chimney-flue. A
practical authority recommends the fire to be covered with a brick dome, having
on the crown perforations opposite the apertures of the tubes-thus obviating
to a considerable extent the danger of the bottom tube-plate being burnt out.
1982. An objection to this plan of boiler is, that if the water supplied is of im-
pure quality, a sedimentary deposit will accumulate on the bottom-plate; this
inconvenience has, however, not been experienced in boilers in practice, and this,
probably, from the extreme agitation of the water caused by the steam rushing
upwards. To prevent deposit a blow-off cock should be attached to this boiler
near the bottom, by which, from time to time, the water at the lower portion,
with such sediment as may be therein, can be passed away from the boiler. The
operation of "blowing out" can only be effected with certainty when the steam
is at considerable pressure.
1983. In fig. 3, Plate XXXVII., we give a section of a vertical boiler manu-
factured by Mr William Walker, engineer, of Lower King Street, Manchester.
In the figure, a is the fire-door; b the fire-bars; the heated air passes upwards.
through the tubes c c c, which are surrounded by water up to the level d d. The
position of the water-level is indicated by the glass water-gauge e e, hereafter
to be described; ff the steam supply-pipe; gg a blow-off pipe, connected with
the main chimney-flue h.
1984. Duplicate Retort Steam Boiler.—We deem it right to notice here a form
of boiler which, from the portability of its component parts, and the comparative
immunity it gives from the dangers of explosion, we think applicable to stationary
agricultural engines. It is known as the Duplicate Retort Steam-Boiler, the inven-
tion of, and manufactured by, Messrs Dunn, Huttersley, and Company, Windsor
Bridge Ironworks, Pardleton, near Manchester. We give in fig. 783, a partly
longitudinal section and side-elevation of a furnace and boiler on this plan.
From this it will be seen that the peculiarity of the plan is the employment of a
series of cylindrical retorts a a a, each of which constitutes a separate boiler.
These retorts are placed in parallel lines, and the water supply-pipe b is con-
nected with one end of each cylinder by short pipes, as c c. Through these
water is pumped into all the cylinders, so as to maintain the supply up to their
semi-diameter. As the steam from the cylinders rises, it passes off by pipes d d d
PROPORTIONS OF BOILERS.
575
to the interior of the steam-chest ee e, from which it is led off by a pipe attached
to the stop-valve box f; g is the safety-valve pipe; h h the springs which regulate
Fig. 783.
а
a
e
α
h
e
e
d
a
$
FT
a
k
DUPLICATE RETORT STEAM-BOILER.
the funnel; the pressure indicator; k the furnace-door; 7 the fire-bars; m the
smoke-flue leading to the chimney. The cylinders are made of the best 1-inch
Staffordshire iron, with cast-iron ends, and are tested, before fitting up, with a
pressure of 250 lb. to the square inch, and guaranteed for two years. It will be
perceived that the risk of explosion is comparatively little, as, in addition to the
great strength of each retort, it will rarely happen that more than one retort
will explode at the same time. The cylinders being small, a boiler of consi-
derable power may be transported easily piecemeal. Again, the wear of the
set may be equalised by shifting those which for a time have been subjected
to the strongest heat, to a place where the heat is less intense. Another advan-
tage possessed by this plan is, that each retort being independent of the others,
it can be turned round, exposing gradually the whole of the surface, and thus
wearing it out uniformly. Again, where muddy water is used, the sediment
will collect in the retort furthest from the fire-grate, it entering this first. This
first retort will also act as a water-heater of an extremely simple and efficient kind.
1985. Proportions of Boilers.-Having illustrated the varieties of boilers now
in use, or attracting the attention of engineers as likely to be economical and
quick raisers of steam, we finish this department of our subject by giving a few
notes on the proportions of boilers with reference to their heating surfaces, the
steam and water space, and the areas of fire-grate and chimney flues. The
limits of our work preclude us from going as fully into this important point as
we should have wished; but those desirous of thoroughly understanding the
whole bearing of the case cannot do better than consult the pages of Weale's
(High Holborn, London) shilling volume on "Steam-Boilers," by Mr Armstrong,
one of our best authorities on the subject.
1986. The whole surface of the boiler exposed to the action of the heated air
is by some engineers calculated as effective heating surface. This, however, is
erroneous, and a fruitful source of disappointment as to working capabilities. It is
now admitted by authorities that the surfaces on which the upward action of the
heated air is brought to bear can only be effective heating surfaces. The under
side, then, of flues is never calculated as heating surface. The upright or side
surfaces of a boiler are calculated as being only half as effective as the surface
on which the upward action of the heated air operates. The quantity of heating
576
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
surface required for each horse-power-taking the evaporation of one cubic foot
of water per hour as the measure of a horse-power-varies according to the rules
or notions adopted by engineers, and to the peculiar circumstances under which
the boiler is to be employed. Mr Armstrong, as the result of large personal
experience, recommends an effective heating surface of 9 square feet, or one
square yard, per horse-power-this applying to the generality of boilers now in
use. The quantity of fire-bar or grate surface per horse-power is one square foot.
This will be increased with advantage to 1 square foot. The proportion of
furnace room is generally calculated at about 3 cubic feet per horse-power. The
proportion of steam space in a boiler recommended by Mr Armstrong is "half a
cubic yard for each nominal horse-power." Ten cubic feet of steam space per
horse-power is the general proportion allowed; giving the same capacity for
water space, this makes the water-line at half the depth of boiler. The total
boiler-space, says Mr Armstrong, should be a cubic yard per horse-power, "not
more than half of that space being water room, nor less than half of it for steam."
This rule is borne out by the practice of the north of England engineers, who
reckoned an efficient steam-engine to be that in which the area of piston in
circular inches was 27 to the horse-power, and the capacity of the boiler 27 cubic
feet per horse-power. In Lancashire the rule is-and this holds more especially
for small engines, where economy of space is of more importance than economy
of fuel-" for each square inch in the area of the piston to allow a cubic foot in
the boiler."
1987. In increasing the evaporative efficiency of a boiler, a very common method
adopted is to lengthen the boiler; the benefit thus obtained is derivable chiefly
from the fact that the effective heating surface is increased. As a rule, however,
a well-proportioned boiler is that in which the greatest amount of heating surface
is compressed within the least possible length. Experience is in favour of the
short boiler, the effective heating surface being as much as possible above the
fire or grate surface, avoiding long narrow flues; a cylindrical boiler being, with
a direct draft, as in fig. 2, Plate XXXI., about six diameters in length. Where
a cylindrical boiler is set up with a "wheel draft," the proportion of length may
be four diameters.
1988. The Chimney.—The chimney for the steam-engine is an object of some
importance. Upon its height and area depend much of the future effects of the
engine; and very numerous are the views taken of these by engineers. The fol-
lowing points may, however, be taken as data not easily controverted. The height
should not be less than 50 feet; and if it is desirable to avoid the nuisance arising
from smoke, the height should greatly exceed this. The internal sectional area
should be as large as may be consistent with economy in the expense, but should
never be under 80 square inches for each horse-power. Thus a chimney for a
six-horse engine should have its area at the top 80 × 6 = 480 square inches, and
✓48022 inches nearly, the side of the square of the chimney internally; and
if circular, the diameter should be 25 inches nearly. The height of the chimney
being determined, and also the side of its square externally, the square of its base
is found by adding to the length of the side at top the amount of increase arising
from the slope given to the sides. The usual slope, or batter, is -inch to a foot;
with a height, therefore, of 50 feet, the increase at bottom will be 18 inches
on each side; and the walls being one brick or 5 inches thick, the side of the
square at top will be 22+ (5 × 2) = 32 inches, and this added to 18 × 239
+32=5 feet 11 inches, the side of the square at bottom.
1989. Bolton and Watt's rule for finding the area of a chimney-flue for a land-
engine is as follows: "Multiply the number of pounds of coal consumed under the
CHECK - BRIDGES.
577
boiler per hour by twelve, and divide the product by the square root of the
chimney in feet; the quotient is the area of the chimney in square inches in
the smallest part." A chimney 20 inches square inside, and 80 feet high, is
considered a well-proportioned one for a 20-horse boiler, consuming 15 lb. of
coal per horse-power per hour. 10 lb. of coal per hour is calculated to be the
quantity that a square foot of grate will burn with advantage.
1990. Check-Bridges.—We shall now notice a few of the methods adopted
and recommended for still farther rendering boilers economical. One method of
increasing the evaporative efficiency of a cylindrical boiler set in the direct
draught or oven plan is by building “check-bridges." The object of these
appliances is not to retard the flow of heated air along the furnace, so as to
retain it, and make it give out the most of its heat, but chiefly to cause it to
envelope the lower part of the boiler.
Fig. 784.
1991. Fig. 784 shows the method of arranging these check-bridges-a a the
boiler, b b the furnace, c the bridge. Care
should be taken not to have the distance
between the boiler and the upper edge
of the bridge too great; in this case the
heated air will have a tendency to pass
through in an unbroken stream. The
importance of breaking and agitating
the gases in their passage along flues is
now admitted by all our best authorities.
Bolton and Watt, in their marine flued-
boilers, have adopted an arrangement by
which the gases are made to strike the
sides of the (circular) flue.
a
CHECK-BRIDGES FOR BOILER FURNACES
1992. As showing the economical results to be derived from this plan of
having check-bridges (fig. 784), we give the result of a series of experiments
instituted by the well-known engineer, Mr Wicksteed, to ascertain the relative
economy of a Cornish boiler set on the ordinary plan, and also with the new
furnace having these check-bridges:
Without
With
Check-Bridges. Check-Bridges.
Coals consumed per hour,
Water evaporated do., .
Do. per lb. of coals from instant temperature,
Do. from 212° (latent heat 1.000°),
313 lb.
293 lb.
2.170
2.256
6.919
7.701
7.725
8.640
1993. The last line shows that, when taking the coals from the heap, 1 lb. of
coals, with this check-bridged furnace, evaporated 11.8 per cent more water
than without the check-bridge. The experiments had reference more particu-
larly to the testing of an American patent boiler, the peculiarity of which con-
sisted entirely of a number of these check-bridges placed beneath a boiler
hung on the direct-draft plan, the only claim to novelty being the parabolic
form given to the front of the bridges. The method has been long in use
in America, and is being adopted in this country. Mr Armstrong has long
advocated its use. Mr Wicksteed states that he can have, no hesitation in
declaring that the saving of 37 per cent upon the average, stated to have been
effected in the American establishments, has been effected, and that there are
numberless cases in Great Britain where a similar saving might be effected."
A practical authority, who has instituted a great number of practical experi-
ments on the evaporation of water and the consuming of smoke (Mr Green,
20
578
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
manager of the large works of Messrs Hoyle, Dukinfield), states that those
made with a boiler set in a furnace on this plan indicated better results than
he had ever before obtained from any other furnace.
1994. In order to secure the perfect combustion of the gases, arrangements
should be made to carry on the combustion of the fuel at the highest possible
heat. To obtain this desideratum, it is a good plan to line the furnace with
fire-bricks, even in the case of flued and tubular boilers. This should be done
in the fire-box of the tubular boiler.
1995. Attention should be paid to the building of the fire-bridge at the end
c, fig. 2, Plate XXXI., of the furnace. The office of this appliance is not merely
to prevent the coals from being pushed too far by the stoker, but, as shown
already, to cause the flame and heated air to envelope the boiler. The dis-
tance between the top of bridge and bottom of boiler should not be too
great: a proportion will be one-sixth of diameter of boiler; that is, where the
diameter of boiler is 4 feet, the distance between top of fire-bridge and
bottom of boiler should be 8 inches. The top of the fire-bridge should not be
flat, but concave, the radius of the circle being equal to that of the boiler (see
fig. 784). The supply of air to the furnace is also of importance, the limit of
distance between the fire-bars being that which will prevent the coals from
dropping through. The flue leading from the boiler to the chimney will be
sufficiently wide if it has a surface of 15 square inches to each horse-power; it
is best, however, to make it wider than this, contracting it temporarily until
the requisite draught is found, where it may be permanently fixed.
1996. Quantity of Water in Boilers.-It is generally understood that the keep-
ing of a large quantity of water boiling involves no greater outlay of fuel than
keeping a small quantity boiling. That this is erroneous Mr Armstrong very
clearly shows: "A large quantity of water must require more heat, or heated
surface, to keep it boiling, than a smaller quantity, even supposing the heat
required to generate the steam to be equal in each case; for there must be a
great deal of power expended in keeping the water in motion, and every prac-
tical mechanic knows that we never get power for nothing." Mr Armstrong
recommends that the quantity of water should never exceed 17 cubic feet per
horse-power. And the same authority found that, by keeping the same relative
amount of steam and water space as at first arranged for the boiler, but reducing
the quantity of water by placing large stones on shelves amongst the water-
thus leaving, as it were, mere sheets of water between the blocks and the
sides of the boiler-considerable decrease in the consumption of fuel followed.
The articles-as fire-bricks—should be laid down upon a platform of iron rolls,
so as to be clear of the bottom and sides of the boiler; space being left,
also, between each firebrick.
1997. Economisation of Surplus Heat from Furnaces of Boilers.-The fact that
the heated air, even after passing from a boiler of considerable length, is still
of such a high temperature as to be capable of boiling water, has led to the
bringing out of numerous plans for using up the surplus heat. The flues and
fire-bridges should be so arranged as to allow the heated air to be retained under
the boiler as long as to pass it away when it has reached the temperature a
little above that of the metal of the boiler.
1998. Consumption or Prevention of Smoke.-Economical working of furnaces
is also to be obtained by efficient plans for preventing the formation of smoke.
A few remarks may be acceptable on this important subject. As to the cause
of large bodies of smoke being passed from our steam-engine furnaces, it seems
to be generally acknowledged that "bad firing or stoking is one of the most
PREVENTION OF SMOKE.
579
fruitful and common." We have already pointed out the connection that should
exist between the heating surface of the boiler and the area of the grate, and the
quantity of fuel consumed therein, in order to obtain an efficient boiler (par. 1567).
Now, it is quite evident that, if the grate is so proportioned as to consume
efficiently a certain quantity of coal per hour, perfect or at least uniform com-
bustion can only be maintained by uniformity of supply. If the quantity is laid
in irregularly-that is, at irregular intervals-no degree of uniformity of com-
bustion can be attained. An able authority thus puts the case in figures:
Supposing the quantity of coals to be consumed per hour is 60 lb. ; to preserve
uniformity of combustion to as near an approach of perfection as practicable,
the supply should be spread over the fire at the rate of 1 lb. of coal every minute:
but in hand-firing the plan adopted is somewhat as follows,-placing 15 lb. of
fuel in the furnace every 15 minutes. Now, on the supposition that the grate
is properly proportioned, it is evident that, by this method of firing, the interval
of 15 minutes between each firing will be divided thus: for one-half the time
too little air will pass the bars; for the other half-as the coal is getting con-
sumed-too much. Theoretically, the inconvenience might be overcome by
stoking at shorter intervals; practically, however, this method involves as bad a
state of affairs as it is apparently designed to remedy-by the frequent opening
of the fire-door admitting a quantity of cold air to the furnace, which acts pre-
judicially. As regular firing—that is, firing with unvarying precision
therefore so essential to the perfect combustion of the fuel, and as frequent
meddling with the fire or too much stoking is also an evil to be deprecated, a
plan by which the desideratum can be attained on the one hand, and the danger
avoided on the other, is of great importance. To carry out this thoroughly, we
must call in the aid of machinery. But as we consider "machine-firing" not
essentially necessary in farming engines—as involving much additional expense,
which could not be repaid from the comparatively little use which would be got
out of it—we content ourselves by explaining how the arrangements can be
adopted by which the evils of hand-firing can, in some measure, be obviated.
is
1999. First, as to furnace arrangements calculated to aid the object in view:
for the perfect combustion of 1 lb. of coal 2 lb. of oxygen are required, and this
is given in the 150 cubic feet of atmospheric air which must be passed through
the burning fuel. A consideration of this necessity has induced numerous in-
ventors to introduce plans by which air could be admitted to the furnace, or to
operate upon the gases evolved from the partial combustion of the fuel. The
best-known plan under this head is that named the "Argand Furnace," of
which Mr Charles Wye Williams, Liverpool, is the inventor. In this plan, air
is admitted at the back of the fireplace, through perforations in a row of pipes.
The free admission of air meeting the dense smoke or gases, promotes the
combustion of the hydro-carburets. But while tending to promote the com-
bustion of the smoke, or rather to prevent its formation, the draught of the fur-
nace is said to be liable to be checked; and it is further objected to the
plan by some engineers that the admission of cool air below the boiler sub-
jects this to a rapidly deteriorating influence through the irregular expansion
and contraction. Mr Williams, in his treatise, The Combustion of Coal and the
Prevention of Smoke chemically and practically considered, states that all that is
to be done in order to enable employers of steam-engines to be independent of
"smoke-consuming patents," is to imitate as near as possible the principle of
the common argand gas-burner. Let them introduce the "air by numerous
small orifices to the gas in the furnace, as the gas is introduced by small orifices
to the air in the lamp.
Let them begin by having as many half or even
•
580
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
t
three-quarter inch orifices, with inch spaces drilled in the door and door-frame,
Fig. 785.
b
с
b
id
a
as possible. If the furnace be large,
and the door-plate frame is not suffi-
cient for the introduction of the re-
quired number of holes, let them in-
troduce the perforated plate in the
bridge, as described by Dr Ure in his
Dictionary of Arts, last edition, title
'Smoke Nuisance.'" The following is
the figure alluded to, where a, fig.
785, is the furnace-door, b b the fire-bars, c the bridge, d the aperture leading the
air to the chamber with perforated plate e. The regulating-valve g, worked by
the rod ƒ originally adopted, is not found necessary in practice.
g
f
ARGAND OR SMOKE-PREVENTING FURNACE,
2000. To obviate the assumed or presumed defects of the admission of cold air,
it has been proposed to heat the air before mixing it with the smoke. Of this
class of inventions, the one most recently introduced, and which seems, from
the numerous cases in which it has been tried, to prove efficient, is that known
as the "Smokeless Furnace" of Mr Lee Stevens (King William Street, City,
London). One great recommendation of this plan is its simplicity, the ease
with which it can be fitted to any furnace, and the little danger there is of its
getting out of repair. In fig. 786 a a is the boiler, b the fire-bars, c the bridge.
The plan consists in the addition of a minor set of fire-bars d, placed under the
Fig. 786.
a
C
e
ს
d
LEE STEVENS' SMOKELESS FURNACE.
a
ordinary fire-bars b, at the farthest end of the ash-pit. On this set of bars the
scoriæ and cinders from the upper furnace fall. By this arrangement the cur-
rent of air entering at the lower part of the furnace passes through two strata
of fire, and thence between the "calorific plate" e, faced with fire-brick, and
the bridge c. The air is thus so intensely heated as to produce the entire
combustion of the gaseous products of the fuel without the formation of smoke.
The supply of air seems to adjust itself in this arrangement very closely to
the demand for it,—an important feature in any plan, obviating, as it does, any
necessity for careful attention on the part of individuals who are not generally
much inclined to give it. This plan, from its very simplicity, is worthy of a
ALTERNATE FIRING.
581
trial, all the more so from its now having in its favour the dicta of so many of
our practical men.
a
Fig. 787.
d
ს
2001. Mr Stevens has introduced a regulating air-door for furnaces, a section of
which we show in fig. 787. The fire-door a a is provided
with a series of apertures, which are closed and opened by
the plate b b, moved by the handle c; when the aper-
tures in both plates a a, b b, coincide, free admission of the
air is secured. The air is admitted to the space, bounded
by the semispherical part d d, through the apertures of
which the air gains admission to the interior of the fur-
nace. The part d d tends to keep the exterior door a a
very cool.
@
a
d
REGULATING AIR-DOOR FOR
FURNACES.
2002. Coal, when heaped on a furnace or carelessly
stoked, evolves a vast mass of opaque carbonaceous matter,
containing much watery vapour, which cools the products
below the temperature necessary to effect combustion, and
thus sends off a large amount of fuel. By passing this cooled gas or opaque
smoke in contact with a highly-heated surface, the temperature is at once
raised to the necessary point, and combustion takes place. Hence the plans
which have been introduced of furnace arrangements to effect this desideratum.
Fire-brick bridges, when properly constructed, act in this way. The plan of
having bridges as at fig. 784 is also a good one. The fire-bridge might be
carried up to meet the boiler, and provided with apertures (vertical) of neces-
sary area, through which the smoke would pass the sides of these apertures
being highly heated, would raise the temperature of the smoke, and promote its
firing.
b
Fig. 788.
с
d
2003. Alternate Firing.-The system of "alternate firing" is one now largely
introduced, with most beneficial effects. Two fireplaces, a b, fig. 788, are pro-
vided: while the contents of one are in
a high state of combustion, and free from
smoke, as in a, the fuel is supplied to the
other furnace, as b; the smoke from this
passes along the flue from a, and meeting
the highly-heated air passing from the
furnace b in the chamber C, the temperature
of the smoke in the chamber d is raised,
and ignition takes place. Advantageous
as this method is, it possesses one defect-namely, from the distance which
the heated smokeless air from c has to pass along the flue from b, it is robbed
of a great deal of its temperature, and consequently the efficiency of the plan
is in like proportion deteriorated. To obviate this defect, the plan of having
a mixing-chamber immediately behind the fire-bars, into which the heated air
from the smokeless furnace would pass at a very high temperature, has been
carried out. This plan was, we believe, first adopted by Messrs Galloway of
Manchester, and with the most complete success.
DOUBLE FURNACE-BOILER.
2004. Smoke-consuming Boilers.-The smoke-consuming boilers of W. B. John-
son, manufactured by Messrs Ormerod & Sons, engineers, Manchester, are
becoming much used. An ingenious modification, well adapted for many
localities, has a furnace at each end,-one being supplied with fresh fuel while
the other is in a high state of combustion. In fig. 789 we give the plan of this
boiler a a the furnaces at each end; the products of combustion, after passing
over the bridges b b, meet in the mixing-chamber c c, then pass through the
:
582
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
tubes dd, right and left, to the smoke-boxes e e, and finally communicate with
the flue leading to the chimney.
•
α
d
Fig. 789.
b
b
α
PLAN OF DOUBLE-ENDED FURNACE-BOILER.
d
2005. In fig. 790 we give an end elevation (the two ends are identical in
O
تا
رد
Fig. 790.
a
d
e
090
O
appearance and arrangement) of this boiler.
a is the furnace-door, b b the boiler, c the
smoke-box, d the steam-pipe, e e the safety-
valve pipes.
2006. Having discussed the subject of
boilers, we now propose to describe those
appliances which add to their efficiency
and insure their safety. These appliances
may be divided into two classes — first,
those which have reference particularly to
the maintenance of a due supply of water;
second, those which have connection with
the regulation and control of the steam.
2007. Rule to find the Horse-Power of a
Cylindrical Boiler.-To find the horse-power
of a cylindrical boiler with spherical ends
and wheel- draught furnace, as in Plate
XXXI., multiply the diameter of the boiler
by the length, to this add one-half of the
product, divide the result-which represents
the flue surface in square feet-by ten, and
the quotient is the horse-power. Thus a
boiler 20 feet long by 4 feet diameter is of 12 horse-power, for 20 x 480 +
of this is 40 – 120 ÷ 10 = 12 horse-pow er.
END ELEVATION OF DOUBLE-ENDED FURNACE-BOILER.
=
2008. To find the Horse-Power of an Internal-flued Cornish Boiler.—Add the
internal diameter of the tube to the external diameter of boiler, multiply the
quotient by the length of the boiler-take half the product thus obtained, and
add it to the result above found; divide the amount by 10, which will give the
horse-power. Thus, a boiler with a tube 3 feet diameter, and boiler 5 feet
external diameter, and 14 feet long, is nearly 17 horse-power (164), for 3+5
=8×14=112+ (56) 168÷10-16.
=
2009. To find the Dimensions of a Cylindrical Spherical-ended Boiler.-Multiply
the given horse-power by 10, from the product subtract one-third part of it;
the result is the product of the diameter of required boiler multiplied by its
length. This product may be made up by any convenient diameter and length—
3 feet being the minimum diameter employed, as a less diameter will involve
difficulties in manufacture and working. Thus the product of the diameter,
SUPPLY OF WATER TO BOILERS.
·
583
multiplied by the length of a 6-horse boiler, is 40 feet, for 6 × 10 – 60 −1 = 40.
Boilers 10 feet long by 4 feet diameter, 13 feet 6 inches long and 3 feet dia-
meter, will make up this product.
2010. The same rule here given will apply to single-flued Cornish boilers,
with this difference, that the result shows the product "of the length by the
sum of the external and internal diameters." Taking, as above given, a 6-horse
power-this gives 40 feet. Now giving the diameter of the internal tube as 2
feet-less will not admit of proper fire-space-and the external diameter of
boiler as 3 feet-the sum of these is 5, which, used as a divisor, gives 8 feet as
the length of the boiler: 40 ÷ 5 = 8.
2011. For the formulæ on which these rules are founded, we are indebted to
Mr Imray's work on the Steam Engine, and its Applications, Houlston and
Wright, 2s.; a work containing much valuable information on the subject.
2012. Apparatus for Supply of Water to Boilers.—The regular supply of water
to the boiler of a steam-engine is a matter of great importance. In those
for condensing-engines it can be conducted with great certainty of effect,
owing to the moderate degree of pressure under which they are worked
for as that does not generally exceed the pressure of a column of water
9 feet high, it is easy to establish a small cistern which is kept in constant
supply, and which, by a self-acting hydrostatic arrangement, keeps the supply
to the boiler perfectly uniform. The higher pressure under which the non-
condensing engine works, prevents the same arrangement being followed in
regard to its boiler, and no method of equal simplicity and certainty has yet
been devised, though various methods are in practice. Some of the methods
adopted are self-acting, or so called; and others depend entirely on the atten-
tion of the engine-keeper, which appears to be the safer of the two for engines
not in daily use. Under this last method, the water-pump is understood to be
in constant action, and to throw a superabundance of water; and when the
boiler is observed to have got a sufficient supply-which is indicated by a float
water-gauge-the discharge from the pump is turned off from the boiler, and
thrown to waste or back to the well. This alteration of the discharge is effected
by the attendant turning a stop-cock; but after a short practice, he is able, from
observation, so to adjust the cock that the requisite supply shall go to the boiler,
without entirely shutting the waste-cock. The apparatus for effecting this mode
of supply is shown in fig. 2, Plate XXXI., where s is the stone-float, suspended
by a wire t that passes through a small stuffing-box in the boiler-top. The wire
is attached to a piece of chain that passes over the wheel u, and to the end of
the chain is attached the counter-weight v. When the float and wheel, with its
chain, are adjusted to the medium level of the water, an index or pointer w is
attached to the wheel, pointing vertically; and any change in the level of the
water will be indicated by a corresponding change in the position of the pointer
to right or left. In this arrangement, the power that produces the indication is
the difference of specific gravity between the water and the stone-float, after the
float is balanced by the counter-weight v; and this being, in some cases, not of
great amount, the apparatus is occasionally liable to get out of order, from the
wire not passing freely through the stuffing-box.
2013. We have adopted a method that obviates this defect, which is also
represented in fig. 2, Plate XXXI. In this arrangement, w' is a hollow copper
ball, made securely water-tight. A wire stem rises from it, and passes freely
through an iron tube y, of 1-inch bore, which is fixed in the top of the boiler,
passing 10 or 12 inches within it, and above it to any convenient height, serv-
ing as a guide for the stem of the float; to the top of this iron tube a strong
584
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
glass tube is jointed at a', of about 1 foot high. The junction of the glass and
the iron tubes, and the closing of the upper end of the former, are effected by
a brass case, with screwed bottom and cap, which embraces the top of the iron
tube and the whole of the glass tube, slits being made in opposite sides of the
brass tube, through which the indication of the index can be read off. The
index in this apparatus is the top of the float-stem, which being adjusted to
length, and terminated in a small knob that will move freely in the tube, its
indications of rise and fall are noted on a graduated scale on the brass tube.
2014. This method of water-gauge is still better accomplished, when circum-
stances permit of it, by the arrangement in fig. 2, Plate XXXI., by placing a
small tube in the position v'y' x', its lower end, shown by the dotted lines at
v', being in connection with the water in the boiler, and its upper orifice x'
with the steam, so that the pressure shall be equal on both ends. A piece of
glass tube y' is placed in the middle of the channel of communication, or in
such position that the level of the limits of range for the surface of the water
may fall within the length of the glass; and the surface of the column in
the tube will always indicate the same level as the surface of the water within
the boiler. A graduated scale placed in contact with this, the zero being at
the proper working level, will indicate with certainty the state of the water
within the boiler.
2015. One objection to the form of gauge as illustrated in fig. 2, Plate XXXI.,
Fig. 791.
b
b
a
SMITH'S WATER-GAUGE
at v'y' x', is, that should the gauge-glass be broken
through accident, the steam and water are blown off, to
the danger of the stoker, who may be standing near.
To prevent this, and other inconveniences which are
obvious, Mr John Smith, Traffic Street, Siddall's Road,
Derby, has introduced a gauge-cock, in which valves
a a, fig. 791, are provided. In the event of the glass
tube bb breaking, the pressure of the steam and water
causes the valves instantly to close. In addition to the
water-gauge, gauge-cocks should invariably be applied;
of these there are generally two, sometimes three.
When two are used, one, on being turned, passes steam,
the other water, to the atmosphere. The cock for water
has the pipe reaching to a point below which it is dan-
gerous to allow the water to be;-thus, when steam
passes through this cock, it is an evidence that the
water is below this point, and at a dangerous level; the
feed-apparatus must therefore be looked to. The other
cock has the pipe attached to it descending to a point
at which water should not reach; — thus, if it emits
water, it is an evidence that there is too much water in
the boiler. When three gauge-cocks are used, two are
for water at different levels.
2016. Haley's Safety-Signal for Boilers.-A very effec-
tive appliance, by which the boiler itself gives the signal of its want of water,
has been introduced by Mr Haley of Manchester. We give a representation of it
in fig. 792. A copper float, a, screwed upon a brass spindle working in the
guide bb, works loosely through a guide placed inside the boiler. The spindle
is made hollow, and provided with an aperture near its upper end, by which
steam is admitted to the interior of the copper float, thus equalising the pres-
sure within and without the float. The upper end c of the spindle is made
HALEY'S SAFETY - SIGNAL FOR BOILERS.
Fig. 792.
585
conical, which fits into a similar conical aperture leading to a steam whistle
placed inside the ornamental cover d e outside the
boiler; through this the steam is passed to the
atmosphere. The arrangements of this safety-
signal are admirably adapted to the end in
view; there is not a part which is liable to be-
come deranged; the action of the float is direct,
its force is defined and invariable, and the
signal is given by the simple expedient of allow-
ing the spindle to fall away from the least pos-
sible surface of contact-a sharp edge.
2017. These water-indicators, from the cer-
tainty of their effect, and the satisfaction they
are capable of affording, at all times, as to the
state of the water within the boiler to all parties
concerned in its safety, ought to be universally
adopted.
2018. Of the self-acting feeders for high-
pressure boilers, it is not safe to trust even the
very best without some auxiliary means of
checking the results, such as the common gauge-
cocks or the water-gauge. We have seen some
of them so defective, that their boilers have
been worked off almost to dryness, while it was
imagined that all was going right, because the
apparatus was throwing off what was considered
surplus-water, while it had, in fact, been send-
ing the whole supply past the boiler for hours.
The consequences were, the destruction of the
boiler, and a narrow escape from explosion.
a
b
b
d
α
HALEY'S SAFETY-SIGNAL FOR BOILERS.
2019. It is of great importance that the water sent into the boiler should
have its temperature raised as high as possible before entering. This is effected
in a very simple manner, and to a temperature of about 140°, by the apparatus,
fig. 793, which may be placed in any position between the pump and the boiler
that convenience may point out. a a is the waste steam-pipe, passing from the
cylinder to the place of discharge in the chimney, or to the atmosphere. It is
surrounded by the case bb, which should have an internal diameter of at least
1½ inch greater than the steam-pipe that it embraces; and the aperture e at
с
α
Fig. 793.
b
WATER-HEATING APPARATUS FOR BOILERS.
α
each end made steam-tight by a rust-joint. The small pipe through which the
water is forced by the pump towards the boiler, is joined to the nozzle c of the
case; and a continuation of the same being joined to d, is carried forward to the
boiler, which it enters at n, figs. 1 and 2, Plate XXXI. While the waste steam,
therefore, is passing through a, the cold water from the pump is forced into the
chamber formed betwixt the steam-pipe and its case b, and in its passage along
this chamber to the outlet d absorbs a portion of heat from the steam and pipe
within, and so enters the boiler at the temperature stated above.
586
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
2020. Differential Feed-Apparatus.-In fig. 794 we give a sectional view
Fig. 794.
a
h
g
e
1.
ι
d
k
k
h
α
b
с
Fig. 795.
a
PLAN OF FEED-APPARATUS.
Fig. 796.
SECTION OF DIFFERENTIAL FEED-APPARATUS.
of "differential feed-apparatus," applicable to a form of high-pressure tubular
boiler, and in fig. 795 a plan of the same. The lever
a a is acted upon by the rod b, connected with the
"float" inside of boiler; c the counter-weight balancing
the float; d the standard on which the lever vibrates
e the valve-rod. The water is sent to the space ƒƒ by
the pipe a, fig. 795; g the pipe leading to interior of
boiler the apparatus is attached to the boiler by the
flange h h. When the pressure of the steam is great,
the water forced up the feed-pipe g would have a
tendency to open the valve i, without reference to the
action of the float. To prevent this taking place,
the water, instead of acting on i, passes up the side-
duct k k into the space l, and acts upon the valve
there placed, tending to keep it closed. As this valve
is connected with the lower valve i, the motion im-
parted by the rod e being common to both, the pres-
sure is equal both above and below the valve i; the
float is therefore at liberty to act independently of
the
pressure on the boiler. Admittance is gained to
the chamber b, fig. 795, in order to repair valve, or
see if it is working properly, by taking off the flange c.
2021. In fig. 796 we give a sectional view of the
"hand feed-apparatus." The feed-water is supplied
to the chamber a a, fig. 796, through the valve b, and
passes to the "differential feed" in fig. 794, up the
pipe c, which is connected with the pipe a, fig. 795.
The amount of water passing through b, fig. 796, can
be regulated, or the supply altogether stopped, by
turning the screw and the spindle e by the wheel f
the amount of rise of the valve in its seat being de-
с
a
e
b
а
SEUTION OF HAND FEED-APPARATUS,
!
CHIMNEY-DAMPER.
Fig. 797.
α
587
pendent on the position of the screw. In fig. 797, a is the pipe corresponding
to the pipe c, fig. 796, and the valve. Fig. 798
shows the two in connection: a the pipe connected
with the force-pump of the engine; b the horizontal
wheel for working the screw, corresponding to f, fig.
796; the water passes to the chamber c, corresponding
to ff, fig. 794, and passes to the interior of the boiler
by the pipe g, fig. 794. Fig. 799 is another view of
this apparatus: a a the boiler; b b the "feed" (fig.
794); c the pipe from force-pump, corresponding to a,
fig. 798; d lever-wheel for turning screw, corresponding to f, fig. 796; e e
lever; f counter-weight; g stuffing-box, through which the float-rod h h passes.
2022. Chimney - Damper.
-The combustion of the
fuel in the furnace, and the
consequent production of
steam in the boiler, is gene-
rally regulated by a damper
worked by hand. This con-
sists of a flat plate working
in a frame placed at the end
of the flue leading to the
chimney. By lowering the
damper into the frame, so
as to close the connec-
tion between the furnace-
flues and the chimney, the
draught of the fire is less-
ened, and also the produc-
tion of steam.
2023. To save the attend-
ant the trouble of mounting
to the top of the boiler-
furnace to operate on the
damper, and in order, also,
to keep it suspended at
any desired point, the dam-
per a, fig. 800, is hung with
a chain bb, passing over
two pulleys c c, and bal-
anced by a counterpoise
weight d. This weight
generally hangs near the
furnace door, so as to be
within easy reach of the
fireman. This apparatus is
generally used for high-
pressure boilers—but is de-
fective, inasmuch as it is
dependent for its operation
upon the attention of the
α
L
1001
ເພດ..
Fig. 798.
b
PLAN OF HAND FEED-APPARATUS.
Jaya
$
h
h
J100
e
d
α
END VIEW OF FEED-APPARATUS.
Fig. 799.
α
SIDE VIEW OF FEED-APPARATUS.
e
a
stoker. It is evident that, as the production of steam is dependent on the inten-
588
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
sity of combustion in the furnace, the most correct apparatus would be that in
Fig. 800.
