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A.
LATIN GRAMMAR


EY
T. HEWITT KEY, M. A. F.R.S.
ILATE PROFEssoR o* LATIN IN UNIVERSITY colLEGE, LoNDON,
NoW PROFESSOR OE COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR, AND
EIEA D-MASTER, OF THUE SCHOGL,
$íxtí) QTjou$amri, foit} Neto (Torrectiomg amì amitioms.
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LONDON :
BELL & DALDY, YORK ST, COVENT GARDEN.
CAMBRIDGE: DEIGHTON, BELL, AND CO.
• 1871.
[The riou qf Translation is reserved.]
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PREFACE.
~•s<%<…
THE Chief changes which have been made in the present
edition are as follows :
1. The principle involved in the new section, marked
451. 1, has led to the introduction of forms which without
explanation might offend the eye of the scholar, viz. díc-
* say,' dúo- * draw,* fíd- *trust,' nìb- * veil,' öd- or ödi- * take
an aversion to.* Yet these forms are as legitimate for the
Latin language, as λιτ- (ελιτον) * leave,' φvy- (εφvyov) * fiy,'
in Greek grammars. Precisely as from these bases are de-
duced the imperfect tenses λειτ-ω, λειπ-ειν ; q)evyw, qevy-ειν ;
so we may likewise deduce in the sister language from the
short bases the imperfect tenses dìc-o, dùc-o, fìd-o, ^ύδ-o, and
a perfect ödi,—forms which are no longer inconsistent with
malidícus, fatidícus ; duæ dúcis, reduæ redúcis, edúcare ; fídes
perfìdus ; commóbium, promóba ; or ödium.
2. It has been thought desirable to attach references to
the quotations employéd in the Syntax.
3. Some difference of arrangement has been made in the
* principal parts' of the verbs, and in the syntax of the dative.
4. Attention has been drawn to some inseparable prepo*
sitions which represent the Greek ava in form and power, as
well as to an inseparable preposition inter, of like origin and
no way related to the ordinary preposition inter * between*
(§§ 834 b. and d., 1308. 1, 1342. 1). It may here be noticed,
that in order to retain as far as maybe the original numerical
headings of the paragraphs, such new paragraphs as were re-
quired have been distinguished by added digits, which have
the appearance of a decimal notation. Instances have just
been given.
iy PREFACE.
5. To the crude forms a hyphen has been affixed (as in
the Smaller Grammar), so as to imply that an addition to the
word must be made before it is entitled to take a place in a
Latin sentence.
6. The defence of the crude-form system, which appeared
in the Preface of the first edition, has been emlarged and trans-
ferred to an Appendix.
7. A second Appendix touches on some new views, which
were thought to be not sufficiently mature for admission into
the body of the Grammar.
It will still be found that much which is important to
the Latin scholar is wanting in these pages. But in reply to
some objections on this head, it may truly be urged that a
grammar is mot the proper receptacle for the notice of pecu-
liarities, which should find a place in the dictionary alone.
The special office of grammar is to deal with general laws ;
and it was with justice that Cæsar gave to his work om this
subject the title of Analogia Latina. There has therefore
been an error om the side of excess in the admission of much
matter relating to the prepositions, the excuse for which is
the very unsatisfactory condition of our dictionaries in this
department.
Lastly, the writer has to express his acknowledgments to
Mr. John Power Hicks, of Lincoln College, Oxford, and to
his som Mr. Thomas Key, of Lincoln's Inn, for much valuable
assistance in the preparation of this edition.
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, LONDON,
Feb. 15, I858.
LATIN GRAMMA R.
ALPHABET.
1 THE Latin language was spoken in Rome and Latium, and after-
wards spread with the Romam conquests over Italy, Sicily, and
the greater part of France and Spain.
2 The alphabet consisted, as Cicero tells us (Nat. Deor. II, 37, 93),
of twenty-one letters. These must have been: a b c d efg h î & l.
m m o p q r s t w and ae,—without anyj v w y 2. That the alpha-
bet ended with ae is implied in Suetonius (Aug. c. 88). Y and 2
were introduced at a late period from Greece, and for a long time
limited to Greek or foreign words.
3 The vowels were , e a o w, to follow the natural* order of
their sounds.
4 The liquid consonants, following the natural order of their
formation from the back of the mouth towards the lips, were
7* l m m.
5 X is a double consonant, sounding as ks.
6 Kis only used before a, as its modern name implies ; for ex-
ample, in the proper mames Kaeso, Volkanus; and in kalendae,
dedikare.
@ is used only before w, as its modern name implies; for ex-
ample, in sequor ; and in old inscriptions, pequnia, &c.
Ph, ch, th, rh were not used in old Latin (Cic. Or. 48).
* See Professor Willis's experiments as detailed in the Cambridge
Philosophical Transactions, vol. i. for Nov. 24, 1828 and March 16, 1829.
ß
Q IPRONUNCIATION,
PRONUNCIATION.
7 The true pronunciation of the Latin language is no longer
known. The vowels were probably pronounced as they now are
in Italian. -
8 In England the words are commonly pronounced nearly as they
would be in English.
9 When ä before a vowel commenced a syllable, it was called by
the Romans â consonans; but was in fact a vowel â very shortly
pronounced, like our y in 3/ow. But the English in such cases
change it into a j. Thus iunior (yunior) 3yowrger is commonly
written and pronounced * junior.'
10 When w before a vowel commenced a syllable, it was called
α consona^s ; but was in fact a vowel u wery shortly pronoumced,
like our w in we. But the English change it into a v. Thus,
u i n u m (winum) vêre is commonly written and pronounced
* vinum.' -
X || O and g were probably always pronounced as in cat and goose,
even before ì and e. But the English follow their own rule. Thus
Cicero, the Romam orator, is commonly supposed to have called
himself Sisero.
12 The diphthongs, ae, oe, are generally pronounced as e.
!3 A short syllable is pronounced rapidly, and is sometimes
marked by a crescent (*) Over the vowel, as the , in domînus
φηαS£e0*.
14 A syllable or vowel is said to be long by ^atwre, when the voice
dwells upon the vowel, as vërus trwe.
15 A syllable or vowel is said to be long òy positior, when the
vowel is followed by two consonants which do mot both belong to
the next syllable, as mägnus great, sünt they are, ét mater and
the mother.
16 A straight line (T) Over the vowel is sometimes used to denote
a long syllable, as vërus true, mägnus great.
17 A diphthong is uearly always long by nature, as aurum gold,
áés bronze, proelium battle. The few exceptioms consist of words
in which the diphthong is immediately followed by a vowel, as
praeustus burnt at the end.
18 A vowel followed by a vowel in the next syllable is nearly
aiways. short, as filius sor, filia daughter, aurëus golden. The ex-
ceptions consist of words in which the long vowel has taken the
IPRONUNCIATION. 3
place of a diphthong, or of two wowels, as fio (for faio) 7 become,
nullius (for nullóius) of no one, alius (for aliius) amother's : so
especially with foreign names, as Darius (for Dareius), Medéa
(for Medeia).
19 A short vowel followed by a consonant should generally be
pronounced with that consonant, as pát-er father.
29 A long vowel followed by a consonant should generally be pro-
nounced separately from the consonant, as má-ter mother.
21 If a vowel, itself short, be followed by two consonants which
cam be pronounced at the beginning of a syllable,—as pr, cr, tr ;
Ör, gr, dr; and pl,—there are often two ways of dividing the word.
Thus fünebris commected with a corp8e is pronounced in prose
fü-né-bris ; but im verse it may be pronounced fü-néb-ris. In the
comic writers, however, Such a syllable is always short.
A syllable which is sometimes long and sometimes short is
said to be common, and is marked (°) or (*) over the wowel, as
funébris or funébris.
22 If the last syllable but one be long, it has the accent, as uínum
vine, árcus bow, regina queen, sagitta arrow.
23 If the last syllable but one be short and the last syllable but
two be long, this long syllable has the accent, as filia daughter,
auónculus a mother'8 brother.
24 If two or more short syllables, exclusive of the last syllable,
eome together, the second of them (counting from the beginning
of the word) has its vowelnearly dropped* im pronunciation. Thus
ö p ér a work should be pronounced almost as óp'ra ; m ï sëri a
wretchedness, as mís'ria ; ex íérat he had gone ovt, as exí'rat ;
lä c r ü m a tear, probably as lá'r'ma.f
If the syllable to be so dropped be an à (or e) or •, promoumce
the è (or e) like 3/, the α like w. Thus m ülïer woman should be
pronounced mülyer ; áríéti s Qf a ram, áryëtis; p é r í í m u s we
are rwîmed, péryfmus; flü u í ó rum of rêvers, fluuyórum ; Pü t é-
öli name of a town, Pútyöli; r é s t í t ü è re to 8et up again, restít-
wêre.
26 A long word has sometimes more tham one accent : as, immor-
tális ìmmortal ; récü p érâ re (réc'peráre), to recover, to get back.
2!
5
* See Bentley's Terence ad Eun. ii. 2. 36; Hermann de Re Me-
trica, speaking of miserum, p. 206.
+ Compare the French larme.
4 WO]RID-BUILDING,
27 Enclitics are little words pronounced and sometimes even
written with the word preceding : as, qué and, matér-que and
the mother; uë or, matér-ue or the mother ; né in asking ques-
tions, as matér-ne abiit ? is the rnother gone away ? Preposition8
placed after a noun are of this kind : as, altis-de montibus down,
Jfrom the high mowmtains.
* Proclitics are words pronounced and sometimes even written
with the word following. Prepositions are of this kind : as, in-
tér-nos between ws, intér-se between them, in-primis among the first,
â-me from me.
29 E7ision. When one word ends with a vowel or a vowel and an
m, and the next begins with a vowel or am h, the final vowel and
^^ of the first word are not pronoumced in poetry: thus,
Monstrum horrendum informe ingens cùí lümén ádemptum
should be read,
Monstr', hórrend', inform', ingéns cüí lúmen adémptum.
Unearthly, ghastly, shapeless ; reft of an eye immense.
WORD-BUILDING.
30 The simplest words consist of one syllable : as the verbs dùc-
draw, äg- drive or pwt în motior ; or the substantives pëd- foot,
säl- salt.
These are called roots.
32 A suffiae is a syllable which is added to the end of a word and
adds to or alters its meaning: as, düc-* draw, duc-to- drawn ;
äg- drôve, ag-mén- a drove.
33 A short vowel, generally *, seems sometimes to be inserted
before the suffix : as in äg-í-li- easily put in motîon, active.
34 Several suffixes may be added one after another to the same
root : as, äg- put in motion, äg-Í-li- active, âgîlî-tät- actìvity, âgî-
lïtät-fs of activity.
Words formed by suffixes are said to be deríved.
35 A prefiae is a syllable which is placed before a root, and adds to
or alters its meaning : as, düc- draw, dé-düc- draw down ; äg-
drive, ex-fg- drive owt.
* For the quantity see § 451. 1.
NOUNS. 5
Words formed by prefixes are said to be compounded.
36 In the derivation and composition of words the letters are
sometimes slightly altered : as, äg- dráve, ac-to- drivem, ex-ìg-
drive out ; öpés- work, öpér-ís of work.
NOUNS.
¢. e. SUBSTANTIVES AND ADJECTIVES.
37 The Latin language has no article, so that a Latin substantive
may be translated in three ways: 1. without am article, as müliér,
vomam ; 2. with the indefinite article, as müliër, a womam ; 3.
with the definite article, as müliér, the womam.
38 With Latin substantives there are three questions to be asked:
What is the gender ? What is the case ? What is the mumber ?
39 The genders are two, masculîne and femînîne. If a noun be of
meither gender, it is called neuter.
See tables of genders, §§ 191, &c.
40 Ijittle suffixes with the meaning of prepositions are added to
nouns. Thus Sulmön- was the name of a town in Italy. Add
the suffix em, to it, and e-ö Sulmön-em means Iam going to Sul-
'mon. Add the suffix ô, and Sulmön-I hăbît-ö means I reside at
Sulmon.
41 A noum, before these suffixes are added, is said to be in the
crude form. A crude form is here printed with a final hyphen.
42 The Word made up of a noum and one ofthese suffixes is called
a, CQZS6.
43 There are five suffixes, which being added to a crude form
make five cases: the nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, and
ablative. To these is generally added the vocative.*
44 The nominative is commonly formed by the suffix 8 : as, träb-
a beam, nom. trabs.
The nominative marks the quarter from which an action pro-
ceeds, ì. e. the agent. Thus, in the sentence, *the master strikes
the slave,' the blow comes from the master : this word master in
Latin would be in the nominative case.
* The case so called is in reality, so far as the Latin language is con-
cerned, a nominative; except perhaps in the singular ofthe o declension,
viz. aué. But even with this compare the nominatives istè, illè, ipsë.
6 NoUNs.
The nominative is called the subject in English grammar.
The vocative is used in addressing people.
45 The accusatìve is formed by the suffix em : as, träb- a beam,
acc. träb-em. -
46 The accusative answers to the question whither ? or marks the
quarter to which an action is directed : as, eö Sulmönem, I am
going to Sulmon. Or again in the sentence, * the master strikes
the slave,' the blow goes to the slave : this word slave in Latim
would be in the accusative case.
The aoeusative is oftem used with prepositions : as, ín urbem
vênit, he came ìnto the city.
The accusative is called the oòject in English grammar.*
47 The genitive is formed by the suffix ììs or ìs : as, quo- who,
gen. quö-iüs ; träb- beam, gem. träb-ís.
The genitive answersto the question whence ? or signifies from :
as, câlor sól-is, the heat from the swn. It is commonly translated
by of: as, cälor sölïs, the heat of the surw ; or by the English suffix
's: as, câlor sölis, the swn's heat.f
4S The nominative and genitive both signify from : but they differ
in this; the nominative belongs to a verb, the gemitive to a nour.
49 The dative is formed by the suffix δέ or 7: as, i- this, i-bi ím
this place ; tráb- beam, dat. träb-i.
The dative answers to the question where ? and is translated
by at or è^ : as, Sulmön-i, at Sulmon ; âlî-bi, in another place. It
is used also for to, if there is no motion : as, haeret tibi, it clíngs
to 3/0^0.
50 The ablative has two wery different meanings, and perhaps two
different origins. Sometimes it answers to the question whence ?
sometimes, like the dative, to the question where ? In the former
sense it had originally a final d, as, from Gnaivo-, the old form of
the praenomen Cneio- (Cneius), abl. Gnaivod. This form became
quite obsolete. In the classical writers the ablative in form, what-
ever be its sense, is very like to or identical with the dative ; but
the ? is often changed into -an é : as, träb- öeam, abl. träb-é ; or
lost altogether, leaving the preceding vowel long: as, äla- vìng,
abl. älä.
* The English language has the accusatival suffix in him, the accusa-
tive of he ; and in whom, the accusative of who.
* The English language has the genitivai suffix in his, the genitive
of he ; and in whose, the genitive of who.
CONSONANT DECJLENSION. 7
The ablative sometimes signifies from, as, Cörintho- Corinth,
abl. Cörinthö from Corinth : sometimes it agrees im meaning with
the dative, as, rüs- cow^try, D. rür-i, or Ab. rür-è, ín the country ;
D. Sulmöm-I, or Ab. Sulmön-ë, at Sulmon.
5l The ablative is often used with prepositions : as, ex urbé, o?vt
qf the city ; cum rég-ê, with the king ; în urb-ê, in the city.
52 Vumber.—The plural is generally marked in English by 8 or
en, as, dogs, ozen ; in Latin sometimes by s, sometimes by Vm.
These suffixes are added to the case-suffixes ; as in the genitives
servö-r-um for servó-'s-um, qf slaves ; ré-r*-um for ré-'S-um, of
things ; or in the datives, vö-bi-s, ré-bü-s.
53 In adding these case-suffixes amd plural-suffixes to the crude
forms, some changes take place, particularly if the crude form end
in a, vowel.
54 These changes depend chiefly upom the last letter of the noum.
Nouns are therefore divided, according to the last letter, into
classes called declensions.
55 CONSONANT (or THIRD)f DECLENSION.
MAscULINE AND FEMININE NoUNs.