O
C
b
a
which the damper was actuated by the pressure of
the steam itself. This has been attempted in vari-
ous ways for high-pressure boilers; but, judging
from the circumstance that comparatively few are
met with in operation, it is to be supposed that they
have not fully met the difficulties of the case. This
plan, however, has been long adopted for low-pres-
sure boilers.
2024. The principle on which self-acting dampers
for high-pressure boilers are constructed is generally
a plunger or piston, working in a small tube or
cylinder attached to the boiler. The steam raises
this piston, and depresses the damper when the pres-
sure is too great, and vice versa. The objection to
this form is, that as soon as the pressure either rises
or falls below the proper amount, the plunger or
piston is raised, or allowed to fall so suddenly, that the damper is either closed
or opened full, no gradation between the two extremes being obtainable.
UHIMNEY DAMPER ARRANGEMENT.
2025. Steam Regulating Apparatus.—We now come to consider the second
class of boiler appliances, namely, those connected with the regulation and
control of the steam. Of these the most important is the safety-valve. This
is shown at q, figs. 1 and 2, in Plate XXXI., and at s, fig. 3, in Plate XXXII.; but
seeing the importance of this member, we shall go somewhat fully into the con-
sideration of its operation and management.
2026. Safety Valves.-The simplest form in which these are made is represented
in fig. 801. Let a pipe a a, bb, be bolted to the boiler-plate, and provided with a
α
h
Fig. 801.
ď
e
g
SECTION OF SAFETY-VALVE.
a
h
cover, and a large aperture in the side near the top,
immediately below the cover. A brass tube c c is
fixed inside the tube b, immediately above an aperture
in the boiler-plate-the upper edge is made conical;
into this a valve d fits, the two surfaces being ground
together, so as to make a steam-tight joint. When
the valve d is in its seat e e, the tail of the valve dis
continued downwards a short distance, and the spindle
f upwards, passing through the aperture in the cover
and loaded with a number of weights g, according to
the desired pressure. The steam presses on the under
side of the valve d, with a tendency to raise it out of
its seat; if the pressure increases so as to overcome
the pressure of the weights g, the valve is lifted out of its seat e e, and the steam
escapes through the aperture made in the pipe b b, below the cover. In place
d b of putting the weights as in fig. 801, the
lever safety-valve in fig. 802 is adopted. In
this form the load is placed on the valve a,
indirectly through the intervention of the
lever of the third kind, of which the fulcrum
is at b, and the weight at c. By moving the
weight c along the lever, the amount of pres-
sure on the valve is changed; the farther the
distance of the weight from the valve a, the greater the load on the valve.
2027. To calculate the pressure on a safety-valve, the following data are
Fig. 802.
LEVER SAFETY-VALVE.
а
SAFETY-VALVES.
589
required: (1) the weight of the valve a (a), fig. 802; (2) the effective weight of
the lever at the point d (b); (3) the distance from the point b to d (c); (4) the
distance from d to the point where the weight c hangs (d); and (5) the weight
of c itself (e); then multiply (e) by (d), divide the product thus obtained by
(c), add to the quotient found (a) and (b), the result will be the pressure on the
valve.
ex d÷c+ a + b = pressure.
2028. To graduate the lever d c—that is, to find points at which to hang the
given weight to be used-the following data are required: The given pressure
required on the valve in lbs. (a), the weight of the valve (b), the effective
weight of the lever (c); distance of c to d, fig. 802 (d), the weight which it is
proposed to use as c, fig. 802 (e); then from (a) subtract (b), add to the quotient
(c), multiply the remainder by (d) and divide by b (e)-thus a-b+cxd÷e the
distance from the fulcrum d, fig. 802, to the point at which to hang the weight
to give the desired pressure on the valve. The various distances thus found,
representing various pressures, should be indicated by figures stamped on the
upper side of the lever.
2029. The area of the safety-valve—that is, the surface it presents for the
steam pressing on, or, what is the same thing, the area of aperture for the escape
of the steam-is of great importance. The proportion generally allowed is a
circular inch per 14 horse-power, or 0.8 of a circular inch per horse-power. To
ascertain the weight to be used for loading a valve as in fig. 801, in order to give
any required degree of pressure, square the diameter; multiply this by 7854,
and multiply the area of the valve in square inches thus found by the pressure
required; the quotient will be the weight (plus the weight of the valve itself),
if applied directly, as in fig. 801.
2030. A very excellent safety-valye is that known as the "Spring Safety-
Valve." In this the load on the valve is regulated by the action of a spring, in
a cylindrical case t, fig. 3, Plate XXXII., attached to the boiler. The end of
the lever of the safety-valve is passed over the spindle of the spring, and is
pressed down by turning the nut. The compression of the spring is regulated
by the amount of turning of the nut, the index attached to the valve pointing
out the amount of pressure on each square inch of surface of the valve. Thus,
if the nut is turned down depressing the end of the lever, until the index points.
to the figures 40 on the scale, on the steam exceeding this pressure the valve
will be lifted, and the steam escape.
2031. The area of the valve should be in proportion to the evaporative powers
of the boiler, so as to allow the steam to escape as fast as it is generated; when
it exceeds the desired pressure, if the size would be too great for one valve, this
area should be apportioned to two—the required area being divided between
them in equal proportions. The proportion of area we have given applies to
low-pressure or condensing engines; the following is Mr Bourne's rule for
ascertaining the area when there are two valves: Multiply the collective nomi-
nal horse-power of the engine by 25, to the product add 11.25; extract the
square root of the sum, the result is the diameter of the safety-valve where two
are used.
2032. One of these valves should be enclosed in a locked box, so as to pre-
vent all tampering with the weights by the attendant.
2033. Mr Fairbairn's lock-up safety-valve is very useful. The valve is placed
in a shell of thin brass, opening on a hinge, and secured by a padlock; it is of
such a diameter as to allow the waste steam to escape easily. A weight to give
590
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
the load in the valve may be fixed on any part to give the required pressure;
α
e
b
Fig. 803.
d
g
e
this cannot be altered without
getting inside the boiler. A
handle is provided with a long
slot, this passing through the
boiler top through a stuffing-
box; the safety-valve can be
moved from time to time in
its seat, to prevent it jamming
or rusting in its seat; no ex-
tra load on the valve can be
put by means of this handle.
It will be necessary, when the
boiler is cleaned out, to see
that the attendant has not
availed himself of the oppor-
tunity to add to or tamper
with the weight. In fig. 803
we give a figure of Fairbairn's lock-up valve. a a is the valve cylinder or
pipe, with brass cover b; the valve is weighted by the weight c, attached to the
lever, the centre of which is at h; d the rod connecting the spindle of the valve
with the lever; e the stuffing-box, through which the spindle of the slotted
lever f works; g the handle by which the valve is made to move in its seat to
prevent sticking.
FAIRBAIRN'S LOOK-UP SAFETY-VALVE.
2034. The great danger to be apprehended in using the conical valve is its
jamming or rusting in its seat, thus rendering it immovable. This is more
likely to take place in the form of valve d in fig. 801, as the unequal contraction
and expansion of the cover h h or spindle ƒ may cause the spindle to get fast in
the aperture.
2035. To obviate this sticking of the valve, Mr Nasmyth, the celebrated
Fig. 804.
mechanician of Patricroft
Works, near Manchester, has
introduced what he terms
the "Absolute Safety-valve,"
which effectually meets the
difficulty. We give a repre-
sentation of this in fig. 804.
From this it will be seen
that the valve c itself is
spherical, resting in a coni-
cal seat. The spherical
shape is the best for reduc-
ing the friction. The mo-
tion of the boiling water in
the boiler a a acts upon a
sheet-iron appendage b; and
as this is connected to the
valve by an inflexible rod,
the swaying to-and-fro mo-
tion is communicated to the valve c. The valve resting in the seat, from being
spherical, admits of a continual slight motion in its seat, equally in all direc-
tions, the result of the incessant swaying to-and-fro motion of the sheet-iron
0
α
ს
NASMYTH'S ABSOLUTE SAFETY-VALVE.
са
STEAM MERCURIAL GAUGE.
591
appendage acted upon by the constant ebullition of the water. The portion
of the spherical valve and seat in contact being equal, maintains the close fitting
of the parts. When the steam is up to the desired pressure, the valve rests
on its seat-in a manner floating on the steam so lightly, that the pressure
be said to be equal to no pressure at all. This action, so desirable in a
good valve, is frequently unattainable from the tendency which valves of the
ordinary construction have to stick in their seats. The absence of all spindles
and guiding parts in this valve, in addition to the great value it possesses as
an obviator of the danger of "sticking," gives a high value to it as an efficient
safety-valve.
may
Fig. 805.
40
30
20
40
2036. Steam Mercurial-Gauge.-The safety-valve, when properly acting, affords
in some measure a means of ascertaining the pressure of the steam in the boiler;
its use in this way, however, is exceedingly limited; hence the
necessity of adopting an appliance by which the pressure in the
boiler can be ascertained by inspection at any desired moment :
this is obtained by the use of the steam mercurial gauge. This
ordinarily consists of a long iron tube, bent into the shape of a
U, or an inverted siphon. One end is connected with the
steam space of the boiler, and the other is open to the atmos-
phere. Mercury is poured into the tube, which, when uninflu-
enced by any action, stands at the same level in both legs of
the siphon. But when steam is admitted to the end of the
siphon attached to the boiler, the pressure on one surface of
the mercury depresses it, and correspondingly raises the other.
For every inch the mercury rises in the leg of the tube open to
the atmosphere, an increase of pressure on the boiler of 1 lb. is
indicated. To make this rising of the mercury evident, a small
cork or wooden float should rest on the surface of the mer-
cury in the open leg, this being connected with a scale properly
graduated; the pointer or index pointing to 0 or zero when the
mercury is uninfluenced by the action of the steam. As the
tube is double, it is evident that every rise
of an inch in the open leg indicates a diffe-
rence actually of 2 inches in the level of the
mercury. Correctly stated, a height of 2.04
inches of mercury is a counterpoise to 1 lb.
of steam pressure. This siphon form of
gauge is that which is generally adapted to
low-pressure engines. A form for "high"
pressure is shown in fig. 805. The mercury
is contained in a close steam-tight cup; the
steam is admitted to press on the surface of
the mercury, and forces it up a tube; for each
height of 2 inches of rise a pound pressure
is indicated. One great advantage in the
siphon gauge is, that if the steam rises to
a dangerous pressure, the mercury is blown
out of the tube, thus making it a most effec-
tive safety-valve, as there is then free way
for the steam to pass from the boiler to the atmosphere.
2037. In fig. 806 we illustrate the form of pressure-gauge
known as Bourdon's, in which the figures are indicated on a
Fig. 806.
0 10 20 30
لسليسا
40 5050 70 80
![]
BOURDON'S STEAM-PRESSURE
GAUGE.
MERCURIAL GAUGE FOR
HIGH-PRESSURE
ENGINES.
592
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
round dial. The steam presses on a spirally curved spring in the interior of the
case, and actuates the finger.
2038. Fusible Plates.-Another outlet for the escape of steam, when it attains
to a high pressure, much recommended by some engineers of eminence in this
country, and used in France to a considerable extent, is afforded by the contriv-
ance known as the fusible plate. This is a plate composed of a combination
of metals, alloys of tin and lead, with a small proportion of bismuth, in such
proportions as will insure fusion at a temperature somewhere between 280
to 750 degrees. This plate is covered by a metallic perforated disc, which
allows the metal to ooze through as soon as the steam has attained the tem-
perature necessary to insure the fusion of the plate. It is found essential
to the action of these fusible plates to protect them from the pressure of
the steam, allowing them to be acted upon merely by its temperature; hence
the plan of placing the fusible plate on a strong metallic perforated plate,
which alone is subjected to the steam pressure. "In France," says Mr
Fairbairn, "the greatest importance is attached to these fusible plates.
In this country," he continues, "these alloys are not generally in
use; but in this respect I think we are wrong, as boiler explosions are not so
frequent in France as in this country; and high-pressure steam, from its
superior economy, is more extensively used in France than in England." The
fusible plate is also exceedingly valuable as a preventive of the dangers arising
from the existence of surcharged steam. In boilers set on the oven plan, sur-
charged steam is most likely to be created, as the boiler-plate is sometimes
exposed to the heat of the flues, from the water falling below its proper level.
From the great accession of temperature thus attained by the steam, high
danger of explosion ensues—a state of matters which is not indicated to any
great extent by the safety-valve or vacuum gauge.
2039. Space prevents us from going further into the explanation of the
phenomena attendant upon the existence of surcharged steam,-suffice it to say
that it is a source of danger. To those desirous of going into the matter
thoroughly, we would recommend a perusal of Mr Armstrong's shilling volume
on Steam Boilers, section 28, p. 89.
2040. It is right, however, to state that these fusible plates are not in all
cases to be depended upon. When the alloy is not homogeneous, the mercury
is forced out of the plate, leaving the other material, which is not so easily
liable to be fused. The practice of inserting a plug of lead in the boiler
below water-mark, adopted in the case of locomotives, might be applied with
greater advantage to agricultural boilers than these fusible plates.
2041. Apparatus for Prevention of Priming.-It is of great importance to
have dry steam to work the engine with. Where the steam is immediately
taken from the boiler by an ordinary steam-pipe, a considerable quantity of
water is taken over with it-this being caused by the violent ebullition of the
water, and the general deficiency of steam-room in many of our boilers. The
priming thus caused in the cylinder is a great loss of power. In fig. 807 we
give a figure of an appendage to a boiler for preventing this. Let a a be
the boiler, b b a dome fixed on it, to which steam is admitted by the pipe c;
a dasher" d should be put above the aperture of the steam-pipe c: the water
contained in the steam will be precipitated to the bottom of the dome, from
whence, before starting the engine, or at proper intervals, it may be removed
to the interior of the boiler through a pipe, the stop-valve of which is acted
upon by the rod e and wheel ƒ; the rod e passing through a stuffing-box in the
top of the dome. Still further to insure the separation of the water from the
(6
JOINING OF STEAM-PIPES.
593
steam, a modification of Hawthorn's "separator" may be adopted with advan-
tage; a short length of pipe g g being attached
to the pipe c; the end and body of this being
perforated with holes, the steam must pass
through these before gaining access to c.
The pipe by which the steam is led to the
engine is near f
2042. Encrustation of Boilers.-We have
already adverted to the bad effects of impure
water for raising steam (par. 1959). The
deposit resulting from these lines the inside of
the boiler with a crust more or less difficult to
remove, according to its constitutent parts.
This "encrustation," as it is termed, is a
fruitful source of mischief, and is the cause of
great loss of fuel. Various remedies have
been proposed for this: one-found to be very
effectual, and, moreover, easily obtained-is
Fig. 807.
d
a
α
APPARATUS FOR PREVENTING PRIMING.
g
charcoal," prepared from hardwood broken
into lumps of from a quarter to half an inch,
the fine powder being carefully sifted. These
lumps are put into the boiler, and act as an
absorbent of all salts of lime and the alkaline earths, the salts of iron, and of
nearly all other heavy metals. As the absorbent power is limited, it will have
to be changed from time to time: about a bushel will protect a ten or fifteen
horse boiler for some four weeks or so. Where salts of potash or soda are
dissolved in the water, or in sea-water, the deposit will take place even with
charcoal. The only remedy in this case is to use a "blow-off pipe," placed
at the bottom of the boiler away from the fireplace. The water should be
blown off at intervals through this pipe when the steam is up.
2043. Joinings of Steam-Pipes.-We now come to the methods adopted in
fitting up steam-pipes under the various circumstances of the farm operations,
whether for conveying steam from the boiler to the engine, or to the cooking
apparatus for steaming food for cattle, &c.
Fig. 808.
е
b
(1
2044. The flange-joint is shown in fig. 808. At each end of the pipes a b,
circular flanges c c are cast with bolt-holes, generally four in number: a pack-
ing d, either of vulcanised India-rubber,
plated hemp and white-lead, or a cir-
cular piece of millboard well smeared
with red lead on both sides, is placed
between the two flanges, and the whole
screwed tightly together by the bolts
and nuts e e. Vulcanised India-rubber
washers are the best material for pack-
O
FLANGE JOINT.
e
ing steam-pipes. Where plaited hemp or millboard are used, holes must be
cut to allow the bolts to pass through-the packing assuming the form of two
concentric circles as at f, the outer diameter being somewhat less than the
diameter of flange of pipe b, the inner diameter being somewhat greater than
the bore of pipe. A plaited hemp packing is made by plaiting a few strands of
hemp to form a band, the width of which is a little less than the breadth from
outside of flange of pipe to the bore, and the length of which will be sufficient,
when curved, to form a ring of the diameter as at f
2 P
594
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
Fig. 809.
с
2045. The faucet-joint or "socket," as it is sometimes termed, is shown in
fig. 809. One end of each length a a is enlarged as at b, so that when the
plain end of the pipe g is inserted in it,
there is room left all round, as at c c, to
insert the packing. Still further to se-
cure a good steam-tight joint, snugs are
9 sometimes cast on the pipes, as at d d, ff,
and the two are brought close up by the
bolts and nuts e as shown.
e
ď
FAUCET OR SOCKET JOINT.
J
a
2046. Fig. 810 shows a circular junc-
tion of a horizontal pipe a, with a vertical
one d; the curved portion b being pro-
vided with a faucet or socket, the plain
end of a going into a socket c on the pipe.
2047. Another method of joining pipes is sometimes used with good effects,
if properly made. In the face of each flange a groove is turned, of depth suffi-
cient to take in half the diameter of a wire ring. When the two flanges are
Fig. 810.
a
Fig. 811.
d
f
RING JOINT.
a:
CIRCULAR JOINT.
brought close up to each other, the other half of the wire goes into the corre-
sponding groove. In fig. 811, a a is the pipe, a b its section, c c the groove,
cc' the wire ring; at d e f the joint is shown on a larger scale—ƒ and d
the flanges, e the wire. With this joint no packing is required.
2048. Cements for Steam-Pipes. The best packing for socket-pipes is the
iron cement, composed of four ounces of sal-ammoniac to twenty-eight pounds of
iron-borings: these must be free from dirt and rust. The ingredients are to be
mixed together, and moistened slightly with water. As it spoils with keeping,
only as much should be made as can be used at one time. The cement is
forced between the two pipes by a caulking-chisel and hammer. This cement
hardens very fast, and expands equally with the pipes. Sulphur is sometimes
added, but it is not to be recommended, as it has a deleterious influence on
the iron and on painter's work. In using this cement for the flange-joints, the
skin of the iron should be broken; and if the surfaces be greasy, they should be
well rubbed over with nitric acid, and well washed thereafter with water.
2049. Another cement for joining steam-pipes is the following: "Equal
parts by weight of red-lead and black oxide of manganese in linseed-oil, to
render it of a proper consistency." After the joints are packed, the bolts should
be further tightened, especially if leakage takes place.
Where ranges
2050. Steam-Pipes carried horizontally and underground.
of pipes are carried along horizontally-as when steam is conveyed from
VARIETIES OF STEAM-ENGINES.
Fig. 812.
Fig. 813.
595
the boiler to the steaming apparatus- the great length of pipe, from the
amount of expansion, is apt to loosen the joints and cause leakage. This is
to a certain extent prevented, and the range allowed free motion during expan-
sion, by being placed on rollers, as in fig. 812, where a is the standard for
supporting the roller b, c the steam-pipe. Where pipes are laid horizontally,
a considerable degree of inclination
should be given to them towards the
boiler throughout their length, so as
to return the water of condensation to
the boiler. Where they are placed at a
lower level, as on the floor of a granary
for drying purposes, the pipes may in-
cline towards a small cistern placed at
a lower level, or towards a curved pipe,
as fig. 813, the steam pressure forcing
the water up the pipe a b into the cis-
tern c. A small valve is placed at a,
1-
EXPANSION-ROLLER FOR STEAM-
PIPES.
opening upwards to prevent the return of the water in pipe b.
CISTERN FOR CONDENSED
WATER IN STEAM-PIPES.
2051. In carrying steam-pipes underground from one apartment to another,
across a yard, &c., great care should be taken to prevent the condensation
of the steam in the range of pipes. These, throughout their whole length,
should be carefully covered over with prepared felt, and placed in a box, which
should be well rammed up with non-conducting materials, as sawdust, ashes,
&c., the box being laid in a trench lined with brick, and cemented. All steam-
pipes and boiler-surface exposed to the atmosphere should be also carefully
covered with the prepared felt: a great saving of fuel is invariably effected by
adopting this plan.
Fig. 814.
2052. Communication between steam-pipes is most frequently made by the
ordinary plug or conical cock. This is very apt to leak from the unequal
expansion of the plug, and the body or seat in which it works.
2053. A form of steam stop-valve, as shown in fig.
814, will be in every respect more satisfactory. The
form here illustrated is that manufactured by Messrs
T. Lambert and Son, Short Street, New Cut, Lambeth,
London. a is the valve screwed down by the screw b
and handle c c.
C
a
2054. We have been thus particular in giving direc-
tions as to steam-boilers and their fittings, as very
much of the efficiency of an engine depends upon the
condition of this department-being anxious, moreover,
to take advantage of the limits afforded us to give the
reader as fully as possible an extended notice of the
various appliances, and the results of experience of practical authorities.
STEAM-COOK OR STOP-VALVE.
2055. Varieties of Steam-Engines.-We now propose to give illustrations of
varieties of steam-engines in use, condensing and high-pressure; confining
ourselves, in the first instance, to that class in which the fixed cylinder and
piston are used, leaving for after consideration other varieties involving a
departure, more or less decided, from this principle of action.
2056. Steam-Engines with Fixed Cylinder and Piston.-Steam-engines having
the fixed cylinder and piston are divided into two classes-condensing and
non-condensing, or high-pressure. We have already pointed out the distinction
between high and low pressure steam in par. 1596. Though the condensing
engine is seldom resorted to for agricultural purposes, there is no reason
596
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
why it should not be considered the best and safest; and though the most
expensive in first cost, yet when tear and wear of boiler, and expense of fuel,
caused by the non-condensing engine, are taken into account, the difference
will ultimately be very small, if any difference does exist. Perhaps the
greatest obstacle to the adoption of the condensing engine on farms is the
larger expenditure of water required for it; and though, considering the exten-
sive drainage on all well-managed farms, one would expect a moderate com-
mand of water, yet the reverse of this is the real state of the case on a large
proportion of arable farms. There can be little doubt, however, that, should the
desire for condensing engines ever arise, the means will be found neither distant
nor difficult to procure an adequate supply of that element which alone inherits
the power. As the condensing engine is so seldom employed on the farm, it has
been considered unnecessary to enter into any description of it in detail; but,
at the same time, the few following remarks are thrown out for the information
of those who may possess, or wish to possess, that more perfect machine.
2057. The Condensing Steam-Engine.-The low-pressure or condensing engine,
for both names are equally appropriate, is distinguished from the non-condensing
chiefly from the circumstance of the steam being condensed into water, imme-
diately after it has performed the office of impelling the piston from the bottom
to the top of the cylinder, or vice versâ. It is difficult to convey to the non-
mechanical reader a just conception of this process of alternate action, but an
idea of it may be conceived from the following statement: The vessel denomi-
nated the cylinder is closed, steam-tight, with a lid. The piston fits the interior
of the cylinder, also steam-tight, and has a rod or stem attached to its centre,
passing through a steam-tight stuffing-box formed in the lid. The pipe that
conveys the steam from the boiler may be conceived to divide into two branches,
within a chamber, before it reaches the cylinder, which they enter through the
sides at top and bottom. At the point where these branches separate, they are
brought into juxtaposition with a third opening, that stands in immediate con-
nection with a second vessel called the condenser. A sliding concave cover is
now so adapted to these three apertures as to be capable of opening a communi-
cation between the boiler and either of the two first, which we shall call A and C,
A being in communication with the top and C with the bottom of the cylinder,
while the third opening, B, leads to the condenser, but, by means of the slider,
can be placed in communication with either A or C, that is to say, with the top
or the bottom of the cylinder; and whenever a communication is opened between
B and A, then C is open to the boiler; or, if B and C are made to communicate,
then A is open to the boiler. For the more easy comprehension of this, see fig.
4, Plate XXXI. Suppose that B and C communicate, and that A is open to the
boiler, and that the piston is at rest near the top of the cylinder, steam will
rush through the pipe and open the passage A into the upper part of the cylin-
der, and by its elastic force will cause the piston to descend. When it has
nearly reached the bottom of the cylinder, the slider is made to change its posi-
tion, and now places the passage A in connection with B, while C is placed in
communication with the boiler. The condensing vessel B, previously empty,
and being kept constantly cool by the application of cold water, externally
covering its whole surface, and internally entering it as a jet, receives the
steam returning through A, and, finding no resistance to its passage into B,
rushes thence, and is instantaneously condensed into water, leaving the upper
part of the cylinder nearly a vacuum. At the same instant, steam from the boiler
will flow through the pipe and passage C, which, acting upon the lower side of
the piston, will cause it to ascend, and there being no resistance above the piston,
it will be moved by the whole elastic force of the steam, which, in engines of
LONG D VALVE.
597
this principle, will be about 16 lb. on the square inch of the boiler. When
the piston has nearly reached the top of the cylinder, the position of the slider
is again changed, so as to open the communication between the bottom of the
cylinder through C and the condenser B, and likewise the communication
between A, the top of the cylinder, and the boiler. The steam last introduced
into C will now return into the condenser, and be again reduced to the state of
water, while a fresh charge of steam from the boiler passes into A, by which the
piston is once more made to descend. A few repetitions of such reciprocation
would so fill the condenser as to render it ineffective; but to obviate this,
the air-pump, so called, is added, as an essential appendage to the condensing
engine. The air-pump is placed in connection with the condenser; its prin-
ciple, as regards its connection with that vessel, is in effect the same as the com-
mon sucking-pump, but it is furnished with an additional valve above the range
of its piston, communicating with a super-stratum of water during the ascent
of the piston, and shutting off that communication during the descent; and its
duty in this engine is to withdraw both condensable and incondensable matter
from the condenser, so as to preserve in that vessel a vacuum as perfect as cir-
cumstances will admit of. By the help of the air-pump, then, a constant repeti-
tion of the reciprocations of the steam-piston is preserved, and motion continued
through the action of the beam, crank, &c. After the condenser and air-pump,
the other parts of this engine are essentially the same as in the non-condensing
engine, excepting certain modifications in the apparatus of the boiler, arising
from the inferior degree of steam-pressure employed in the one as compared
with the other. The admission, or "distribution," as it is technically termed,
of the steam to the cylinder, will be better understood by the following descrip-
tion and figure which illustrates the usual arrangement of the "long D valve"
adopted in condensing engines.
Fig. 815.
2058. "Long D Valve."-In fig. 815 we give an explanation of the "long
D valve." Let a a be the piston moving in the
cylinder, c the upper port, d the lower. The slide-
valve is semicircular, open from top to bottom as in
fig. 816; the face a of the valve is kept up against k
the ports; the rod for working the
valve is fixed at ƒƒ, fig. 815. The
upper valve-face is at g, the lower
at h; the steam is admitted to the
space e, and from thence either to the
upper or under side of the piston,
Fig. 816.
α
PLAN OF LONG
D VALVE.
according as the upper or lower port is open. In
the figure the piston is just about descending; the
upper port is opened to admit the steam through
the upper port c, while the lower port d is quite
open, admitting the steam to pass from the under
side of the piston to the condenser, through the
eduction-pipe i to the condenser, or to the atmos-
phere, if high pressure. Packing is placed be-
tween the back of the valve and the valve-casing
at k k.
h
"
α
ď
LONG D VALVE.
2059. In the condensing engine the pressure of the steam seldom exceeds 4
lb. on the square inch, more generally 2 lb., but this is to be understood as the
pressure in the interior surface of the boiler above that of the atmosphere, which is
acting externally on its surface with a pressure equal to 14 lb. on the square inch;
in effect, therefore, the expansive force of the steam is equal to 16 or 18 lb. on the
598
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
*
square inch, in any situation where the atmospheric pressure has been removed.
We have endeavoured to show, in par. 2057, how this atmospheric pressure is
destroyed or removed within the sphere of the condenser, which extends also to
the top and bottom of the piston alternately, by the formation of a vacuum there,
more or less perfect. When perfect, and the surfaces of all the parts with which
the steam is in contact are kept at a temperature equal to that of the steam, the
pressure on the piston will be 16 or 17 lb. on the square inch; this, however,
can never be fully attained—and the loss of force from this and various other
causes, arising from the friction of the working parts of the engine, through
loss of steam by condensation, in passing to the cylinder, &c., has been ascer-
tained to reduce the effective pressure to 9 lb. on the square inch of the piston,*
which is the clear available power of the engine. This conclusion, applied to
an engine for farm purposes, would indicate a cylinder of about 12 inches in
diameter to produce 6-horse power, which is the power usually adopted on the
farm. The consumption of steam by a cylinder of this calibre, after allowing
for waste, would be 190 cubic feet per minute, or 11,400 per hour, and the water
to supply this evaporation, at the temperature required in the boiler to produce
steam of the pressure here supposed, would be 7.6 cubic feet, or nearly 50
gallons per hour. The water required for steam in the condensing engine is
small in quantity compared to that required for condensation, and although the
condensing process may be carried on with less than what may be considered a
full supply, the water thus saved is acquired at a sacrifice of the steam power;
in other words, the engine is caused to work with a less perfect vacuum, which,
counteracting the impulse given by the steam to the piston, destroys a portion
of the effective power. The quantity of cold water required for the most perfect
practicable condensation is allowed to be about 24 times the quantity converted
into steam, or 1200 gallons per hour, equal to 20 gallons per minute for a 6-horse
power engine, and, including that for steam, 21 gallons nearly. With a view,
therefore, of setting down a condensing engine, the very first point required to
be ascertained is a supply of water; and unless this can be obtained in such
quantity as above stated, it will appear doubtful whether or not it be advisable
to adopt an engine of the kind. But the requisite supply of water may be con-
sidered in another point of view. It is seldom that a farm engine is required to
work for more than one day of 12 hours continuously; the quantity of water
required for that period would be 15,000 gallons, or upwards of 2300 cubic feet.
A reservoir would thus be required, sufficient to contain at least one-half of this,
which might be collected during the 12 unemployed hours of the 24; that is to
say, if the constant supply were equal, in round numbers, to 1200 cubic feet in
12 hours, which is a little more than 10 gallons per minute, this quantity, by
storing it up during half the day, would supply the engine with full water
during the remaining half. The capacity of the reservoir must necessarily
be sufficient to contain this half supply, and, for this purpose, it would require
900 square feet of area and 21 feet of depth, or any other suitable dimension, to
bring out the capacity. By returning the water into cooling ponds-and nearly
the whole of it can be returned, as is done in many cases, especially in towns-
a supply greatly below this could be made to serve the purpose. In adopting
such a system, however, the cooling ponds, to which the water is returned at a
temperature varying from 100° to 130°, must have a surface so extended, that no
portion of the water may be required to be returned to the engine until its
temperature has been reduced to less than 70°. If condensation is attempted
with water of a temperature much above 70°, either the quantity so applied must.
* TREDGOLD On the Steam-Engine, p. 206.
THE CRANK - ENGINE.
599
be very large, or the temperature in the condenser must be high: the former
implies a great consumpt of water, the latter a loss of effect from imperfect
condensation. These are important considerations in the use of the condensing
engine, where water is scarce; but to follow them out here is not our purpose.
2060: The inquiring farmer and mechanic will find ample details on this and
all other points of the steam-engine in the works of Tredgold, Farey, Bourne,
and others, which are devoted entirely to it.
2061. The Non-condensing Engine.-Steam-engines of this, as well as all the
other species, are constructed in a great variety of forms, but for farm purposes,
when stationary, they are chiefly confined to three-the beam, the crank over-
head engine, and the horizontal cylinder engine; and, when portable, they are
divided into two classes.
2062. The Crank-Engine.—In the non-condensing engine, the circulation of
the steam from the boiler into and out of the cylinder is precisely the same as has
been described for the condensing engine (par. 2057), until the steam arrives at
that point where it entered the condenser. There being no condensing apparatus
in the engine now under consideration, the passage that, in the former, led to
the condenser, leads in this directly to the atmosphere, into which the steam is
discharged at every half stroke of the piston. An engine on this principle is,
therefore, a machine of extreme simplicity, compared with the former, and on
this account chiefly has its adoption in agriculture become so general. Figs.
1 and 2, Plate XXXIII., are two views of this engine, the first being a front, and
the second a side elevation, without the boiler. The motions of the steam have
been already adverted to; and here it is now only necessary to observe, that
the column no becomes, in this arrangement, a part of the steam-pipe. The
pipe leading from the boiler joins it at n, from whence the steam descends to o;
and passing through that branch and the throttle-valve case l, it enters a channel
that half embraces the cylinder, and opens into a small steam-chest that con-
tains the slide-valve, or D slide. This, in fig. 1, is concealed behind the
cylinder, and in fig. 2 it is also hid behind the column; but in fig. 4, Plate
XXXI., the arrangement is seen in section, as will afterwards be described.
The steam- chest covering the slide being thus in communication with the
boiler, the steam, from its elasticity, is always ready to flow into any channel
that is opened for it. Hence, as the slide is moved alternately from off the
passage leading to the upper and to the lower ends of the cylinder, the piston
is made to reciprocate between the top and bottom. At every change of the
slide, the passage leading to the atmosphere is put in communication with the
top or with the bottom of the cylinder, and the steam-which had, in the
previous stroke, done its duty on the piston-is drawn off and discharged
through a channel corresponding to that by which it entered; and, passing
through the branch q into the column qr, it is discharged into the atmosphere
by the pipe r, which frequently terminates in the chimney.
2063. To follow out, in the first place, the results of the circulating system in
this engine, as has been done in the condensing engine in par 2057, we have to
consider the amount of power from a given area of piston and given pressure of
steam. Unfortunately, there is a wide difference of opinion as to the rule for deter-
mining the power of non-condensing engines; for, while some hold an area of 80
circular inches of piston as equivalent to 6-horse power, others allow an area of 120
of the same inches as requisite to bring out the power of 6 horses. It is more
than probable that these discrepancies have arisen from the circumstance of the
motive power, in this case, being of such a variable nature; for it is so easy to
change the force of steam in the boiler from 25 to 30 or 35 lb. on the inch, that
600
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
the real power becomes quite a nominal quantity. There appears to us a source
of error, also, in the rules given by writers for finding the power of non-con-
densing engines, by their not making proper allowances for that portion of the
original force of steam in the boiler which is lost by friction of parts, &c. Thus,
Tredgold, in his rule for finding the power,* gives a cylinder of 11 inches
diameter for 6-horse power, with steam of 24 lb. in the circular inch, which is
equal to 30 lb. on the square inch. But experience goes to show that this is
too low a calculation; and by a rule which we conceive to be near the truth, an
engine with 11-inch cylinder is nearly 7-horse power. What we conceive to be
the ground of this error is the allowance made for the resistance of the atmos-
phere to the steam, as it is discharged from the cylinder. From the rapid dis-
charge of the steam into the atmosphere, and its natural condensation there, it
may be inferred that an artificial atmosphere is formed, which extends as far as
the limits of this discharge, and of considerable rarity, exerting an influence, as
near as we can estimate, equal to only one-half the natural pressure of the
atmosphere, or 5.75 lb. on a circular inch. With this element, and taking the
loss of expansive force between the boiler and the piston at the usual calcula-
tion of 4-tenths of its pressure in the boiler, leaving 6-tenths as the effective
pressure,† we have the following rule.
Multiply the square of the diameter of the cylinder in inches into 6-10ths
of the entire pressure of the steam in the boiler in lb. on the circular
inch, minus half an atmosphere, or 5.75 lb., on the circular inch; and
the product by the velocity of the piston in feet per minute. The last
product is the power of the engine in lb. raised one foot high per
minute; and for the horse-power divide as usual by 33,000. For
example,
Let the cylinder be 9 inches diameter, the length of stroke 20 inches, and
the number of strokes per minute 84, being equal to a velocity of 214
feet per minute for the piston, and the pressure in the boiler 25 lb. on
the circular inch, equal to 32 lb. on the square inch nearly; then,
(.6 × 25) — 5.75 = 9.35; and
==
92 × 9.35 × 214
33,000
= 5-horse power nearly.
2064. By the rule given above for the power of non-condensing engines, a
cylinder of 10 inches diameter, with a pressure of 25 lb. on the circular inch,
and making 60 strokes per minute, is equal to 6-horse power; and the piston
will move at a velocity of 214 feet per minute, making the consumpt of steam,
allowing for waste, equal to 128 cubic feet per minute, or 7680 per hour. The
proportion of water to steam, consumed at this pressure, is about 1 to 850, or a
little more than 9 cubic feet of water, being about 57 gallons per hour for the
supply of the boiler. This calculation is stated merely to show how small the
quantity is that suffices for a non-condensing engine of 6-horse power.