Latin c. F. | Träb- Princëp- Aucëp- Rég- INiic- |
Gender. fem. masc. or fem. l masc. or fem.l masc. fem.
English. | tree, beam. | first, chief. | bird-catcher. | king. ???ut.
Singular.
IVom. | trabs princeps | auceps I'€X I\U1X.
Voc. | trabs princeps | auceps T€X IlUlX
Acc. | träbem | principem | aucüpem l rëgem | nücem
Gen. | träbis | principîs | aucüpis | régis nücis
Dat. | träbi princípi aucüpi régi nüci
Abl. träbê principé aucüpê régé nücê
Plural. *
IVom. | träbës | princípés | aucüpés | rêgês | nücês
|Voc. träbös | princípës | aucüpés i régés | nücês
Acc. | träbës | principés | aucüpés | rêgês | nücês
Gen. | träbum | principum | aucüpum | régum | nücum |
Dat. träbibüs | principibüs | aucüpibüs | régibüs | nücibüs
Abl. träbibüs | principíbüs | aucüpibüs | régibüs | nücibüs |
* The r for s in the genitive is seen in the English genitives her and
their.
f The numbers of the declensions are given, because they are so
arranged in neatly all grammars and dietionaries.
CONSONANT DECILEN8ION.
MAscULINE AND FEMININE NoUNS—(contvnued).

Latin c.F.] Lápíd- Custöd- Ariët- Cöm-ît- Aetät-
Gender. masc. lmasc. or fem.l masc. lmasc. or fem.l fem.
English. || a stome. guard. ram. | companion. age.
Singular.
IVom. | läpis custös äriës cómés aetäs
Voc. | läpis custós äriës cómés aetäs
Acc. | lápidem | custódem | äriëtem | cömitem | aetätem
Gen. | lápidis | custódis | äriëtis | cömitis | aetätis
Dat. | läpidi | custódi | äriéti | cömiti aetäti
Abl. | lápidê | custódé | äriété | cömité | aetätë
Plura].
AVom. | läpïdës | custódés | äriétés | cömîtës | aetätës
Voc. | läpîdës | custódés | äriëtës | cömités | aetätës
Acc. | läpídës | custódés | äriétés | cömités | aetätës
Gen. | läpidum | custódum | äriétum | cömitum | aetâtum
Dat. | läpídibûs] custódibüs äriétíbüs, cömitibüs | aetàtibüs
Abl. lápidibiis custódíbüs äriétíbüsl cömîtïbùs] aetätïbùs
Latin c. F.l Mös- Pulvîs- IPätër- Clämör- Hiëm-
Gender. ImàSC. : ImàSC. ΤΓ]8lSC, ΤΓ)8 SC. fem.
English. | custom. dust. father. shout. wimter.
Singular.
Mom. l mös pulvis | pätër clämör hiemps
Voc. l mös pulvis | pätër clämör hiemps
Acc. mör >m | pulvërem] pätrem | clämörem | hiëmem
Gen. | mörïs | pulvêrîs | pätrïs | clämöris | hiëmis
Dat. I möri pulvëri | pätri clämöri hiëmi
Abl. mörë | pulvêrê | pätrë clämörë | hiémé
Plural.
IVom. I mörës Z pätrës | clämörës | hiémés
Voc. mörës O pätrës | clämörës | hiémés
Acc. mörëS it | pätrës | clämörës | hiémés
Gem. mÖrum È pätrum | clämörum | hiémum
Dat. I möribüs È. pätrïbùs | clämöribüs | hiémíbüs
Abl. | möribüs * | pátribüs | clämöribüs | hiémibüs

* An acc. pulvërës in Horace.
CONSONANT DECILENSION. 9
MASCULINE AND FEMININE NoUNS—(continued).