2065. The complicated passage of the steam through the cylinder has been
alluded to in par. 2057; but, considering how important it is that the farmer
should have a competent knowledge of the machinery with which his business is
carried on, we shall endeavour to render this part of the subject still more definite
by a reference to fig. 4, Plate XXXI. This is an enlarged section of the steam
* TREDGOLD On the Steam-Engine, p. 84.
+ Ibid.
THE CRANK-ENGINE.
601
cylinder and slide-valve, with its case. a is the cylinder, b the piston, c the pis-
ton-rod, and d the cylinder cover, with the stuffing-box through which the piston
moves, steam-tight; e is the steam passage to the upper side of the piston, and ƒ
that to the lower side: these passages lead from the steam-chest 9. The steam-
chest or valve-case is attached to the cylinder in such a way as to embrace the
three openings, A, B, C. The case g contains also the slide h, to which is
attached the slide-rod i, passing through its stuffing-box in the cover of the case.
The slide-rod is acted upon by the eccentric on the crank-shaft, which is so
adjusted as to move the valve at the precise time and place required for the due
admission and emission of the steam to and from the cylinder. In the figure,
the slide is in the position that connects the opening C with the opening B;
or, in other words, the passages are open that allow the steam under the piston
—which is now upon its descent-to escape in the direction of the arrow,
through B, into the atmosphere; while the steam from the boiler enters the case
by the aperture k, and, passing directly to the opening A, passes through e into
the cylinder, causing the piston to descend. When the piston has reached near
to the middle point of its stroke, the slide begins to move from its present posi-
tion; and when the piston has reached within 1 or 2 inches of the bottom
—for this varies according to the views of the engineer—the orifice A will have
been shut off from its connection with the case g, and immediately thereafter
the orifice C is opened into g, the connection between C and B having, in the
short interval, been cut off by the movement of the slide; and previous also to
the commencement of the piston's ascent, the communication between B and A
is opened by the same movement, permitting now the steam above the piston
to escape through e and B to the atmosphere. This new position of the slide
causes the ascent of the piston, and a repetition of the movements in the reverse
order produces again the descent of the piston, and so on.
The
2066. To return to the structure of the crank-engine, the parts of which it
consists may be described as follows: a a, Plate XXXIII., is the wall separating
the engine-house from the barn, b b the level of the engine-house floor, and c c the
sole-plate on which the superstructure of the engine is raised. The sole-plate
is bolted down to a mass of solid masonry, to give it perfect stability. The
masonry usually consists chiefly of two blocks of stone, each about 5 feet in
length, 2 to 2 feet in breadth, and at least a foot in depth; these are laid upon
a foundation of coursed masonry, from 1 to 2 feet in depth, as the locality may
require, and the bolts pass down through all. The two columns d are secured
to the sole-plate by two of the above-described bolts, which take hold of the
column by means of strong cotterels passing through the column and the bolt;
which last is secured under the masonry by a screw-nut or by a cotterel.
tops of the columns are secured in various ways, but in the present case
by means of a beam of cast-iron e e, forming an entablature which extends across
the engine-house and rests at each end in the walls; the connection between
this and the columns being also effected by bolts and cotterels. A guide-bar i
extends between the two columns, through which the head of the piston-rod
passes, to preserve its parallelism; and this constitutes the whole framework of
the engine. The working parts remaining to be described consist of the con-
necting-rod h, which joins the piston-rod with the crank k, which last is firmly
fixed upon the crank or main shaft 7, which has its bearings in the beam e and
wall a. The fly-wheel m is placed upon the crank-shaft, its purpose being to
equalise the motion of the engine. It is necessarily of considerable weight, and
the diameter should not be less than 8 feet; the section of its rim being equal
in area to 16 square inches, yielding a total weight of from 14 to 15 cwt.
602
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
2067. Tredgold has given a rule for determining the weight of a fly-wheel in the
following terms: "Multiply 40 times the pressure on the piston in pounds by
the radius of the crank in feet; divide this product by the cube of the radius of
the fly-wheel multiplied into the number of its revolutions per minute; the result
is the sectional area of the rim of the fly in inches." To apply this rule to the
case before us, we have the pressure on the piston, which is 10 inches diameter,
equal to 10² × 25 × .6 = 1500 lb., radius of the crank .91 foot, radius of fly-wheel
4 feet, and making 60 revolutions per minute, then
1500 × 40 ×.91 60,000 = 15 inches nearly,
43 × 60
3840
which gives a weight of rim equal to about 11 cwt., and, with the eye and
arms, will amount to 14 or 15 cwt., as before stated.
2068. The crank-shaft carries also the two eccentrics at y, the one for the
pump-rod z, to which is jointed the plunger a' of the pump for supplying water
to the boiler. The other eccentric moves the slide-valve rod seen between the
column and the pump-rod; and the shaft likewise carries the pair of bevel-
wheels that give motion to the governor t. The governor is supported at bottom
on the bracket u, and at top runs in a collar of the V bracket V₁ bolted
beam e.
upon the
2069. The essential parts of the governor are the two oblique rods b'b' with the
balls c'c' attached at their lower extremity; and these being suspended by a joint
on the vertical axis d' d', the whole is rendered capable of revolving horizontally
upon that axis. In this form it is known as the conical pendulum, and was first
applied as a regulator of the steam-engine by Watt. If the vertical distance be-
tween the points of suspension of the rods, and the plane in which the centre of
gravity of the balls and rods revolve, be made the same as that of the common
seconds pendulum, and the balls be made to revolve, they will have no tendency
either to rise or fall by their centrifugal action, if each revolution is performed in
two seconds, being the time that a common pendulum takes to make a vibration
forward and back to the same point, or 30 revolutions in a minute. It is this prin-
ciple that gives the conical pendulum value as a regulator; for if the machine
that gives motion to the governor is accelerated, from a reduction of resistance
or other causes, the revolving balls partake of the acceleration, and the centri-
fugal action, thus generated, gives them a tendency to fly off from the centre of
revolution. This outward motion is converted into the means of regulation, for
while the balls and rods extend their circle of gyration, they act upon the two
jointed arms e' e', which meet in the sliding piece f", where they are also jointed,
and f' is drawn upward. A lever is frequently attached to f' by a fork; but in this
example the lever w is applied to the collar g' above the joint of the rods, and this
collar being connected to f' by two slender side-rods, they move together, and
the lever w being suspended near its centre h', has the opposite extremity jointed
to the rod x, the lower end of which acts upon the lever of the throttle-valve.
In small engines, the arms of the governor are never made equal in length to
the seconds pendulum, but of such length as will accord with velocities of 40
or 45 revolutions per minute; and the length of arm to produce this is easily
found by the common rule for the length of pendulums,-their vibrations being
as the square root of their length,-and the revolutions of the conical pendulum
being half the number of vibrations of a common pendulum of the same length.
2070. The throttle-valve, to which the effects of the governor are directed, is
a thin circular plate of metal, having an axis fixed across its diameter, and is
nicely fitted into the steam-way, passing through the case p. The spindle
THE BEAM - ENGINE.
603
passes through the sides of the case steam-tight, and carries on one end a small
lever by which the valve can be turned; and the lever is put in connection with
the lower end of the rod x. The extension of the balls of the governor acting
on the slide f', and from that, through the lever and rod w and x, depresses the
lever of the valve, and by thus turning the valve, reduces the steam-way, and
prevents further acceleration of the machine.
2071. In setting down the engine, we have to consider the space necessary to
receive it. This, in the direction of the barn wall, need not be larger than
81 feet, or a few inches more than the diameter of the fly-wheel; the breadth
in the other direction should not be less than 8 feet, but may extend to 9 or
9 feet.
In almost every case, this form of engine is the most commodious for
application to a thrashing-machine, especially in regard to the dimension
of height; for the height that the crank-shaft stands above the floor of the
engine-house will generally bring it near to the large spur-wheel, which,
though not in all thrashing-machines, is yet to be found in a large majority of
them. This is supposing that the floor of the engine-house is nearly on a level
with the barn-floor, which will generally be the case, unless artificially changed.
2072. The Beam-Engine. In reference to the beam-engine, the mode of action
of the steam in its passage to and from the engine, the quantity of steam and
of water, the power, the regulating and governing, and, indeed, every essential
principle, being common to it and the crank-engine, par. 2062, it becomes unne-
cessary to say more than merely to point out the difference in construction.
Figs. 1 and 2, Plate XXXIV., represent the beam-engine of 6-horse power;
fig. 1 being an elevation, and fig. 2 a plan: the same letters refer to both figures.
The sole-plate, a a a, is bolted down to the seat, consisting of solid masonry,
as described in par. 2066; but in this case the pit extends to a distance equal to
that between outside and outside of the end columns, the width being about 20
inches, and the depth varying from 3 to 7 feet, according to the position of the
barn and the engine-house, and of the large gearing. The bolts that secure
the sole-plate lay hold also of the columns bb, fixed with cotterels: c is
the entablature frame, bolted to and securing the heads of the columns. To
this is bolted the carriage of the main centre of the engine-beam h h. A small
portion of the wall that separates the barn from the engine-house is at d.
The cylinder is e, f the piston-rod, and g g the parallel motion,—the medium
of connection between the piston-rod and the beam. A parallel or rectilineal
motion of some sort is a necessary appendage to the beam-engine; for as the
extremity of the beam, in its vibration, describes an arc of a circle, while
the piston-rod must describe a rectilineal course, a direct junction of the two is
incompatible; hence the absolute necessity of some medium being interposed
to allow the two to act in concert. This object is attained by the parallel motion
here figured, which was, in its original form, the invention of Watt; and
though it appears under various modifications, they may be all reduced to one
principle, the object of which is to procure a point or points in the construction
that shall describe a straight line. In the figure, the point to which the piston-
rod is attached, and also that to which the pump-rod h' is attached, possesses
the property within certain limits. Though this arrangement of parts goes by
the name of the parallel motion, it is only within certain limits that the motion
of the points alluded to preserves a strictly rectilineal course; and towards, but
especially beyond the limits, the deviations are very considerable, going on
with increasing deviation, till the motion of the point ends in a returning
curve or loop. Notwithstanding this apparent defect, the motion is sufficiently
perfect for all practical purposes, provided the longitudinal axis of the beam h,
604
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
in the extreme points of its vibrations, does not subtend an angle exceed-
ing 36°.
2073. That end of the beam which is opposite to the parallel motion has the
connecting-rod i jointed to it, and the latter is connected to the crank k by means
of the crank-pin or journal, which turns within a bearing in the lower end of i.
The crank is firmly attached to the main or crank-shaft l, which is supported in
two plummer-blocks, one in the sole-plate a, and one upon the wall d, and it
also carries the fly-wheel m, of dimensions similar to that formerly described
in pars. 2066 and 2067. As will be seen in the figures, the fly-wheel in this
engine is nearly half immersed in a pit formed for its reception.
2074. Regarding the distribution of the steam in this engine, it enters by the
pipe n, fig. 2, Plate XXXIV., passing through the throttle-valve case p, and
after performing its duty in the cylinder, is discharged through the pipe o into
the atmosphere, either directly or through the chimney. The lever of the
throttle-valve is q, and r is the top of the slide-valve case; t t the eccen-
tric rod, acted upon by an eccentric placed on the crank-shaft, over which
the circular extremity of the rod t passes, and by its alternate action causes
the vibrations of the wiper by the arm u, fig. 1, and whose opposite arms are
jointed to the cross-head at v of the slide-rod r. The small bevelled wheel w,
on the crank-shaft, gives motion to the upright shaft y of the governor; and
the saddle-shaped carriage x, which spans over the crank-shaft, forms a foot-
step for the governor-shaft, while its upper journal is supported in a bracket
projected from the entablature c, but is hidden from view in the figure. The
governor is partially seen at z in fig. 1; its construction is the same as that
described in par. 2069, and its motions are communicated to the safety-valve
through the rods a' and b'.
2075. The pump for supplying water to the boiler is attached to the sole-
plate by means of the cross-bar a a, fig. 2; and c' is the pump-chamber, e' the
case of the upper valve, d' the case of the lower, and f' is the suction-pipe
proceeding to the well or cistern, while i' is the pipe which conveys the supply
to the boiler. Pumps of this kind are generally worked on the principle of
forcing, with a solid piston or plunger, which is here represented at g', and is
connected by a socket and key-joint to the pump-rod h'.
2076. Setting on and Stopping the Engine.-The setting on and stopping the
non-condensing engine is an exceedingly simple operation; and its simplicity
is even simplified by the addition of a cock or valve on the steam-pipe, which
is very frequently adopted, and in that case the throttle-valve is not required
to be so accurately fitted as where no stop-cock is employed. To set on the
engine, the steam must first be brought up to the requisite degree of pressure.
When this is accomplished, which is known by the safety-valve rising so as to
allow the escape of steam, the stop-cock, if there is one, is opened, the throttle-
valve being also open; the steam is admitted both above and below the piston,
by moving the slide with the handle of the wiper-shaft u, to heat the cylinder,
the eccentric-rod t being at the time disengaged from the shaft. This done,
the gab of the eccentric rod is laid upon the arm of the wiper-shaft; and if
the crank is in a horizontal position, the engine may start off without assist-
but if it does not move, the fly-wheel is to be pushed round a few feet,
or until the crank has once passed the centres, when it will move on freely.
If no resistance is upon the engine, the throttle-valve should be put nearly
shut, but as soon as the resistance comes-the commencement of thrashing, for
example-the throttle-valve lever q is to be connected to the vertical rod b',
and the work will proceed regularly.
ance;
CONDENSING BEAM - ENGINE.
605
2077. In stopping, where there is a stop-cock, the shutting of it puts a stop.
to further motion, except what the momentum of the parts may continue to
give out for a few seconds. Where there is no stop-cock, the first step is
to disengage the throttle-valve lever q, and close the valve; and immediately
after disengaging the eccentric rod t from the wiper-shaft u, the engine will
stop. It is advisable to keep the eccentric rod t disengaged at all times
when the engine is standing.
2078. As the engine-house is seldom accessible directly from the barn, there
ought always to be means established for communicating a signal between the
two places; and this should proceed from the chief of the operation—the per-
son who feeds the machine. As there can be but two propositions to make—to
set on and to stop-one signal is sufficient, and a bell seems to be the most con-
venient medium of communication.
2079. Condensing Beam-Engine.-In Plate XXXV. we give a series of figures
illustrative of the arrangements of a 12-horse beam condensing steam-engine.
Fig. 1 is the side elevation, fig. 2 the plan, fig. 3 the plan of entablature, fig.
4 an end elevation at cylinder, fig. 5 an end elevation at connecting-rod, and
fig. 6 plan of beam.
2080. The foundation a a, fig. 1, is of stone or brick; bb the cylinder; c the
piston; d'd', fig. 4, the cross-head and side-rods for working the valves; dd,
fig. 1, the valve-casing; e the slide-valve; ƒ the eduction-pipe leading to the
condenser g, placed in the cold-water cistern h h; j k the air-pump; the hot-
water cistern; m the hot-water feed-pump; n the cold-water pump, to supply
cistern h; p'p' framing; pp entablature; qq beam vibrating on the centre
plummer-block r; s s the connecting-rod; t the governor; u the crank; v the
eccentric, for working the valves. In fig. 6, the plan of beam, a a is the main
centre; bb the studs to which the cold-water pump-rod y, fig. 1, is fixed; co
the studs to which the hot-water pump-rod x, fig. 1, is fixed; d d, the studs
for the rod w, fig. 1, of the air-pump; e e the studs of the main links 1, fig. 1,
and ff those of the connecting-rod s s, fig. 1. The same letters of reference
apply to all the figures.
2081. The operation of the engine remains now to be described. The steam,
after working the piston, say during the up-stroke, passes down the eduction-
pipe to the condenser, where it comes into contact with the jet of cold water
projected into its interior: a vacuum is thus formed below the piston, which has
reached the top of the cylinder. By the action of the eccentric, the slide-valve
is made to open the upper steam-port, through which the steam is admitted
above the piston into the vacuous space below the piston; the piston
descends, the upper steam-port is thus closed, and a communication made
through it with the condenser; the steam from above the piston rushes through
the port down to the eduction-pipe into the condenser. A vacuum is now
formed above the piston, and by the eccentric the slide-valve is made so as to
open the lower port for admission of steam, when the same action goes on as
just described.
By this means an up-and-down motion is imparted to the
piston and piston-rod. This reciprocating motion is imparted to the working-
beam, which is poised or balanced on its centre, and the reciprocating move-
ment is changed into a continuous circular one, by connecting the end of the
beam furthest from the cylinder to a crank, by means of a connecting-rod. As
there are two points in each revolution of the crank, termed the "dead points,"
in which the reciprocating movement of the beam and connecting-rod has no
tendency to make the crank revolve, a heavy fly-wheel is fixed on the crank-
shaft, the momentum of which, being derived from the action of the crank when
receiving the full force of the engine, carries round the crank past the "dead
606
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
points," and thus keeps up a continuous motion (more or less perfect) of the
crank-shaft and fly-wheel. In fig. 1 the crank u is midway between the
"dead points." When the piston is at the bottom of the cylinder, the
tendency of the connecting-rod is to pull the crank upwards out of its bear-
ings, while the tendency, when the piston is at the top of the cylinder, is to
press it downwards. While the ends of the beam describe portions of a
circle, the piston-rod is made to move in a straight line by means of the
beautiful mechanism known as the "parallel motion," as already described
in par. 2072. The vibrating motion of the working beam imparts a recipro-
cating motion to the rods of the hot and cold water pumps and the air-pump,
by which the pistons or plungers of the same are worked. After being
condensed, the water of condensation resulting is withdrawn from the con-
denser by the air-pump, and delivered into a hot-water cistern, from which
it is pumped by the force-pump, and delivered to supply the boiler. To
regulate the supply of steam to the cylinder, the contrivance of the "governor"
is used. When the engine is working too fast, the balls, from the centrifugal
force generated by the revolution of the spindle to which they are attached,
fly outwards, and thereby move a lever, or series of levers, by which the
valve is closed (more or less), by which the steam is admitted to work the
cylinder. On the engine working more slowly, the balls drop inwards, and the
lever opens the valve. Such is a general explanation of the movements of a
condensing beam steam-engine.
2082. Horizontal High-Pressure Engine.-In Plate XXXVI. we give figures
of one of the third class of stationary agricultural engines—namely, a horizontal
engine, manufactured by Messrs Clayton and Shuttleworth of Lincoln. Fig. 1
is a side elevation, fig. 2 a plan, fig. 3 an end elevation at cylinder end, and
fig. 4 an end elevation at crank end.
2083. In fig. 1, a a a a is the foundation or engine-bed; b b the sole-plate
framing, bolted securely down to the bed; cc the cylinder; d the cylinder-
gland or stuffing-box; e e the piston guide-bars or slides; f the piston-rod
cross-head; g the lubricating cup for the guide-bars; h the piston-rod; i i
the connecting-rod; j the crank; k k the eccentric rod, for working the
steam-valve; 7 the eccentric for working the connecting-rod m, jointed to the
plunger of the pump n, which supplies the boiler with water; oo the pedestal,
in which the crank-shaft p revolves; qq the fly-wheel; rrr a driving-belt
passing round a pulley on the fly-wheel shaft, and over a second pulley s,
driving the gearing of the governor ttt; u the steam supply-pipe. In fig. 2
(the plan) the same letters denote similar parts in fig. 1; the additional letters
v v showing the valve-casing; w the lever of the throttle-valve; x x the
pedestal, supported by the wall yy, for supporting the extremity of fly-wheel
shaft pp; q q the fly-wheel. In fig. 3, a a is the engine-bed; b b the sole-
plate; cc the cylinder; d d the valve-casing; e e the steam supply-pipe;
f the throttle-valve handle; g g the fly-wheel shaft, supported by the pedestals
hh; i the eccentric, for working the plunger of the pump j; k k the fly-wheel.
In fig. 4, a a is the engine-bed; bb the sole-plate; c c the connecting-rod;
dd the crank; e e the fly-wheel shaft, supported by the pedestals fff; 9 g
the fly-wheel; h the governor; i the eccentric, for working the plunger of the
pumpj; k the eccentric, for working the slide-valve.
2084. Portable Steam-Engines.-Having now described and illustrated various
examples of the class of stationary, we come to describe those of the next class,
or portable engines.
2085. Portable engines are those in which all the parts are self-contained,
·
TUXFORD'S PORTABLE ENGINE.
607
requiring no fixed or permanent location, but can be easily moved from one
place to another. They may be divided into classes: 1st, Those which are
designed to be worked under cover, but are so far portable as to be easily
removed from one part of an apartment to another, or from one apartment to
another; 2d, Those removable from place to place, from one part of the farm
to another, and to be worked in the open air or under cover indifferently. As an
example of those to be worked under cover, we present two figures in Plate
XXXVII. of a crank over-head engine, manufactured by Mr Wm. Walker,
engineer, Lower King Street, Manchester. Fig. 1 is a front, and fig. 2 a side
elevation: the letters refer to both figures. The framing a a is square in sec-
tion, tapering upwards; the base-plate b is continued forwards, to afford a bed-
plate to which to secure the cylinder c; the guide-bars d d are bolted to the
framing at their upper and at their lower extremities to snugs or ears cast
on the cylinder flange; e e the piston-rod cross-head; ff the connecting-rod;
g the crank; h h the crank-shaft, supported by the pedestals ii; j the eccentric,
for working the valve-rod k k; 7 the steam or valve chest; m m the fly-wheel;
n n the driving-belt pulley; o the eccentric, and p the eccentric rod, for working
the pump q which supplies the boiler; rrr the governor.
2086. As an example of portable engines movable from place to place, we
give, in Plate XXXVIII., figures of the well-known engine manufactured by
Messrs Tuxford and Sons, agricultural engineers, Boston. In fig. 1 is given
a longitudinal section, in fig. 2 an end elevation, in fig. 3 a front elevation, and
in fig. 4 a transverse section.
2087. a, figs. 1 and 4, the furnace; b longitudinal flue, with water-space b' b'
dividing same, and thus constituting, as it were, two flues; c take-up from flues
to the tubes or smoke-box; d d tubes; e smoke-box leading into the chimney; ƒƒ
chimney, with a perforated dome g, capable of being elevated by the rod h, which
is made to slide up or down by the finger-buckles i, fig. 3; j joint to chimney, by
which the upper portion is made to fall backward when travelling; kk steam-pipe;
7 7 steam-regulator, for admitting or cutting off the supply of steam along the
steam-pipe m m; n the throttle-valve, which is acted upon by the governor x,
fig. 3, through the medium of a rod which passes through the hollow governor-
spindle; o the steam-chest, to which a passage conducts from the throttle-
valve n, within the foundation-plate, on which the chest and cylinder stand;
p the cylinder of engine; q the cross-head to which the piston is attached:
side-straps connect this lower cross-head with an upper one, which works up
and down in guides in the steeple y; from this upper cross-head descends
the connecting-rod which is connected with the crank: r, fig. 3, the force-pump,
which has its plunger connected with the cross-head q; a water passage leads
from the pump through the foundation-plate, and an upright pipe afterwards
connects with the water-regulator s, fig. 1, which passes the water into a small
chamber or water-door t: against this water-door the fire strikes after passing
through the flues, and before it is returned through the tubes d d; the door,
therefore, acts the part of a water-heating apparatus, whilst, at the same time,
it prevents the engine-house from becoming unnecessarily hot: uu the exhaust-
pipe, passing from the engine-house along and within the boiler, and turning
up into the chimney; v the safety-valve, with a Salter's pressure-gauge w;
x, fig. 3, the governors; y the steeple, with guides for connecting-rod; zz the
fly-wheel, used also as a driving-pulley; z'z' a pulley for driving any
machinery from, which does not require so high a velocity as that driven from
the fly-wheel; a, fig 2, a' fig. 1, a door to the smoke-box e: this door is readily
opened, and admits of the tubes being easily brushed out, the soot and ashes

608
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
being forced into the take-up c, fig. 1, where they are consumed, or are raked
out through the flues b into the furnace a: c', fig. 1, the furnace-door; c, fig. 4,
water-space dividing the flue into two parts bb; d d, fig. 2, common water
gauge-cocks; e glass water-gauge.
2088. The chief features of Tuxford & Sons' patent portable steam-engines may
be summed up as follows-viz.: 1st, A vertical cylinder, with steeple arrangement
of engine, the upper cross-head working in guides, capable of adjustment, for
keeping them perfectly true, the engine being placed in an iron house, and
under lock and key. 2d, The boiler, combining the advantages of both the flue
and tubular boiler, and, whilst retaining the economy and portability of the
tubular boiler, is released from the serious drawback against the tubular boiler
-viz., the great tendency of becoming leaky at the tube-plates where the tubes
join them. This great defect is partly accounted for from the circumstance of
the tubes being of much lighter material than the other portions of the boiler;
and when the furnace-door is opened for throwing on fuel, a rush of cold air
enters, and, passing along the tubes, has on them a more sensible effect than
on the other and stronger portions of the boiler, and hence a greater contrac-
tion;
whilst on the closing of the door a succeeding expansion takes place, and
these alternating influences speedily cause the leakage so generally complained
of, with the great expense of frequent renewal of the tubes. Tuxford's boiler
is stated to remedy this defect, from the circumstance of the flues through
which the fire first passes being of the strongest substance of the boiler.
There being a greater amount of resident heat in the thick substance of the
flues than in the thinner substance of the tubes, the flues are not so sensibly
affected upon the opening of the door for feeding the fire; and the air which
enters, becoming heated as it passes along, when it reaches the tubes, enters
Fig. 817.
them at a very different tempera-
ture than is the case with the ordi-
nary tubular boiler. 3d, A safety
spark-trap to the chimney, by
means of the perforated dome.
2089. In fig. 817 we give a per-
spective view of the smoke-box end
of this engine. Although the plan
of having the working parts
under cover is possessed of many
advantages, it is but right to state
that the high temperature of the
air with which they are surrounded
adds to the cost and to the diffi-
culty of maintaining efficient lubri-
cation.
2090. Haywood's Portable En-
gine.-In fig. 818 we give an ele-
vation of a very compact form of
portable engine of 2-horse power,
manufactured by Mr James Hay-
wood, jun., of Phoenix Foundry,
Derby. From its small size it
can be easily transferred from.
place to place. It is of sufficient
power to work chaff-cutters, turnip-pulpers, and thrashing-machines for small
HARE
تحححححة
END ELEVATION (AT SMOKE-BOX END) OF TUXFORD'S PORTABLE
ENGINE, IN PERSPECTIVE.
HAYWOOD'S PORTABLE ENGINE.
609
farms. The boiler answers the purpose of a steaming apparatus for the pre-
paration of food for cattle. In the illustration a a is the boiler, b b the steam
Fig. 818.
h
h
EEEEE
e
ს
d
α
SIDE ELEVATION OF HAYWOOD'S PORTABLE ENGINE.
dome or separator; c the steam-pipe leading to cylinder d; e e, fly-wheel; ƒƒ,
ff,
pulley for driving-belt; g eccentric rod for working pump to supply boiler
with water; h h, the spring safety-valve.
2091. In Plate IX. we give in fig. 1 a side elevation, and in fig. 2 a plan of
a portable steam-engine, manufactured by Messrs Ransome and Sims of Ipswich.
In fig. 1, pp is the cylinder; q q, r r, s s, t t, u the reversing gear hereafter
described; v v fly-wheel or chimney; x smoke-box; y y steam-dome; z lever
of spring safety-valve; 1, spring balance of safety-valve; 2, plate opposite
fire-door; 3 3, hind wheels; 4 4, front wheels.
2092. Boydell's Endless Railway for the Conveyance of Portable Engines from
place to place.—The present seems to be the most fitting place to notice a
recent invention, now attracting the attention of agricultural machinists. We
allude to the principal feature of the traction-engine of Mr Boydell, known as the
"endless railway;" this being mechanism applicable to wheels of carts or por-
table locomotive engines, to enable them to go over the softest ground, and
overcome obstacles which would, under ordinary circumstances, be difficult to be
overcome, if not insuperable, and, by greatly facilitating the draught, econo-
mises steam and horse power to a considerable extent.
2093. The original patent was taken out in 1846, and was for apparatus which
"consisted in the application of movable detached parts of a railway to the
wheels of carriages, whereby each part is successively placed by its wheel on
the road or land over which the carriage travelled, each part of the portable
railway when down allowing its wheel to roll over it, the wheel depositing and
lifting the parts of the railway in succession." In 1854 a second patent was
taken out for improvements, consisting "in the application of side pieces to
2 Q
610
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
each portion of the movable rails, so as to obtain a more extended bearing for
the rails whilst the wheel is passing over them; and for the construction of
parts of the portable rails, by combining tough iron and wood to obtain great
strength with lightness."
2094. In fig. 819 we give an illustration of the arrangement of a wheel with
Fig. 819.
the parts of the endless railway attached;
fig. 820 being a view of one of the separate
parts of which this is constructed; and
fig. 821 that of one of the double guides
fixed to the side of the wheel, by which
these parts are lifted from and deposited
on the ground in succession. The parts of
the rails, fig. 819, on which the wheels run
are affixed to a plate, of which the surface
is considerably wider than that of the tire of
the wheel. By this arrangement a broad
bearing surface is afforded, preventing the sinking of the wheels into the soil.
The ends of the bearing-plates match into each other, and extend beyond the por-
tion of the rail fixed to them. This is done so that when the wheel arrives at one
end of a portion of the rail, a portion of the bearing-rail is still left over, and the
wheel is received on to and supported by the portion of the rail on the succeeding
bearing-plate, before it leaves the bearing-plate of the previous part.
BOYDELL'S ENDLESS RAILWAY.
2095. In fig. 820 each portion of the rail a a a is fixed to the bearing-plate b,
Fig. 820.
"
b
с
"
a
DETAIL OF RAIL OF ENDLESS RAILWAY.
e
to which a triangle c c is affixed; this passes between the guide-plates de, fig.
Fig. 821.
e
g
O
821, affixed to the side of the wheel, a
pair being given to each bearing-plate. A
stud or pin f, fig. 820, is attached to the
triangle, and the guide-plates have raised
pieces g, fig. 821, with hollows or notches i.
Stops, e, fig. 820, are also provided, one on
one end of the bearing-plate, the others.
projecting from the side of the wheel in
certain positions, six of these projecting
stops being applied to it. There are thus twelve stops-one to each of the
six bearing-plates, and six to the wheel. The studs ƒ and stops e are necessary
d
DOUBLE GUIDE FOR ENDLESS RAILWAY.
DIRECT-ACTING ENGINES.
611
to lay the bearing-plates correctly on the ground, in manner following: On the
wheel revolving, the stud f, fig. 820, of the bearing-plate enters the farthest notch
i, fig. 821, in the guide-plate, whilst the projecting stop of the wheel takes
into the stop e, fig. 820, in the bearing-plate. Similar stops may be applied
in the opposite position to assist in backing the wheel, and the bearing-plates
will be taken up or lifted correctly by the studs ƒ coming into the back notch of
the guide-plates de, fig. 821, the other end of the bearing-plates coming into
contact with the stops. By these arrangements the parts of a portable railway
will at all times be laid down and taken up correctly, notwithstanding the
bearing-plates are detached, and independent of each other.
2096. The invention has been applied in numerous instances to ordinary carts
and waggons, and by the authorities at the War Office, for the dragging
of heavy guns over yielding surfaces: for this latter purpose it has been
very successful. It is also becoming largely applied to portable steam-engines,
enabling them to do much of the carting operations of the farm. It is but
justice to the inventor, whose untiring efforts are worthy of all praise, to state
that we have repeatedly seen a portable steam-engine to which the "endless
railway" was attached, go over ground and obstacles with ease which would
have brought an engine with ordinary wheels to a complete stand-still.
2097. Direct-acting Engines.-The expense attendant upon the variety of mov-
ing-parts in the ordinary beam-engine, as the examples in Plates XXXIV. and
XXXV., in order to convert the rectilinear motion of the piston into the circular
one of the fly-wheel, renders it a difficult matter to produce it very cheaply; the
class of engines, therefore, known as the "direct-acting," have come much into
use, especially where low powers are required. In direct-acting engines, the
aim is to transmit the power of the piston-rod as directly as possible to the
crank-shaft. This is done very generally by attaching a cross-head to the piston-
rod, as e e, fig. 1, Plate XXXVII., causing this to slide between guides dd; the
connection between the cross-head and the crank g being effected by the con-
necting-rod f. All the forms of high-pressure engines we have given, with one
or two exceptions, are of this class of direct-acting engines.
2098. A very obvious disadvantage possessed by this form is the friction caused
by the working of the cross-head between the guides, and the exact parallel
movement being prevented by the cross-pull caused by the throw of the crank.
To prevent the friction as much as possible, care should be taken to have the
form of the working surfaces calculated to work together with as little friction as
practicable. Where it can be used, brass should form one of the working surfaces,
iron and brass working together with less friction than iron and iron; the working
surfaces should be flat, and parallel to one another. In one form of portable
agricultural engine we noticed a very objectionable form of piston-guide. The
cross-head was in the form of what may be called the tenon of a
"dovetail
joint;" the surface on which it moved being a long bar, the shape of which was
such as to pass into the angular dovetail opening of the cross-head, after the
manner of a mortise. The intention here was obviously to save material and
workmanship, by having the cross-head and guide as compact as possible; but
from the peculiar form and comparatively large extent of the rubbing surfaces,
a very considerable amount of friction was induced.
2099. The second disadvantage of the form of direct-acting engines now
under consideration-namely, the thrust and pull in the piston-rod by the throw
of the crank—is much lessened by increasing the length of the connecting-rod.
This is generally effected by making the frame higher, as in fig. 1, Plate
XXXVII. Some engines have a connecting-rod as long as four times the stroke;
a usual length is 2 feet of length for a 10 or 11 inch stroke.
612
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
2100. Steam-Engines with Movable Cylinder and Piston.-The second class of
steam-engines are those which have movable cylinders and pistons, one
example of which, applicable to agriculture, is given in an oscillating engine.
2101. Oscillating Engines.-The second class of direct-acting engines is that
known as the "oscillating engine." In this form the cylinder is not fixed, but
vibrates or oscillates on centres, these centres, or "trunnions," as they are termed,
forming the supply and exhaust steam-pipes. As the piston-rod stuffing-box of
the cylinder moves in the arc of a circle, the reciprocating motion of the piston-
rod adapts itself to the various positions of the revolving crank; thus a connect-
ing-rod is dispensed with, and the piston-rod attached to the crank-pin at once.
There is a large variety of engines of this class introduced into practice; in
some the trunnions are placed in the centre of the length of the cylinder, in some
at the bottom, and in some the cylinder is inverted, the trunnions being at the
upper end. The slide-valve in this form of engine is generally worked by means
of a curved link attached to the eccentric rod, the link being guided vertically;
the slot of the link is furnished with a small brass block, which slides back-
wards and forwards in it; the pin of the valve-lever passes through a hole in
the block. The operation of the curved link is such as prevents the valve from
being affected by the oscillation of the cylinder. In some forms of oscillating
engines for agricultural purposes the valve-gearing is dispensed with; and the
oscillations of the cylinder from side to side serve to admit the steam alter-
nately to top and bottom of cylinder. Of this form-almost incapable of dis-
arrangement is one manufactured by Messrs Hick of Bolton, a figure of
which we give in fig. 822. In this the slide-valve and eccentric movement are
Fig. 822.
dispensed with, and a three-way cock adapted
to the trunnion, this being opened and shut by
the movement of the cylinder.
2102. An able authority considers this form
as the best rotative engine. The objections
raised against it, as to the wearing of the
cylinder and stuffing-boxes to an oval shape,
and the leaking and heating of the trunnions, have
little foundation in fact: the wearing is found to
exist-if it exist at all-in less degree than in
ordinary engines; and so far from the trunnions
heating, it may safely be said that no form of
bearing is less liable to do so than this, inasmuch
as the temperature is kept equal to that of the
steam which flows through them. To prevent
leakage of the trunnions, an authority recom-
mends the packing to be squeezed in a cylindri-
cal mould before being introduced; he also recommends the packing of hemp;
to have, in addition, a brass ring introduced to embrace the pipe, cut spirally,
with an overlap piece to cover the cut, and packed behind with hemp.
HIOK'S OSCILLATING ENGINE
2103. Details of Working-Parts of Steam-Engines. Having described the
different classes of steam-engines in use for agricultural purposes, we shall add
a few illustrations of details, showing their construction and the method of
fitting up. In Section Fifth on Machine Construction in Book First, page 88,
we have illustrated several of the details, which we shall at present simply
refer to. We may add that the details now to be given here, and those already
given in the Fifth Section, have special reference to the crank steam-engine
in Plate XXXIII.
2104. Details of Cylinder.—We shall take the details of the cylinder first.
PISTONS AND PISTON - RODS.
613
We have already described the form and working of the valves in pars. 2029 to
2035; we shall now illustrate a form of metallic piston.
2105. Pistons.-Pistons were formerly packed so as to work steam-tight in
the cylinder, by having hemp rolled tightly round, and kept well lubricated.
Now, however, this plan is discarded as clumsy and inefficient, and as involving
a considerable loss of power through friction, and the form known as "metallic"
is almost universally used.
2106. A very simple and efficient metallic piston is illustrated in figs. 1 to
10, Plate XXXIX. The piston is turned so as to leave a ledge a a, fig. 9, or a
flat space all round. This space is filled up by two rings, the plan of one of
which is shown at fig. 2, and the section at fig. 1. Small saw-cuts are made in
the inside of the ring bb, fig. 2, and part cut out, as at a. This cut is made
obliquely, not at right angles to the face of bb. Snugs are cast near c, the
narrowest part of the ring, through which a bolt and nut is passed; by means
of this the ends of b b are brought close together, compressing the saw-cuts, and
bringing their edges together. The two rings are placed one above the other
on a a, fig. 9, the narrow part of one being above the broad part of the other, and
screwed up by the bolt c, fig. 2. The outer edges of the rings are ground so as
to fit the interior of the cylinder very tightly. When placed inside the cylinder,
the nuts c c, fig. 2, are loosened, and the rings allowed to expand: as the cylinder
wears the rings expand, so as to keep the piston steam-tight. The piston-cover,
fig. 5, is then passed over the piston-rod, and secured by the bolts a a, fig. 4,
passing through the bolt-holes bb, fig. 9. The end of the piston-rod b, fig. 4, is
fastened in the aperture c, fig. 9, by the key or cottar at c, fig. 4. The aperture
is made to taper. Fig. 6 is a section of the cover in fig. 5; fig. 7 is a plan
of the under side of cover; fig. 8 is a plan of under side of body, fig. 9; fig. 10
is a plan of top of body.
""
2017/18
Fig. 823.
d
2107. Piston-Rod. The piston-rod is kept tight in working up and down
through the aperture in the cylinder
cover, by the contrivance known as the
"stuffing-box" or gland. This is shown.
in fig. 823, in the cylinder-cover a a;
bb is the aperture through which the
piston-rod cc works. This widens into
a space d d; into this space a "gland
e e fits; the upper side of this gland is
hollowed out, so as to form a kind of cup
round the piston-rod, in which oil can
be placed to lubricate it. The gland
e e is of length sufficient to allow of a
space d d being left, into which
"hemp" or patent" packing is put,
closely enveloping the piston-rod.
brass bush, in which the piston-rod plays easily, is driven tightly in at ff.
When the piston-rod begins to work loosely in the packing, and steam is allowed
to pass through the stuffing-box to the atmosphere, the packing may be made
tight by screwing down the gland by means of the bolts and nuts which secure
it to the cover. When the packing becomes wider, it can be easily renewed by
taking out the gland (by unfastening the nuts), and withdrawing the old packing
from d d, and substituting new. The figure also shows the packing of the
valve-rod g.
(6
A
DETAILS OF CYLINDER COVER.
2108. Throttle Valve.-We now come to the methods in use by which the
614
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
Fig. 824.
CONTRACTION OF FLOW OF STEAM CAUSED
BY THE THROTTLE-VALVE.
Fig. 825.
supply of steam to the cylinder is regulated. This is usually effected by a
contrivance known as the "throttle valve." This is a flat disc, with its edge
bevelled off, the central spindle working through the pipe in which the valve
is placed. When the valve-by means of the lever fixed in the outer end
of the spindle-is brought into the position in fig. 19, Plate XXXIX., the
edges are brought in contact with the periphery of the pipe, and the passago
is closed: by moving the valve out of this position a,
the passage for the steam is made on either side of
the valve. Fig. 18 is a cross section. By referring
to fig. 824, the double contraction formed by the
steam passing the valve is seen. In consequence of
this obstruction of the steam passing to the cylinder,
some engineers discard the use of this form of throttle-
valve, and adopt the disc valve, an improved form of which is given in fig.
825. A circular disc or plate a is made to rotate by means of the stem b b, in
close contact with another plate c c. In both these plates circular apertures
are made, corresponding in size and
position when the valve a is moved,
so that the apertures coincide with the
apertures c c, full admission to the
steam is given to pass through them;
any movement of the valve a, however,
from this position, closes in greater or
less degree-in proportion to the amount
of movement-the apertures in c c.
Thus a very small movement of the
valve a will give a considerable amount
of opening for the admission of steam.
In the form shown in fig. 825, d is the
steam-pipe from boiler, where the aper-
tures coincide as in the figure; the steam passes from the steam side of the
valve e e to the supply side ff, and from thence to the cylinder by the pipe g.
In this arrangement the valve is kept in an easy-moving position as regards
the valve-seat by the set screw h, in conjunction with the collar i, on the
stem bb.
b
e
DISO THROTTLE-VALVE.
g
h
:
2109. Steam-Engine Governor.-We shall now describe the methods by
which the admission of steam is regulated, and a uniformity of action secured.
This is generally effected by means of the governor, by which advantage is
taken of the centrifugal force, generated by the revolution of balls, to act upon
the throttle-valve by a series of levers, the arrangement of which differs in
many instances, but which is too well known to require description here. The
defects of this form of "speed regulator" are principally these: first, the time
consumed before the governor can act on the throttle-valve, by the levers taking
a certain interval to attain their corresponding conditions; secondly, and prin-
cipally, it is apt to attain the two extremes too rapidly—that is, it flies from
the position of valve closed to valve opened without any nice degree of grada-
tion. Thus, if an engine "runs" away, as it is termed, the balls fly so rapidly
out that the valve is completely shut, and the engine brought up in such a
manner as to induce a reactional movement, this oscillation frequently being
continuous for some time. As in some processes, such as corn-grinding and
thrashing, it is desirable to have a uniformity of action, many plans have been
introduced by which to attain this desideratum.
THE GOVERNOR-REVERSING - GEAR.
615
2110. In Plate XXXIX., figs. 20 to 36 inclusive, we give details showing the
construction of the governor in the crank engine in Plate XXXIII.; the whole
drawn to a scale of 1½ inch to the foot. Fig. 20 is a side view with section of
ball, and fig. 21 an edge view of one of the levers b' b′ and balls c'c' in Plate
XXXIII. Fig. 22 is a sectional elevation of central spindle d'd' in Plate
XXXIII. The snug a a, with double ends, is fixed on this. Fig. 23 shows a
plan, and fig. 24 an end view of this snug or lug. The end a of the side-rods, figs.
20 and 21, passes between the ends a a of the snug, figs. 23 and 24; and are kept
together by a pin passed through the holes made in each part. The spindle,
fig. 22, is made hollow at one part of its length, to allow the rod b b to
play up and down. This rod is connected with the lower snug e c, by a
cottar or key passing through a slit a a, fig. 25, made on opposite sides of the
central spindle, fig. 22; this cottar, as seen at b, fig. 25, passes through the
snug c c-so that when the rod b b, fig. 22, moves up and down, it carries with
it the snug c c, the slit in the central spindle allowing of the easy movement of
the cottar b, fig. 25. In like manner the wharve or small pulley d d, fig. 22,
corresponding to g' in Plate XXXIII., is connected with the rod b b, fig. 22.
Fig. 30 is a plan of upper side of wharve or pulley, fig. 31 a section, and fig. 32 a
side and edge view of the cottar. Fig. 26 is a plan of snug c c, fig. 22; fig. 27
an end view. Fig. 28 is a side and edge view of cottar. Fig. 29 is a side view
of the lever w in Plate XXXIII.; fig. 33 a plan of the end of the lever which
embraces the wharve d d, fig. 22. Fig. 34 a is a side and b an edge view of the
stud h' in Plate XXXIII., on which the lever w vibrates; the part a, fig. 29,
passes into the fork a, fig. 34, and is secured by the pin a, fig. 36, passing through
the apertures shown in the figure; the washer b, fig. 36, is then put on the part
c, and pin d driven through the washer and the end c of the pin a. Fig. 35
gives a side and edge view of the levers e e', Plate XXXIII.; the fork a em-
braces the part b, b of the side lever, figs. 20 and 21; the part b, fig. 35, passing
between the ends a a of the snug, figs. 26 and 27. In figs. 157 and 158, Section
Fifth, Book First, paragraph 383, we give a section and elevation and the
description of the bearing in which the upper part of the central spindle d' d',
Plate XXXIII., revolves. In fig. 159 different views of the brasses or bushes
for this bearing are given. In fig. 164, paragraph 387, are given views of the
step in which the lower part of the central spindle d' d', Plate XXXIII., revolves;
this step is supported by the bracket u, bolted to the wall a, Plate XXXIII.
2111. The various parts of the pedestal or plummer-block, in which the shaft
of the engine in Plate XXXIII. revolves, are shown in figs. 160, 161, 162, 163,
and 164, in pars. 385, 386, and 387.
2112. In fig. 178, par. 407, we give various views of the crank k, Plate
XXXIII., and of the butt of the lower end of the connecting-rod g, fig. 2, Plate
XXXIII. In fig. 181, par. 409, are views of the eccentric y, fig. 2, Plate XXXIII.,
as also in fig. 183, par. 412. Of the piston cross-head is fig. 198, and par. 425.
2113. Reversing-gear.-In many engines now in use, what is called "revers-
ing-gear" is adopted. By this the engine can be immediately altered from the
forward to the backward direction. This movement is especially useful in
engines driving corn-mills, thrashing-machines, hoisting gear, &c., as the direc-
tion in which the fly-wheel and driving-pulley are going can be instantly
changed. This is effected by what is known as the "link motion."
2114. This movement is explained in fig. 826. The crank shaft is at a
a; two
eccentrics b and c are fastened on the shaft; one to give the forward motion, the
other the backward, to the slide-valve. The eyes of the rods d e of these are
616
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
attached by movable joints to the ends of a curved link ff, the radius of
which is equal to that of a circle described by the eccentric rods revolving
α
Fig. 826.
f
h
ď
e
REVERSING-GEAR OR LINK MOTION.
h
g
round their centres. Let g be
the slide-valve rod, connected at
one end to a brass bush i,
sliding between the sides of
the grooved link ff. The link
is capable of being raised or
depressed by the lever h h,
actuated by appropriately ar-
ranged levers attached to
pin, this pin being placed in the
centre of the link, this being
the point of least vibration. In
the position as in the figure,
a
the valve-rod g is evidently under the influence of the eccentric c d. Sup-
"forward” one,
pose this is the
- to give the engine the "backward"
movement, all that is necessary to be done is to lift the link upwards by the
lever hh, so as to place the bush i opposite the end of the eccentric rod b e.
The end of the link with the eccentric rod c d will then be as much above the
bush i of the valve-rod as the eccentric b e is below it in the figure. When
the link is in such a position as to place the bush i of the valve-rod exactly in
the middle of the link, the valve will then have no motion at all. The action
of each eccentric rod being equal and counteracting, the link will vibrate in the
centre bush; the ends describing curves, the centre of which is the bush of the
valve-rod i. In fig. 1, Plate IX., the reversing gear is shown at q q, r r, S s,
t t, and w; rr, s s the forward and backward eccentric rods; q q the lever cor-
responding to the rod h h, fig. 826; this is worked by the handle t t, vibrating
on the stud u. As the outer extremity of the handle t is raised or depressed,
the curved link is raised or lowered by the lever q q, and the forward eccentric
or backward set in operation accordingly.
2115. Force-Pump.-In figs. 11 to 17, Plate XXXIX., we give the "force-
pump" of the engine in Plate XXXIII., to supply water to the boiler: a, fig. 11,
the pump-plunger; this is carefully turned, and works tight through the stuffing-
box bb, as the plunger is not usually made to work tight in the body of the
pump. The formation of the vacuum depends chiefly on the tightness of
the stuffing-box; this, therefore, should be always kept in good repair, and
the cover screwed tightly down to keep the glands close up with the packing;
c is the suction and d the delivery valve, access being gained to them by
the caps or covers e and f. These covers should be put down with packing, to
be as tight as possible. The delivery-pipe leading to the boiler is attached to the
flange, shown by the dotted circles at d, and at c, fig. 12, which is a plan of the
As much of the efficiency of the pump depends on the condition of the
valves, they should be examined from time to time through the covers e and f.
The valve is shown in section in fig. 13, the under face at fig. 16, the valve-
seat in fig. 14, and plan of the upper part of the valve in fig. 15.
a, fig. 13, is the
conical part, which fits into a corresponding conical surface a a, fig. 14, in the
valve-seat. The closer the connection between the conical surfaces of the valve
and seat, the tighter will the valve be. If they are found after wear not to be
tight, they may be made so by rubbing them together by turning the valve
round repeatedly in its seat, with oil and emery between them.
2116. In fig. 17, Plate XXXIX., we give the method of connecting-eccentric
PISTON - LUBRICATOR-EXPANSIVE WORKING.
617
rod with pump-plunger. The plunger a a g, h h g, fig. 11, is provided with
a circular eye g; the lower end of the eccentric rod is made as at b and C,
fig. 17; the edge of the plunger-eye g, fig. 11, being passed between the
sides b of the eccentric-rod end, fig. 17. A pin is then passed through the
eyes of the rod and the plunger, and kept in its place by a key passing through
a slot made in the end of the pin.
-
Fig. 827.
a
2117. Piston Lubricator.-In the ordinary forms of agricultural engines, the
journals and bearing surfaces are kept well enough supplied
with oil by means of the oil-holes generally provided; all
that is necessary being a look-out so as to keep them well
supplied, and prevent over-heating a fruitful source of
loss of power. To lubricate pistons and other parts under
steam pressure, on the ordinary plan, the engine has to
be stopped. To keep up the supply without stopping the
engine, is a desideratum effected by the ingenious inven-
tion of Morton's Lubricator, a section of which we give in
fig. 827.
f
PISTON LUBRICATOR.
2118. "It consists of an oil-cup a at the top, with a neck
below, through which is a vertical passage for oil to a glo-
bular vessel c beneath it; a stop-cock b being placed in the
neck, by which the vertical passage may be opened or
closed. The lower portion of the globular vessel is con-
nected with a stand which is furnished with a shouldered
screw at its lower end, by which it may be attached to the
part requiring to be lubricated. This stand is also fur-
nished with a stop-cock f, and has two vertical passages d and e within it;
one, d, passing from the bottom of the globular vessel c to the point where
lubrication is required, the other, e, being continued upwards by a tube through
the globular vessel nearly to its upper end, so as to be above the surface of the
lubricating liquid. In the stand is a second stop-cock f, with two passages
through it corresponding with the two passages d and e, by which means they
are both opened or closed by the turning of the stop-cock.
2119. "When a fresh supply of oil is required at the point of lubrication, the
stop-cock b must be closed, and ƒ opened, by which means the steam or other
pressure passing through the passage e is made to act on the upper surface of
the oil, with the same force as that with which it acts on its lower surface
through the passage d. The pressure on both sides of the lubricating fluid
being thus equalised, it is at liberty to flow downwards by its own specific
gravity, thus obviating the inconvenience attending the ordinary oil-cup of
requiring the machinery to be stopped for the purpose of lubrication. When
the machinery is not at work, and lubrication therefore not required, the stop-
cock ƒ must be closed and b must be opened. It is particularly applicable to
the pistons of high-pressure engines."
2120. Expansive Working. We shall now consider the subject of working
steam-engines expansively. By this is meant an adjustment of the valves, by
which the steam is prevented entering the cylinder during a portion of the travel
of the piston; the remainder of the stroke being completed by the steam expand-
ing and filling the remaining portion of the cylinder. If the steam were admitted
during the whole of the stroke, the motion of the piston would become so greatly
accelerated, that at its termination the shock resulting would tend materially to
damage the machine. To prevent this in the earlier forms of engines, it is
conjectured that means were taken, such as shutting the injection-cock or the
618
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
steam-valves, before the completion of the stroke-and hence, as supposed by
good authority, arose the knowledge of the value of the method of working
expansively. The following is Mr Bourne's clear statement of the advantages
of this method of working engines: "It accomplishes an important saving of
steam, or, what is the same thing, of fuel; but it diminishes the power of the
engine while increasing the power of the steam. A larger engine will be
required to do the same work, but the work will be done with a smaller con-
sumption of fuel. If, for example, the steam be shut off when only half the
stroke is completed, there will only half the quantity of steam be used. But
there will be more than half the power exerted; for although the pressure of
steam decreases after the supply entering from the boiler is shut off, yet it
imparts during its expansion some power; and that power, it is clear, is obtained
without any expenditure of steam or fuel whatever."* If the steam is cut off
at half stroke, the performance of the engine is multiplied 1.7 times; if at
one-third stroke, 2.1 times; at one-fourth, 2.4 times;
at one-fifth, 2.6 times; at one-sixth, 2.8; one-seventh, 3;
one - eighth, 3.2 times. The degree of expansion
depends also in some measure upon the tightness
of the packing; hence the necessity of keeping the
piston-rod packing and the piston itself in good
repair.
α
Ъ
Fig. 828.
e
е
d
f
g
2121. Expansion Gearing. There are numerous
forms of "expansion gearing" in use, but we do
not consider it necessary to describe any of these,
save the very simplest. One of these methods we
illustrate in fig. 828. Let a be the port lead-
ing to the atmosphere or "exhaust port;" b the
"upper-port" steam-passage; c the "lower-port"
steam-passage; d the valve in the steam-chest e e,
to which the steam is supplied through the port f. This port is capable of
being opened or closed by means of a supplementary slide-valve g, working
in a valve-case supplied with steam from the boiler. It is evident that any
quantity of steam can be admitted to the main valve-casing e e, and con-
EXPANSION_VALVE.
Fig. 829.
H
и
d
d
EXPANSION OUT-OFF.
и
d
sequently to the cylinder,
by adjusting the time
when the valve g shall cut
off the communication be-
tween the valve-casing e e
and g.
This "cut off,” as
it is technically termed,
is effected by altering the
amount of play of the
valve g, by varying the
throw of the eccentric by
which it is moved.
2122. One method by
which the throw of the ec-
centric is altered is shown
in fig. 829. Let a a be the crank-shaft, on which a plate or large boss b b is
cast; in the face of this two holes are bored and "tapped;" two bolts c c
* BOURNE'S Catechism of the Steam-Engine, p. 111, 4th edition. Longmans, London.
LAP AND LEAD OF VALVE.
619
are worked in these, having square heads. In the eccentric d d, an aper-
ture or slot e is made, having its circular ends of same diameter as crank-
shaft a a; this slot admits of the eccentric being moved up and down on the
shaft a, so as to change the relative distance of their respective centres, and
consequently the throw of the eccentric. To fix the eccentric at any desired
point, the bolts c c are screwed hard up, so as to press against the face of
the eccentric. The bolts slide in slots ff, to admit of the movement of the
eccentric.
66
2123. Lap of Steam-Valve.-The method adopted most generally, especially
in small engines for working expansively, is by giving what is technically termed
lap" to the ordinary slide-valve. This is effected by giving an extra length
to the face of the valve, so as to cover the port sooner than would be the case
if no lap existed. This lengthening of the valve face is made towards what is
technically termed "the steam side" of the valve—that is, the outside of the
valve towards the interior of the valve-casing: the side b of the valve towards
the eduction port, fig. 830, is termed the "eduction side;" towards this there.
is generally little extension of the valve face or lap.
Fig. 830.
2124. The effect of this extension of valve face will be easily understood by
an inspection of fig. 830. Suppose the ordinary valve without
lap is that part a b c, shaded by cross lines; if the valve face
is lengthened by parts shown by the white spaces at d and e,
it is evident that the valve-port will be shut much sooner.
Thus, suppose the valve to be commencing its upper stroke, the
port f is shown completely open when the valve has no lap;
but by the addition of lap, as at the part d, it is clear that the
port will be so much the sooner closed as the part d is lengthened.
The extent to which expansion by means of "lap" in the valve
can be economically carried out, is about one-third of the stroke
—that is, the port must be closed when the piston has performed
two-thirds of its stroke.
a
e
LAP AND LEAD OF
VALVE.
2125. Lead of the Valve.- As, from the peculiar motion of the
eccentric, the valve opens but slowly during the first part of its
travel, the steam passing to the eduction-port has some difficulty
in escaping, and in proportion to this arises a certain impediment
to the working of the engine from the piston having to be forced
down, as it were, against the pressure of the steam which has a difficulty
in passing from the cylinder. To obviate this, and to relieve the cylinder of
the steam as instantaneously as possible after the completion of the stroke, what
is termed "lead" is given to the valve. By this is meant the amount of open-
ing of the valve when the piston has reached the termination of its stroke.
Thus, when the piston begins its new stroke, the steam is escaping freely to
the eduction port through the valve, and the resistance to the stroke of the
piston is obviated or decreased. This lead of the valve is obtained by fixing
the eccentric on the shaft, more or less out of the usual line of centres, accord-
ing as required.
2126. Estimation of Power of Engines.-In estimating the working capabilities
of a steam-engine various terms are in use. The "nominal power
"the actual
or effective power," and the "duty" of an engine, are terms conveying different
meanings, but which are frequently confounded. The nominal, or, as it is
termed, the "horse-power" of an engine, conveys an exceedingly vague and
unsatisfactory notion of the working capabilities of a steam-engine. It should
be confined merely to imply the size of the engine. The rule given by Mr
620
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
66
Bourne for estimating the nominal or horse-power of an engine is as follows:
Multiply the square of the diameter of the cylinder in inches by the cube
root of the stroke in feet, and divide the product by 47—the quotient is the
number of nominal horses' power of the engine."-(Catechism of the Steam-
Engine, p. 46.) To save the trouble of making this calculation, we give the
dimensions of cylinders of steam-engines (high pressure) from one to six nominal
horses' power, under different pressures of steam per square inch. For this we
are indebted to the very useful work, Templeton's Workshop Companion, con-
taining a large number of rules useful in everyday practice (Weale, London, 5s.)
2127. Under a pressure of 25 lb. to the square inch, the diameter of cylinder
of a one horse-power is 32 inches; of two, 51; of three, 61; of four, 7½; of
five, 8; and of six horse-power, 9 inches diameter. Under a pressure of 30
lb. to the square inch, a one-horse engine has a diameter of cylinder equal to
3½ inches; a two, 42; a three, 6; a four, 62; a five, 71; and a six, 81 inches.
Under a pressure of 40 lb. to the square inch, one horse-power is 3 inches; a
two, 41; a three, 5; a four, 6; a five, 61; and a six, 7 inches. The working
pressure for high-pressure engines should not exceed 45 lb. to the square inch.
e
Fig. 831.
a
I
2128. By the "effective" power of a steam-engine is meant the number of
times 33,000 lb. the engine is capable of lifting one foot high per minute, this
being decided upon by engineers generally as the unit of dynamical effect. To
estimate the effective power of a steam-engine, the first essential requisite is a
knowledge of the mean pressure in the cylinder during the stroke; this is
gained by means of an instrument termed the "indicator."
2129. Indicator.-The construction of this is shown in fig. 831. It consists of a
cylinder of brass a b, in which a small piston c works, nearly
tight; a spring d is connected with the piston c and spindle e e;
a bracket ƒ supports a cylinder g, which is capable of being
turned vertically on its axis by a cord passing round a pulley
made on the periphery of its lower part. The cylinder is
made to rotate on its axis by the cord passing to the cross-head
of the piston in a direct-acting engine or the parallel
motion of a beam-engine—on the return stroke of the engine
the cord is relaxed, and a spring placed within the cylinder g
brings it back to its original position. Thus the stroke of the
engine causes the cylinder g to rotate part of its revolution in
one direction, the spring acting to bring it back or make it
rotate in the opposite direction. By this arrangement the
alternate motion of the cylinder g is made to correspond to the
reciprocations of the piston. A piece of paper is wrapped once
round the cylinder g; a pencil is attached to a spring arm,
connected with the spindle e; the paper wrapped round the
cylinder g is kept in its place by upright spring-clamps; the
point of the pencil is kept in contact with the surface of the
paper by the spring arm. A scale is attached to the indicator
vertically; the zero point of this is the point of the atmospheric
line. The marks 1, 2, 3, above the zero point, show that
when the diagram cuts the lines drawn parallel to the atmos-
pheric line on a level with these points, the pressure is 16,
17 lb., &c.; when it cuts lines on a level with the marks 1, 2, 3, &c., below
the zero point, the pressure is 14, 13 lb., &c. The zero point is the line of
atmospheric pressure on 15 lb. The indicator, thus arranged, is screwed into
an aperture in the cylinder cover; the steam, thus communicating with the
d
b
h
STEAM-ENGINE INDICATOR.
ESTIMATION OF THE POWER OF ENGINES.
621
interior of the indicator, gives the same pressure on the piston c as on the
piston of the cylinder. The cord passing round the pulley of cylinder g is
attached to the piston cross-head. The result of the up-and-down motions of
the pencil in contact with the paper, caused by the reciprocatory motion of the
piston c, corresponding to the movement of the steam-engine piston, together
with the circular motion of the cylinder g, caused by the tightening and relaxa-
tion of the cord attached to the piston cross-head, is the describing of a curved
line on the paper more or less approaching to the form of a parallelogram.
Previous to opening the cock h, a line, called the atmospheric or zero line, is
described on the paper. This line is at the level of the pencil when it is unin-
fluenced by the steam-pressure. The line is drawn by causing the barrel to
revolve. The cord, passing from the pulley to the cylinder g, to the moving
part by which it is actuated, passes over pulleys, so as to reduce the motion,
and thus renders the motion of the piston and that of the indicator proportional
to one another.
2130. The diagram described shows the steam-pressure in the cylinder
during the whole stroke. To ascertain the "mean pressure," the diagram
obtained is divided into an equal number of parts in the direction of its length,
lines being drawn through these at right angles to the atmospheric or zero
line. Parallel to the zero line, and through the points corresponding to the
points on the scale of the indicator, draw other lines. Next measure the dis-
tances from the points where the diagram line intersects the vertical lines to
the atmospheric line; add all these distances together-their measurement
being taken from a scale corresponding to that in the indicator—and divide them
by the number of columns or spaces into which the diagram is divided, and
the quotient is the mean effective pressure in the cylinder during a whole stroke.
2131. Rule tò find the Effective Power.-The mean effective pressure in the
cylinder being thus found or assumed, find now the diameter of cylinder in
inches; square this, and multiply it by .7854; the result is the number of
inches in the piston. Multiply the number thus found by the mean pressure
per square inch; next multiply this by the velocity of the piston in feet per
minute; and finally, divide by 33,000; the quotient will be the effective horse-
power of the engine. Before dividing by 33,000, deduct from the product 2½ lb.
per square inch for friction. The velocity of the piston per minute is found
by multiplying the number of revolutions per minute by the length of the
stroke.
square
2132. Advantages of the use of the Indicator.-The only satisfactory way of
obtaining a knowledge of the working capabilities of a steam-engine, is by
taking correct diagrams by means of the indicator. To those of our readers
desirous of becoming acquainted with the best methods of obtaining correct
diagrams, we would recommend The Indicator and Dynamometer, by Messrs
Main and Brown: London, G. Hebert (8s. 6d.); or the work on the same
subject by Mr Hopkinson of Leeds (7s. 6d.), published by Weale. The authors.
of these works give the following clear statement of the two important ends
obtained by the use of the indicator: "1st, It enables us to discover whether
there are any defects in those parts of the machinery by which the steam
is admitted to the piston: for instance, it indicates whether the slides are
properly set or leaky; whether the steam-ports are large enough; and, con-
sequently, whether a different arrangement of the working parts of the
machinery would be advisable. In fact, in the hands of a skilful engineer, the
indicator is as the stethoscope of the physician, revealing the secret workings.
of the inner system, and detecting minute derangements in the parts obscurely
622
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
แ
situated. 2d, It discovers at any instant of time, and under any given circum-
stances, where it may be desirable to apply it, what is the actual power of the
engine." Such is the value placed on the indications of this instrument in the
manufacturing districts, that manufacturers have engineers who call on them at
stated intervals, to " indicate the power of their engines, and thus ascertain
whether they are performing their work well and cheaply.
2133. By the term duty is meant the quantity of work done by the consump-
tion of a certain quantity of fuel, without reference to time. In a preceding par.,
1962, the reader will find some notes on this point.
2134. The "mean effective pressure" of a steam-engine may, for ordinary
purposes, be ascertained with sufficient accuracy without the use of the
indicator," by taking from the pressure in the boiler one-fourth of its amount
from loss sustained by cooling and expansion, and also 2 lbs. for other deduc-
tions: thus, the mean effective pressure where the boiler pressure is 60 lbs. is
43 lbs., for 60-1 (15) = 45-2 lbs. 43.
2135. When the diameter of a cylinder with steam, worked at a pressure of
50 lbs. is given, an approximative estimate of its power may be obtained by
dividing the diameter by 3, and squaring the product: thus, the power of an
engine with a cylinder 6 inches diameter is four horse,-= 2 × 2 = 4.
2136. Steam-Power for Agricultural Purposes.-To a very valuable paper by
Mr William Waller, read before the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, at
Birmingham, July 30, 1856, on the application of steam-power to agricultural
purposes, we are indebted for the following description of the method employed
to test and calculate the power of agricultural engines by the judges of the
Royal Agricultural Society of England :—
2137. "The various engines are entered, declared at a certain power, at which
only they are to be tested. Thus, suppose an engine having a 5-feet pulley,
entered as an 8-horse engine running at 120 revolutions per minute. Eight stone
of coal, of 14 lb. to the stone, with a certain quantity of wood to light the fire,
are given to the engineman, who has previously had the engine at work, and
run the steam down to 20 lb. or 25 lb. per square inch pressure, as the case may
be, and emptied and swept out the fire-box. The fire is then relighted, and the
steam is got up to 48 lb. per square inch, at which pressure the engine must start.
The dynamometer (shown in fig. 220, pár. 521, Book First, page 142), is sup-
posed to have a 3 feet 6 inches belt pulley, and a 4 feet 6 inches wheel, with a
friction break on it; then the centre of the pin or pointer to which the scale is
attached, being 2 feet 7 inches from the centre, equivalent to a circumference
of 16.5 feet, it will require a weight of 93.33 lb. suspended from the pin to
give the desired 8-horse power, according to the following expression:—
93.33 lb. × 16.5 ft. circumf. × 5 ft. pulley on engine × 120 revolutions per min.
3.5 ft. pulley on dynamometer
equal to 264,000 lb. raised 1 foot per minute.
And
264,000
33,000
8 HP
-
the horse-power of the work done.
The engine being started with a belt connecting the fly-wheel to the belt-pulley,
a man is placed at the adjusting-screw of the dynamometer to slacken or tighten
the friction-blocks, so as to keep the weight exactly in balance with the friction,
and the pointer in a line with the centre of the shaft, during the whole time of
working the engine. The number of revolutions of the break-wheel is registered
on a counter by means of an eccentric on the shaft of the dynamometer. It is
FIXED AND PORTABLE ENGINES COMPARED.
623
the business of the engineman to get the greatest possible number of revolutions
out of the engine; then the total number of revolutions of the break-wheel
divided by
5 × 120
3.5
gives the number of minutes of duty the engine has done; that
is, the number of minutes of time the engine would have taken, if it had made
5 × 120
exactly 120 revolutions per minute during the entire time of running, 3.5
being the number of revolutions per minute of the back-wheel, corresponding to
120 revolutions per minute of the engine. The minutes of duty converted into
hours and decimals, and divided into the 14 lb. of coal supplied per horse-power,
give the duty performed in the quantity of coal consumed per horse-power per
hour. Thus, at the Carlisle Exhibition, Messrs Tuxford's engine did duty 3
hours 47 minutes, or 3.8 hours; this, with 14 lb. of coal per horse-power, gives
3.7 lb. of coal per horse-power per hour.
2138. "The following Table gives the weight in pounds, to be placed in the
scale of the dynamometer (shown in fig. 220, par. 521), for each horse-power from
4 to 10 horse-power, at intervals of 10 revolutions from 110 to 150 revolutions
per minute of the engine. The table is calculated by the following formula :—
=
HP x 33,000 xd
c x D x n
= w
where w the weight in lb. to be placed in the scale of the dynamometer, HP
= the horse-power of the engine, d= the diameter in feet of the pulley on the
dynamometer, c = the circumference in feet corresponding to the distance of the
pointer carrying the weight from the centre of the break-wheel, D= the diameter
in feet of the driving pulley of the engine, and n = the number of revolutions of
the engine per minute :-
TABLE OF WEIGHTS FOR DYNAMOMETER.
Revolutions of
4
engine per
minute.
Horse
Power.
5
Horse
Power.
6
Horse
Power.
7
Horse
Power.
8
9
10
Horse
Power.
Horse
Power.
Horse
Power.
lb.
lb.
Ib.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
110
50.90
63.64
76.36
89.09
101.80
114.55
127.28
120
46.66
58.33
70.00
81.67
90.33
105.00
116.66
130
43.08
53.85
64.61
75.39
86.16
96.92
107.70
140
40.00
50.00
60.00
70.00
80.00
90.00
100.00
150
37.33
46.67
56.00
65.36
74.66
84.00
93.34"
2139. Fixed and Portable Engines for Farm Purposes.—In the department of
agricultural mechanism there is no point more open to discussion than the
comparative advantages of fixed and portable engines for farm purposes. It
is impossible, within the limits of our pages, to enter fully into the discussion,
and to give even an epitome of the arguments pro and con which have been
brought forward by the advocates of either view of the question. As convey-
ing nearly all that can be said on this point, we here append the opinions
of two authorities well calculated to form a correct estimate. The first we give
is that of the late eminent agriculturist, Mr Philip Pusey, published in his
Report to the Jury of the Agricultural Department of the Great Exhibition
of 1851 :-
624
MOVING POWERS OF THE FARM.
2140. "If a farm be a large one, and especially if, as is often the case, it be
of an irregular shape, there is greater waste of labour for horses and men in
bringing all the corn in the straw to one point, and in again carrying out the
dung to a distance of perhaps two or three miles. It is therefore common, and
should be general, to have a second outlying yard. This accommodation can-
not be reconciled with a fixed engine.
2141. “If the farm be of a moderate size, it will hardly, and if small will
certainly, not bear the expense of a fixed engine; there would be waste of
capital in multiplying fixed engines for a few days in a year. It is more com-
mon, therefore, in some counties, for a man to invest a small capital in a
movable engine, and earn his livelihood by letting it out to the farmer.
2142. “But there is a further advantage in these movable engines, little, I
believe, if at all, known. Hitherto corn has been thrashed under cover in
barns; but with these engines, and the improved thrashing-machines, we can
thrash the rick in the open air as it stands. It will be said, How can you
thrash out of doors on a wet day? The answer is simple. Neither can you
move your ricks into your barn in a wet day; and so rapid is the work of the
new thrashing-machines, that it takes no more time to thrash the corn than to
move it.
Open-air thrashing is also far pleasanter and healthier for the
labourers, their lungs not being choked with dust, as under cover they are;
and there is of course a saving of labour to the tenant not inconsiderable. But
when these movable steam-engines have spread generally, there will arise an
equally important saving to the landlord in buildings. Instead of three or
more barns clustering round the homestead, one or other in constant want of
repair, a single building will suffice for dressing corn and for chaff-cutting.
The very barn-floors saved will be no insignificant item. Now that buildings
are required for new purposes, we must, if we can, retrench where objects are
obsolete. Open-air thrashing may appear visionary, but it is quite common
with the new machinery; nor would any one perform the tedious manœuvre of
setting horses and men to pull down a rick, place it in carts, and build it up
again in the barn, who had once tried the simple plan of pitching the sheaves
at once into the thrashing-machine."
2143. We give an opinion on the opposite side-that of Mr Andrews, the
agricultural engineer, and author of Weale's shilling volumes on Agricultural
Engineering, in volume second of which the opinion we quote is given. While
admitting the convenience of thrashing in the field, and the comparative perfec-
tion to which the operation of thrashing has arrived by the aid of the improved
portable engines and portable thrashing-machines:
2144. "Nevertheless," he continues, "I do not myself think the system is so
good as having the engine fixed, and the whole plant to form part of a regular
plan. It is found in all manufacturing operations, that the more concentrated
the machinery, and the more all the operations are got together, and under one
general management, the better it is; and I cannot see why the manufacturing
manner in which farm operations are now, and must every day still more
become, should be an exception to the rule; but of this it is certain, that fixed
machinery, permanently fitted up, will always do the work a great deal better
and more economically than portable machines of any kind; that a fixed steam-
engine and boiler of judicious design, will consume a much smaller amount of
fuel, and last much longer, with scarcely any repair, than a portable engine,
the repairs of which will be found enormous, as compared with a fixed engine,
when extending over a number of years.