Latin c F.l Sól- Consül- I&ätiön- Ordön- Sanguîn-
Gender. | masc. masc. fem. II1£1SC. Im{§C.
English. || sun. consul. accoumt. rank. blood.
Singular.
IVom. | söl consül rätiö ordö sanguîs
Voc. | söl consül rätiö Ordö sanguis
Acc. | sölem | consülem | rätiönem | ordinem | sanguinem
Gen. | sölis | consülis | rätiönis | ordinis | sanguinis
Dat. | sóli | consüli rätiöni ordini | sanguini
Abl. sólé | consülé rätiöné ordinë | sanguînë
JPlura].
IVom. | sölés | consülés | rätiönës | ordînës
Voc. sólés | consülés | rätiönës | ordînës 3
Acc. sölés | consülös | rätiönës | ordinés Ht
Gem. * | consülum | rätiönum | ordinum 3"
(… *-*
Dat. | sölïbùs] consülíbüs | rätiönïbùs | ordinibüs È.
Abl. sölïbùs] consülíbüs | rätiönïbùs ordinibiis
56 NEUTER. NoUNs.
Neuter nouns differ from others only in the N. W. and Acc.,
which are always alike. In the singular these cases are nearly al-
ways short in the last syllable, and in the plural always end in á.

Latin C. F. | Nömén- Opés- . | Frigös- Röbör- Cäpüt-
English. 720277362, work. cold. hardmess. head.
Singular.
IVom. | nömêm öpüs frigüs röbúr cäpüt
|Voc. nömêm öpüs frigüs röbür cäpüt
Acc. nömën öpüs frigüs röbür cäpüt
Gen. nóminis | öpérfs | frigörïs | röböris | cäpitis
Dat. nömini öpéri | frigöri | röböri | cäpiti
Abl. nómînë | öpéré | frigörë | röbörë | cäpité
Plural.
INom. | nöminä | öpérâ | frigörä | röbörä | cäpitâ
|Voc. nöminä | öpërä | frigörä | röbörä | cäpitä
Acc. nöminä | öpérâ | frigörä | röbörä | cäpitâ
Gen. | nóminum | öpërum | frigörum | röbörum | cäpitum
Dat. ] nóminibüs] öpéribüs, frigöribüs röböribüs, cápitibüs
Abl. mömíníbüs Ἀ frigöribüs] röböríbüs Š
* Not found.
10 CONSONANT DECILENSION.
NEUTER NoUNS—(continued).

Latin c.f. Ubér- Os- Oss- Crüs- Cord-
English. sfredtm?. *mouth. ὸone. Jeg. heart.
Singular.
IVom. l übër öS ös GrüS cör
Voc. übër ÖS Ös Crüs CÖr
Acc. übër óS Ös Crüs cör
Gen. übëris Öris ossîs erüris cordis
Dat. übërI öri Ossi Grün'î cordi
Abl. übërë örë ossë crürë cordë
Plural.
JVom. l übërä örä ossâ Grürä cordä
Voc. übërä örä, Ossä, crürä, cordâ
Acc. übërä örä ossâ crürä cordä
Gen. übërum 3& ossiumi | crürum 3*
Dat. übëribüs | öribüs ossíbüs | crüríbüs | cordibüs
Abl. übërïbùs | öribüs ossibüs crüribüs | cordïbùs
57 Remarks on the Consonant Decîensîon.
The nominative, as has beem already said, is most regularly
formed by the addition of 8 : as, tráb- beam, N. trabs.
58 If the crude form end in g or c, ae is writtem instead of gs or
cs: as, rég- king, N. rex ; nüc- ^vt, N. nux.
59 If the crude form end in d or t, this letteris omitted : as, lápíd-
stome, N. läpís; cömít- companiom, N. cömés. -
60 If in Greek words the crude form end in ant, ent, or unt, the
Nom. will end in üs, ìs, or ùs respectively.
61 Evem in Latin words, this change is sometimes found : as, in-
fant- infant, N. infans or infàs.
62 If the crude form end in r or l, the s is omitted : as, pätër-
father, N. pätër ; consül- comsul, N. consül : if in m, either the m.
or the 8 is omitted, as sanguîn- blood, N. sanguis, or in old writers
sanguem.
63 Ifthe crude form end in δn or ön, both m and 8 are omitted: as,
hömön- hwman, öeïng, N. hömö ; rätiön- am account, N. rätiö. In
Greek names in om. or ont, the m is often retained, but not by the
best writers: as, Läcón-, Xënöphont-, N. Läcön, Xënöphön ; better
Läcö, Xënöphö.
* Not found. f Observe the irregular i.
CONSONANT DECLENSION. I 1
64 If the crude form end in s or ss, only orie & is left at the end of
the nominative : as, müs- mouse, öS- mouth, oss- öone ; N. müs,
Ös, ös.
65 If the crude form end in ll, rr, or rd, the second of these com-
sonants is omitted in the nominative : as, mell- honey, farr- spelt,
cord- heart ; N. mél, fär, cör.
66 If the word be meuter, the s is mot added : as, àléc- pickled
herrìng, N. älëc. Many adjectives however take the s even for
the neuter N. V. Ac. : as, fëröc- haughty, praesent- present ; N.
V. Ac. neut. férox, praesens.
67 Neuters in mât, borrowed from the Greek language, imitate
that language in dropping the t in the N. V. Ac. : as, poëmât- a
poem, N. V. Ac poëmâ.
68 If the crude form has a short à before the final consonant, this
is often changed in the N. into è : as, milît- soldier, N. milés.
69 If the crude form end in és or ös, the N. and V. generally pre-
fer ììs : as, vénès- beauty, corpös- flesh, body ; N. and W. vëriüs,
corpüs. Neuter words retain the üs in the Ac. also. Greek words
prefer ös in the N. V. Ac. of neuters. -
70 The crude forma of comparative adjectives ends in ós ; whence
the neuter N. V. Ac. end in ììs, the masculine and feminime N.
and V. in ör : as, mêliös- better, N. and W. m. amd f. mëliör, N. V.
Ac. neut. mêlîüs.
71 *When the nominative is left with a single consonant at the
end, the quantity of the preceding vowel generally remains as in
the crude form : as, sälüt- safety, custód- keeper, N. sälüs, custós ;
and again, ämät- duck, lápíd- stome, pâtér- father, have in the N.
änäs, lápis, pâtër.
72 But the crude forms in ör have a short nominative : as, timör-
fear, N. tïmör. Yet such a form as tïmör also occurs.
73 Crude forms in s coexist for the most part with crude forms in
r : as, arbös- or arbör- a tree, ödös- or ödör- 8cent. Of these, the
form with r is preferred in those cases where a vowel follows : as,
G. arböris of a tree, ödöris of the scent.
* In old writers, such as Ennius, Plautus, Terence (and occasionally
even Virgil), nominatives, which should be short according to this rule,
are at times long: as, pätër, like the Greek τατηρ. So the nominatives
áër, sönïpés, äbiés, äriés, päriés, Cérés, sanguis, pulvis, from the crude
forms áër-, sönïpëd-, äbiét-, áriët-, päriët-, Cërës-, sanguîn-, pulvis-, have
some of them always, others at times, a long vowel.
I2 CONSONANT DECILENSION.
74 If the crude form end in îs, ér takes its place in those cases
where a vowel follows: as, pulvìs- dust, G. pulvêrîs.
75 If the crude form end in ön, ën, άt, &c., the short vowel is
often changed into ì in those cases where a vowel follows : as,
ordön- rank, cäpüt- head, G. ordînîs, cäpîtîs. Cärön- flesh drops
the vowel altogether in those cases : as, G. carnîs.
76 V.—Greek words in ant form the V. in ä : as, Atlant- Atlas,
N. Atläs, V. Atlä.
77 Ac.—Greek words oftem form the Ac. in â : as, Pallãd- the
godde8S Pallas, N. Palläs, Ac. Pallädä; äér- air, Ac. äérâ ; aethér-
the regìon offire (above the air), Ac. aethérâ.
78 G.—Greek words often form the G. in ös or ìs : as, Pallãd-, G.
Pallãdös.
79 D.—The dative sometimes takes an è instead of an 7: as, aes-
bronze, D. aeri, and rarely aerë.
80 D.—Greek words sometimes form the D. in ¥: as, Palläd-, D.
IPallãdi.
' 81 Ab.—The ablative sometimes takes an 7 instead of an é : as,
cäpüt- head, Ab. càpîtë, and rarely cäpiti.
82 N. and W. pl.—Greek words often shortem the last syllable of
the N. and W. pl. : as, rhêtör- orator, N. and W. pl. rhétörës.
83 N. V. Ac. pl.—Greek neuter nouns whose crude form ends in
ès form the N. V. and Ac. pl. in èå or è : as, ëpës- am heroîc poem,
N. sing. ëpös, N. V. Ac. pl. ëpeä or èpê.
84 Ac. pl.—Greek words often form the Ac. pl. in äs : as, rhêtör-
orator, Ac. pl. rhêtöräs. -
85 G. pl.—There is am old form of the G. pl. in èrùm : as, nùc-
nvt, G. pl. nücêrum. -
86 D. and Ab. pl.—Greek nouns in mät often form this case in
mätäs, rather than in mótíóús: as, poëmät- a poem, N. sing. poëmâ,
D. and Ab. pl. poëmätïbùs, or poëmätis.
87 D. and Ab. pl.—Greek nouns sometimes form the D. and Ab.
pl. in sîn or sì, with the final consonant of the crude form omitted,
so as to leave the preceding vowel short : as, Tröäd- a Trojam vo-
man, N. sing. Tröäs, D. and Ab. pl. Tröäsin or Tröásí.
13
WOWEI, DECLENSIONS.
1. MAscULINE ANIA FEMININE NoUN8.