2145. "I am inclined to think that the preference is given to portable engines,
WIND POWER.
625
chiefly because, from the want of properly-contrived homesteads, the work
requiring to be done is distributed about, instead of being concentrated and
brought under one roof; and often there are two or more small sets of buildings
on the farm, instead of one general homestead."
2146. SECTION FOURTH.-Wind Power.
0
Fig. 832.
2147. Windmills as an Auxiliary Motive Power.—Wind power for motive pur-
poses, much used at one period, especially in districts where water-sources were
not available, is being gradually superseded by steam power. Although main-
tained in operation at comparatively small expense, the power of wind is so vari-
able in its action-so strong at times when not required, and so liable to fail
altogether when most needed-that, in view of the advantages of steam, as a
power easily managed, and perfectly to be depended on, we cannot recommend
the farmer to erect a windmill. The only practically useful purpose to which a
windmill can be applied is as an
auxiliary power, in the manner
carried out in numerous cases in
the farming districts of the United
States. In this way its utility
is chiefly observable in pumping
water from a low to a high eleva-
tion, as, for example, to a cistern
placed at a level considerably
above that of the farm buildings.
A supply of water at pressure
may thus be kept up, which can be
distributed over the farm-build-
ings as required, or employed to
drive a small turbine (par. 1938),
the power of which may be made
available for working straw-cut-
ters, turnip-pulpers, &c. In fig.
832 we give a suggestive sketch
of an auxiliary power of this kind,
adapted to work a centrifugal
pump. a c is the framing sup-
porting a circular top b and cap c.
The cap c carries two pedestals
d, which afford bearings for the
shaft of the wind-wheel e e. The
shaft of the wheel e e carries a
pulley g, which, by means of a belt,
α
h
AUXILIARY WIND-POWER.
drives the pulley h of the centrifugal pump i (par. 1895). A useful diameter of
wind-wheel, e e, will be 4 feet or 4 feet 6 inches. As the outward extremities of
the sails move through a greater space and at a higher velocity than the minor
extremities, the surfaces at these points should be flatter than at the other points.
In the arrangement here shown as adapted to work a centrifugal pump, the
wind-wheel e e remains always in the same position; for it is obvious that if the
cap c revolved, being actuated by the vane f, which keeps the wind-wheel e e
always up to the wind from whatever quarter it blows, the pulley g, on the
shaft of the wind-wheel e e, would be hoisted round so as to be out of the plane
of the pulley h on the shaft of the centrifugal pump i. To insure the
arrange-
2 R
626
ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINES IN THE STEADING.
ment in working order, it is essential that the two pulleys g and h shall always
be coincident. This can only be secured by the wind-wheel e e remaining
V
Fig 833.
EH
d
с
always in the same position. To take advantage
of the power of the wind from whatever quarter
it blows, an ordinary pump must be employed.
In this case the shaft of the wind-wheel e e is ex-
tended, and provided with a vane ƒ, which keeps the
wind-wheel always up to the wind. To insure this
the cap c c is free to revolve on the top b, fig. 832, as
shown in section in fig. 833. In place of the pul-
ley g, fig. 832, a crank a, fig. 833, is employed, the
connecting-rod b of which is continued downwards
to the pump-plunger. The pump is placed immediately beneath the centre of
To enable the crank to take any position in accordance with the move-
ment of the cap c c, and to prevent it hoisting or turning the rod
which works the pump-plunger, the lower part of the connect-
ing-rod d connecting the crank with pump-rod, should be pro-
vided with a "stirrup" or turn-joint a a, fig. 834. This will
admit of the end of the connecting-rod bb, fig. 834, turning
round without acting on the pump-rod c c, to which it is jointed.
SECTION OF TOP AND CAP-SCALE,
INCH TO THE FOOT.
crank.
a
с
Fig. 834.
my
ს
C
α
STIRRUP JOINT-SCALE,
2 INCHES TO THE FOOT.
2148. Farm Windmills.-Forty years ago, windmills, as a
motive power to the thrashing-machine, were very commonly
in use in many of the arable districts of Scotland, especially
in the Lothians and the Border counties. With a handsome
conical tower, surmounted by a cap resembling that of the
huntsman, with five outspread arms inclining upwards to catch
the passing breeze, and with a large wind-wheel—the governor
or vane, projecting backwards, to act both as a counterpoise
to the arms and a director against the current of the atmos-
phere, and the whole painted white-these windmills really
formed picturesque and prominent objects in the landscape.
2149. The arms acted directly on a lying shaft, at the
inner extremity of which was keyed a bevel-wheel which acted
upon another at the upper extremity of the upright shaft, the
lower end of which directly moved the thrashing machinery.
The arms were turned to the wind by the governor on a seg-
mental circular wheel of iron placed upon the top of the tower.
2150. These windmills have now gone out of use, because of the more easy
and cheaper use of steam, and because in calm weather they could not be used,
and their constant exposure to the weather subjected them to so much tear and
wear, that, as a consequence, much cost was annually incurred in maintaining
them in working order.
ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINES IN THE GROUND-FLOOR. 627
DIVISION FOURTH.-ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINES IN THE STEADING.
2151. SECTION FIRST.-Arrangement of Machines in the Ground-Floor of the
Steading.
2152. The introduction of a variety of machines for the preparation of grain
for market, and of the food of stock, has necessitated, in improved farm con-
structions, special arrangements of premises by which to accommodate the
machines required, and to facilitate the application to them of the moving
power. We propose, therefore, in the present division, to give a few illus-
trations of arrangements which may be practically adopted.
2153. In figs. 835 and 836 are given plans showing the arrangement of
machinery in the ground and upper floors of a barn adapted for the application
of a Scotch thrashing-machine.
2154. A plan of the ground-floor of the corn-barn, with portions of the adjacent
apartments, is shown in fig. 835: x is the corn-barn, t the chaff-house, s a part
of the straw-barn, y the engine-house, z the boiler-house, w the boiler, and o
the chimney. In this arrangement a is the position of the first fanners, b that
of the elevator from the seconds-spout, and c that of the elevator from the
Fig. 835.
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20
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X
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THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE GROUND-FLOOR OF THE BARNS.
clean-spout; d is a position for a second fanner, supplied by the elevator c.
In the engine-house y, e is the position of the steam-engine, f the main-shaft,
carrying the fly-wheel, and which is put in motion by the action of the engine
upon the crank. The main-shaft carries also, in the usual construction, a
spur-wheel g; but this member is subject to variation, according to the posi-
tion of the engine-house and barns. In the present arrangement, and in
many others, the spur-wheel g, as well as that marked h, act merely as inter-
628
ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINES IN THE STEADING.
media, to bring the power into contact with the main spur-wheel i, this
giving motion to the drum-pinion. The lasting advantage of having the straw-
barn placed in the most central position to the whole steading, induces the
one trifling addition of the intermediate wheels g and h, for the purpose of
carrying the motive power from the main-shaft to the shaft of the great spur-
wheel i; and this arises from the present arrangement, a practically-existing
one, and chosen on purpose to show a difficulty, not admitting of the steam-
engine being advanced so far towards the straw-barn that its main-shaft
might lie nearly opposite to the drum of the thrashing-machine.
2155. In cases, again, where the corn and the straw-barns lie in one line of
range—or even although their position may be at right angles, as here laid
down, but their relation being such as to admit of the main-shaft coming nearly
opposite to the drum-the intermediate wheels g and h become unnecessary,
and the great spur-wheel i is then placed upon the main-shaft itself. It is of
little importance which of these methods of taking up the power be adopted,
the additional wheels adding but a small increase to the expense, and a little to
the resistance; but the lasting advantages of the central position of the straw-
barn s may do much more than balance these.
2156. Cases frequently occur, also, where only one intermediate wheel is
required; and in others, it has been judged by some engineers more appro-
priate and expedient to dispense with all these wheels, and to substitute a large
pulley in the place of the wheel g. In these cases, a pulley of proportionate
dimensions is placed upon the drum-shaft, and the motion conveyed through a belt.
2157. The only subsidiary machine that is usually placed on this floor is
the hummeller, at k; n l is the spindle on which the pulleys of the elevators
b and c are keyed; p is the stair to the granary; r the window of the corn-barn;
m the steps leading from the corn-barn to the engine-house y; and v is a door
between the boiler and engine-houses.
2158. SECTION SECOND.-Arrangement of Machines in the Upper Floor of the
Steading.
h
a
Eg
Fig. 836.
d
m
THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE UPPER-FLOOR OF THE BARNS.
opening in the wall through which the
ing-machine into the straw-barn k.
2159. In the upper or thrashing barn,
and in that appropriated to the corn in
sheaf, the outline arrangement is repre-
sented in fig. 836, wherein the space a,
formed by the placement of the foundation-
beams b and c, is the position occupied
by the thrashing apparatus. The founda-
tion-beams are in the present case framed
into beams d and e, represented by the
dotted lines; the space a varies in length,
according to the circumstance of the ar-
rangement of the machinery, from 12 to
16 feet, and in width, according to the
power by which the machine is intended
to be worked, from 3 feet to 4 feet;
ffff mark the places of the posts
which form the framework of the ma-
chine; i is a trap-door to form a direct
communication between the upper and
lower barns when desired; g g is the
straw falls from the shaker of the thrash-
PRESERVATION OF IMPLEMENTS.
629
2160. SECTION THIRD.-Arrangement of Small Machines with the Moving Power
in the Steading.
2161. In Plate XL. we give illustrations of the arrangement of machines in
a farm-steading, the property of the Right Hon. Sir W. G. Hayter, M.P., Southill
Park, Bracknell, Surrey. The whole of the machines were manufactured by
Messrs Garrett & Son, Saxmundham, Suffolk. Fig. 1 is the ground-plan; fig. 2,
a section; and fig. 3, the chamber plan.
2162. In fig. 1, Plate XL., a is the boiler-room, b the boiler, c the vertical
engine, d d the corn-barn, e e the thrashing, winnowing, riddling, and straw-
shaking machine; ƒƒ the clean chaff store, g g the large straw-barn, h the chaff-
store, i the litter store, communicating with the straw-cutting machine-room above;
j the root-washing-machine and room, k the gearing for stone grinding-mill;
the ground-corn and meal room, with steps m leading to floor above; n n the
saw-mill, o o o the traversing rails, and p the travelling-carriage for bringing
wood up to the saw-mill n n.
2163. Fig. 3 is the upper chamber, where a a is the place for the unthrashed
corn, b the feeding part of the thrashing-machine, c the thrashing and finishing
machine, with spout from elevator to carry clean corn to the weighing-machine
d; e e e the granary, in one side of which the corn-bins ƒƒƒ are placed; g the
stair leading down to the corn and meal room in the floor below; h the water-
tank to supply the farm-buildings, i the feeding part of stone grinding-mill,
j the straw-cutter; k k straw and hay room, open to the large straw-barn;
7 the cake-store.
2164. In fig. 2, a is the furnace and boiler, b the engine, c c the shafting, d
the saw-mill, e the grinding-mill, f the water-tank, g the straw-cutter.
2165. In Plate XL. we also give, in fig. 4, a plan, showing the arrangement.
of the machinery adopted on the farm of Mr William Dray, of the firm of Messrs
Dray, the agricultural engineers, of Swan Lane, London, at Farningham, near
Dartford, Kent. The following is a reference to the various parts:-a a the
engine bed, b b the engine, c c the boiler, d d the root-washing machine, e e the
root-mincing or pulping machine, ƒƒ the turnip-cutter, g g the meal-mill, h h the
flour-mill, ii the oilcake-breaker, j the bean-mill, k k the oat-bruiser, 7 7 the
straw-cutter, m m the litter-cutter, n n the combined thrashing-machine, o o the
soft-water tank to supply boiler, p p the pump drawing water from a well 200
feet deep to the tank q q, which contains 3000 gallons, and u u is the steaming
apparatus. The whole of these machines are worked by the engine bb, through
the medium of the shafting r, supported on the brackets s, and furnished with
the riggers or pulleys t t t.
2166. SECTION FOURTH.-The Preservation of Implements and Machines in the
Steading.
2167. The farmer is often charged with neglecting his implements, by
unnecessary exposure to the weather; and the charge is partially well-founded,
although those who make it do not understand the cause of the apparent neglect.
Implements are used both within and without doors; and those used without
doors may be divided into such as are in use every season, and only occasionally
each season.
It is scarcely to be expected that implements very frequently
used in operating upon the soil can be otherwise than constantly exposed to the
weather. Fortunately, on the score of economy, the implements thus employed
are of simple construction; and are therefore less affected by changes of the
weather, as well as less costly when renewed, than those of more complicated.
construction, which are used for a short time at certain seasons.
630
ARRANGEMENT OF MACHINES IN THE STEADING.
2168. The implement most frequently in use is the plough, and, being the
chief one for operating upon the soil, is constantly exposed in the field. When
it was commonly made of wood, exposure caused its decay much sooner than
now, when it is wholly constructed of iron. Of so much use is the plough, that,
were one to be seen stowed away in the implement-house, the conclusion would
instantly be drawn that it was an old and worn-out one, or so ill-constructed
and useless that it had to be set aside.
2169. Harrows, being the implement most commonly in use next to the
plough, are much in the field, and exposed to the weather; and though made
entirely of wood, last a long time. Not being required in winter, they are then
removed from the field, and placed in the implement-house. The tines are
usually laid and made sharp once a-year, and winter is the most proper time,
just before the commencement of the oat-seed in spring. Harrows and ploughs
are seldom painted after being made; but the harrows should be cleaned and
painted when set past.
2170. The roller being only occasionally in use, in pulverising the soil, and
rolling the young grass and spring crops in spring, and in pulverising the soil
in summer-fallow, it is replaced in its shed whenever its services are no longer
wanted. It should always be set past in a state of complete repair, that dis-
appointment may not ensue at the moment it is desired to employ it; and the
woodwork should be painted occasionally.
2171. The small ploughs, such as the ribbing and double mould-board plough,
being used chiefly in summer, are allowed to lie too long in the fields after their
employment has ceased; and, if removed before winter sets in, are placed in
the implement-house dirty and worn. When no longer required, they ought to
be scraped clean of earth, and the irons laid, before being put aside in the
implement-shed.
2172. There are few implements which receive less regard, when not in use,
than the whole class of scufflers and grubbers, which get leave to remain at the
sides of head-ridges, and corners of turnip and potato fields, perhaps the whole
winter. Many of them being made entirely of iron, do not suffer much, it is
true, of deterioration from weather; but being composed of many small parts—
of tines, coulters, wedges, and screw-bolts-these suffer from exposure, and
execute their work indifferently on becoming worn. Instead, therefore, of being
permitted to lie disregarded in the fields, their worn parts should be immediately
repaired, and themselves placed in the implement-shed.
2173. All the classes of the more delicately constructed machines, as the
grass-seed, drill-sowing and turnip-sowing machines, are seldom allowed to remain
longer in the field than when in use; but though removed from the field, they
are too frequently allowed to remain unheeded in the neighbourhood of the
steading for a considerable time. Some, having no better place to put them,
take them to the stack-yard and cover them with straw. Instead of this treat-
ment, they should be immediately repaired, taken to pieces and cleaned, the
journals greased, and the separate parts stowed away in the implement-house.
2174. Of the class of small manual implements, as turnip-hoes, spreading-graips,
dung-hawks, hay-knives, scythes, many of them, if not placed in the implement-
house whenever not in use, will be lost. When scythes and hoes get worn, they
should be thrown into the old-iron store, and their helves furnished with new
ones.
2175. Of all implements, carts, perhaps, receive the worst treatment. Though
much in use in the fields, they are never left there, it is true, and are brought
to the steading, but too seldom are put under cover, and are exposed to every
PRESERVATION OF IMPLEMENTS.
631
species of weather-whether to the shrinking power of the sun's rays in sum-
mer, or the rotting effects of the damps and rains of winter; and, considering
that carts are constructed of many parts, the wonder is they last so long with
the treatment they receive. Their axles are not unfrequently neglected of
grease; and as to their bodies and wheels being washed, not a mop is used or
a drop of water ever thrown upon them—and they only receive ablution from a
shower of rain, or an occasional passage across the ford of a river. A hole in
the bottom or sides gets leave to enlarge, and a wheel-ring is allowed to become
loose, till some day it flies off altogether, to the risk of breaking down the felloes.
When such a mishap occurs from home, it tells strongly against the farmer's
attention to his duties.
2176. All the in-door implements, as the thrashing-machine, should be cleaned
out thoroughly every time a different kind of corn is to be thrashed, otherwise
the samples of grain will be rendered impure. The gudgeons are usually oiled
every time the mill is in use. Whenever a thrashing-machine requires repair,
it should receive it immediately, otherwise a serious and expensive fracture
may ensue.
2177. Holes in sacks and in barn and chaff-sheets should be instantly repaired,
by patching and darning; nor should a broken mesh in a riddle be overlooked,
so as to render the trouble of clean-winnowing grain unavailing.
2178. Implement-house. The fitting up of the implement-house, for the
accommodation of the finer and smaller implements, should be so done as to
keep the floor nearly unencumbered, and give free access to every particular
implement required at a time. Wheels, loose shafts, and angular pieces of iron,
are best suspended against a wall from iron nails. Articles of length, such as
sowing-boxes, are best supported against a wall upon brackets. Small articles
of iron and of other materials, are best kept upon shelves. Hand-hoes, weed-
hooks, and suchlike, are best placed in framed stands. Scythes are best sus-
pended from the balks, and, where there are no balks, from nails in the wall. The
bodies of small ploughs, grubbers, scufflers, should be placed along the foot of
the walls, and kept in their position with cords fastened to staples driven into
the walls. If every implement were put into its own place at the end of its
season, confusion would be avoided, and many more articles find accommodation
in the implement-house, than when everything is put down anywhere, without
regard to order. To maintain order in the arrangement of the implements in
the implement-house requires firmness on the part of the farmer; but the
enforcement of order carries this conviction with it, that it is easier to put a
thing in its own place than anywhere else, inasmuch as the place allotted for it
contains and retains it in the best state and position.
INDEX.
Absorbent power of stones, 56
Abutments of arches, 237
Action of the mould-board, 616
of the plough, 601-665
of the turn-wrist plough, 729
Air-door, regulating, for furnaces, 2001
Air-vessels of force-pump, 1892-1893
American dasher-churn, Anthony's, 1592
American thrashing-machine, 1322
Amos' dynamometer, 522
Analysis of mould-boards of various ploughs, 638-
647, 681
Angle-iron gate, 332-333
Angle of draught, principles that determine the,
501-502
Anthony's American dasher-churn, 1592
Arch, semi-elliptical, mode of setting out, 240
Arch-window, centre for, 285, 286.
Arches, abutments of, 237
voussoirs of, 237
centre for, of narrow spans, 286
extrados of, 237
inverted, for foundations, 219
intrados of, 237
keystone of, 237
rise of, 237
segmental, 239
semicircular, 237
span of, 237
Argand or smoke-consuming furnace, 1999
Ash, properties of, 64, 65
weight of, 308
Ashlar-work, peculiarities of good and defective,
221
Axe, hedge, the, 1875
Axle-grease, recipe for, 467
Axles, construction of, 1381-1405
Axiom on 'tie and strut," 16-20
Back-band, the, 1075
Balance weighing-machine, 1355-1359
Ball-syringe, the, 1866
Balling-iron, the, 1865
Barley-riddle of wood, 1684
riddle of iron wire, 1689
roller, Ransome and Sims', 914
Barn-basket, the, 1699
......
broom, 1706
fanners, 1323-1335
hoe, the, 1701
stool, the, 1700
weighing-machines, 1352-1362
Barnard and Bishop's sheepfold hurdles, 1831
1833
mixed mesh wire-netting,
Barrel-churn, the, 1579
Barrett, Exall, and Andrew's safety horse-gear,
1914, 1915
Barrow, bean, 1014-1019
corn, the, 1680
hand, the, 1087
turnip-seed-sowing, one row, 1000-1002
sack, the, 1715, 1716
wheel, the common, 1747
Basalt, properties of, 51
Basket, barn, the, 1699
the English sowing, 1133
the potato, 1724
the scull, 1749
Bath-jug, the, 1852
Bath-stone, tenacity of, 120
Bathing-stool, the, 1851
Battens, Baltic, Memel, Norway, and St Peters-
burg, 58
Battery, the rook, 1877-1881
Bauchop's swing-tree for three horses, 769
Beam, disposition of the load on, influencing
strength of, 132
engine, 2072-2078
form of, supported at one end, 143
form of, supported at both ends, 142
of the East-Lothian plough, 575
of Howard's plough, 669
of the Tweeddale plough, 687,697, 698
of the Tweeddale subsoil-trench plough,708
strongest, to cut out of timber, 288
Beams and columns, rules for dimensions of, 363-
372
cast-iron, rule to ascertain breaking-
weight of, 364-365
cast-iron, rule to ascertain permanent load
of, 366
fastened immovably at both ends, theore-
tical strength of, 136
horizontal, to resist transverse strains, 138
"I"-shaped form of, 146
inclined, computation of pressures on, 161
inclined, thrust of, on walls, 167,168, 169
inclined, uniformly loaded, lateral thrust
of, on the walls, 170-172
influence of form on strength of, 131
influence of section on strength of, 144
method to increase depth of, 276-277
of cast-iron, strongest and weakest posi-
tion of, 10
pressure on, at different points, 139
pressure upon inclined, 157-158
relative strength of, placed at different
angles, 137
resiliancy, elasticity, and deflection of, 114
right and wrong form of, 7
rule for, for double-framed flooring, 306
rule to ascertain the units of strain at
different points of, 141
section of strongest form of, 147
setting of, in walls, good and bad, 234
INDEX.
Beams, square and round, proportional strength
of, 149
strains to which, are subjected, 117
strength of circular, 18
strength as their depth, 9
strength of square, 148
strength of, supported at one end, 133
strength of, supported at both ends, 132
strongest and weakest, 9
table of strength of different forms of, 146
timber, table of breaking-weight and elas-
tic strength of, 122
152
321
367
trussed, 275
uniformly loaded, pressure of, 169
vertical pressure upon, 156
vertical, strength of, regulated by height,
wrought-iron, construction of, 322
wrought-iron, Fairbairn's opinion of, 320,
wrought-iron, rule for breaking-weight of,
Bean-barrow, 1014-1019
riddle of wood, 1686
riddle of iron wire, 1690
sowing drill, one-row, 1020-1022
sowing-drill, three-row, 1023-1028
Bearings for shafts, details of, 383-393
Beater, the drain-stone, 1110
Beech, weight of, 308
Bell's reaping-machine, 1206-1215
Belts, driving, junction of lengths of, 424
Bentall's broad share, 873-875
dynamometer, 517
root-pulper, 1503-1506
Bethell's process for preserving wood, 82
Beton, composition and preparation of, 204
Bevel, workman's, Thompson's, 1093
Bevelled wheels, mode of setting out of, 405
Bills, hedge, 1875
Binders or joists, cast-iron, dimensions of, 326
"Binding-joists," rule for dimensions of, 304
Black-jack, properties of, 107
Blooding-stick, the, 1864
Body-frame of the East-Lothian plough, 590-591
of Howard's plough, 671
of the East-Lothian plough, 582
of the Tweeddale plough, 686
Bogs, draining of, implements for, 1111-1116
Boiler, closed, straining apparatus, 1545-1556
the common, for cooking food, 1564-1568
Cornish, to find the horse-power of, 2000
cylindrical, 1970-1972 and 1975-1977
cylindrical, rule to find the horse-power
of, 2007
cylindrical, to find the dimensions of, 2009
differential feed-apparatus for, 2020
duplicate retort, 1984
vertical tubular, 1980-1983
Johnson's smoke-consuming, 2004
multitubular, 1973-1978
open, steaming apparatus, 1542-1545
Boilers, apparatus for supply of water to, 2012-
2024
encrustation of, 2042
fusible plates for, 2038-2040
Haley's safety signal for, 2016
proportions of, 1985-1987
quantity of water in, 1996
stone-float water apparatus for, 2012, 2013
varieties of, 1969-1984
water-gauge for, 2014-2015
water-heating apparatus for, 2019
Boiling and steaming apparatus, 1540-1569
Bolt and nut, construction and proportion of,
417, 418
Bond, Flemish, for brick walls, 227, 228
Bond, in stone-work, 222
.....
old English, for brick walls, 228
timber for brick walls, 229
633
Bone-dust and turnip seed-drill, the, 1003-1009
Boring-irons, 1103
Bosses, stack, 1660-1663
of shafts, 375
Bourdon's pressure-gauge, 2037
Box-churn, the, with power, 1591
Box hand-churn, the, 1585-1590
Boxes, core for pattern, 287
Boyce's reaping-machine, 1184
Boydell's endless railway, 2092-2095
Braces, importance of a knowledge of the prin-
ciples of, 14
Brake, friction, 415
harrow, the, 894
Branding-iron, the, 1855
Brander potato-lifter, Lawson's, 732-734
shovel, potato, the, 1725
Brasses or bushes for bearings of shafts, 384
Breaker, the curd, 1774, 1775
the oil-cake, 1527-1537
Breaking-joint in stone and brick walls, 214, 215,
231
Breaking-weight of hollow pillars, 370
joints, 422
of single and double riveted
of timber, 122
of timber beams, rules for, 292,
297, 299
292-297
of, in various circumstances,
of wrought-iron, 128
Brick, properties of, 57
Brick walls, carrying up of, in old English and
Flemish bond, 231
classes of, 227
defective setting of, 232
footings of, 217
to insure regular settlement of, 233
Bridges, check, for boiler furnaces, 1990-1993
fire, for boiler furnaces, 1995
Bridging-joists, rule for dimensions of, 305
Bridle, the, 1075
of Howard's plough, 680
or muzzle of East-Lothian plough, 580-596
of the Tweeddale plough, 694
of the Tweeddale subsoil-trench plough,714
Bridles, construction of, 244
Broadcast manure-distributor, Chambers's, 1065-
1069
sowing-machine, the, 943-959
Broad-mouthed shovel, the, 1113
Broadshare, Bentall's, 873-875
Brooms, 1705, 1706
barn, 1706
Bruiser, linseed, 1538
the whin, 1859, 1860
Brush, the horse, 1861
the water, 1862
Bucket, water-wheel, 1928-1935
Buckets, ventilating, for water-wheels, 1936, 1937
Building-stone, determination of qualities of, 56
Buist's wire-bracing for gates, 334,335
Buisting-iron, the, 1854
Bullock-holder, the, 1791
Bull's ring, 1796
Burgess and Key's M'Cormick's reaping-machine,
1224-1231
Burnett's process for preserving wood, 81
Bushe and Barter's root-grater, 1500-1502
Bushel, the imperial, 1707-1709
Bush-harrow, the, 905
Butter-print, mould, and hands, 1769
spade, the, 1769, 1770
Byre cooler, 1750
634
INDEX.
Caddy-bolts of cart, position of, 495
Caldron, 1569
Caldron and furnace, Clarke's portable combined,
1569
Cams, mode of setting out, 412
Cambridge's press-wheel roller, 926
Carpentry, direction and amount of pressure in,
20
and framing, 156
Carriage or cart, construction of, 1406-1435
for conveying harrows, 1121
wheel, theory of the, 485
wheels, effect of resistance from obsta-
cles, 488
wheels, friction of, 486-492
wheels, mechanics of, 478-492
Carriages, effects of springs on, 508
wheel, direction of the line of draught
of, 500-506
Cart, corn and hay, 1436-1444
1446
dormant-bodied, the, 1428-1435
draught chains of, correct position of, 506
effect of the load in, on the horse, 497-499
farmer's, the English and Scotch, 1726
liquid-manure, James's, 1056
liquid-manure, the, 1048-1055
position of caddy-bolts, 495
Robertson's improved corn and hay, 1445-
rope, coil of, 1674
steelyard, the, 1452-1460
tilt, construction of, 1408-1427
waggons, 1363-1451
water, the, 1047
Carts, wheel, disposition of the load of, 493, 494
Caschrom, or plough of the Hebrides, 562
Cast and wrought iron, Mr Stirling's mixture of,
95
Casting strength of iron, 97
Cast-iron beam, "I"-shaped form of, 146
Cast-iron beams, strongest and weakest positions
of, 10
124
153
breaking-weight of various qualities of,
colour of various qualities of, 124
columns of similar form, properties of,
columns, fitting up of, 339-344
column, strength of, 153
crushing strength of, 125
deflection of various qualities of, 124
elasticity of various qualities of, 124
girder, 311
grey, 86-90
mixtures of, 93
Mr Fairbairn's mixture of, 94
Mr Stirling's mixture of, 94
names of, 124
power to resist blows of various quali-
ties of, 124
sion, 125
power to resist tension and compres-
varieties and properties of, 86
specific gravity of, 124
table of the qualities of, 124
strongest quality of, 92
table of strength and properties of va-
rious qualities of, 124
tensile strength of, 125
test of strength for, 88-91
value of the repeated meltings of, 126
white, 86-90
Cast-steel column, strength of, 153
Cattle-leader, American, 1794
.....
probang, the, 1797-1799
trochar, the, 1801
Ceiling-joists, 245
Cement, Puzzolano, 208
Roman, 209
Cements, Smeaton's Eddystone, 208
Centre for window arch, 285, 286
Centres for arches of narrow spans, 286
Centrifugal pump, the, 1895
Chain-gearing system of the Scotch thrashing-
machine, 1289
Chain-rod of Howard's plough, 679
Chambers's broadcast manure-distributor, 1065.
1069
water drop-drill, 1035, 1036
Chandler's drop sowing-drill, 1034
liquid-manure drill, 1042-1046
Check-bridges for boiler furnaces, 1990-1993
Cheese-making apparatus, Keevil's, 1607-1612
press, the, 1613-1620
press, the combined lever, 1617-1620
press, the stone, 1614, 1615
turner, the, 1621-1624
vat, the, 1773
Chemical composition of wood, 71
Chest, the corn, 1858
Chimney-damper, 2022-2024
1988
proportions of, for steam-boiler furnace,
Chopper, cross turnip, 1744, 1745
Churn, American dasher, Anthony's, 1592
barrel, the, 1579
box hand, the, 1585-1590
box, the, with power, 1591
compound-action, Whitworth and East-
wood's, 1581
horizontal, the, 1580
oscillating, the, 1606
plunger, the, 1594, 1595,
plunger, the, with hand-power machine,
1597-1603
plunger, the, with horse-power machine,
1604-1605
Churns, classification of different forms of, 1572,
1578
Clarke & Co.'s portable combined furnace and cal-
dron, 1569
Clarkson's square pump, 1886'
Classification of stones employed in construction, 48
Clay-puddling, process of, 211
Clayton and Shuttleworth's fixed thrashing-
machine, 1314-1319
hummeller, 1347
Clip-iron for rick-stand, 1657
Clod-crusher, Croskill's, 922-925
Closers in brick walls, 231
Cloth, the rick, 1176-1180
Clutch-lever, the, 416
Clutch-sliding or gland for shafts, 414
Clyster funnel, the, 1867
Coal, table of the economic values of, for raising
steam, 1964
Cogs of teethed wheels, form of, 401-403
Cohesive strength and resistance to compression
of timber, table of, 121
Cohesiveness of stones, 56
Coleman's cultivator, 869-872
expanding harrow, 901
Collar of horse, 1075
Collars of shafts, 375
Columns and beams, rules for dimensions of, 363-
372
cast-iron, caps of, 342, 343, 344
cast-iron, circumstances
strength of various forms of, 153
regulating
cast-iron, fitting up of, 339-344
flat and round-ended, comparative
strength of, 155
INDEX.
Columns, cast-iron, for receiving girder, 341
relative strength of, of different mate-
rials, 153
339, 340
cast-iron, rule for breaking-weight of, 368
cast-iron, setting of, in stone and brick,
Comb, the curry, 1861
the mane, 1861
Combined furnace and caldron, Clarke & Co.'s
portable, 1569
lever cheese-press, 1617-1620
Common graip, the, 1778
reaping-scythe, the, 1644
spade, the, 1076
throw-crook, the, 1664
Compensation lever swing-tree, 765
Composition of forces, examples of, 159-166, 172
Compound-action churn, Whitworth and East-
wood's, 1581
Compressile strength of materials, 111
Compression, resistance to, in materials, 111
Computation of strength of beams placed at
different angles, 137
Concave mould-board of plough, 568
Concrete as a building material, 203
composition and preparation of, 202
Condensation of steam, mechanical effect of,
1960-1961
Condensing beam-engine, 2079-2081
steam-engine, 2057-2060
Coniferæ, or cone-bearing trees, 60
Connecting-rods, 408-410
Construction, machine, 373
materials employed in, 48
practice of, 193
principles of, 109
of timber-framing, 241
Consumption of smoke, 1998-2005
Contour of ploughs, 574
Convex mould-board of plough, 568
Cooler for a byre, 1750
Copper, properties of, 105
Core-boxes for patterns, 287
Corn and hay cart, the, 1441-1444
Corn and hay carts, 1436-1444
Corn-barrow, the, 1680
Corn-box, platform for sheep, 1843, 1844
Corn-bruisers, 1513
hand, 1514-1518
plain roller, for power, 1520-1522
plain wheel-edged, 1579
Corn-chest, the, 1858
Corn-cleaner and smut-machine, Rankine's, 1349
Corn-dressing machine, Dray's, 1337-1340
Corn-reaping machines, 1181-1231
Corn, sacks of, in a barn, 1713, 1714
Corn-sacks, lifting of, 1717-1720
Corn-separator, Palmer's rotatory, 1341-1343
Corn-strikes, 1710-1712
Corn-trough for feeding sheep, 1842
Cornish granite, tenacity of, 120
Cottars, or keys, 429
Coulter of East-Lothian plough, 577-595
of Howard's plough, 674
office which it has to perform, 604-609
position of, 602, 603
Coulters, ribbing, the, 725, 726
of the Tweeddale plough, 692, 701
Coulter-box of East-Lothian plough, 587
Coupling, square, half-lap, round, 380
Couplings, varieties of, 380
Cradle-scythe, the, 1645-1648
Craigleith stone, tenacity of, 120
Cramps for binding ashlar stone-work, 224
Cranks, cast and wrought iron, 406, 407
Crank, steam-engine, the, 2061-2078
Cream-jar, the, 1767
Creaming-dish, the, 1766
Crested furrow-slice, 614
635
and rectangular furrow-slices, comparison
of, 624-631
Crook, the shepherd's, 1840
Cross-balance yoke for three horses, 770
Cross strain, resistance to, in materials, 113
Crosskill's clod-crusher, 922-925
English farm-waggon, 1447, 1451
Crowbar, the iron, 1084
Crushing-weights of stones, table of the, 119
Cultivator, Coleman's, 869-872
Romaine's rotatory, 803-817
Curd-breaker, the, 1774, 1775
Curd-cutter, the, 1772
Curry-comb, the, 1861
Curves generated by the revolution of carriage-
wheels, 484
Cutter, the curd, 1772
Cutters, straw, 1461-1473
Cutting timber, right and wrong methods of, 290
Cylinder hummeller, 1346
turnip-slicers, 1493
Cylinders, relative strength of solid and hollow, 151
solid, hollow strength of, 150
Cylindrical boiler, 1970-1972, 1975-1977
Dairy apparatus, 1570-1624
utensils, 1625-1781
Dam of water-wheel, formation of, 1927
Damper, chimney, 2022-2024
Data on which the details of ploughs are based,
572-574
Dead hedge, the, 1870
Deflection of beams, 114-116
Depositor-dibble, or grain-planter, 1038-1040
Desiccation, hot-air, of timber, 70
Diagonal harrow, Howard's, 900
Diagonals, false and true, ornamented, 14, 15
Dibber or fold-pitcher for setting hurdles, 1826
Dibble, depositor, or grain-planter, 1038-1040
Dibbling or drop-drill sowing-machine, 1029, 1030
Digging-forks, Parke's, 1075
Direct-acting engines, 2090-2101
Disc straw-cutter, the, 1464-1466
Disc-harrow, or iron-web, 892, 893
Dishes, milk, 1753-1761
Distributors, manure, liquid and solid, 1041-1069
Ditcher's shovel, the, 1078
Docker's thrashing-machine shaker, 1351
Docking-iron, the, 1863
Dormant-bodied cart, the, 1428-1435
Double-handed sowing apparatus, 1134, 1135
Double flooring, construction of, 245
framed flooring, construction of, 246
mould-board plough, the, 719
mould-board plough for drilling land
722-724
Dovetail joint, 279
Dowels for wood-joint, 287
for binding ashlar stone-work, 224
Drags, action of, 499
Drag-chain of Howard's plough, 675
Drag, dung, the, 1780
Drain draw-hoe, 1098
gauge, the, 1105
scoop, the draw-earth, 1097
scoop, the pushing, 1101
screen or harp, the portable, 1106
spade, the narrow, 1096
spade, the narrowest, 1100
stone-beater, 1110
stone-rake, 1109
stones, the tail-board for, 1108
trowel, the, 1099
636
INDEX.