Last let. 8l O. i ll e
Declen. 1 2 3 4 5
Latin. Ala- Auo- Aui- Acu- Fé-
Gender. l fem. IT)8SC. fem. fem. fem.
English.] wing. | grandfather. | . bird. needle. thing.
Sing.
IVom. | älä§ äuös, äuüs | áuísj äcüs réS
Voc. | älä§ äuë äuís äcüs ré§
Acc. | älam | äuom, äuum] äuim, äuem | äcum Item]
Gen. 1 âlae áuí* âuîs äcüs réi, rê
Dat. | älae äuö äui äcui, äcü | réi, ré
Abl. | älä äuö äui, äué äcü Iré
Plural.
IVom. | älae äui äués äcüs rés '
Voc. | älae äui äués äcüs réS
Acc. | äläs äuös äuis, äuës | äcüs ré§
Gen. | älärum | äuórum äuium ácuum I rérum
Dat. | älisf äuis áuíbüs äcübüs I rébüs
Abl. | älis áuis áuíbüs äcübüs I rébüs
* The o of the crude form may be traced even in those cases which
appear commonly without it. Compare the gen. sing. quö-iùs with the
Homeric Aoyoto ; the old nom. pl. öloe for illi with the Greek λογοι ;
the dat. and abl. pl. duöbïs, and öloes for illis, with the Greek λογοιs.
f The a ofthe crude form is visible through all this declension except
in the dative and ablative plural. That it once existed here also is proved
by the old forms équäbüs, &c., and by the Greek dative μουσαιs.
f Compare this declension with the Greek τολι-, N. TroAus.
§ The a of these cases was perhaps at first long, like Greek xogâ,
ατοâ, Anöä. So aquilâ, Enm. Ann. 148; sanctä, filiâ, Liv. Andr. äp.
Prisc. VI. 42; liberä, Plaut. Ep. III. 4. 62; especially in Greek words, às
Iluricâ, Trin. IV. 2. 10; epistulâ, Asin. Iv. 1. 17; Cantharâ, Ep. Iv. 1. 40.
89 WOWEI, DECLENSIONS.
14
2. NEUTER NoUNS.

Last letter. a), O i û €
Declension. 1 2 3 4; 5
Latin. IBello- Märi- Cornu-
English. ?0/070°. S€θ. horm.
£e H
Singular. 3" +
JVom. 35 bellu märë cornü $
va v-/ do
|Voc. ä bellum\ | märë COrn Ul 2
Acc. 3 bellum \ | märë cornü $
Gen. :> belli ' | märïs [cornüs]* C)
eo e • * s m *-* --> :c
Dat. á | bellö ma, fl cornui, cornu] g
Abl. 3 | bellö märi cornü §.
C) ζω
*-r, c)
JPlural. §. ■*
JVom. £ || bellâ märiâ cornuâ, É
Voc. 3 | bellâ märiä cornuä §-
Acc. g | bellâ máriá cornuâ, §.
úa ę :…
Gen. §* | bellórum | märium | cornuum 32.
5 «-* vº , &* v • * * &-* Q.
Dat. bellis märïbùs | cornübüs 5
Abl. bellis märïbùs | cornübüs
J?emarks om. the First, or A Declension.
90 A very large mumber of femimine adjectives are of this declen-
sion, while the masculine and meuter forms end in o: as, böna-
f. good, böno- masc. and neuter.
91 N.—Four words add an e to make the feminine nominative :
quae ; haec ; istaec ; illaec. In the last three the c has nothing
to do with the case-suffix.f
92 N.—The nominative in Greek proper names sometimes has an
s : as, Aenëä- Aeneas, N. Aenëäs ; but the best prose writers pre-
fer the N. and W. in δ : as, Aristagorã.
93 V.—The vocative of Greek proper names sometimes has a long
δ : as, Aenëä-, voc. Aenëâ.
94 Ac —The accusative of Greek proper names sometimes has an
^ : as, Aenëå-, ac. Aenêám ; Maiä-, ac. Maiám.
95 G.—The genitive has an old form in í : as, äläi.
96 G.—The genitive sometimes takes an s: as, fämflia- (fám'lia)
a gang of slaves, an establishment of slaves, gen. fämíliás.
* Not found. f See § 289.
VOWEI, ID ECILENSIONS. I5
97 D.—The dative has an old form in : : as, äläI.
98 G. pl.—The plural genitive sometimes has a short form : as,
caelicöla- ínhabitant of heaven, G. caelicölum, instead of caelïcölä-
rum ; amphöra- a measure of content, G. amphörum. And in foreign
proper names ör, as in Greek, is sometimes writtem instead of wm.
99 D. and Ab. pl.—The dative and ablative have an old form im
δόs: as, équa- mare, D. and Ab. équäbüs. This form is often re-
tained to distinguish the sex ; otherwise, équo- horse, and ëqua-
mare, would have the same dative and ablative plural ; so also
dua- f. two, amba- f. both, have D. and Ab. duäbüs, ambäbüs.
IRemarhs om the Second, or 0 Declensiom.
100 The Greek words Trö- a Trojan, and hërö- a demigod, are de-
clined like Greek words of the consonant declensiom.
101 If the crude form end in èro, the e is often dropped in those
cases where a vowel follows the r : as, libéro- the ìn^er bark of a
tree, a book, N. and W. lïbër, Ac. librum, &c. See § 124. I.
102 N. and Ac.—The nominative and accusative prefer an o, if τι,
precede, as äuo- grandfather, N. äuös, Ac. äuom : otherwise
v, is preferred, as hämo- hook, N. hämüs, Ac. hämum. But if
the crude form end in quo, them cus and cum are preferred to quus
or quos, and to quùm or quom : as, équo- horse, N. ëcus, Ac. ëcum ;
antiquo- old, N. anticüs, Ac. anticum.
103 N.—In Greek words o is preferred to w : as, Délo- the îsland
Delos, N. Dëlös. :
104 N. and V.—If the crude form of a masculine noun emd in ro,
the N. and W. often drop the letters that follow r : as, libéro-
book, N. and W. lïbër ; uîro- mam, N. and W. uîr.
105 N.—Three nouns form the N. in ë: ipso- self, N. ipsüs, more
commonly ipsë ; isto- that mear 3yow, N. isté; illo- 3yonder, N. illë.
If nominatives so formed take after them the enclitic cë, look or
lo, they have an â instead of an e: hence ho- thês, N. hîc ; isto-,
N. istîc ; illo-, N. illíc.
106 V.—The vocative from proper names in îo contracts îè into ì :
as, António- Antonêùs or Antony, V. Antöni. So génio- a guardiam
spîrît, V. géni; filio- son, V. fili.
107 V.—Meo- mine contracts the V. into mi.
108 V.—The nominative is sometimes used as a vocative : as, Deo-
God, N. or W. Deüs.
109 Ac.—Greek proper names sometimes form the accusative with
n : as, Delo- the island Delos, Ac. Délöm. '
l6 WOWEL DEGLENSIONS.
I10 G. and D.—The following adjectives form their genitives in
ôùs, their datives in ?, for the masculine, feminine, and neuter,
though some of them have occasionally the more common forms.
C.F. G. D. C. F. G. ID.
€O- èjùs eI ipso- ipsiùs | ipsi
quo- or | quöiüs or | quoi, cui* | älio- älïüs | älii
CUl- cüiüs or cú altéro- | altéríüs | altéri
ütëro- | utriús utri ümo- üniùs | üni
meutëro-| neutriús | neutri ullo- ulliùs | ulli
ho- hüiüs hui-c* nullo nulliùs | nulli
isto- istîùs istI sólo- söliùs | söli
illo- illiús illi tötO- tótiùs | tótif
111 Many of these genitives in îus are found in poetry with a short