Drain, water-metre, the, 1117
Drains, hammer for breaking stones for, 1104
levelling-staff for, 1093
peat-tile for, 1116
planking of the, 1102
Drainage-level, Thompson's, 1092
Drainer's plumb-level, 1094
Draining of bogs, implements for, 1111-1116
Draining-tools, 1090-1117
Draught, angle of, principles that determine the,
501, 502
angle of, of ploughs, 775
bars, swing or whipple trees, 750-773
catenary curve, same effect as a spring,
on the, 510
chains of carts, correct position of, 506
direction of the line of, in wheel-car-
riages, 500-506
line, 505
disadvantages of employing horses in
elasticity essential to the yoking of a
horse, 511
on, 777
in light carriages at high speed, 507
line of, of the two-wheeled cart, 503, 504
of ploughs, 774-789
of ploughs, diagram of, 776
of ploughs, effect of wheel on, 778-782
of ploughs, resistance of different angles
of the plough, Yester experiments upon,
790-793
Draw-earth drain-scoop, 1097
Draw-hoe, the hand, 1124
Dray's corn-dressing machine, 1337-1340
1321
four-horse portable thrashing - machine,
Hussey's reaping-machine, 1217-1223
under-foot horse-works, 1912, 1913
Drill, bean-sowing, the, 1014-1019
Drill-drop, Smith's, 1032
Drill-grubber, common, 876, 877
Drill-harrow, the, 895-897
triangular, 898, 899
Drill, lever corn, Garrett's Suffolk, 972-979
Drill-lever sowing-machine, the, 968-971
Drill, liquid-manure, Chandler's, 1042-1046
Drill of land, definition of, 721
seed and manure sowing, Garrett's, 1010-
1014
sowing-machine, East-Lothian, the, 963-967
three-row bean-sowing, 1023-1028
turnip, East-Lothian, the, 986-993
turnip seed and bone-dust, the, 1003-1009
turnip sowing, Geddes's, 994-997
turnip, two-row, on wheels, 998, 999
water-drop, Chambers's, 1035, 1036
Drills, turnip, 980-1009
Driver for sheep-net stakes, 1821
Driving-belts, junction of lengths of, 424
to prevent slipping in pulleys, 395
Drop-drill, objections against, 1033
...
Smith's, 1032
sowing-machine, 1029, 1030
Drop sowing-drill, Chandler's, 1034
Drum of the Scotch thrashing- machine, 1250-
1261, 1267-1290
Dung-drag, the, 1780
graip, the three-pronged, 1779
spade, the, 1776-1777
Duplicate retort steam-boiler, 1984
Durability of wood, and its principles, 74, 75
Dutch hoe, the, 1125
Dynamics, mechanics of, utility of, to the farmer
and mechanic, 21
Dynamometer, Amos', 522
Bentall's, 517
Dynamometer friction-brake, 519
514
Gamst and Lund's, 518
Morin's, 517
principle of construction of, 513,
Slight's, 515, 516
Slight's elliptical spring, 515, 516-
to test power of steam-engines, 521
East-Lothian drill sowing-machine, 963-967
plough, 570-575
641
Eccentric, 411
plough, analysis of mould-board of
turnip-drill, the, 986-993
Edging-iron, the, 1112
Effect of the load in carts on the horse, 497-499
Elastic strength of timber, 122
Elasticity of beams, 114
Elasticity of wrought-iron, 129
Elevators of the Scotch thrashing-machine, 1254-
1284
Elliptic arch, mode of setting out, 240
Elm, weight of, 308
Encrustation of boilers, 2042
Endless railway, Boydell's, 2092-2095
Engine, beam, condensing, 2079-2081
English farm-waggon, 1447-1451
hay-tedding machine, 1151-1155
hurdle, the, 1822
portable thrashing-machine, 1296-1302
sowing-basket, 1133
Ewe-house, the, 1848-1850
Expanding harrow, Coleman's, 901
Expansion of steam, mechanical effect of, 1962
Expansive gearing, 2119
working of steam-engines, 2118-2122
Extrados of arches, 237
Fairbairn's lock-up safety-valve, 2033
remarks on placing of joists in cast-
iron girders, and trussing of, 313-315
remarks on tie-rods in girders, 319
Fanners, finishing, or duster, 1331-1335
of the thrashing-machine, 1336
of the Scotch thrashing-machine, 1252,
1283, 1286
barn, 1323-1335
Fast-and-loose pulleys, 413
Fastenings for gates, 264
Feed apparatus, differential, for boilers, 2020-2022
Feeding gear and rollers of the Scotch thrashing-
machine, 1245-1257
Feering-poles, the, 1074
Felling of timber, time for, 66
Fence, stake-and-rice, 1871
Field-gate, application of the diagonal to, 252,253
elements of the truss in, 250
incorrect construction of, 254
Field-gates, practical construction of, 251
Fir, Riga, weight of, 308
Fir timber, varieties and properties of, 58
Fire-bridges of boiler furnaces, 1995
Fire-proof flooring, 317
Fox's patent, 323
Firing, alternate, of boiler furnaces, 2003
Flail, the, 1675, 1676
Flails, right and wrong form of, 8
Flat arches, 235
Flauchter-spade, the, 1119
Fleam, the, 1864
Flemish bond for brick walls, 227
double, construction of, 245
Flooring, double-framed, construction of, 246
fire-proof, 317
general remarks on construction of, 248
Flooring joists, setting off, good and bad, 234
rule for dimensions of, 302
INDEX.
rules to ascertain dimensions of various
parts of, 302-307
246
single, construction of, 242
strutting of single, 243
table of dimensions of various classes of,
timbers, joints for, 287
weights of, 307
Floors, size of“ binders" of, and distances between,
246
size of "ceiling-joists" of, and distances
between, 246
246
246
size of girders of, and distances between,
size of "joists" of, and distances between,
span or bearing, 246
Fly-catcher, turnip, 1126, 1127
Fly-wheels, principles of action of, 434-436
451
rule to determine the weight of, 450,
Fold-pitcher for setting hurdles, 1826
Footings, brick, 217
stone, 212
Foot-pick, the, 1082
Foot-picker, the, 1861
Force, 473
Force, computation of the direction of, to sustain,
166
Force and friction, inquiry into the laws of, 454-
466
Forces, components of, 159
composition of, 159
equivalent, or resultant of, 159
parallelogram of, 159
resolution of examples of, 159, 161-165
Force-pump, the, 1887-1893
Fork, hay, the wooden, 1634
straw, the, 1632
straw, the Lincolnshire steel, 1633
Forks, digging, Parkes', 1079
trenching, 1080
Form of a beam, influence of, on the strength of,
131
Foundations, angles of, 216
soils, 198
classification of, 193
digging of the trenches for, 201
in compact clayey soils, 195, 196
in compact gravelly soils, 194
in compact sand-beds, 197
in soft yielding soils, 199
on rock, 200
precautions in preparing, in sandy
preparation of the ground for, 194
Fourneyron's turbine, 1943
Fowler's steam plough, 835-845
Fox's patent fire-proof flooring, 323
Framework of East-Lothian plough, dimensions
of, 586
1241, 1242
or "tops" of hay and corn carts, 1437
of the Scotch thrashing-machine,
Framing and carpentry, 156
iron, 309
iron joists used in iron, 338-362
properties of the triangle as applied to, 11
timber joints used in, 266-288
Friction and force, inquiry into the laws of, 454-
466
Friction-brake, 415
Friction, laws of, 457
dynamometer, 519
Morin's experiments upon, 456
637
Friction of axles, with different unguents, 465
of carriage wheels, 486-492
of gudgeons or axles, in motion, table
of, 462
of surfaces with unguents, table of co-
efficients of, 460
459
of unctuous and non-unctuous surfaces,
practical deductions from investigations
into, 466
464
1
table of coefficients of, 460
under pressures, table of coefficients of,
Frying-pan shovel, the, 1107
Fuel, efficacy of, in raising steam, 1963-1968
Fuels, various, table of the comparative evapora-
tive powers of, 1964
Funnel, the clyster, 1867
Furnace-boiler, alternate firing of, 2003
....
economisation of surplus heat from, 1997
Furrow-slice, alternate form of, 643, 644
crested, 614
crested and rectangular, compari-
son of, 624-631
movement of, 620
proportional areas of, 621-623
raising and transmitting of, 617
rectangular, 613
transmission of, 618,619
wheel of Howard's plough, 678
Fusible plates for boilers, 2038-2040
Gallows for horizontal shafts, 390
Gamst and Lund's Danish dynamometer, 518
Gardner's turnip-cutter, 1494
Garrett's horse-hoe, 935-940
portable thrashing-machine, 1305-1309
seed and manure sowing-drill, 1010-1014
Suffolk lever corn-drill, 972-979
Gate, angle-iron, 332, 333
field, bracing of a wire, 334, 335
field, common wooden, 1873
field, the iron, 1874
trussed, iron, 330
wooden, Kilmory, trussed, 255
·
wooden, for drives and approaches, 258
wrought-iron side, 336
Gates, crook and band-hinge for, 263
fastenings for, 264
field, iron, diagonals in, 259
field, upfittings of, 257
iron, 327-329
opening and shutting of, 260
painting of, 265
principles of construction of, 249
wooden, essential features of, 250
wooden fastenings for, 264
wooden, hanging-posts for, 261, 262
wooden, with iron heel-post, 256
Gauge, the drain, 1105
mercurial steam-pressure, 2036-2037
sheaf, the, 1649
Gear, horse, Barrett, Exall, and Andrews' safety,
1914, 1915
Gearing of the Scotch thrashing-machine, 1243
Geddes's turnip sowing-drill, 994-997
Gibs, 429
Gilbert's sack filler and lifter, 1722
Girder, cast-iron, 311
Girders, cast-iron, danger of perforating, 316
cast-iron, dimensions of, 325
cast-iron, placing of tie-rods in, 318
cast-iron, trussing of, 315-316
iron, connection of cross-beams with, 314
iron, connection of wooden,
iron, filling in of spaces between, 312
638
INDEX.
Girders, iron, "shoes" for, 312
trussed, 275
Gladstone's reaping-machine, 1186
Gorse cutting machine, 1473
bruiser, the, 1859, 1860
Governor of steam-engine, 2107
Grain drilling-machines, 960-962
Grain-planter, or depositor-dibble, 1038-1040
Graip, the common, 1778
dung, the three-pronged, 1779
the potato, 1723
Granite, properties of, 49
Grass-seed harrows, 890, 891
Grease-axle, recipe for, 467
Greenstone or trap, properties of, 51
Gridiron, horizontal turnip-slicer for sheep, 1484-
1488
Grindstone, the, 1898
Grubber, Kirkwood's, 857-863
Tennant's, 864-868
Grubbers, 846-877
historical notes on, 846-856
Grubber, common drill, 876, 877
Gudgeon of cast-iron shaft, 378
of timber-shaft, 378
Gwilt's remarks on flooring, 248
Gwynne's hand farm-pump, 1894
turbine, 1947-1950
Half-lap joint for timber, 267
Haley's safety signal for boilers, 2016
Hames, the, 1075
Hammer for breaking stones for drains, 1104
and nut-key, iron, the, 1072
quarry, and jumper, 1086
Hand-barrow, the, 1087
Hand and print-mould for butter, 1769
1603
corn-bruiser, the, 1514-1518
draw-hoe, 1123
hay-rake, the, 1635
hummeller, the, 1678
lever turnip-slicer for cattle, 1733-1738
pick, the, 1081
power machine and plunger-churn, 1597-
rake, tubular iron, 1636
straw or hay cutter, the, 1729-1732
stubble-rake, the, 1650
Handle, right, of East-Lothian plough, 576
Handles and levers, construction of, 431
Hangers or gallows for horizontal shafts, 390
Hanging-posts for wooden gates, 261-262
Hanson's potato-digger, 738, 739
Harle, or mud-hoe, the, 1781
Harness, cart, the English and Scotch, 1726
Harp, or draw-screen, portable, the, 1106
Harrow brake, the, 894
bush, the, 905
drill, the, 895-897
expanding, Coleman's, 901
Howard's diagonal, 900
iron, extirpating, Ross's, 902-904
iron, web or disc, 892, 893
names of parts of, 879
Norwegian, the, 927-929
rectangular, 879, 880
snow, the, 906, 907
Harrows, 878-907
triangular drill, 898, 899
carriage for conveying, 1121
grass seed, 890, 891
rhomboidal, iron, 887-889
rhomboidal wooden, 881-886
rule for constructing rectangular, 886
Hartas' inclined plane horse-work, 1916-1920
Hay and corn cart, the, 1441-1444
Hay and corn carts, 1436-1444
Hay-fork, the wooden, 1634
Hay-knife, the, 1727-1728
Haymaking machines, 1137-1175
Hay or straw rack for sheep, 1846, 1847
Hay-rake, the hand, 1635
Hay-rakes, faulty and correct method of connect-
ing the handle and head, 13
Hay-tedding machines, 1149-1175
1164
the English, 1151-1155
Smith and Ashby's, 1156-
Thompson's, 1165-1171
Haywood's portable engine, 2090
Header in brick-work, 217
in stone bond, 222
Heat, economisation of surplus, from boiler-fur-
naces, 1997
Heat, latent, of steam, 1954
Heathcoat's steam-plough, 808-812
Hedge, the dead, 1870
Hedge-bill and axe, 1875
Hedge-spade, the, 1120
Hepburn's mountain turn-wrist snow-plough,
748, 749
Hill and Smith's iron rick-stand and pillar, 1655,
1656
Hinge, crook and band, for gates, 263
Historical notes on grubbers, 846-856
on ploughs, 558-568
on reaping-machines, 1181-1183
on thrashing-machines, 1233-1237
Hoe, barn, the, 1701
drain draw, 1098
Dutch, the, 1125
hand draw, 1124
horse, Garrett's, 935-940
mud, or harle, the, 1781
Hoes, horse, 930-940
Holder, bullock, the, 1791
Home-timber, 59
Hook, weed, the, 1122
Hopper, great, of the Scotch thrashing-machine,
1282
Horizontal churn, the, 1580
Horizontal high-pressure engine, 2083
spade, the, 1114
Hornsby's portable thrashing-machine, 1310-1313
Horse-gear, Barrett, Exall, and Andrews' safety,
1914, 1915
Horse-hoe, Garrett's, 935-940
Smith's steerage, 931-934
Horse-hoes, 930-944
Horse-power, 1899-1920
Horse-power machine and plunger-churn, 1604-
1605
Horse, proportion of weight carried by, in draught
and cart back-load, 500
Horse-rake, the, 1138-1142
Smith's counter-balanced, 1143-1148
Horse, to ascertain load of cart, 496
Horse-wheel, 1900-1911
1911
calculation connected with, 1904
lever for equalising draught of, 1910
method of securing collar-beam of,
ring-chain and pulleys of, 1907-1909
Horse-work, Hartas' inclined plane, 1916-1920
Horse-works, Dray's under-foot, 1912, 1913
Hot-air desiccation of timber, 70
Hot-blast, iron properties of, 96
House, ewe, the, 1848-1850
Howard's diagonal harrow, 900
wheel-plough, details of, 666-681
Hummeller, 1344
Clayton and Shuttleworth's, 1347
cylinder, 1346
hand, 1678
Hummeller, Ransome and Sims', 1348
Hurdle, the English, 1822
INDEX.
sheep portable, Macpherson's, 1836-1839
Hurdles, the fold-pitcher or dibber for setting,
1826
sheepfold, Barnard and Bishop's, 1831
for sheep, wooden, 1805-1810
wrought-iron, Young's, 1828-1830
Hussey's reaping-machine, Dray's, 1217-1223
Hydatids, the trochar for, 1857
Hydraulic mortar, composition of, 208
ram, the, 1896-1897
"I"-shaped form of cast-iron beam, 146
Imperial bushel, the, 1707-1709
Implement-house, fittings of, 2178
Implements and machines, preservation of, in the
steading, 2167-2178
manual, connected with the culti-
vation of the soil, 1070-1136
manual, connected with the products
of the soil, 1625-1781
for topping and tailing turnips, 1741
paring, 1118-1120
useful on the farm, 1782-1898
wood chiefly used for, 61
Inclined beams, computation of pressures, 161
thrust of, on walls, 167, 168, 169
uniformly loaded, lateral thrust
of, on the walls, 170-172
plane horse-works, Hartas', 1916-1920
India-rubber pump-valve, Perreaux's
Indicator, advantages of the use of, 2129
steam-engine, 2126-2128
Intrados of an arch, the, 237
Inverted arches for foundations, 219
Iron, balling, the, 1865
......
branding, the, 1856
buisting, the, 1855
castings, strength of, 97
change of structure of, 101
classes of, 85
docking, the, 1863
field-gate, the, 1874
framing, 309
framing, joints used in, 338-362
gates, 327-329
harrows, rhomboidal, 887-889
influence of the atmosphere and water on,
102-103
.....
1.25
Scotch and English, relative values of, 98
straw-rack, 1789
table of the tensile and crushing strength of,
web or disc-harrow, 892,893
work, prevention of decay of, 104
wrought and cast, comparative effect of
compression upon, 154
wrought, qualities of, 100
wrought, properties of, 99
James's liquid-manure cart, 1056
Jar, cream, the, 1767
Joggles for binding ashlar stone-work, 224
Johnson's smoke-consuming boilers, 2004
Joining of timbers, accuracy in, 273
266
in the direction of their length,
at right angles to each other, 278
Joining, remarks on, 280
Joint," dovetail," 279
"half-lap," for timber, 267
metre, 287
"mortise-and-tenon," 278
on timbers for vertical compression, 271
rabit, or rebate, 287
"scarf" for timber, 267, 268, 269, 270
Joint, universal, for shafts, 381-382
Joints for flooring-timbers, 287
......
of steam-pipes, 2043-2051
tongued and grooved, 287
639
used in the construction of wrought-iron
roofs, 354-362
used in iron-framing, 338-362
used in timber-framing, 266-288
various forms of, for patterns, 287
Joists, ceiling, 245
with good and bad methods of, 312, 313
Journals of shafts, proportion of, 441
Jug, the bath, 1852
Jumper and quarry-hammer, 1086
Keevil's cheese-making apparatus, 1607-1612
Kemp, Murray, and Nicholson's three-row bean-
sowing drill, 1023-1028
Kentish rag, tenacity of, 120
Kerr's model of reaping-machine, 1191
Keys on wheels and pulleys, 425-428
Keystone of arches, 237
Kilmory trussed wooden gate, 255
King-posts in centre for arch, 286
Kirkwood's grubber, 857-863
Norwegian harrow, 927-929
wire sheep-fodder rack, 1845
Knife, hay, the, 1727, 1728
turnip-trimming, 1742
Knot, the shepherd's, 1815
Kyan's process for preserving wood, and its ex-
pense, 76-80
Labouring force, various sources of, 474
Lactometer, the, 1771
Ladders, 1673
Lanarkshire plough, 571
642
heights, 599 680
analysis of mould-board of,
general dimensions of, and
Land-roller, the, 908-913
Land-rollers, 908-926
Land-side of East-Lothian plough, details of, 597
of the Tweeddale plough, 695
wheel of Howard's plough, 677
Lantern, the, 1783
Larch, properties of, 59, 60
weight of, 308
Laws of friction, 457
Lawson's brander potato-lifter, 732-734
Lead, properties of, 106
Leader, cattle, the American, 1794
Leicester paring-plough, 742
Level, drainage, Thompson's, 1092
Level, spirit, the, 1091
Levelling-box or scoop, 743-747
Levelling-staff for drains, 1093
Lever corn-drill, Garrett's Suffolk, 972-979
drill sowing-machine, the, 968-971
for clutch, 416
turnip-slicer for sheep, 1477-1483
Levers and handles, construction of, 431
jointed, 430
Lewis for raising blocks of stone, 223
Lifter, the sack, 1721
Lime, pure, composition of, 207
Limestones, properties of, 55
Lime, to preserve, for building purposes, 210
Lincolnshire steel straw-fork, 1633
Linseed bruiser, 1538
Lintels, 235
Liquid-manure cart, the, 1048-1055
James's, 1056
drill, Chandler's, 1042-1046
Load on a beam, disposition of, influencing
strength, 132
640
INDEX.
Loading, disposition of, on wheel-carts, 493, 494
Lubricator for shafts, 469
piston, 2115-2117
Tidmarsh's hand, 472
Tidmarsh's self-acting, 471
-
M'Cormick's reaping machines, Burgess and
Key's, 1224-1231
Machines, arrangement of, in the steading, 2148-
2160
and implements, preservation of, in the
steading, 2167-2178
Machine construction, 373
Macpherson's portable sheep-hurdle, 1836-1839
Main's soot-sowing machine, 1062-1064
Mallet, the shepherd's wooden, 1820
Mane comb, 1861
Mann's reaping-machine, 1197-1205
Manual implements connected with the cultiva-
tion of the soil, 1070,1136
implements connected with the products
of the soil, 1625-1781
implements useful on the farm, 1782-1898
Manure and seed sowing-drill, Garrett's, 1010-
1014
1069
......
1068
distributor, broadcast, Chambers's, 1065-
distributors and sowing-machines, 943-
distributors, liquid and solid, 1041-1069
solid, distributors, 1058-1069
Marble milk-cooler, the fixed, 1762
Masonry, stone, varieties of, 220
Materials employed in construction, 48
strength of, 109, 110
Mattock, the, 1083
Maunds or wechts, 1697
Mechanical effect, modulus of, 476, 477
principles of, value of, to the farmer
and mechanic, 2, 21, 28
principles, exemplification of igno-
rance of, 3-5
work or effect, 473
Mechanics of carriage-wheels, 478-492
Meltings of cast-iron, value of the repeated, 126
Memel timber, properties of, 58
Metals used in construction, 84
Metre, water, the drain, 1117
Miles' wooden gate, 256
Milk-cooler, the fixed marble, 1762
......
dish, common stoneware, 1755
dish, glass, 1757
dish, Wedgwood ware, 1756
dish, wooden, 1758
dish, zinc, 1759
dishes, 1753-1761
pail, the, 1751
Milking-stool, the, 1752
Mitre-joint, 287
Mixed mesh wire-netting, Barnard and Bishop's,
1833
Modulus of mechanical effect, 476, 477
Mole-trap, the, 1876
Morin's dynamometer, 517
experiments in friction, 456
Mortar, composition and preparation of, 205
hydraulic, composition of, 208
sands used for, 206
Mortise-and-tenon joint, 278
Moseley on the laws of friction, 457
Moss-extirpating harrow, Ross's, 902-904
Motion of the simple roller, effects of, 479
Mould-board, action of, 616
analytical section of Howard's, 681
of East-Lothian plough, 578
of Howard's plough, 672
of the Tweeddale plough, 691
Mould-board, analytical section of the Tweeddale,
703
pattern of theoretical, 659-666
principles of formation of, 633-639
theoretical principles and practice
of construction of, 648-658
Mould-boards, analyses of various, 639, 647, 681
comparison of actions of various,
704, 705
636, 637
parallel-ruler for the formation of,
Mud-hoe or harle, the, 1781
Multitubular boiler, 1973-1978
Narrow drain-spade, 1096
Narrowest drain-spade, the, 1100
Nasmyth's absolute safety-valve, 2035
Natural seasoning of timber, 68
Net for confining sheep on turnips, 1817
Nets and stakes for sheep, 1811-1822
Nicholson's hay-tedding machine, 1171-1175
Nippers, the punching, 1854
Norway battens, properties of, 58-60
Norwegian harrow, the, 927-929
Notching of wall-plates, 281
Nut and bolt, construction and proportion of,
417, 418
Nut-key, iron hammer, the, 1072
Nuts, proportions of, 418
Oak column, strength of, 153
properties of, 62, 63
weight of, 308
...
...
Oat-riddle of wood, 1685
...
riddle of iron-wire, 1691
Ogle and Brown's reaping-machine, 1189
Oil for machinery, sperm, mineral, 468
Oil-cake breaker, 1527-1537
...
cake breaker, Ransome and Sims', 1534-1537
can, the, 1784
Old English bond for brick walls, 227
One-horse thrashing-machine, 1295
...
row turnip-seed sowing-barrow, 1000-1002
Ord's "Kilmory" wooden trussed gate, 255
Ornamented diagonals, false and true, 14, 15
Oscillating churn, the, 1606
engines, 2099
Pail, the milk, 1751
Painting of gates, 265
Paling, the common wooden, 1872
Palmer's rotatory corn-separator, 1341-1343
Parallel-bladed turnip-chopper, the, 1746
637
ruler for formation of mould-boards, 636,
Paring implements, 1118-1120
ploughs, 740-743
plough, Leicester, 742
Parkes' digging-forks, 1079
patent spade, 1077
Patterns, various forms of joints for, 287
Pawl and ratchet-wheel, 404
Payne's process for preserving wood, 83
Peat-tile spade, 1115
Pedestals or plummer-blocks, details of, 385, 386
Permanent load of cast-iron beams, rule for, 366
Perreaux's India-rubber pump-valve, 1883
Pick, the foot, 1082
Pick, the hand, 1081
Pickers, turnip, 1739, 1740
Pickling apparatus for wheat, 1128
Piers in brick walls, 234
Pig's trough, the round, 1868
the subdivided, 1869
Pillar, see Column
Pillars, cast-iron, hollow, rule to ascertain the
weight which they will support, 372
INDEX.
Pillars, cast-iron, solid, rule to ascertain the
weight which they will support, 371
hollow, breaking-weights of, 370
limit of height of, 300
oak, compressile strain on, 301
timber, rule to find dimensions of, 298
Pinching-screws for pulley-wheels, 426, 427
Pine, red and yellow American, properties of,
58-60
weight of, 308
Pipes, joints of steam, 2043-2051
Piston of force-pump, 1891
pump-plunger or, 1889
Pistons of steam-engines, 2103-2105
Pitch-chains of the Scotch thrashing-machine,
1292, 1293
Plain-roller corn-bruiser for power, 1520-1522
Plain wheel-edged corn-bruiser, 1519
Planking of drains, the, 1102
Plates, wrought-iron, breaking-weight of, 128
Platform corn-box for sheep, 1843, 1844
Plough, 558-845
action of, 601-665
analyses of various mould-boards of the,
638-647
568
angle of draught of the, 775
Bailey on the, 5665
bean-sowing drill, the, 1020-1022
caschrom, 562
component parts of the, 569
concave and convex mould-boards of the,
data in which the details of, are varied,
572, 573, 574
the double mould-board, 719
the double mould-board, for drilling land,
722-724
641
draught of the, 774-789
East-Lothian, 570
analysis of mould-board of,
body of, 582
details of land-side of, 597
dimensions in breadth of,
Plough, Howard's, sock or share of, 673
....
stilts of, 670
harness, the, 1075
historical notes on the, 558-568
Lanarkshire, the, 571
641
analysis of mould-board of,
...
642
general
heights of, 599, 600
paring, 740-743
paring, Leicester, 742
reins, 1075
Rotherham, the, 563
slide, the, 1073
small, the, 717
Small on the, 564
dimensions and
snow, Hepburn's mountain turn-wrist,
748-749
staff, the, 1071
steam, Fowler's, 835-845
steam, Heathcoat's, 808-812
steam, Lord Willoughby de Eresby's,
813-814
.......
steam, Marquess of Tweeddale's, 815-834
subsoil trench, Tweeddale, details of,
707-716
swing and wheel, investigation into opera-
tion of, 783-789
trench and subsoil, 682-716
turn-wrist, action of, 729
turn-wrist, Wilkie's, 727
Tweeddale, details of, 686-706
mould-board of, 691
wheel, Howard's, details of, 666-681
Yester, experiments upon the draught
of, 790-793
Ploughing, steam, 794-845
matches, principles of conducting, 632
Plumb-level, drainers, 1094
Plunger-churn, the, 1594, 1595
with hand-power machine, 1597-
with horse-power machine, 1604,
pump or piston, 1883, 1884
Plunket's reaping-machine, 1185
Pole-plate, shoe for the reception of, 351
Poles, feering, the, 1074
Portable combined thrashing-machine, 1303-1321
drain screen or harp, the, 1106
engine, Haywood's, 2090
1603
bridle or muzzle of, 580-596
coulter of, 577-595
coulter-box of, 587
1605
details of, 575-599
details of body-frame of,
590,591
584
of, 586
general dimensions of, 581
heights of, 583
thrashing-machine, Dray's two-horse,
mould-board of, 578
1302
position of handles of, 585
thrashing-machine, Dray's four-horse,
right handle of, 576
1321
share of, 592
English, 1296-1303
Garrett's 1305-1309
Hornsby's, 1310
dimensions of framework
engine, Ransome and Sims', 2091
engine, Tuxford's, 2086-2089
lever weighing-machine, 1360-1362
share or sock of, 579
sole-shoe of, 594
effect of wheel, on draught of, 778-782
for lifting potatoes, 730
graip for lifting potatoes, 735-737
Howard's, analytical section of mould-
board of, 681
beam of, 669
body of, 671
bridle of, 680
chain-rod of, 679
coulter of, 674
drag-chain of, 675
general dimensions of, 668
land and furrow wheels, 677
mould-board of, 672
skim coulter of, 676
steam-engines, 2084-2095
Potato brander-shovel, the, 1724
digger, Hanson's, 738, 739
lifter, Lawson's brander, 732-734
basket, 1724
graip, the, 1723
harrow, the, 895-897
Potatoes, plough-graip for lifting, 735-737
ploughs for lifting, 730
Power of engines, construction of, 2123-2128
horse, 1899-1920
.....
steam, 1951
water, 1921-1950
wind, 2143-2146
Practice of construction, 193
2 s
642
INDEX.
1.
Practice and theory, union of, 29-39
Preservation of implements and machines in the
steading, 2167-2178
of iron-work, 104
Press, cheese, the, 1613-1620
the, combined lever, 1617-1620
the stone, 1614, 1615
Presser-roller, the, 915-921
Pressure, direction of, in carpentry, 20
as inclination of beams, 162
high and low of steam, 1956
unequal, with unequal inclination of
two beams, 163
Press-wheel roller, Cambridge's, 926
Price of Anthony's American dasher-churn, 1593
Barnard and Bishop's mixed mesh-wire
game netting, 1833
1069
Barnard and Bishop's sheep hurdles, 1831
Bell's reaping-machine, 1206
Bentall's root-pulper, 1506
broadcast sowing-machine, 958
bullock-holder, 1793
Cambridge's press-wheel clod-crusher, 926
cart steelyard, 1460
cattle probang, 1799
cattle trochar, 1801
Chambers's broadcast manure-distributor,
Chandler's liquid-manure drill, 1046
Coleman's cultivator, 871
combined lever cheese-press, 1620
common and patent scythe, 1627
common wooden paling, 1872
cream-jar, 1767
cream-skimmer, 1766
cross turnip-chopper, 1744
Crosskill's clod-crusher, 924
curd-breaker, 1775
depositor, dibble, or grain-planter, 1040
disc straw-cutter, 1464
Dray's Hussey's reaping-machine, 1223
under-foot horse-works, 1913
East-Lothian drill sowing-machine, 967
turnip-drill, 992
Garrett's horse-hoe, 937
Suffolk lever corn-drill, 979
Gilbert's sack-lifter, 1722
Gwynne's turbine, 1950
hand corn-bruiser, 1517
lever turnip-slicer for cattle, 1737
straw or hay cutter, 1732
Hartas' inclined-plane horse-works, 1920
hedge-bills and axe, 1874
horse-rake, 1142
iron rick-stand, 1656
iron rick-stand pillar, 1655
iron-wire riddles for wheat, barley, and
oats, 1688-1692
....
iron-wire sieve, 1694
James's liquid-manure cart, 1057
Keevil's cheese-making apparatus, 1612
Kirkwood's wire sheep fodder-rack, 1845
land-roller, 912
lantern, 1784
lever drill sowing-machine, 971
linseed-bruiser, 1538
liquid-manure cart, 1055
M'Cormick's reaping-machine, 1231
Macpherson's portable sheep-hurdle, 1837
milk-dishes, 1755-1759
milk-sieve, 1765
Nicholson's hay-tedding machine, 1175
oil-cake breaker, 1531
open and closed boiler steaming appara-
tus, 1557
plain-roller corn-bruiser for power, 1522
Price of plunger-churn with hand-power, 1603
potato-graip, 1723
presser-roller, 921
punching nippers, 1854
Ransome and Sims' oil-cake breaker, 1537
Read's stomach-pump, 1804
Richmond and Chandler's steaming appa-
ratus, 1560
1164
rick-cloth, 1176
Robinson's root-washer, 1511
root-grater, Bushe and Barter's, 1502
Samuelson's hand-lever turnip-slicer, 1738
Gardner's turnip-cutter, 1499
scull-basket, 1749
scythe-stones, 1629
scythe strike or strickle, 1631
Sidey's drop-drill, 1031
Smith and Ashby's hay-tedding machine,
Smith and Co.'s steaming apparatus, 1562
Smith's counterbalance horse-rake, 1148
drop-drill, 1032
steerage horse-hoe, 933
straw-rope spinner, 1671
swing-trees, wooden and iron, 762
Thompson's hay-tedding machine, 1171
three-row bean-drill, Kemp, Murray, and
Nicholson's, 1028
Turner's roller-mill, 1526
turnip and bone-dust machine, 1009
turnip-trimming knife, 1743
wechts or maunds, 1697
Whitworth and Eastwood's compound-
action churn, 1583
Williamson's six-horse vortex-wheel, 1946
wooden riddles for wheat, barley, oats,
beans, and roughs, 1683-1687
wooden sieves, 1693
wool shears, 1853
Young's wire-netting, 1832
wrought-iron hurdles, 1830
Priming, apparatus for prevention of, 2041
Print-mould and hands for butter, 1769
Prismatic stack-boss, 1662
Probang, the cattle, 1797-1799
Prony's friction-brake dynamometer, 520
Properties of steam, 1953-1968
Proportions of boilers, 1985-1987
of chimney for boiler furnace, 1988
Pulleys, fast-and-loose, 413
of, 447
for shafts, varieties of, 394
to find the velocity of the circumference
to proportion the diameter of, 442
Pump, centrifugal, the, 1893
Clarkson's square, 1884
farm hand, Gwynne's, 1892
force, 1885-1888
force, air-vessels of, 1890, 1891
plunger or piston, 1889
stomach, Read's, 1802-1804
suction, the, 1890
valve, India-rubber, Perreaux's, 1883
Punching nippers, the, 1854
Pushing drain-scoop, the, 1101
Puzzolano, artificial, 208
cement, 208
Pyramidal stack-boss, 1661
Qualities of stone, determination of, 56
Quarry hammer and jumper, 1086
Quoins in brick walls, 231
Rack, sheep, straw or hay, 1846, 1847
straw, for sheds, 1790
straw, iron, 1789
Rack, straw, wooden, 1788
wire sheep-fodder, Kirkwood's, 1845
Rafters, junction of tie-beam with, 283, 284
"shoe" for the reception of, 348
Railway, endless, Boydell's, 2092-2095
.......
Rake, drain-stone, 1109
hand, tubular iron, 1636
hay, the hand, 1635
horse, the, 1138-1142
stubble, the hand, 1650
INDEX.
Rakes, hay, faulty and correct methods of con-
necting the handle and head of, 13
Ram, the hydraulic, 1896-1897
Ranken's corn-cleaner and smut-machine, 1349
Ransome and Sims' barley-roller, 914
hummeller, 1348
oil-cake breaker, 1534-1537
portable engine, 2091
iron whipple-trees, 763
Ratchet-wheel and pawl, 404
Read's stomach-pump, 1802-1804
subsoil plough, 683
improvements on, 684, 685
Reaping, corn, machines, 1181-1231
Reaping-machine, Bell's, 1206-1215
Boyce's, 1184
Dray's Hussey's, 1217-1223
Gladstone's, 1186
Kerr's model of, 1191
M'Cormick's, 1220-1231
Mann's, 1197-1205
Ogle and Brown's, 1189
Plunket's, 1185
Salmon's, 1187
Scott's, 1188
Smith's original, 1194
Smith's improved, 1195
Reaping-machines, historical notes on, 1181-1183
Reaping-scythe, the common, 1644
Rectangular and crested furrow-slices, compari-
son of, 624-631
Rectangular furrow-slice, 613
harrow, 879, 880
Red pine and American, properties of, 58-60
column, strength of, 153
weight of, 308
Resiliancy of beams, 114, 115
Resistance to compression in materials, 111
to tension in materials, 112
Resolution of forces, 159
Retort, duplicate, boiler, 1984
Reversing gear of steam-engines, 2112
Revolutions of wheels and pulleys, to find the
number of, 448
Reynolds' spiral wire-work, 1835
Rhomboidal harrow, wooden, 881-886
iron harrows, 887-889
Ribbing coulters, the, 725, 726
Richmond and Chandler's iron web harrow, 893
Rick-cloth, the, 1176-1180
Rick-stand, iron, 1656,
steam apparatus, 1559
straw-cutter, 1467
iron, clip for, 1657
pillar, 1655
Riddle, barley, of wood, 1084
bean, of wood, 1686
iron-wire, for barley, 1689
iron-wire, for oats, 1691
iron-wire, for wheat, 1688
for roughs, of wood, 1687
oat, of wood, 1685
slap, 1692
wheat, of wood, 1683
Riddles, 1681-1692
Riga fir, weight of, 308
Rigid strength, form of, 12
Ring, the bull's, 1796
Rise of arches, 237
Rivets, 420
counter-centring for, 423
Mr Fairbairn's remarks upon, 421
tables of strength of various sizes, 452
643
Riveted joints, double, breaking weight of, 422
single breaking-weight of, 422
Robertson's improved corn and hay cart, 1445
Robinson's root-washer, 1507-1511
Rods, connecting, 408-410
Roller, barley, Ransome and Sims', 914
effects of motion of the simple, 479
land, the, 908-913
mill, Turner's, 1523-1526
presser, the, 915-921
Rollers, land, 908-926
Romaine's rotatory cultivator, 803-807
Roman cement, 209
Roofs, wrought-iron joists used in the construc-
tion of, 354-362
Rook-battery, the, 1877-1881
Root-grater, Bushe and Barter's, 1500-1502
Root-pulper, Bentall's, 1503-1506
Root-washer, Robinson's, 1507-1511
Rope, coil of, cart, 1674
straw, coiled, 1672
the straw, spinner, 1667-1670
Ross's moss-extirpating harrow, 902-904
Rotatory cultivators, 796
cultivator, Romaine's, 803-807
Rotherham plough, the, 563
Roughs, riddle for, of wood, 1687
riddle for, of iron wire, 1692
Rubble, backing for ashlar stone-work, 226
filling-in of ashlar stone walls, 222
stone-work, 225
Rules for constructing rectangular harrows, 886
for dimensions of "binding-joists," 304
for dimensions of flooring, 302
for dimensions of trimmer or bridle, 303
for girders of double-framed flooring, 306
for strength of swing-trees, 752-758
to ascertain the form of beam to resist
strains, 131
to ascertain the pressure at the point of a
beam, 140
to ascertain the pressure on beams at differ-
ent points, 139
......
to ascertain the units of strain at different
points, 141
to calculate pressure on safety-valve, 2027
to calculate results of Prony's friction-brake,
520
to determine the weight of a fly-wheel, 450
to find the approximative mean effective
pressure of steam, 2131
......
to find the approximative power of steam-
engines, 2132
to find the dimensions of a cylindrical boiler,
2009
to find the dimensions of pillars, 298
to find the effective power of steam-engines,
2128
to find the horse-power of a cylindrical boiler,
2007
......
to find the horse-power of a Cornish boiler,
2008
to find the power of crank steam-engine,
2063
448
to find the revolutions of wheels and pulleys,
to find the velocity of the circumference of
pulleys and wheels, 447
to proportion beam, loaded at one end, 134
644
INDEX.
Rules to proportion share, 615
for breaking-weight of timber beams, 292,
297, 299
for dimensions of beams and columns,
363-372
for dimensions of timber, 305
to ascertain dimensions of various parts of
flooring, 302-307
to calculate strains for iron shafts, 438
to determine the quantity delivered by a
stream to work a water-wheel, 1923-1926
to proportion the diameter of pulleys, 442
to proportion the diameter of toothed
wheels, 443,444
Running balance - yoke for swing-trees for four
horses, 771, 772
Rusky, the seed, 1129
Sack, barrow, the, 1715-1716
lifter, the, 1721
filler and lifter, Gilbert's, 1722
Sacks of corn in a barn, 1713, 1714
of corn, lifting of, 1717-1720
Safety-valve, 2026
2029
rule to calculate pressure on, 2027,
St Petersburg battens, properties of, 58
Salmon's reaping-machine, 1187
Samuelson's hand-lever turnip-slicer, 1738
Gardner's turnip-cutter, 1495
Sands used for mortar, 206
Sandstone, varieties of, 53
Sandstones, mode of choosing, 54
properties of, 52
Scarf-joint for timber, 267-270
Scarf-joints for timber, proportions of, 272
Scoop for filling water-barrels, 1136
draw-earth drain, 1097
pushing drain, the, 1101
Scoops, wooden, 1702-1704
Scotch fir, properties of, 59, 60
weight of, 308
Scotch thrashing-machine, 1237-1293
Scott's reaping-machine, 1188
Screen of the Scotch thrashing-machine, 1277
Screws, punching, for pulleys, wheels, 426, 427
Scufflers, 941, 942
Scull-basket, the, 1749
Scythe, the common and patent, 1626
cradle, the, 1645-1648
reaping, the common, 1644
stones, the, 1629, 1630
strike or strickle, the, 1631
Seasoning of timber, 67
Seed and manure sowing-drill, Garrett's, 1010-
1014
Seed-rusky, the, 1129
Set-off in stone walls, 213
Shafts, bearings for, details of, 383-393
bosses of, 375
brackets for supporting, 392
"collars" of, 375
gudgeon for cast-iron and timber, 378
hollow cast-iron, 379
horizontal hangers or gallows for, 390
journals, proportion of, 441
lubricator for, 409
lying, strain to which they are liable, 437
pulleys for varieties of, 394
sliding-clutch for, 414
universal or swing-joints for, 381,382
varieties of, 375
varieties of couplings for, 380
vertical and horizontal, 377
wrought-iron, 376
steps for, 387-389
Shakers of the Scotch thrashing-machine, 1251,
1273, 1291
Share of East-Lothian plough, details of, 592
office which it has to perform, 610
or sock of East-Lothian plough, 579-592
or sock of Howard's plough, 673
position of feather in, and action of, 611, 612
rule to proportion, 615
sock-plate for, 593
of Tweeddale plough, 693
Sharman's tubular iron hand-rake, 1636
Sheaf-gauge, the, 1649
Shears, the wool, 1853
Sheep, corn-trough for feeding, 1842
fold hurdles, Barnard and Bishop's, 1831
gridiron horizontal turnip-slicer for, 1484
hurdle, Macpherson's portable, 1836-1839
lever turnip-slicer, 1477-1483
nets and stakes for, 1811-1822
platform corn-box for, 1843, 1844
turnip-slicers for, 1475-1499
turnip-trough for, 1841
wheelbarrow turnip-slicer for, 1489-1492
wire fodder-rack for, 1845
wooden hurdles for, 1805-1810
wooden straw or hay rack, 1846, 1847
Sheers, to distinguish the parts of, whether struts
or ties, 177-180
Sheet, sowing, the, 1130-1132
Shepherd's crook, the, 1840
knot, the, 1815
wooden mallet, the, 1820
Shoe, cast-iron, for the reception of girders, 345
cast-iron, for the reception of pole-plate,
351
cast-iron, for that of wall-plates, 345
for the reception of purlins, 352
for the reception of rafter, 348
for the reception of struts, 347
for the reception of straining-beam, 350
for strut and queen-bolt, 349
Shoes for cast-iron girders, 312
Shoulder-slings, correct position of, 506
Shovel, the broad-mouthed, 1113
ditcher's, the, 1078
frying-pan, the, 1107
the potato-brander, 1724
Sickle, "dinging-in" and "bagging," mode of
using the, 1643
Sickle, smooth-edged, the, 1640
principle of the curvature of, 1642
Sorby's cast-steel toothed, 1639
the toothed, 1638
Sieve, iron-wire, 1694
......
wooden, 1693
the milk, 1765
Sienite, or syenite, properties of, 50
Single-flooring, construction of, 242
Skew-backs in window openings, 238
Skim-coulter of Howard's plough, 676
Slap-riddle, 1692
Slate, Welsh, variety of, 120
Slide for the plough, 1073
for stones, 1085
Sliding-clutch or gland for shafts, 414
Slight's dynamometer, 515, 516
Small on the plough, 564
Small plough, the, 717
......
plough, ribbing with, 718
Smith and Ashby's hay-tedding machine, 1156
and Co.'s steaming apparatus, 1561, 1562
Smith's counterbalance horse-rake, 1143-1148
improved drop-drill, 1032
improved reaping-machine, 1195, 1196
iron-web or disc harrow, 892
original reaping-machine, 1194
Smith's steerage horse-hoe, 931-934
water-gauge for boilers, 2015
Smoke-consuming furnace, argand, 1999
INDEX.
consumption or prevention of, 1998-2005
Smokeless furnace, 2010
Smooth-edged sickle, the, 1640
Smut-machine and corn-cleaner, Ranken's, 1349
Snow-harrow, the, 906, 907
plough, mountain turn-wrist, 748
Sock-plate for share, 593
of the Tweeddale subsoil-trench plough, 710
Soil, cultivation of, manual implements connected
with, 1070-1136
Sole-shoe of East-Lothian plough, 594
Solid-manure distributors, 1058-1069
Soot-sowing machine, Main's, 1062-1064
Sorby's cast-steel toothed sickle, 1639
Sowing apparatus, double-handed, 1134, 1135
basket, the English, 1133
1009
drill, bean or bean-barrow, 1014-1019
drill-drop, Chandler's, 1034
machines and manure-distributors, 943-
machine, broadcast, the, 943-959
machine, East-Lothian drill, 963-967
machine, the corn-drill, 968-971
or drop-drill sowing-machine, 1029-1030
sheet, the, 1130-1132
soot, machine, Main's, 1062-1064
Spade, butter, the, 1763-1770
common, the, 1076
drain, the narrow, 1096
dung, the, 1776-1777
flauchter, the, 1119
hedge, the, 1120
horizontal, the, 1114
Parkes' patent, 1077
peat-tile, the, 1115
Span of arches, 237
Spelter, properties of, 108
Spindle-guide, 393
Spinner, the straw-rope, 1667-1670
Spiral wire-work, Reynolds', 1835
Spirit-level, the, 1091
Spring-hook swivel, 1795
safety-valve, 2030
Springs, effect of, on carriages, 508
effect of, on loaded carriages, 509
Square pump, Clarkson's, 1886
Stack-boss, of straw, 1663
prismatic, the, 1662
pyramidal, the, 1661
Stack-bosses, 1660-1663
stathel, the wooden, 1652-1654
the iron, 1656
trimmer, the, 1659
Staff-plough, the, 1071
Stake-and-rice fence, 1871
Stakes and nets for sheep, 1811-1822
Stathel for stacks, the wooden, 1652-1654
...
the iron, 1656
Stays, importance of a knowledge of the prin-
ciples of, 14
Steading, arrangement of machines in the, 2148
Steam, high and low pressure, 1956
latent heat of, 1954
mechanical effect of condensation of, 1960
mechanical effect of expansion of, 1962
mercurial gauge, 2036, 2037
or stop-valve, 2052, 2053
pipes, joints of, 2043-2051
ploughing, 794-845
plough, Fowler's, 835-845
plough, Heathcoat's, 808-812
plough, Lord Willoughby de Eresby's, 813
plough, Usher's, 797-802
645
Steam plough, Marquess of Tweeddale's, 815-834
power, 1951
pressure-gauge, Bourdon's, 2037
properties of, 1953-1968
table of the economy of, for raising, 1964
table of elasticity and temperature of, 1953
for agricultural purposes, 2136, 2137
effect of impurities in water on the pro-
duction of, 1959
efficacy of fuel in raising, 1963-1968
Steam-engine, condensing, 2057-2060
crank, the, 2061-2078
crank, details of, 2108-2111
duty" of, 2130
governor, 2107
indicator, 2126-2128
piston-lubricator, 2115-2117
rule to find the power of, 2063
setting down of, 2071
stopping and setting on of, 2076
Steam-engines, details of working parts of, 2101
direct-acting, 2096-2101
estimation of power of, 2123-2128
expansive working of, 21, 22, 23
fixed, 2136-2143
force-pump of, 2113, 2114
oscillating, 2099
pistons of, 2103-2105
portable, 2084-2095
reversing gear of, 2112
rule to find the approximative
power of, 2132
.....
2128
rule to find the effective power of,
throttle-valve of, 2106
varieties of, 2055-2100
Steaming and boiling apparatus, 1540-1569
apparatus, closed boiler, 1545-1556
open boiler, 1542-1545
1559, 1560
Richmond and Chandler's,
Smith and Co.'s, 1561, 1562
Steelyard, the cart, 1452-1460
Steerage horse-hoe, Smith's, 931-934
Steps for vertical shafts, 387-389
Stern of the Tweeddale subsoil-trench plough,
712
Stevens' regulating air-door for furnaces, 2001
smokeless furnace, 2001
Stilts of East Lothian plough, 575
of Howard's plough, 670
of the Tweeddale plough, 688, 689
Stirling's patented mixture of wrought and cast
iron, 95
Stirling's running balance-yoke for swing-trees for
four horses, 771, 772
Stomach-pump, Read's, 1802-1804
Stone cheese-press, the, 1614, 1615
float water apparatus for boilers, 2012, 2013
slide, 1085
Stone walls, footings of, 213-216
Stones, classification of, used in construction, 48
Stones, scythe, the, 1629, 1630
Stones, table of the crushing-weights of, 119
Stool, barn, the, 1700
bathing, the, 1851
the milking, 1752
Strain, units of, 135
Strains to which beams are subjected, 117
Straw-cutter, the disc, 1464-1466
Richmond and Chandler's, 1467
Straw-cutters, 1461-1473
Straw-fork, the, 1632
the Lincolnshire steel, 1633
or hay cutter, hand, the, 1729-1732
or hay rack for sheep, 1845, 1846, 1847
646
INDEX.
Straw-rack for sheds, 1790
iron, 1789
wooden, 1788
rope coil, of, 1672
spinner, 1667-1670
stack boss, 1663
Strength, form of rigid, 12
of iron castings, 97
of materials, 109-111
Stretcher in stone bond, 222
in brickwork, 231
Strickle or strike, the scythe, 1631
Strikes, corn, 1710-1712
Strut and tie, axiom on, 16-20
Struts and ties, distinction between, 174-177
cast-iron, shoe for the reception of, 347
Stubble-rake, the hand, 1650
Subsoil-plough, Read's, 683
Thompson's hay-tedding machine, 1165-1171
workman's bevel, 1095
......
Thrashing-machine, American, 1322
fanners of the, 1336
fixed, Clayton and Shuttle-
worth's, 1314-1319
one-horse, 1295
Scotch, 1237-1294
Scotch, chain-gearing system
of the, 1289
Scotch, details of the frame-
work of, 1241, 1242
Scotch, drum, 1261-1290
ploughs, trench and, 682-716
trench-plough, Tweeddale, details of, 707
Suction-pump, the, 1882-1885
Scotch, drum-cover, 1267
Scotch, elevators, 1284
Scotch, fanners, 1283
Scotch, feeding-gear of, 1245
Scotch, feeding-rollers, 1257
Scotch, gearing of, 1243
Scotch, gearing of drum, 1250
Scotch, gearing of the eleva-
Swedish plank, properties of, 58-60
tors of, 1254, 1255
Swing and wheel ploughs, investigation into
operations of, 783-789
Swing-tree, trussed iron, 759-761
trees for two horses, 750-758
ners of, 1252, 1253
1251
Scotch, gearing of the fan-
Scotch, gearing of shakers,
for three horses, 764-769
for four horses, 770
for six horses, 773
rule for strength of, 752-758
Swivel, the spring-hook, 1795
Scotch, great hopper, 1282
Scotch, pitch-chains, 1292
Scotch, screen, 1277
Scotch, second fanners, 1286
whipple-trees, or draught-bars, 750
Syringe, the ball, 1866
Table of breaking-weights and elastic strength of,
timber, 122
breaking-weights of single and double
riveted joints, 422
464
coefficients of friction under pressures,
coefficients of friction with unguents, 460
diameters of cast-iron pillar-shafts to
resist lateral stress, 439
diameter of shafts to resist torsion, 439
dimensions of various floorings, 246
friction of axles in motion, 462
mechanical effect producible by men or
animals, 475
Mr Fairbairn's mixtures of cast-iron, 94
proportions of nuts and bolts, 419
strength and properties of various quali-
ties of cast-iron, 124
1953
strength of different forms of beams, 146
temperature and elastic force of steam,
the comparative evaporative powers and
cost of various fuels, 1967
the cohesive strength and resistance to
compression of timber, 121
the crushing-weights of stones, 119
the economy of raising steam, 1964
the proportions of toothed wheels, 445
the qualities of different classes of
building-stone, 56
the strength of rivets in sizes, 452
the tensile and crushing force of iron, 125
Tail-board for drain-stones, 1108
of the Tweeddale subsoil-trench plough,
711
Tennant's grubber, 864-868
Tensile strain in materials, 112
Tension, resistance to, in materials, 112
Testing of wrought-iron, limits of, 130
Theory and practice, union of, 29-31
Thompson's drainage-level, 1092
vortex-wheel, 1944, 1945
Thrashing - machine, Scotch, shakers of, 1273-
1291
Scotch, the toothed - wheel
system of, 1244
Thrashing-machines, 1232-1322
historical notes of, 1233-1237
English and Scotch, compa-
rison between, 1296-1301
Three-pronged dung-graip, the, 1779
row bean-sowing drill, 1023-1028
Throttle-valve, 2106
lever, 432
Through" in stone-band, 222
Throw-crook, the common, 1664
Tidmarsh's hand-lubricator, 472
self-acting lubricator, 471
Tie, principle of the, 181, 182
Tie and strut, axiom on, 16-20
Ties and struts, distinction between, 174-177
Tie-beams, junction of rafters with, 283, 284
junction of, with wall, 282
Tie-rods in girders, Mr Fairbairn's remarks, 319
in girders, placing of, 318
Tile-peat for drains, 1116
Tilt-cart, construction of, 1408-1427
Timber, breaking-weight and elastic strength, 122
felling of, time for, 66
framing, joints used in, 266-288
framing, construction of, 241
home, 59
hot-air dessication of, 70
natural seasoning of, 68
right and wrong methods of cutting, 290
scarf-joints, proportion of, 272
seasoning of, 67
table of the tensile strains of, 121
varieties and properties of, 58-67
water-seasoning of, 69
Timbers, best mode of sawing of, 289
Tools, draining, 1090-1117
Toothed sickle, the, 1638
wheels, cogs of, 401-403
machine, 1244
mode of setting out, 396-399
rules for dimensions of,. 446.
system of the Scotch thrashing-
INDEX.
Toothed wheels, table of the proportion of, 445
Topping and tailing of turnips, 1741
Tops or framework of hay and corn cart, 1437
Torsion, table of diameters of shafts to resist,
439
Trace-chains, the, 1075
Transverse strain, resistance to, in materials, 113
Trap, the mole, 1876
Trap or greenstone, properties of, 51
Trench and subsoil ploughs, 682-716
Trenching-forks, 1080
Triangle, properties of, as applied to the con-
struction of framing, 11
Triangular drill harrow, 898
Trimmer, the stack, 1659
Trimmers, construction of, 244
rule for dimensions of, 303
Trimming-knife, turnip, 1742
Trochar, the cattle, 1801
the, for hydatids, 1857
Trough, corn, for feeding sheep, 1842
the pigs' round, 1868
the subdivided pigs', 1809
turnip, for sheep, 1841
turnip, for courts, 1785
Troughs, water, for cattle, 1786-1788
Trowel, drain, the, 1099
Truss, analysis of the composition of a, 186-191
......
elements of, in a field-gate, 250
essential feature in all framing, 183-185
principles of the, 182
proportioning of the strains of, 192
Trussed girder, 275
iron-gate, 330
iron swing-tree, 759-761
iron whipple-trees, 763
Tubular boiler, vertical, 1980-1983
Turbine, Fourneyron's, 1943
Gwynne's, 1947-1950
Turbines, 1938-1950
historical notes connected with, 1939
Turn-wrist plough, Wilkie's, 727
Turner, cheese, the, 1621-1624
Turner's roller-mill, 523
Turnip-chopper, the cross, 1744, 1745
parallel-bladed, the, 1746
Turnip-cutter, Gardner's, 1494
Samuelson's Gardner's, 1495
Turnip-drill, East-Lothian, the, 986-993
two-row on wheels, 998, 999
Turnip-drills, 980-1009
Turnip fly-catcher, 1126, 1127
Turnip-pickers, 1739-1740
Turnip seed-sowing barrow, one-row, 1000-1002
and bone-dust drill, the, 1003-1009
Turnip-slicer for cattle, hand-lever, 1733-1738
gridiron, horizontal, for sheep, 1484
lever for sheep, 1477-1487
wheel-barrow, for sheep, 1489
Turnip-slicers, 1474
cylinder, 1493
for sheep, 1475-1499
Turnip-sowing drill, Geddes's, 994-997
trimming-knife, 1742
trough for sheep, 1841
troughs for courts, 1785
Turnips, implements for topping and tailing, 1741
Tuxford's portable engine, 2086-2089
Tweeddale, Marquess of, his steam-plough, 815-834
Tweeddale plough, analytical section of mould-
board of, 703
beam of, 687-690
bridle of, 694
coulter of, 692
details of, 686-706
dimensions of height of, 706
647
Tweeddale plough, general dimensions of, 696-702
land-side of, 695
stilts of, 688
sock or share of, 693
Tweeddale subsoil-trench plough, action of, 715
the, 716
bridle of, 714
details of, 707
dimensions, 708
under-side, 710
pulverisation by
stem of, 712
stilts of, 709
tail-board, 711
wheels of, 713
Two-row turnip-drill on wheels, 998, 999
wheeled cart, line of draught of, 503, 504
Under-foot horse-works, Dray's, 1912, 1913
Unguents, friction of axles with different, 461-462
Universal joint for shafts, 381, 382
Usher's steam-plough, 797-802
Valve, "lap" and "lead" of steam, 2120-2123
"long D," 2058
safety, 2026
safety, Fairbairn's lock-up, 2033
Nasmyth's absolute, 2035
spring safety, 2030
stop, 2052, 2053
throttle, 2106
lever of, 432.
Values, relative, of Scotch and English irons, 98
Ventilating buckets for water-wheels, 1936, 1937
Vertical tubular boiler, 1980-1983
"Voids" or window openings, 235
Vortex-wheel, Thompson's, 1944, 1945
Voussoirs of arches, 237
Waggon, English farm, 1447-1451
Waggons, carts, 1363-1451
Walls, brick, classes of, 227
Wall-plates, cast-iron shoe for the reception of,
345
junction of, with tie-beams, 282
notching of, 281
Waller on steam to agricultural purposes, 2134
Water, to regulate supply of, to boilers, 2012
barrels, scoop for filling, 1136
brush, the, 1862
cart, the, 1047
drop drill, Chambers's, 1035, 1036
effect of impurities of, on production of
steam, 1959
gauge for boilers, 2014
Smith's, for boilers, 2015
heating apparatus for boilers, 2019
in boilers, quantity of, 1996
metre, the drain, 1117
seasoning of timber, 69
troughs for cattle, 1786-1788
wheel, 1922-1926
bucket, 1928-1935
classification of kinds of, 1922
formation of dam of, 1927
rules to determine the quantity
delivered by a stream to work, 1923-1926
wheels, ventilating-buckets for, 1936, 1937
Wechts or maunds, 1697
Weed-hook, the, 1122
Weighing-machine, balance, 1355-1359
machine, portable lever, 1360-1362
machines, barn, 1352-1362
Weights which pillars will support, 371-372
Wheat, pickling apparatus for, 1128
riddle of wood, 1683
648
INDEX.
Wheat, riddle of iron-wire, 1688
Wheel and axle combined, 481, 482
and swing-ploughs, investigations into
operations of, 783-789
barrow, the common, 1747
turnip-slicer for sheep, 1489-1492
bevelled, mode of setting out of, 405
bucket, water, 1928-1935
cart, disposition of the load of, 493, 494
horse, 1900-1911
calculations connected with, 1904
lever for equalising draught of, 1910
to secure the collar-beam of, 1911
ring-chain and pulleys of, 1907-1909
plough, Howard's, details of, 666-681
ratchet, 404
theory of the carriage, 485
water, 1922-1938
classification of kinds of, 1922
Wheels, carriage, effects of resistance from ob-
stacles, 488
487
friction of, in relation to load,
mechanics of, 478-492
construction of, 1364-1380
curves by the revolution of carriage, 484
effect of, on draught of ploughs, 778-782
fly, principles of action of, 434-436
land and furrow, of Howard's plough, 677
toothed, mode of setting out, 396-399
to proportion the diameter of, 443
Whin-bruiser, 1859, 1860
cutting machine, 1473
Whipple-trees, iron, Ransome and Sims', 763
on swing-trees, 750
Wilkie's turn-wrist plough, 727
Williams' argand smoke-consuming furnace, 1999
Willoughby d'Eresby's, Lord, steam-plough, 813
Wind-mills, farm, 2145, 2146
Wind-power, 2143-2146
Window-openings, 235
Wire-netting, Barnard and Bishop's, 1833
Young's, 1832
Wire sheep fodder-rack, Kirkwood's, 1845
Wire-work, spiral, Reynolds', 1835
Wood, chemical, composition of, 71
durability of, and its principles, 74, 75
microscopic investigations of, 73
preservation of, Bethell's process, 82
Burnett's process, 781
Kyan's process, 76-80
Payne's process, 83
Woods chiefly used for implements, 61
weights of various, 308
Wooden field-gate, the common, 1873
gates, essential features of, 250
hurdles for sheep, 1805-1810
paling, the common, 1872
rhomboidal harrow, 881-886
scoops, 1702-1704
Wool-shears, the, 1853
Work, mechanical, or effect, 473
Wrought-iron beam, construction of, 322
of, 354-362
Fairbairn's opinion of, 320
rule, breaking-weight, 367
column, strength of, 153
columns, when not to be used, 155
elasticity of, 129
hurdles, Young's, 1828-1830
limits of testing, 130
plates, breaking-weight of, 128
properties of, 99
qualities of, 100
roof-joints used in the construction
side-gate, 336
uses of, 127
Yellow pine, American, properties of, 58-60
weight of, 308
Yester, experiments upon the draught of ploughs
at, 790-793
Yorkshire stone, tenacity of, 120
Young's wire-netting, 1832
wrought-iron hurdles, 1828-1830
side-gate, 336, 337
Zigzag harrow, Howard's, 900.
Zinc milk-dishes, 1759, 1760
properties of, 107.
THE END.
PRINTED BY WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS, EDINBURGH.

A
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LIST OF WORKS
ON
AGRICULTURE AND RURAL AFFAIRS
PUBLISHED BY
WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS
In Two Volumes Royal 8vo, price £3 half-bound,
THE BOOK OF
OF THE
THE FARM.
DETAILING THE LABOURS OF THE FARMER, FARM-STEWARD, PLOUGHMAN, SHEPHERD,
HEDGER, CATTLE-MAN, FIELD-WORKER, AND DAIRY-MAID; AND FORMING A
SAFE MONITOR FOR STUDENTS IN PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.
Corresponding Member of the Société Royale et Centrale d'Agriculture of France,
and of the Royal Agricultural Society of Galicia.
A NEW EDITION.
Illustrated with PORTRAITS OF ANIMALS painted from the life, engraved on Steel by
THOMAS LANDSEER and others; and with 600 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD by BRANSTON,
representing the principal Field Operations, Implements, and Animals treated of in the Work.
SUBJECTS TREATED OF IN THE BOOK OF THE FARM.
ΙΝΙΤΙΑΤΙΟΝ.
On the best of the existing methods for acquiring a thorough knowledge of Practical
Husbandry. Difficulties the Pupil has to encounter in Learning Practical Husbandry,
and on the means of overcoming them. The different kinds of Farming, and on select-
ing the best. On the Branches of Science most applicable to Agriculture. Persons
required to conduct and execute the Labour of the Farm. On the Institutions of Educa-
tion best suited to Agricultural Students. On the evils attending the neglect of Land-
owners and others to learn Practical Agriculture. On observing the Details and record-
ing the Facts of Farming by the Agricultural Student.
PRACTICE.
WINTER,
Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Winter. Plough, Swing-
Trees, and Plough-Harness. Ploughing and Ploughing-Matches. Ploughing different
Forms of Ridges. Ploughing Stubble and Lee Ground. Occupation of the Steading in
Winter. Pulling and Storing Turnips, Mangold-Wurzel, Carrots, Parsnips, and Cab-
bage, for Consumption in Winter. Feeding of Sheep on Turnips in Winter. Accom-
modation afforded to Cattle in Winter by the Steading. Rearing and Fattening of
Cattle on Turnips in Winter. Varieties of Turnips cultivated. Construction of Stables
for Farm-Horses. Treatment of Farm-Horses in Winter. Treatment of the Farmer's
Saddle and Harness Horse in Winter. Fattening of Swine in Winter. Treatment of
Fowls in Winter. Rationale of the Feeding of Animals. Accommodation of the Grain
Crops in the Steading. Thrashing and Winnowing of Grain. Forming of Dunghills and
Composts in Winter. Liquid Manure, and the Construction of Liquid-Manure Tanks
and Carts. Sea-Weed as Manure. Gaulting or Claying the Soil.
2
WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.
SPRING.
Advantages of having
Milking of Cows. Rear-
Sowing of Oats, Beans,
Turnip-bulbs for produc-
Ribbing Land for the
Turning of Dunghills.
Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Spring.
Field-work always in a state of Forwardness. Calving of Cows.
ing of Calves. Sowing of Spring Wheat. Drilling up of Land.
Pease, Tares. Rolling of Land. Lucerne. Transplanting of
ing Seed. Sainfoin. Lambing of Ewes. Cross-Ploughing Land.
Seed-Furrow. Sowing of Grass-Seeds. Sowing of Barley.
Planting of Potatoes. Paring and Burning the Surface. Farrowing of Sows. Hatching
of Fowls.
-
SUMMER.
Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Summer. On the Hay given
to Farm-horses. Sowing and Summer Treatment of Flax-Hemp-Hops-Turnips
Kohl-rabi-the Cabbage-Mangold - Wurzel-the Carrot-Parsnips-Rape-Buck-
wheat-Sunflower-Madia-and Maize. The Rationale of the Germination of Seeds.
On Sowing Broadcast, Drilled, and Dibbled-Thick and Thin-and at Different Depths.
Repairing the Fences of Pasture-fields. Disposal of the Fat Sheep-and Fat Cattle.
Mares Foaling-Treatment of Bulls in Summer. Pasturing of Sheep and Cattle in
Summer. Weaning of Calves. Pasturing of Farm-horses in Summer. Soiling of Stock
on Forage Plants. Washing and Shearing of Sheep. Rolling of Fleeces, and on the
Quality of Wool. Summer Culture of Beans and Pease. Weaning of Lambs. Drafting
of Ewes and Gimmers. Marking of Sheep-Hay-making. Summer Culture of Wheat
-Barley-Oats-Rye-and Potatoes. Summer Fallow. Reaping of Turnip-seed.
Making Butter and Cheese.
AUTUMN.
Summary of the Field-Operations and of the Weather in Autumn. Sowing of the
Stone-Turnip, and on the Sowing of Turnip for Seed. Sowing of Winter Tares-Rape
Crimson Clover-Bokhara Clover-Red Clover for Seed-and Italian Rye-grass.
Picking and Drying of Hops. Sowing of Winter Beans. Pulling, Steeping, and Drying
of Flax and Hemp. Reaping Wheat, Barley, Oats, Rye, Beans, Pease, and Tares, when
grown for Seed. Carrying and Stacking of Wheat, Barley, Oats, Beans, and Pease.
The Common Jerusalem Artichoke. Reaping Buckwheat, Sunflower, and Maize. Birds
destructive to the Grain Crops. Putting the Tups to the Ewes. Bathing and Smearing
of Sheep. Lifting Potatoes. Storing Potatoes. Sowing Wheat, Barley, and Pease in
Autumn. Sowing several varieties of Grain together. Planting Potatoes in Autumn.
The effects of Special Manures. Rotation of Crops. Fertility of Soils. Disposal of the
Fat Pigs. Management of Fowls. Animals destructive to Poultry.
REALISATION.
Differences in the Physical Geography of Farms. Climate and its Effects. The
Judging of Land. Estimating the Rent of a Farm. The Mode of Offering for a Farm.
Negotiating the Covenants of the Lease. Entering to a Farm. The Stocking of a
Farm. Choosing the Site, on Building, and on the Expenses of Erecting the Steading.
The Farm-house. Cottages. for Farm-servants.
Cottages for Farm-servants. Insurance against Fire and Disease.
The Principles of Enclosure, and on Shelter. The Planting and Rearing of Thorn
Hedges. The Building of Stone Fences. Wire Fences. Embanking against Rivulets.
Construction of Field Gates. Draining of Land. Improving Waste Land. Trench and
Subsoil Ploughing. Liming of Land. Forming Water-meadows. Irrigation. Treat-
ment of Draught-stallions. Breaking-in of young Draught-horses. Breaking-in young
Saddle-horses. Training and Working the Shepherd's Dog. Slaughtering Oxen, Sheep,
and Pigs. The points to be aimed at in Breeding the most perfect forms in Live Stock.
Description of the Animals whose Portraits are given in the Plates. Account of some
other Breeds of Cattle and Sheep. The Principles of Breeding. Selection of Parents in
Breeding. Breeding in-and-in. Crossing. Hiring of Farm-servants. Wages of Farm-
servants. The Farm Smith, Joiner, and Saddler. The care due to the Implements.
Making Experiments on the Farm. Corn-markets. Farnı Book-keeping. Concluding
exhortations to the young Farmer. Index.
"The best practical book I have ever met with."-Professor Johnston.
•
"We assure agricultural students that they will derive both pleasure and profit from a diligent
perusal of this clear directory to rural labour.
We have thoroughly examined these volumes;
but to give a full notice of their varied and valuable contents would occupy a larger space than we can
conveniently devote to their discussion; we therefore, in general terms, commend them to the careful
study of every young man who wishes to become a good practical farmer.”—Times.
"A work, the excellence of which is too well known to need any remarks of ours."-Farmers'
Magazine.
•
"Exhibiting in every page the combination of large experience, extensive observation, and a culti-
vated mind.
One of the most unique and valuable works to be found within the range of
agricultural literature."-Bell's Messenger.
"We know of no single agricultural work to be compared with this.
disinterestedly earnest than our recommendation of the Book of the Farm.'
"One of the completest works on agriculture of which our literature can boast."-Agricultural
Gazette.
•
•
Nothing can be more
-Bell's Life.
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In foolscap 8vo, price 4s. 6d.
YESTER DEEP LAND-CULTURE;
3
co
BEING A DETAILED ACCOUNT OF THE METHOD OF CULTIVATION WHICH HAS BEEN SUCCESSFULLY
PRACTISED FOR SEVERAL YEARS BY THE MARQUESS OF TWEEDDALE AT YESTER.
By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.
Author of the "Book of the Farm."
THE characteristic of the new system--for it may be well so named, different as
it is from any now in use-is the complete pulverisation of the subsoil, and its
mixture with the upper soil, the treatment being of a very substantial and per-
manent nature. The work is divided into the following sections :-
(1.) The physical geography and climate of the Yester Farms. From the de-
tails here given on these points, it will be seen that the great results obtained
were not those induced by the propitious nature of the soils treated, but, from
the fact that the fields operated upon were, on the contrary, by no means pro-
mising subjects for the expenditure of capital, the best evidence is obtained
of the excellence of the principle upon which the improvements were founded.
(2.) Thorough-draining the soils and subsoils. (3.) Deep-ploughing the soils
and subsoils. (4.) Subsoil trench-ploughing. (5.) The Yester Plough. (6.)
Swing-trees for three and four horses. The last four sections comprise descrip-
tions of the peculiarities of construction of the ploughs used, and the method of
working them. (7.) The physical benefits derived from the thorough-draining
and subsoil trench-ploughing. (8.) The economical benefits. (9.) The system
of farming now adopted at Yester Farm. (10.) Results of the system. (11.) The
working strength of Yester Farm. (12.) The concluding chapter gives a detail of
the advantages derivable from the thorough pulverisation of the subsoil, the
whole of which abound in suggestions of great value to the practical man.
Third Edition, 8vo, price 5s.
A MANUAL OF PRACTICAL DRAINING.