penult, as illíüs ; but the gemitive äliüs (contracted from aliius) is
always long. Alteriüs with a long i is found in old writers (Ter.
And. Iv. I. 4 and Enm. ap. Domat. ad Ter. Ph. II. 2. 25) : in prose
it is usual to pronounce the è short : altéríüs.
112 G.—Substantives in îo contract ά into 7 : as, ötio- leiswre, G.
öti. This final á is sometimes writtem so as to overtop the other
letters, as OTI.
G.—Greek words sometimes form the genitive im ò : as, Mém-
andéro- the poet Menander, G. Ménandrü.
D.—Names of places form a dative in Z with the meaning at :
as, Milëto- the town, Miletvs, D. Miléti at Miletus ; so hümo-
grow md, ID. hümi on the grownd ; dömo- hovse, D. dömi at home ;
bello- war, D. belli δn, war : and some adjectives in certain
phrases, as quintI diê on the fifth day, &c.
N. pl.—The old nominative emded in e: as, öloe from ölo-
3yonder, instead of illi from illo-. So also in Greek words: as,
Adelpho- brother, N. pl. Adelphoe.
N. pl.—Deo- God has the plural N. Dei, Dii, or more com-
monly DI ; and eo- this or that has a plural N. ii, I, or more
commonly hI.
N. and Ac. pl.—Duo- tvo and ambo- öoth have for the mas-
culine N. duö and ambó, Ac. duös or duö, ambös or ambö ; for
the neut. N. and Ac. duö and ambö.
113
114
115
116
117
* Pronounced as monosyllables: cui (ki), huio (hik).
f These words may be recollected by the following rhymes:
iüs and I.from älio- altëro-, | eo- and quo-, üno- and ullo-,
sólo- tóto-, ütëro- neutëro-, l ho- isto- illo-, ipso- and nullo-.
VOWEI, DECILENSIONS. j7
118 G. pl.—The genitive sometimes has a short form, especially in
numbers weights and measures : as, duo- two, G. pl. duórum or
duum ; mödio- α δαshel, G. pl. mödium.
l19 G. pl.—Greek words form the G. pl. in ón : as, Georgîco- öe-
longìng to agriculture, G. pl. Georgicöm.
120 D. and Ab. pl.—The dative and ablative of duo- and ambo-
are in the masculine and meuter duöbüs, amböbüs.
121 D. and Ab. pl.—Am old form of the D. and Ab. pl. is in es :
as, öloes from ölo- 3yonder, instead of illis from illo-.
122 D. and Ab. pl.—Deo- has in the D. and Ab. pl. Deis, Diis, or.
more commonly DIS ; and eo- has eis, iis, Is, or more commonly
his.
123 Four neuters in o have a d in the N. and Ac. singular : quo-,
quöd ; isto-, istúd; illo-, illüd ; älio-, äliüd.
124 Ho-, isto-, illo-, when compounded with the enclitic cé, look or
lo, take neither d nor m in the N. amd Ac. neut. : as, höc, istóc or
istùc, illöc or illüc.
124. 1 IRREGULAR O DECLENSION.
Latin C.F.l Puëro- Víro- Lïbëro- Eilio- Equo-
Gender. masc. InnaSC. IY]a|SC. IÌÌ8]SC. ImàSC.
English. ό0y. mam. | immer bark. S07?,. horse.
Singular.
IVom. | puér uîr lïbër filiús ëcús*
Voc. | puër uîr lïbër fili équé
Acc. | puérum | uîrum | librum | filium êcum*
Gen. | puéri uîrî líbri filii or fili| èqui
Dat. | puërö uírö líbrö fïliö êquö
Abl. | puërö uirö librö filiö équö
E'lural.
IWom. | puéri uîrî líbri filii èqui
Voc. | puéri uírí lîbrî filii équi
Acc. | puërös uirös | librös | filiös équös
Gen. | puërörum | uirörum librörum | filiórum | équörum
Dat. | puéris uîris lîbrîs filiis êquis
Abl. | puëris uîris | lîbris filiis équis

* So our best Mss. for the best authors ; but editor8 in their timidity
generally print equus, equum. -
O}
18 VOWEI, DIEGILHENSIONS.
IRemarks on the Third, or I Declension.
125 Many words belong partly to the i declensiom, part.$ @ ühe
consonant declensiom : as, sorti- or sort- a lot or ballot. In such
words the singular is generally formed according to the consonant
declension, the plural according to the è declensiom. (See § 148. 1)
126 Many words belong partly to the è declensiom, partly to the e de-
clerision : as, aede- or aedi- temple. (See § 148. 1) The forms from
e are seldom used except in the nom. and voc. But fäme- or fämi-
hwrger has an Ab. fämë with the e long, as in the e declension.
126. l N.—Although meuter nominatives of this declension commonly
end in è, pöti- possible has for the neuter in old writers pötís, as
well as pöté.
127 N. and W.—If a crude form end in rí, the letters which should
follow rare often droppedim the mom. amd voc. : as, lintéri- a wherry,
N. and V. lintër ; Aräri- a rêver în Gallia, N. and W. Arär or Arärïs.
128 N. amd V.—Some adjectives ending in érâ have both forms : as,
äcëri- sharp, N. and W. âcër for the masculine, äcrîs for the femi-
mine ; but àcrìs is sometimes used evem for the masculine.
129 If the crude form end in éri, the eis often droppedim those cases
which do not end in er : as, lintéri- wherry, G. lintrîs.
130 N. and W.—If the crude form ends in li, the letters which should
follow , in the N. and V. are sometimes dropped : as, vìgìli- a night-
8entirel, N. and W. vîgîl. This word is in origin an adjective.
131 N. V. Ac.—If the crude form of a neuter substantive end in
άrâ or àli, the N. V. Ac. generally drop the final è and shortem the
a : as, calcâri- spùr, N. V. Ac. calcár. These words are in origin
meuter adjectives.
132 N. and Ac.—Three pronouns form the neut. sing. N. and Ac.
in d : qui- quîd ; i- íd ; äli- älïd.
133 Ac.—Some few substantives are found only with the Ac. in
im : as, vi-m force, siti-m thirst ; but em is in more general use.
With adjectives em alone is found, as from lèni- smooth, Ac. masc.
and fem. lënem.
134 Ac.—Greek words often form the accusative in m : as, Päri-
Paris, N. Pärïs, Ac. Pärïm.
135 G.—Greek words sometimes form the gen. in ós : as, mäthési-
Knowledge, G. mäthèseös.
136 Ab —Neuter substantives (with the exception of namos of
towns) and also adjectives of all genders prefer the ablative in 7 :
WOWEI, DEGLENSIONS.
I9
as, fmäri- sea, Ab. mári ;* lèni- smooth, Ab. lëni. But adjectives
used as masc. or fem. substantives admit the Ab. in é : as affini-
a relative by marriage, Ab. affiné. Participles in entì- when used
as substantives, and also in the construction called the ablative
absolute (§ 1013), require the form im e.
136. 1 Ac. pl.—A form in eis (= s) also occurs in inscriptions.
137
G. pl.—Some nouns drop the è im the G. pl. : as, câni- doq,
jüvéni- 3young man, céléri- quick ; G. pl. cämum, jüvënum, célérum.
This is often the case in poetry : as, ägresti- qf the cow^try, G. pl.
ägrestium, or in poetry ägrestum ; and generally with those adjec-
tives Which have no neuter plural: as, ïnöp- helple88, G. pl. ïnöpum.
I 38
G. pl.—Greek words sometimes form the G. pl. in ö^ : as,
mëtámorphôsi- change qf form, N. sing. métámorphösîs, G. pl.
mëtámorphöseöm.
139
G. pl.—Plural names offestivals oftenform the G. pl. aS iffrom
a C. F. in îo : as, Baccänäli- Qf Bacchus, N. pl. Baccämäliâ, G. pl.
IBaccänälium or Baccänäliórum.
139. ] IRREGUIAR, I DECIMENSION.
Lat. c.F.] Lintéri- Vigili- Affini- Amïmäli- Calcäri-
Gender. | fem. masc. ma§. 9r fem.] neut. meut.
English.] wherry. £#; tA living being. | spur.
Sing.
IVom. | lintër uigil affinis | änïmäl calcär
|Woc. | lintër uigil affinis länïmäl calcär
Acc. | lintrem | uigilem | affinem | ánimál calcär
Gen. | lintris | uigilis | affinis | änïmälis | calcáris
Dat. | lintri uigili affimi ánïmäli | calcäri
Abl. | lintri or | uigili or | affini or | ánimäli or | calcári or
lintré | uigilé affimê | änïmälë | calcärë
Plural.
AVom. | lintrés fuîgîlës | affinês | änïmäliä | calcáriá
Voc. | lintrés | uigilàs | affinês | änïmäliä | calcáriá
Acc. | lintris or | uigilis or | affinis or | änïmäliä | calcáriá
lintrés | uigilés | affinés
Gen. | lintrium | uigilumf | affinium | änïmälium] calcärium
Dat. | lintribüs | uigilíbüs | affinibüs | änïmälïbùs calcärïbùs
Abl. | lintribüs | uigilibüs | affinibüs | änïmälibüs calcáríbüs,

* But märë a8 am abl. occurs in poetry after prepositioms : as, è märë
Lucr. I. 162, dê märë Ov. Trist. v. 2. 20.
f Observe the omission of the i before the u.
20 * WOWEI, DECLENSIONS,
IRemarks om the Fourth, or U Declensvom.
140 Two monosyllabic nouns, su- a boar or sow, gru- a crane, are
not contracted like the longer nouns of this declensiom, and are
therefore declined as in the comsonant, declension ; but su- has
- both sübüs and sufbüs in the D. and Ab. pl.
141 Many crude forms in w coexist with crude forms in o: as, lauro-
or lauru- lawrel. Hemce the genitives Sënäti, tümulti, &c. as well
as Sënätüs, tümultüs, &c. are found. See § 148. l.
142 G.—From änu- an. old womam the uncontracted Gen. änuis is
used.
143 G. pl.—One w is sometimes omitted in the G. pl. : as, curru-
charìot, G. pl. curruum, or in poetry currum.
144 D. and Ab. pl.—Many words change the penult ì into î: as,
cornu- horn, D. and Ab. pl. cornîbüs.
JRemarks on the Fifth, or E Deelension.
145 Many crude forms in e coexist with crude forms in a : as,
mätëria- or mätërië- timber. See § 148. 1.
146 G.—Old forms of the genitive, such as diês and dii from die-
day, are found. -
147 G. and D.—The penult e in the G. and D. was originally long
in all the nouns of this declension ; but if no â precede, it is consi-
dered to be short in prose : as, from fíde- faith, G. and D. fîdëi;
but from dié- day, G. and D. diéI.
148 Few nouns in e have a plural, and still fewer a G. D. and
Ab. pl.
148. 1 MIXED DECLENSIONS. 21

Consonant and i. â and e.
Latin. urb- or part- or nübi- torqui- or
urbi-, f. parti-, f. or nübe-, f. [torque-, m. or.f.|
English. city. part. cloud. l twisted chaim.
Sing.
IVom. | urbs pars nübës or . | torqués or
nübís torquís
Voc. | urbs pars nübës torqués
Acc. l urbem partem* nübem torquem
Gen. | urbis partís nübís torquís
Dat. | urbi parti nübi torqui
Abl. | urbé parté nübë torqué
Plural.
JVom. | urbës partês nübës torqués
Voc. | urbës partés nübës torqués
Acc. | urbis or partis or | nübis or | torquis or
t urbës partés mübës torqués
Gen. l urbium partium nübium torquium
Dat. | urbïbùs partibüs nübíbüs torquíbüs
Abl. | urbibüs partibüs nübíbüs torquíbüs
e and a. a and o. o and v.
Latin. | mätëria- or mätërie-, f. |böno- or böna-| fico- or ficu-, f.
English. timber. good. fig-tree.
Sing.
JVom. | mätëriës or mätëriâ ficüs
|Voc. •_ -_ - -
Acc. | mätëriem or mätëriam fîcum
Gen. | — mätëriae £ fici or ficüs
Dat. mätëriae ;> ficö or ficui
Abl. | mätérié or mätëriâ $ fïcö or ficü
Plural. 3.
JVom. z. ficì or ficüs
Voc. 3 §2 -_æ - - -
Acc. tc N2 fïcös or ficüs
Gen. â fïcörum or ficuum
Dat. :-• fîcis or fícübüs
Abl. ficis or ficübüs

- ->
* Rarely partim unless used adverbially.
22
DEFECTIVE AND IRREGULAR, NOUNS.
149 Some nouns are not declined : as, nihîl nothing, fäs permitted
δy Heaven, nëquam good for nothing, quöt how margy, töt so ma^y,
and many numerals. See Numerals, § 252. Substantives unde-
clined are seldom used except as nominatives Or accusatives.
l50 Some want the plural : as, sénectüt- old age, vèr- 7. 8príng,
süperbia- pride, próle- offsprìng, auro- ^. gold, öleo- m. 0%7.
l5l Some want the singular : as, ténèbra-, N. pl. téné-brae daré-
mess ; castro- n., N. pl. casträ camp; armo- n., N. pl. armä arms ;
Püteölo-, N. pl. Püteöli Little wells, the mame of a town.
l52 Some have both singular and plural, but with different mean-
ings: as,
SING. PLUR. NOMI.
aedi- or aede- a room or temple, aedés a house.
äqua- zwater, äquae medicinal sprimgs.
auxîlio- m. help, auxîliâ allied troops.
cöpia- aόundamce, cöpiae military forces.
fini- end, finés boumdaries, territory.
fortüna- fortune, fortünae property.
grätia- favour, grätiae thanks.
litëra- a letter qf the alphabet, litërae a letter or epistle.
öpéra- work, assistance, öpérae labowrers or hired men.
153 Some nouns are deficient in one Or more cases : thus, vic- to/rm.
has no N. or D. sing. ; öp- help has no nominative.
l54 Some nouns form their cases partly from one crude form, partly
from amother. Thus, volgös- ^. ^ob supplies a N. V. Ac. sing.
volgüs, and volgo- ^. the G. volgi, D. and Ab. volgó ; îtér- n. route
supplies a N. V. Ac. simg. îtër, and ítínér- ^. the other cases ;
praecîp- head foremost supplies praeceps for the N. and W. sing. of
allgenders and the Ac. neut. sing., the other cases being formed
from praecîpît- ; väs- ^. a ve$$et is declined in the singular along
with väso- m. in the plural.
l55 Some nouns have one gender in the singular, another in the
plural. Thus,
die- day is 7n. Orf. in the singular, but m. in the plural.
caelo- air, sky is n.
9» 92 » » 77?. » 2
fréno- bridle is m. 99 » » 2 9 7^. Or 72. ,,
rastro- rake is ^. 99 9 9 99 ?^. Or ??. , ,
iöco- • joke is m. 99 99 99 7m. or ^. , ,
löco- place is m. 99 99 » » 772. Or ?®. »,
I)EFECTIVE ANI) IRB},GUILAR, NOUNS. 23
156 Some adjectives are deficient in gender. Thus, mëmör- mind-
ful, paupér- earning-little, have no neuter ; victrici- or victric- victo-
τέous is only fem. in the sing., only fem. or meut. in the plur.
some Irreqular Wowns declined.
157 Böu- oae or cow, N. V. bös, Ac. böuem, G. böuîs, D. böui, Ab. böuê.
Pl. N. V. Ac. böuës, G. böuum or boum, D. and Ab. böbüs or
bübüs.
158 Deo- God, N. V. Deüs, Ac. Deum, G. Dei, D. Ab. I)eö. Pl. N. V.
Dei, Dii, more commonly DI, Ac. Deös, G. Deórum or Deum,
D. Ab. Deis, Diis, more commonly Dis.
159 Dómo- or dömu- f., hovse, N. V. dömüs, Ac. dömum, G. dömüs,
D. dómui, dömö, with dömi at home, Ab. dömü or dömö. Pl.
N. V. dömüs, Ac. dömüs or dömös, G. dömuum or dömörum,
D. Ab. dömíbüs. -
160 Iou-pîtér- (=pater-) Jupìter, N. V. Iuppîtër or Iüpîtër, Ac. Iöuem,
G. Iöuîs, D. Iöui, Ab. Iöuë.
161 Iüs-iürando- m., oath (really two words), N. V. Ac. iüsiürandum,
G. iürîsiürandi, D. iüriiürandö, Ab. iürëiürandö.
162 Nig- or niu- snow, N. V. nix, Ac. niuem, G. niuis, D. nºui, Abl.
nîué. Pl. N. Ac. nïués, Ab. níuíbüs.
163 Rê-publica- common- vealth. (really two words), N. W. res-publicâ,
Ac. rem-publicam, G. D. rei-publîcae, Ab. ré-publïcä. Pl.,Ac.
res-publïcäs, G. rërum-publïcärum, Ab. rébus-publîcis.
164 Sénéc- or sén- am old ma^, N. V. sënex, Ac. sénem, G. sënîs, D.
sëni, Ab. sënë. Pl. N. V. Ac. sénés, G. sënum, D. Ab. sënïbüs.
165 Visi- uis- or ui-force, N. V. uis, Ac. uim, G. uis, D. Ab. uI. PI.
N. V. Ac. uirës, G. uirium, D. Ab. uiríbüs. ;*
Somne Foreign Proper Wames declined.
166 Alveua- Aenëä- Aeneas, N. Aenêás, V. Aenëâ, Ac. Aenëån or -am,
G. D. Aenêae, Ab. Aenëä. *
167 Ayxvora- or -m- Anchisä- or Anchisé- Anchises, N. Anchisês, V. An-
chisé or -â, Ac. Anchisën or -am, G. D. Anchisae, Ab. Anchisé
Or -ä.
168 opearrn- Oreste- or -ta- Orestes, N. Orestés, V. Orestâ, Ac. Orestèn
or -em, G. D. Orestae, Ab. Oresté.
169 Mevavêpo- Ménandéro- Menander, N. Ménandrös or -drüs or-dër,
24 DEFECTIVE ANID IRREGULAR, NOUNS.
V. Ménandré or -dër, Ac. Ménandröm or -drum, G. Mënandrti
or -dri, D. Ab. Mémandrö.
170 IIav6oo- Panthoo- Panthus, N. Panthüs, V. Pamthü, Ac. Panthüm
or Panthum, G. Panthi, D. Ab. Panthö. v,
171 A60- Athö- or Athön- (and perhaps Athö-) Mow^t Athos, N. Athös,
Ac. Athón Athö Athónem (and perhaps Athön), G. D. Athó,
Ab. Athó or Athönë.
172 Aevòot- Didoi- Dido, N. V. Ac. IDidö, G. Didüs, D. Ab. Didö. Also
from Didön- N. V. Didö, Ac. Didónem, &c.
173 Koo- or Kø- Coo- the îsland Cos, N. CÖs, Ac. Coon or Cón, G. Coi
or Cö, D. Ab. Coö or Cö.
174 IIapi- or IIapwô- Päri- or Pärïd- Paris, N. Pärïs, V. Pärïs or Päri,
Ac. Pârim or -Ím, Pärïdem or -dä, G. Pärïdös or -dîs, D. Pärïdi
or -dY, Ab. Pärïdë.
175 AXi\\e P- Achillëu- or -lé- Achilles, N. Achillés, V. Achillè, Ac.
Achillëm or -lam or -lem, G. Achilleös -lei -lis and in the best
prose Achilli, D. Achillëì or -lei or -li, Ab. Achillë.
176 Opq)e£- Orphëu- or Orpheo- Orpheus, N. Orpheus, V. Orpheu, Ac.
Orphëâ or -eum, G. Orphëös or -éi or -ei or -I, D. Orphëf or -ei
or -eo, Ab. Orpheo.
177 IÀtovef- Iliönëu- Ilioneus, N. IIiöneus, V. Iliöneu, Ac. Iliönëâ, G.
Iliönëös or Iliönei, D. Iliönëì or -ei or -eo, Ab. Iliöneo.
178 IIeporeF- Perséu- or Persé- Perseus, like Orphëu- : but also N.
Persùs, V. Persè, Ac. Persen, G. D. Persae, Ab. Persè or -sä.
179 >okpareo- Sócrätës- or Sócrätë- Socrates, N. Söcrätës, V. Sócrätës or
-tês or -tê, Ac. Sócrätëm or -tem, G. Söcrätïs or rather Sócráti,
I). Söcräti, Ab. Söcrätë.
180 IIeptk\eeo- Pérîclé- Perìcles, N. Pérîclés, V. Pérîclës or -clè, Ac.
Pérîcléâ, or -clem, G. Péríclís or rather Pérîcli, D. Pérîcli, Ab.
IPêrîclë.
181 ea\nr- Thälët- or Thälë- Thales, N. Thälës, V. Thälës or -lé, Ac.
Thälëtâ or -tem, Thälën or -em, G. Thälëtîs Thälïs or -li, D.
Thälétì or Thäli, Ab. Thälëtë or Thälë.
182 Atv- Aty- Atys, N. Atys, W. Aty, Ac. Atyn or Atym, G. Atyös or
Atyis or Atys, D. Atyi or Aty, Ab. Atyë or Aty.
25
G ENIDIER.
183 It has been already stated that there are two genders, mascu-
line and feminine, and that those nouns which are of no gender
are called neuter.
184 The gender may be determined partly by the meaning, partly
by the suffix or termination.
Gender determined by Meaning.
185 Males, months,* winds, and rivers, are generally masculine.
l86 Females, countries,* islands,* and trees, are generally femi-
mine.
187 Nouns undeclined, asfäs right, nëfäs wrong, gummigum; words
belonging to the other parts of speech used for the time as substan-
tives, as hoc ipsum * diu' this very word * diw' ; sentences used as
substantives; and the produce of trees, are generally neuter.
188 Many substantives denote both the male and female, and are
therefore called common : as, sàcerdót- prîest or prîestess. These
are for the most part really adjectives.
189 Sometimes there are two different words or two different ter-
minations, one for the male, the other for the female : as, tauro-,
δύll, vacca- cov ; ëquo- horse, équa- mare.
190 At other times the natural gender of animals is forgottem for a
fanciful gender. Thus, the words uolpe- foae, cäni- or cäne- dog,
änät- duck, are generally considered to be feminine. On the con-
trary, ansér- goo8e, lëpös- hare, are masculine. Those words which
under ome grammatical gender are applied to both male and female
are called epîceres. If the real gender must be noticed, the words
mäs- male, and fémîna- female, are added.
* The mames for the months are really adjectives agreeing with the
masculine noun, mensi- * month,' understood. The names of countries and
islands are also often adjectives agreeing with the feminine nouns, terra-
* land,' and insula- * island.' So the names of ships (naui- understood)
and plays (fabula- understood) are treated as feminimes.
926
Gender determined by Sigffiares.
MAscULINE SUFFIxEs.
191 The following suffixes produce masculine nouns. They are
arranged alphabetically according to their last letters.
Adaea | GiYes a Thus • - s*
Suffix subst. • English | Is derived Emglish
tO meaming from -
a* verbs | a person | incöl- | inhabit | incöl-a- | inhabitant.
ta, *— | a person | näui- | ship näuî-ta- l sailor.
îc uort- l furn, uort-íc- eddy.
öm subst. | man näso- | mose Näs-ön- | Big-nose.
öm verbs | man bíb- | drimk bíb-ön- tippler.
öm verbs turba- | whir! turb-öm- | whirlwimd.
of verbs | act lüd- | plagy lüd-o- plagy.
io-j- | verbs flu- | flow flüu-io- viver.
ülo* | verbs | little tüm-e-| swell tüm-ülo- | movmd.
ülot | nouns | little | föco- | fire | föc-ülo- | a little fire.
cülof | nouns | little frätër- | brother | fräter-cülo-| little brother.
îno-f little äs-ino- 67SS.
êro little nüm-ëro- | mumber.
tërof | verbs | means | cöl- | cut, dig | cul-têro- | ploughshare.
to£ | verbs | one —ed, léga- | depute | lëgä-to- deputy.
5r verbs | state tîme- | fear tîm-ör- fear.
tör verbs | mam ära- | plough | ärä-tör- ploughmam.
tör subst. | mam iänua-| gate iänï-tór- | gatekeeper.
tu§ | verbs | —ing | audi- | hear audi-tu- | hearing.