By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.
Author of "The Book of the Farm.”
THE subject is divided into the following sections:—
(1.) The symptoms exhibited by land requiring drainage. (2.) The different methods of draining-
shallow draining, with its varieties-deep draining-thorough draining. (3.) Draining by open ditches.
(4.) Sheep drains in hill pastures. (5.) Drains for ground for forest trees. (6.) Ancient shallow covered
drains. (7.) Isolated hollows and running sands. (8.) Bog drains. (9.) Elkington's method. (10.)
Determination of the minimum depth of drains. (11.) Open ducts for drains-stone-tile ducts-
necessity for soles for ducts. (12.) Estimate of the quantity of water to be conveyed by ducts. (13.)
Draining of fields in succession. (14.) Period of the rotation at which drains should be executed. (15.)
Position of main drains. (16.) Ditto in reference to surface. (17.) Ditto of small drains in reference
to inclination of surface. (18.) Particulars determining depth. (19.) Ditto distances between drains.
(20.) Contracts for cutting. (22.) Rules for filling drains with stones. (23.) Drains with soles and
tiles. (24.) Laying of ditto. (25.) Pipe-drains. (26.) Laying of ditto. (27.) Tile and stone drains.
(28.) Outlets and levels. (29.) Returning the soil into the drains. (30.) Conducting draining operations.
(31.) Ground plan of a thorough-dried field. (32.) Physical benefits derivable from draining. (33.)
Pecuniary profits. (34.) Cost of draining by different methods. (35.) Draining railway cuttings. (36.)
Flat stone drains. (37.) Peat tile ditto. (38.) Plug ditto. (39.) Sod. (40.) Mole. (41.) Larch tube.
(42.) Brushwood. (43.) Brick drain. (44.) Drain ploughs. (45.) Drain-tile machines. (46.) Machines
for preparing clay. (47.) Inquiry as to whether landlords ought to undertake any or what part of the
expense of draining. (48.) Theory of draining. (49.) Durability of drains. (50.) Trenching rough
ground preparatory to, and consequent upon, drainage.
4
WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.
A New Edition, Illustrated with numerous Engravings, 1s.
A CATECHISM
OF
PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE.
By HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.
Author of the "Book of the Farm.”
For those destined to act as principals on the farm, instruction is provided
by the profusion of Treatises on the various branches of the subject, by
Agricultural Colleges and Lectureships, and pre-eminently by their entering as
practical pupils with men of mature experience and skill; but for the far larger
numbers destined to subordinate employments, no such means, and, indeed, no
means of any kind, have been available. They entered on their occupation
entirely unprepared for it, and were destined to acquire the knowledge and skill
requisite wholly empirically, behind the plough or in the field. That through
such a training multitudes have come thoroughly to understand and ably to fulfil
their duties, admits of no dispute; had it been otherwise, our agriculture could
never have been what it is. But still it is hardly questionable but that this
knowledge and ability might have been earlier, more easily, and more generally
attained, had these workers in our fields entered on their task in some degree
informed, by preliminary elementary instruction, as to what was expected of them.
The favourable reception given to Professor Johnston's Catechism of Agricul-
tural Chemistry and Geology, suggested to the Publishers the propriety of a simi-
lar work on Practical Agriculture. In intrusting the carrying out this idea to the
Author of the Book of the Farm, they knew they were securing for the Work de-
vised the fullest possible knowledge of the subject, sound judgment as to the
wants of the class for whom he was specially writing, and orderly and methodical
arrangement, and the utmost clearness and simplicity of style, in filling up the
details. The method he has adopted is the same as that on which public approval
has been so decisively stamped as followed in the Book of the Farm-the describ-
ing the various operations of the Farm in the order in which they are in the suc-
cessive seasons actually performed upon it. And in following out the details, he
has proceeded on the principle which all teachers of mixed classes know to be the
only safe one,—the assuming nothing whatever to be known beforehand of the
processes described. The utmost simplicity and clearness have thus, it is hoped,
been secured; and as a still further aid to full comprehension of every operation,
woodcuts and diagrams have been profusely employed wherever they could be of
any possible service.
Subscription Twelve Shillings per Annum.—Published Quarterly.
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AND THE
TRANSACTIONS OF THE HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL
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to 1843, 21 vols., cloth, £3, 3s.; NEW SERIES, 1843 to 1855, 10 vols., cloth, £2, 12s. 6d.
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DEDICATED BY PERMISSION TO HER MAJESTY.
5
In Two large Volumes Royal Octavo, embellished with 1350 Engravings,
BOOK OF THE GARDEN.
THE
By CHARLES M'INTOSH,
Formerly Curator of the Royal Gardens of his Majesty the King of the Belgians, and lately of
those of his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, at Dalkeith Palace.
The volumes are sold separately-viz :
VOL. I.-ON THE FORMATION OF GARDENS AND CONSTRUCTION OF GARDEN EDIFICES.
776 pages, and 1073 Engravings. £2, 10s.
VOL. II.-PRACTICAL GARDENING. 868 pages, and 279 Engravings. £1, 17s. 6d.
WORKS on gardening have long been abundant, and the popularity of many
of them has attested the general interest taken in this art, and the value
of books as guides and instructors in it. None, perhaps, has enjoyed a
wider or firmer reputation than the Practical Gardening of Mr M'Intosh,
which was for many years recognised as the completest, most systematic, and
most practical extant treatise on the art. A quarter of a century, however, has
now elapsed since that work last received the revisions of the author; and in
that time gardening, as a practical art, has undergone such advances and
improvements that a treatise, which might be most valuable in 1830, has ceased
to be so in 1855. The Book of the Garden was accordingly resolved on, not merely
to supersede the author's former, and now comparatively obsolete work, but
designed to form for its art a text-book as full and complete as the Book of the
Farm was for agriculture. The reception which the work has experienced from
the press and the public has been more than sufficient to attest both the need of
such a complete and systematic treatise on gardening in all its departments, and
the degree to which Mr M'Intosh has filled up an existing blank.
The work is divided into two great sections, each occupying a volume-the
first comprising the formation, arrangement, and laying out of gardens, and the
construction of garden buildings; the second treating of the theory and practice
of horticulture.
CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
INTRODUCTION.-GARDENING, AS AN ART OF DESIGN AND TASTE, CONSIDERED
AS REGARDS ITS ORIGIN, PROGRESS, AND PRESENT State.
CHAPTER I.-THE FORMATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF CULINARY AND FRUIT
GARDENS IN GENERAL.-Section 1. Plan; 2. Extent; 3. Form; 4. Supply of Water;
5. Situation; 6. Soil; 7. Fruit-Tree Borders; 8. Principal Entrance; 9. Shelter; 10.
Style.
CHAPTER II.-GARDEN WALLS.-Section 1. Aspect of Walls; 2. Foundations of
Walls; 3. Materials for Garden Walls; 4. Copings for Garden Walls; 5. Trellised
Garden Walls; 6. Height of Garden Walls; 7. Arranging Walls to suit various situa-
tions; 8. Colour of Garden Walls; 9. Construction of Garden Walls.
CHAPTER III.-HOTHOUSE BUILDING.-Section 1. General Principles; 2. Angle of
Elevation.
CHAPTER IV.-HEATING AS APPLIED TO HORTICULTURAL ERECTIONS.-Section 1.
Preliminary Remarks; 2. Heating by Flues; 3. Heating by Hot-Water Pipes; 4. The
Tank Mode of Heating; 5. Heating by Hot-Air Stoves; 6. Heating by Steam; 7.
Boilers and Pipes; 8. Hothouse Furnaces; 9. Cause of Circulation of Hot Water.
CHAPTER V.-VENTILATION.
CHAPTER VI. FRUIT-HOUSES.-Section 1. Vineries; 2. Pineries; 3. Peach-
Houses; 4. Cherry, Fig, Plum, and Apricot Houses; 5. Tropical Fruit-House.
CHAPTER VII.-PLANT-HOUSES.-Section 1. Conservatories; 2. Greenhouses; 3.
Orangeries; 4. Heath-Houses; 5. Orchid-Houses; 6. The Aquarium; 7. Window
Gardening.
6
WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.
CHAPTER VIII.-PITS AND FRAMES.-Section 1. Pits and Frames Heated by Fer-
mentation; 2. Pits Heated by Smoke-Flues, Tanks, Hot-Water Pipes, and Steam; 3.
Cucumber and Melon Houses; 4. Mushroom-Houses; 5. Conservative Pits.
CHAPTER IX.-MISCELLANEOUS GARDEN STRUCTURES.-Section 1. Gardeners'
Houses; 2. The Fruit-Room; 3. Ice-Houses; 4. Tanks and Cisterns; 5. Apiaries.
CHAPTER X.-DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION.-Section 1. Glass and Glazing; 2.
Lights or Sashes; 3. Rafters and Astragals; 4. Wall-Plates; 5. Covering the Roofs
of Glass Houses and Pits, for the exclusion of cold or the retention of heat; 6. Espalier
Railings; 7. Footpaths; 8. Painting; 9. Cements; 10. On the Preservation of Timber
used in Hothouse-Building; 11. On the Durability of Materials.
CHAPTER XI.-LAYING OUT FLOWER-GARDENS.-Section 1. Preliminary Remarks
on the Classification of Styles; 2. Situation of the Flower-Garden; 3. Flower-Garden
Fences; 4. Planting with a view to produce Effect; 5. The Arboretum; 6. The Pine-
tum; 7. Edgings; 8. The Reserve Flower-Garden; 9. Disposal of the Ground; 10.
Harmony of Colours.
CHAPTER XII.-GEOMETRICAL FLOWER-GARDENS.-Section 1. Their General Ar-
rangement, &c. ; 2. Fountains; 3. Vases and Urns, Dials and Mural Decorations; 4.
Statues; 5. Seats; 6. Temples and Arbours; 7. Mausoleums, Cenotaphs, or Sepulchral
Structures.
CHAPTER XIII.—GARDENÉSQUE STYLE OF FLOWER-GARDENS.-Section 1. Their
General Arrangement; 2. Fountains and Vases; 3. Basketwork; 4. Bridges; 5. Trellis-
work, Gates, Fences, and Tree-Guards; 6. Moss-Houses, Seats, and Resting-places.
CHAPTER XIV.—PICTURESQUE STYLE OF FLOWER-GARDENS.-Section 1. Their
General Arrangement; 2. Rockwork; 3. Hermitages, Arbours, Moss-Houses, and Seats;
4. Ridges; 5. Rills, Rivulets and Cascades; 6. Rustic Fences.
CHAPTER XV.—PRACTICAL DIAGRAMS EXPLANATORY OF THE RULES FOR LAYING
OUT GARDENS, MORE PARTICULARLY FOR FORMING CURVED LINES.
CHAPTER XVI.—TOWN AND SMALL SUBURBAN GARDENS.
APPENDIX.
INDEX.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
33 COPPER-PLATE ENGRAVINGS BY W. AND A. K. JOHNSTON.
1040 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD BY BRANSTON.
1
This Volume may be had separately hf. bd., price £2 10s.,
CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME.
THE CULINARY OR KITCHEN GARDEN.
THE HARDY FRUIT-GARDEN.
THE FLOWER-GARDEN:-CHAPTER I. PLANT-HOUSES, POTS, AND WALLS;
CHAPTER II. OPEN FLOWER-GARDEN.
SELECT LIST OF VEGETABLES AND FRUITS.
SELECT LIST OF PLANTS.
GLOSSARY OF TERMS.
280 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
This Volume may be had separately, hf. bd., price £1, 17s. 6d.
"We must congratulate both editor and publishers on the completion of this work, which, whetlier
considered in reference to the information it conveys on the theory and practice of horticulture, its
numerous illustrations in the first style of art, and beautiful type, is every way worthy of the character
of all concerned in its publication. The scientific knowledge and great experience of the editor in all
that pertains to horticulture, not only as regards cultivation, but as a landscape-gardener and garden
architect, has enabled him to produce a work which brings all that is known of the various subjects
treated of down to the present time; while the manner in which the work is illustrated merits our
highest approval, as most successful specimens of engraving.
On the practical details of cul-
ture, the editor gives, in addition to his own opinion, the pith of what others have written on the
subject.
We hope to notice this book again. In the mean time, we strongly recommend the
Book of the Garden.' To gardeners, in every way it will be indispensable, and not less so to
country gentlemen, architects, and surveyors, who will find it the best authority on the subject they
can refer to."-The Florist.
•
"It is impossible in a notice to do justice to this work. There is no other within our knowledge at
all to compare with it in comprehensiveness and ability; and it will be an indispensable possession for
the practical gardener, whether amateur or professional."-The London Guardian.
WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.
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Sixty-two highly-finished Engravings, medium 4to, with Descriptions, 42s.
THE ARCHITECTURE OF THE FARM:
A SERIES OF DESIGNS FOR FARM-HOUSES, FARM-STEADINGS,
FACTORS' HOUSES, AND LABOURERS' COTTAGES.
By JOHN STARFORTH, Architect.
THE work comprises a series of sixty-two plates, finished in the highest style
of art, all the drawings and designs being carefully prepared by the author.
Eight designs for labourers' cottages, of different styles and accommodation,
with two plates of working details, are given, taking up 17 plates. The next
two are occupied by a design for a farm bailiff's house; these being followed by
a series of four designs for different classes of farm-houses in plates 18 to 35
inclusive. Plates 36 to 38 take up a design for a factor's house, while 39 to 44
illustrate the arrangements and decorations of a house adapted for a proprietor
farming his own estate. These comprise the first division of the work; the
second being occupied with plates 45 to 62 inclusive, illustrative of designs for
farm-steadings, for water, horse, and steam-power, adapted for farms of various
sizes, including the design for which the author obtained the Highland and Agri-
cultural Society's Gold Medal.
General details of construction and descriptions of each plate are added; and
in the preparation of the work every pains have been taken to produce a practi-
cal and useful volume, calculated to meet the wants of the present time.
Seventh Edition, greatly enlarged, price 6s. 6d.
ELEMENTS
OF
OF
AGRICULTURAL
CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY.
By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.R.S.E. F.G.S. &c.
MANY, it was apprehended, might be deterred by the voluminous appearance of
the author's larger work (Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology)
from giving due attention to the subject; and partly for the sake of these, partly
to provide a cheap and accessible hand-book of the subject, the present work
was designed and executed by the author. Though styled "Elements," how-
ever, the book is not in the strict sense of the word an elementary one, other-
wise, at least, than as the student may proceed at once to it without the slightest
previous knowledge of the subject. It might safely have been called Hand-book
of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, inasmuch as it presents, in a condensed
rather than an abridged form, the entire subject it professes to take up.
The work is divided into sections, of which the following is a brief outline :—
(1.) Object of the farmer-what the sciences can do for him-organic and in-
organic substances-relative proportions of elementary bodies contained in
plants. (2.) Forms in which the organic elements enter into plants. (3.) Struc-
ture of plants. (4.) Inorganic substances of plants. (5.) Of soils. (6.) (7.) (8.)
Direct relation of geology to agriculture. (9.) Of the physical, chemical, and
botanical relations of soils. (10.) Of the general improvement of the soil, and
how the practical man will commence such improvement. (11.) Mechanical
methods continued. (12.) Improvement of the soil by planting, and by the
growth of wood. (13.) Chemical methods of improving the soil-Manures—
vegetable manures. (14.) (15.) Animal manures. (16.) Relative theoretical values
of different animal manures. (17.) Saline and mineral manures. (18.) Why
these are required by the soil. (19.) Use of lime in agriculture. (20.) Improve-
ment of the soil by paring and burning-do. by irrigation. (21.) The pro-
ducts of vegetation. (22.) Average composition of root and green crops.
(23.) Of milk and its products. (24.) (25.) Of the fattening of animals.
8
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Forty-seventh Edition, price 1s.
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THE object held in view in compiling the present little work was the prepara-
tion of a manual sufficiently elementary to be used even in our humblest schools,
yet so precise and complete as to constitute in itself a complete course of instruc-
tion in the applied science of which it treats. The reception it has experi-
enced, as exemplified in the issue of a 47th Edition, may be held as proof that in
general estimation it has achieved its aim.
The Work is arranged under the following sections, in the form of question
and answer, and is amply illustrated by diagrams :-
(1.) General relations of the plant, the soil, and the animal. (2.) Compound
substances of which the organic part of plants and animals consists. (3.) Ele-
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of plants, animals, and soils consist. (4.) Of the organic food of plants. (5.)
Composition and properties of water, ammonia, and nitric acid. (6.) Composi-
tion of woody fibre, starch, sugar, gum, and humic acid, and how they are formed
in the plant or the soil. (7.) Composition of fat, gluten, and fibrin, and how
they are formed in the plant and the animal. (8.) Substances of which the inor-
ganic, mineral, or incombustible part of soils, plants, and animals consists. (9.)
Origin and general characters of soils. (10.) Improvement of the soil by deep-
ploughing, subsoiling, and draining. (11.) Composition and material relations
of the inorganic part of the soil and the plant. (12.) Effect of cropping upon
the soil. (13.) Vegetable manures. (14.) Of the parts of animals used as
manures. (15.) Of the droppings or dung of animals. (16.) Of saline and
mineral manures. (17.) Of limestone, and of the burning and use of lime.
(18.) Of the proportions of starch, gluten, and fat contained in the crops which
the farmer usually reaps. (19.) Uses of the starch of our crops in the feeding
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feeding of animals. (21.) Of milk and dairy produce, and the feeding of milk
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On each and all of these topics, the author's
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EXPERIMENTAL AGRICULTURE;
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By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.R.S.E., &c.
In the other works by the same author there has been embodied all that is known
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far as they are capable of being immediately elucidated by experiment, is the
scope of the present work. From the considerations dwelt upon, a variety of sug-
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(4.) Influence of circumstances on the result of experiments. (5.) Preliminary
consideration connected with the making of experiments. (6.) Experiments
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(8.) Do. with chloride of potassium, and with common salt. (9.) With the
chlorides of magnesium and calcium, muriatic acid, and the fluoride of calcium.
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ON
THE USE OF LIME IN AGRICULTURE.
By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.R.S.E., &c.
THIS work is designed to throw together, in a convenient form, the results of
practice, and the suggestions of theory, in the use of a substance which has been
called the basis of all good husbandry, so important a part does it perform in
its practice. The points discussed are the use of lime in its application to the
soil; the artificial states in which these are made; an investigation into the points
as to whether it is indispensable to the fertility of the land; and when it should
be applied. Its effects on the soil and the crops are then stated, followed by a
notice of the theory of its action; its exhausting influence on the soil; the length
of time which it acts; and its effects on animal and vegetable life; the work
concluding with two elaborate chapters on the use of lime as a sulphate and a
phosphate.
10
WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.
In 2 vols., crown 8vo, price 11s. 6d.
WITH ILLUSTRATIONS ENGRAVED ON WOOD,
THE CHEMISTRY OF COMMON LIFE.
By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, M.A., F.R.S.E., &c.
THE common life of man is full of wonders, Chemical and Physiological. Most
of us pass through this life without seeing or being sensible of them, though
every day our existence and our comforts ought to recall them to our minds.
One main cause of this is, that our schools tell us nothing about them-do not
teach those parts of modern learning which would fit us for seeing them. What
most concerns the things that daily occupy our attention and cares, are in early
life almost sedulously kept from our knowledge. Those who would learn any-
thing regarding them, must subsequently teach themselves through the help of
the press: hence the necessity for a Popular Chemical Literature.
It is with a view to meet this want of the Public, and at the same time to supply
Manual for the Schools, that the present work has been projected. It treats, in
what appears to be their natural order, of THE AIR WE BREATHE AND THE WATER
WE DRINK, in their relations to human life and health-THE SOIL WE CULTIVATE
and THE PLANT WE REAR, as the sources from which the chief sustenance of all
life is obtained-THE BREAD WE EAT and THE BEEF WE COOK, as the representa-
tives of the two grand divisions of human food—THE BEVERAGES WE INFUSE, from
which so much of the comfort of modern life, both savage and civilised, is derived
-THE SWEETS WE EXTRACT, the history of which presents so striking an illustra-
tion of the economical value of chemical science-THE LIQUORS WE FERMENT, SO
different from the Sweets in their action on the system, and yet so closely con-
nected with them in chemical history-THE NARCOTICS WE INDULGE IN, as present-
ing us with an aspect of the human constitution which, both chemically and phy-
siologically, is more mysterious and wonderful than any other we are yet ac-
quainted with -THE ODOURS WE ENJOY, and THE SMELLS WE DISLIKE; the former
because of the beautiful illustration it presents of the recent progress of organic
chemistry in its relations to the comforts of common life, and the latter because of
its intimate connection with our most important sanitary arrangements-WHAT
WE BREATHE FOR, and WHY WE DIGEST, as functions of the body at once the most
important to life, and the most purely chemical in their nature-THE BODY WE
CHERISH, as presenting many striking phenomena, and performing many inte-
resting chemical functions not touched upon in the discussion of the preceding
topics and lastly, the CIRCULATION OF MATTER, as exhibiting in one view the
end, purpose, and method of all the changes in the natural body, in organic nature,
and in the mineral kingdom, which are connected with and determine the exist-
ence of life.
"All will concur in admiring the profound thought which has ennobled so many familiar things,
and has even tinged the commonest process of household life with the hues of novelty and surprise.
The work deserves to be universally read."-British Quarterly Review.
In 8vo, 30s.
THE CHEMISTRY OF VEGETABLE AND
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY.
By Dr J. G. MULDER,
Professor of Chemistry in the University of Utrecht.
Translated by Dr P. F. H. FROMBERG; with an Introduction and Notes by Professor JOHNSTON.
22 Plates.
:
WORKS ON AGRICULTURE, ETC.
Fourth Edition, 2s.
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INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SOILS,
LIMESTONES, & MANURES.
By JAMES F. W. JOHNSTON, F.R.S.E., &c.
THIS work is intended as a first help to practical and economical chemical ana-
lysis-and its value in this and other obvious ways to the farmer, the phar-
maceutical chemist, the youthful student, and to rural training-schools and agri-
cultural laboratories, will be seen by a perusal of the following brief notice of its
contents. (1.) The work opens with a chapter showing how the physical pro-
perties of the soil are determined. (2.) How its organic matter is estimated,
(3.) and its saline matter examined. These are followed by (4.) a chapter on the
estimation of the saline matters, and an examination of natural water; (5.) and
its earthy matters; with notes on tile and fire clay. (6.) The analysis of ores by
measure is then discussed. (7.) General remarks on the analysis of soils, with
practical suggestions thereon, follow. (8.) The analyses of limestones and marls,
and (9.) of saline manures, next succeed; and the work closes with (10.) an
examination of bone manures, guanos, and oil-cakes.
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THE HANDBOOK
OF
THE MECHANICAL ARTS :
BEING PRACTICAL HINTS ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF
DWELLINGS AND OTHER BUILDINGS, AND IN CARPENTRY, SMITH-
WORK, CEMENTS, PLASTERING, BRICK-MAKING, WELL-SINKING,
ENCLOSING OF LAND, ROAD-MAKING, ETC.
By R. SCOTT BURN, Engineer.
ALTHOUGH the agriculturist is not generally conversant with the operations
and processes connected with the mechanical arts, still numerous instances
are sure to arise in every-day practice, in which even a slight knowledge of
them would be of great pecuniary value. The various operations demanded
by the exigencies of farm life, and the numerous claims made on the mechanical
ingenuity and abilities of the farmer, tend to render a work peculiarly valuable
to him which bears on those branches of the mechanical arts which are in the
most frequent requisition. This desideratum the present work is designed to
supply. Every care has been taken in the preparation of the working draw-
ings with which the work is profusely illustrated, and by judicious compression
of materials to present a mass of practical information which will enable the
reader to carry on many operations without involving the expense of hired labour.
The following are the divisions of the work:-(1.) House arrangement and con-
veniences, illustrated by fifty-three drawings. (2.) House construction, sixty-
five drawings. (3). Carpentry, fifty-eight drawings. (4.) Joinery, thirty-nine
drawings. (5.) Smith work, fifteen illustrations. (6.) Brickmaking. (7.)
Roof-covering, exterior and interior finishings; plastering, painting, three draw-
ings. (8.) Mortars, concretes, cements. (9.) Enclosing of lands, fences, eight
illustrations. (10.) Road-making. (11.) Well-sinking. (12.) Farm and agri-
cultural buildings, thirty-one illustrations.
12
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THE
PLANTER'S
GUIDE.
By SIR HENRY STEUART, Bart. of Allanton.
TO WHICH IS PREFIXED A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR, AND AN
ENGRAVING FROM A PORTAIT BY RAEBURN.
No point in arboriculture has been more keenly contested than the possibility
of transplanting trees of considerable size. There can be no doubt that
this, if practicable, would be of great advantage, as respects both shelter and
ornament, around newly erected country or suburban residences; and accordingly
every possible means have been tried to secure such removals with safety and
economy. What was in this way accomplished by Sir H. Steuart, at his resi-
dence at Allanton, excited so much interest and admiration, that an account of
the methods employed seemed imperatively called for; and with this the author
combined a statement of his views as to the beneficial and ornamental disposal of
wood, and the general management of forest trees. Though many years have
since elapsed, and many improvements on mere machinery of removal have been
made, it is still admitted by practical men that the principles of Sir H. Steuart's
method are the only ones on which such transplantations can be safely effected,
and that on the full carrying out of these rests our only hope of accomplishing
an object of great interest to landed proprietors in particular.
In addition to a large variety of interesting and valuable notes and illustrations
on various points of interest, the following are the principal sections of this
work:-The art of giving immediate effect to wood-history of the art of arbori-
culture; new theory-its development-preparation of the soil for open and close
plantation-preparation of the trees for removal-taking up and transportation
of trees—with description of the machines useful in this department—planting of
the trees in the new situations-treatment of trees subsequent to removal—-
expense of the operations-of the principal forest trees, oak, ash, &c. &c. The
work is illustrated by six engravings and a portrait of the author.
In 8vo, price 12s.
THE RURAL ECONOMY OF ENGLAND,
SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND.
By LEONCE DE LAVERGNE.
TRANSLATED FROM THE FRENCH. WITH NOTES BY A SCOTTISH FARMER.
To those who are desirous of gaining a knowledge of the rural economy of
Great Britain, no better guide could be presented than the present work. It
is not only political, but it is interesting; it deals in a manner as singularly
concise as it is fascinating and effective in style, with subjects valuable alike to
the practical economist, the agriculturist, and the general reader.
The following is a brief outline of the points taken up and illustrated. These,
however, afford but little evidence of the philosophical as well as interesting and
practical style of the work:-(1.) Soil and climate. (2.) Sheep. (3.) Cattle.
(4.) The crops. (5.) The gross produce. (6.) Rents, profits, and wages. (7.)
Constitution of property. (8.) Constitution of farming. (9.) Country life. (10.)
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and—(18) The Northern Counties. (19). Wales and the Islands. (20.) Scotland.
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THE GRASSES
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ILLUSTRATED BY 140 FIGURES,
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RICHARD PARNELL, M.D., F.R.S.E.
13
THIS work contains descriptions and illustrations of all the Grasses of Great
Britain-their peculiarities—general character-habits—and the uses to which
they are and may be put in agriculture. Their nutritive properties as feeding
materials, and other points of interest to the farmer, as the periods of their
flowering, and the ripening of their seeds, are also noted, the whole being illus-
trated by one hundred and forty-two plates, the subjects of which have been
drawn from the original plants by the author, and engraved by him.
Second Edition, much enlarged, with 109 Engravings on Wood, 8vo, 21s.
THE
FORESTER:
A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE FORMATION, DRAINING, AND FENCING
OF PLANTATIONS, THE PLANTING, REARING, AND MANAGEMENT
OF FOREST TREES, THE CUTTING AND PREPARATION OF
WOOD FOR SALE, ETC. ETC.
By JAMES BROWN, Forester, Arniston.
CHAPTER 1 treats of the laying out of the land, and of its enclosure and fencing
for new plantations-the varieties of fences, walls, dykes, gates, &c. &c., the
improved methods of construction being fully described and amply illustrated
by drawings.
Chapter 2 describes the method of preparing the land for young trees-its
draining-the distribution of the trees to suit different situations with ample
details of all the varieties suitable for planting, as the ash, elm, beech, firs, chest-
nuts, pines, &c. &c.
Chapter 3 discusses the different methods of planting young trees-their choice
-kinds of forest trees adapted for the land, and likely to be most profitable-
do. do. for hedgerow timber-expenses of planting and the management of
young plantations.
Chapter 4 takes up the subject of the nature and practice of pruning, thin-
ning and rearing up of fir, hardwood, and oak plantations.
Chapter 5 treats of the management of coppice-wood generally-of oak do.
—and of the drying of bark for tanning.
Chapter 6 describes the kind of trees best adapted for moorlands-cause of
disease in larch plantations-the external symptoms of disease upon forest trees
generally, and its causes-periodical increase of forest trees, and rules to find
their transferable value.
Chapter 7 treats of the effect of transplanting of trees-methods of effecting do.
-fencing of park trees-plants best fitted for underwood-the cutting and sell-
ing of trees.
The volume concludes with an Appendix, showing the method which may be
The various
adopted in surveying and reporting upon timbered estates.
points treated on are elucidated, wherever necessary, by carefully-prepared
diagrams and drawings.
14
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ITALIAN
IRRIGATION:
A REPORT ON THE AGRICULTURAL CANALS OF PIEDMONT AND LOMBARDY,
ADDRESSED TO THE HON. THE DIRECTORS OF THE EAST INDIA COMPANY;
WITH AN APPENDIX,
CONTAINING A SKETCH OF THE IRRIGATION SYSTEM OF NORTHERN AND CENTRAL INDIA.
By Lieut.-Col. R. BAIRD SMITH, F.G.S.
Captain, Bengal Engineers.
WHILE "Irrigation works," varying widely in character and importance, have
been carried out in this country, and attention directed to their details, through
the medium either of special works or periodical publications, information has
been scarcely obtainable, except in small measure, and through the medium of
isolated and rarely met with reports, of the nature, extent, and details of the
system adopted in Italy, "the classic land of irrigation," where its influence has
tended, even from the earliest period of history, to make her plains the richest
on the face of the earth. And yet when we consider that the machinery of this
grand system for the distribution of water in order to the cultivation of the land,
over which it is made to spread in fertilising streams, is "considered by most
observers to come nearest to the type of theoretical perfection," some idea of the
value of a work may be obtained which would show, in a clear, explicit, and
practical manner, the various relations of the system, the details of its works,
and the practical operation of its mechanism. These and many other details,
interesting in a historical and social point of view, it is the object of the present
work to lay before the reader. In addition to the letterpress, which fully
exhausts the theory and the practice on which this the most extensive as well as
the most efficient system in the world is founded and carried out, the work is
enriched by a large folio Atlas of Plates, abounding in hints and suggestions on
various points of constructive detail.
In foolscap 8vo, price 2s. 6d.
ADVICE TO PURCHASERS OF HORSES.
By JOHN STEWART, V.S.
Author of " Stable Economy."
To the farmer, the sportsman, and all interested in obtaining a sound and
well-conditioned animal, calculated either for work or pleasure, this work will
be found to be eminently useful. It is the result of the experience of a first-rate
authority on the subject. The points treated of in the work are:—1. External
conformation; 2. Proportion; 3. Colour; 4. Sex; 5. Age; 6. Condition;
7. Sluggishness and Energy; 8. Action; 9. Courage, Timidity, Shying; 10. Vice;
11. Education; 12. Blemishes; 13. Habits; 14. Faults; 15. Soundness;
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Warranty of Horses; 19. General Cautions relating to Buying; 20. Engravings of
the Teeth.
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INTRODUCTORY TEXT-BOOK OF GEOLOGY. By
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ELKINGTON'S SYSTEM OF DRAINING.
JOHNSTONE. A New Edition, 4to, 10s. 6d.
By J.
INTRODUCTION TO METEOROLOGY.
TO METEOROLOGY. By D. P.
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THE PREPARATION OF COOKED FOOD FOR THE
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FARM ACCOUNTS.
In royal 8vo, bound in cloth, price 2s. 6d.,
A PRACTICAL SYSTEM OF FARM BOOK-KEEPING;
66
BEING THAT RECOMMENDED IN THE BOOK OF THE FARM,"
BY HENRY STEPHENS, F.R.S.E.;
ALSO,
SEVEN FOLIO ACCOUNT-BOOKS, constructed in accordance with the system, Printed
and Ruled throughout, and bound in separate Volumes; the whole being specially
adapted for keeping, by an easy and accurate method, an account of all the Transactions
of the Farm.
THE ACCOUNT-BOOKS CONSIST OF –
I. CASH-BOOK-Ruled with double money-
columns for Dr. and Cr., showing the Cash re-
ceived for produce sold off the Farm, the money
paid on account of the Farm; and all general
Cash and Banking transactions. Price 2s. 6d.
II. LEDGER Ruled with single money
columns, Dr. and Cr. on separate pages, contain-
ing Accounts with every Person or Company
having transactions with the Farm. Price 5s.
III. FARM ACCOUNT-Contains the Cash
received for all the Produce sold off the Farm, and
the Cash paid for all the commodities required for
the Farm, and these alone. Thus the Balance
between the Dr. and Cr. sides of the Farm Ac-
count, at the end of the Agricultural Year, shows
whether the farm has returned or consumed the
largest amount of Cash. Price 2s. 6d.
IV. CORN ACCOUNT Comprises all ac-
counts and statements connected with-1. Wheat;
2. Barley; 3. Oats; 4. Straw; 5. Potatoes; 6.
Turnips, Mangold-Wurzel, Carrots and Parsnips.
These accounts show all the particulars connected
with the different species of produce-the time
when grain is thrashed-the parties to whom it
has been sold-the uses which have been made of
it on the Farm-the Balance of Grain on hand at
-
any time in the Corn-barn and Granary the
weight of the Grain, and the prices obtained for it.
Price 3s. 6d.
V. LIVE-STOCK ACCOUNT Consists of
Accounts relating to-1. Cattle; 2. Sheep; 3.
Pigs; 4. Horses; showing the particulars of every
species of Live-Stock, the disposal of them, the
cash paid and the prices obtained for them, and
the numbers on hand at different periods. Price 3s.
VI. LABOUR ACCOUNT-BOOK-Con-
tains, 1. Labour Journal; 2. Labour Account,-
the former for showing the Labourers' names, the
days of the week on which they have been employ-
ed, and a register of the number of work-days in
each week; the latter forming a summary of the
amount of all the manual labour executed on the
Farm in the course of a year, including the Har-
vest Expenses. Price 3s.
VII. FIELD-WORKERS' ACCOUNT.-
This is a simple form of keeping the Daily La-
bour - Account, enabling the total number of
Days in which work has been done for half a
year to be summed up and calculated at the rate
of wages per day, when the gross amount of the
half-year's earnings is brought out distinctly.
Price 2s. 6d.
The Account-Books are sold separately, and the price of the complete Set,
in Eight Volumes, is 24s. 6d.
ALSO,
A LABOUR ACCOUNT OF THE ESTATE.
This form of Labour Account is specially constructed for the use of Country Gentlemen, whether
residing at home or abroad, who require returns to be made to them of the species of work which
daily engages the time of their labourers in whatever capacity, and whether male or female; that is,
besides Labourers and Field-Workers, the form is as well adapted to Gardeners, Foresters, Hedgers,
Roadmakers, Quarriers, Miners, Gamekeepers, and Dairymaids. Price 2s. 6d.
"We have no hesitation in saying, that of the many systems of keeping farm-accounts which are in
vogue, there is not one which will bear comparison with that just issued by Messrs Blackwood, accord-
ing to the recommendations of Mr Stephens, in his invaluable 'Book of the Farm.' The great
characteristic of this system is its simplicity. When once the details are mastered, which it will take
very little trouble to accomplish, it will be prized as the clearest method to show the profit and loss of
business, and to prove how the soundest and surest calculations can be arrived at. We earnestly recom-
mend a trial of the entire series of Books-they must be used as a whole to be thoroughly profitable;
for we are convinced the verdict of our agricultural friends who make such a trial will speedily accord
with our own-that they owe a deep debt of gratitude both to Mr Stephens and Messrs Blackwood for
providing a method so complete and satisfactory to their hands."-Bell's Messenger.
"From experience we can strongly recommend this system to all actual and commencing agriculturists,
combining, as it does, all the elements of utility with simplicity."-The Field.
"Mr Stephens is so thoroughly conversant with all that is essential to be set down in the Farmer's
Account-Book, that it is something to find him induced to prepare a set of books for the agriculturist.
These we find reduced by him to what must be regarded as the simplest and most essential element of a
The ease and obvious accuracy of these books abundantly
sound double-entry system Guardian.
recommend them."-Notts
•
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