192
It would be a, useful exercise to collect examples of each suffix.
Thus, for the suffix a, from verbs, denoting a person :
conuiu-a- a mes8mate or guest, from cön together and uiu- live.
,, âd to and uën- come.
9 9 scríb- Φráte.
aduén-a-
scrib-a-
a 8tranger,
a Secretary,
parrîcîd-a- a parricîde,
transfüg-a- a deserter,
caelfcöl-a- heaven-ênhabítíng,
ignígén-a- fire-born,
* Words of this class may perhaps be considered as common, but the
masculine is generally meant.
f See the neuter suffixes.
3: These are really masculine participles.
§ These are oftem called supines.
99
99
pätër- father and caed- slay.
trans across and füg-fy.
9 9
99
caelo- sky and cöl- ìnhabit.
igni- fire and gén- produce.
GENIDEB.
27
193
FEMININE SUFFIxE8.
Suffix Agga G;£* £; English Is derived English
meaming
â, verbs | act füg- .fy füg-a- fight.
8, male | female | hospît- | stranger | hospit-a- l.female stranger.
ia | subst. lcollective] fämülo- | slave fämii-ia- | family.*
ia | people| a country, Gallo- | a Gaul | Gall-ia- Gallia.
ia | adj. | quality | misëro- | wretched] misér-ia- wretchedmess.
itia|| adj. | quality | ämico- l.friendly | ämic-itia- |.friendship.
êla, | verbs | act quër-(r.) complain] quër-éla- complaimt.
êla | subst. | state client- | vassal | client-êla- | vassalage.
téla, | verbs | act tue- (r.) | protect | tü-têla- protectiom.
üla | nouns | little änima- | breath | änï:n-üla- | little öreath.
cüla | nouns | little sörör- | sister söror-cüla- | litt/e sister.
ma | verbs | act fa- speak fä-ma- report.
ina päte- be spread pät-îna- dish.
ina | male | female | rég- kimg rég-ina- queem, ,
ima, | verbs | act Tun- rush ru-ina- dowmfal' ^*
bra | verbs läte- lie hid | lätë- bra- hitiáng-place.
öra • — —• pâte- be spread pát-éra- δοw?.
üra, | verbs | act fìg- model i fìg-üra- shape.
türaf] verbs | act pig- paimt | pic-türa- painting. '
ta, verbs | act uiu- Jive ui-ta- life.
ta | adj. | quality | iüuëni- | young | iüuen-ta- | youth.
ici | -törf | female | uic-tór- [conqueror| uictr-ici- conqueress.
e verbs | act fíd- truSt fíd-e- faith.
itie | adj. | quality | tristi- | sad trist-ïtie- | sadness.
ti verbs | act mör- (r.) die mor-ti- death. •
dön] | verbs | quality | dulce- | be sweet | dulcé-dön- | sweetness.
göm|| | verbs | act öri- (r.) | rise öri-gön- origám.
tüdöm] adj. | quality | longo- | long longì-tüdön-| length.
iön§ | verbs | act öpina-(r.) fancy | öpin-ión- | opiniom.
tiön | verbs | act díc- speak | dic-tión- speakimg.
tät|| | nouns | quality | ciui- citizem | ciuî-tät- citizenship.
[tat nouns | quality | seruo- | slave seruî-tüt- | slavery.

* Literally, * a slave- gang.' -
+ Perhaps more immediately from nouns in tör, as from pictór-
* painter,' pictúra- * painting.”
f i. e. a substantive in tor.
püg-
|| See Appendix II.
§ But -iön as a suffix of material objects is masculine, as :
püg-ion-
cäball-ion-
iöm
*-•
verbs
subst.
little
little
cäballo-
horse
pierce
dagger
hippocampus
28
GENIDER.
194 NEUTER SUFFIXES.
, | sum. [A£d ę $ | English | Is derived | English
meaming
]i* subst. | — j änïma- | life änïmä-li- lanimal.
rj* subst. | — | puluino-| cushion puluinä-ri- shrine.
ên verbs f — ungu- | anoint |ungu-ën- [oimtment.
mën* | verbs instrument, tég- cover teg- mén- lcovering.
O verbs iüg- gyoke iüg-o- gyoke.
io verbs iact, &c. | gaude- | rejoice gaud-io- [joy.
ítio | nouns seruo- | slave [seru-ïtio- [slavery.
ülo | verbs instrumenti iäc- throw liâc-ülo- dart.
ülo | nouns [little paulo- | a little |paul-ülo- la very little.
bülof | verbs instrument, uêna- | hunt luënä-bülo- [hunting-spear
bülof | subst. instrument] tüs- incense Itürî-bülo- lcemser.
cülo £ | verbs [instrument] uëh- carry luéhì-cülo- [carriage.
cülo | nouns [little öpës- work |öpus- cúlo- |a little work.
îno rég- king reg-no- zoyal power.
êrO verbs instrument] scalp- | scratch scalp-ro- graving-tool.
b'rof | verbs instrument| cér- sif? cri-bro- sieve.
c*rof | verbs instrument| sépél- | bury sépul-cro- [buriaJ-place.
t*ro | verbs [instrumentl räd- scrape Iras-tro- rake.
tO verbs Ithing done] léga- /eave [légà-to- [legacy.
tO trees [collective | arbös- | tree arbus-to- |vineyard.
ëtoll | trees [collective | quercu- | oak querc-éto- loak-grove.
ento | verbs ungu- | anoint jungu-ento- lointment.
mento! verbs instrument! orna- equip |ornâ-mento-|equipmemt.
ër§ verbs it- or i- | go ít-ér- rovte.
înër | verbs | — | it- or i- | go ît-ïnër- 7ro?Lte.
iìr verbs | — | fulg- • | shine [fulg-ür- [lightning.
ês verbs - gén- produce gén-ës- 7race, birth.
ös verbs | — | frig-e- ] be cold [frig-ös- cold.
ïnös | verbs | — | fäc- do fäc-ïnös- ldeed.
195 The tables of suffixes here givem are far from sufficient to de-

termine the gender of all words.
Indeed, some of the suffixes
* These are really neuter adjectives, and the two suffixes are closely
related ; pulvinäri- being preferred to pulvinàli- because the word has
already got an ?.
f öülo and b'ro are probably the same suffix, the latter being pre-
ferred after a preceding l.
3. The same may be said of cúlo and c'ro, and perhaps t*ro.
§ But és, às, ös, ììs, together with ër, är, ör, ùr and üt, are mere varie-
ties of the same suffix.
Compare the last three with the Greek tepueveo- * sacred ground.*
] More strictly ecto, the first syllable of which is the diminutival ee,
see § 207. 1. Indeed the form ecto is preserved in wirecto- n., càrecto- n.
“I See Appendix II.
See Appendix II.
So also înër, änös, änör, &c. are of one origin.
GENDIER. 29
will be found common to the masculine and neuter tables: as, o,
io, ülo, îno, éro, tèro, to.
195. 1 Suffixes which denote an abstract quality or act are at times
used in the sense of collective nouns, as from
équîta- ride,
êquîtà-tu- m., a body qf riders, cavalry.
Itälo- an Italiam, Itäl-ia- the body qf Italians, Italy. .
séqu- (r.) follow, sec-ta- a body of followers, a school.
gén- produce,
multo- many,
lég- choo8e,
ciui- citizen,
nöbïli- moble,
gen-ti- or gent- a race.
multî-tüdön- a multitude, a ηοδ.
lég-iön- picked men, a legîon.
ciuí-tät- a body of cìtìzens, a state.
nóbílí-tät- a body of nobles, a nobility.
iüuêni- 3young,
consül- consult,
iüuem-tüt- a body of 3yowng men, 3yowth.
consil-io- n., a body qf persons consultíng.
196 It will be observed that a large number of substantives in a
are feminine. But the rule is far from universal; as may be seen
in the masculines : Belga- a Belgiam, Sulla- the Roman, dictator,
Matröna- m. the rêver Marne, Hadria- the Hadriatic, nauta- 8ai/or,
incöla- înhabitant.
The nouns in % occasion much trouble. The majority are femi-
nine, but the exceptions are numerous. These may perhaps be
remembered by the following acrostic :
197
M ascülini génèris crimi-
A mmi-* axi- füni-* fini-*
S enti-* demti- calli-* colli-
C auli- fasci- fusti- folli-
V t'ri- uent'ri- uermi- assi-
L éni- posti- torri- cassi-
Igni- imb'ri- pisci- ponti-
N ätäli- uecti- fonti- monti-
E nsi- mensi- päni-* orbi-
S angui- angui-* ungui- corbi-.
197. 1 Lat. c. F. Nom. English. Lat. C.F. Nom. English.
amni- amnîs rêver axi- or axis or aacle or
angui- anguîs Snake assi- assís pole
assi- àS αηέt calli- callís path
* Many e'en of these, as fini-,
Are also générìs fémînini.
30
DIMINUTIVES,
Lat. c. F. Nom. English. 1Lat. c. F. Nom. English.
cassi- (pi.) cassés met mensi- mensis month
cauli- caulîs stalk monti- mons mowntaiìò
colli- collîs hî/ mätäli- nätälis birthday
corbi- corbïs öasket orbi- orbîs roumd
crimi- crinîs band ofhair | päni- pänïs loaf
ensi- ensîs sword, pisci- piscis fish
fasci- fascis δυη dle ponti- pons bridge
fimi- finís end posti- postîs door-post
folli- (pl.) follës bellows sangui-t sanguis blood
denti- dens tooth, senti- sentîs thor^
fonti- fons språng torri- torrïs öram d,
fümi- funís rope uecti- uectís pole
fusti- fustîs club uentéri- uentêr belly
igni- ignis fire uermi- uermîs avorm.
imbëri- imbër shower ungui- unguîs maά
lëni-* lënîs wêne-press ütëri- ütër &kîr.
FORMATION AND GENIDER, OF DIMINUTIVES.
Diminutives denote strictly small size, but are also used to
denote sometimes contempt, sometimes affectiom.
198. 1 The gender of a dimimutive is the same as that of the noun
from which it is formed : as, frätër- m. brother, frätercülo- m.
Zittle brother ; cöröna- f. a círcular wreath or chaplet, cörolla- f. a
small chaplet ; corpös- n. öody, corpuscülo- n. a small body.
Hence the gender of a diminutive will oftem assist the memory .
to the gender of the primitive or word from which it is derived.
Thus tüber-cülo- n. a little bump proves that tübër- bump is neuter.
If the moum be ofthe first, or second declension, that is, ifit
end in a or o, the diminutive ends in ììla or άlo (older form éla,
èlo). Thus from áníma- breath or life, dim. änïmüla-.
If the letter before o and a, be v, e or ô, ô7o and öla are pre-
ferred. Thus from seruo- slave, linea- line, seruólo-, lineöla- are
derived.
If the letter before a and o be an r, 7, or m, a contraction gene-
I98
] 99
900
2()1
202
* Lëni-= ληνο-, whence Lemaeus * the Godofthe wine-press, Bacchus.'
+ Hence nom. sanguìs, acc. sanguem, Inscr. Or. 2270, 5054, the
diminutive sangui-culo- m., and the adj. eae-sangui- * bloodless.' Other-
wise sanguìn-, nom. sanguis, &c. is in use. •
IDIMINUTIVES. 31
rally takes place producing a termination lla or llo. Thu8 from
puéra- gir?, öcülo- eye, uino- vpêne, are derived (puéréla-) puella-
f., (öcëlülo-) öcello- m., (uinülo-) uillo- m.
203 If the letter before a or o was am l, and that ', was itself pre-
ceded by a long vowel or diphthong, the diminutive ends in villa
or villo. Thus äla- wìng, axilla- armpit ; mâla- jaw, maxilla-;
paulo- n. little, pauxillo- n. ; pálo- m. stake, paxillo- m. ; talo- m.
ancle, taxillo- m. ; uëlo- n. sail, uexillo- n. flag.*
204 If the noun be not of the first or Second declension, the dimi-
nutive generally ends in cüla or cúlo (older form cêla, cèlo). Thus
from cáni- f. dog, frà-têr- m. brother, gému- n. knee, spe- f. hope,
are derived cänicùla- f., frätercülo- m., génícülo- n., spécüla- f.
205 But if the moum end in c or g, f or d, the form üla or ülo is
generally preferred. Thus from cornic- f. crow, rég- m. king,
cápüt- n. head, lápíd- m. stone, are derived cornicüla- f., régülo-
m., cápítülo- n., (läpídülo- contracted into) läpillo- m.
206 If the noun emd in óm, or ön, the o is changed into v. Thus
from hömöm- mam, rätiön- f. accowmt, are derived hömuncùlo- m.,
rätiuncüla- f.
206. l Ifthe moum end in any of the five terminations Ös, ör, δs, ör, ès,
this syllable becomes vs. Thus from rümös- or rümör- m. report,
arböS- or arbör- f. tree, öpös- m. work, are derived rümuscülo- m.,
arbuscüla- f., öpuscülo- n.
207 These rules for forming diminutives are applicable to adjectives
also : as, paupér- poor, paupercülo- ; misêro- wretched, misello- ;
üno- one, ullo- ; molli- 8Qft, mollícülo- ; paruo- little, paruólo- ;
aureo- goldem, aureölo-.
207. 1 Diminutives are also formed by the addition of suffixes èc or
ôc, e or ô, and w.f Thus from sén- an, old man (which forms ac.
sénem, gen. sënîs, &c.) comes sén-êc- a little old ma^ (with nom.
sënex). Mamy of these diminutives have wholly superseded the
primitives whence they were derived, so that the latter have dis-
appeared: as, cúl-êc- m. gnat, cim-êc- m. bug, pül-ëc- m. flea, säl-íc-
f. willow, räd-Ic- f. root, torqu-i- or torqu-e- f. twisted chaîn, äp-i-
f. bee, ám-u- f. old woman, äc-u- f. needle, mán-u- f. hand, gén-u- n.
knee.
* In these notins a gutturalhas probably been lost before the l. Comp.
pawco- * few,' and têla- * web' from teae- * weave.*
f. These suffixes correspond to our English suffixes ock ; ie or ee ; evo,
ve, and ow : as seen in hillock, bullock ; lassie, knee, tree ; shrew, creui ;
clue ; sparrow, willow, crow. See Phil. Soc. vol. iii.
32 DIMINUTIVES.
207. 2 A diminutival suffix leo also occurs. Thus from équo- or èc0-
horse, ëcüleo-. So also there are äcüleo- m. a sting, mal-leo m.
a mallet. Probably deo in hordeo- or fordeo- barley is virtually
the same suffix, added to the root far- spelt.
207.3 Diminutives may be formed from diminutives: as cista- a boae,
cistüla- a little boae or casket, cistella- a little casket, cistellüla- a
very little casket. So from öcülo- an eye (itself formed from an
obsolete öco-)* come 8cello- a little eye, and öcellülo- a dear little
€y€.
208 The feminine diminutives in io declined like neuters, as Gly-
c&rio- N. Glycêrium, from Glycêra- Sweet one, belong to the Greek
1anguage.
209 To the same language belong the masculine diminutives in ósco
and astèro : as, Syrisco- N. Syriscüs little Syrus, päräsItastêro- a
little parasite.
210 Many adjectives are used as substantives, the real substantive
being understood. Thus:
Mëdïcina-, arti- art understood, the art qf healing.
Arithmétîca-, arti- art understood, the art of ^wmbers.
Mëdïcina-, täberna- shop understood, the doctor's shop.
Agnina-, cärön- flesh understood, lamb's flesh, lamb.
Βellóna-, dea- goddess understood, the goddess of war.
Afrìca-, terra- land understood, the land of the Afri.
Annöna-, cöpia- supply understood, the 3year's supply.
Cöröna-, uitta-fillet understood, cîrcular fillet, chaplet.
Compéd-, cätëna- chaîn understood, foot-chain, fetter.
Mänïca-, cätëna- chain umiderstood, hand-chaîn, hand-cúff.
Annäli-, lïbëro- öook understood, 3year-book.
Nätäli-, die- day understood, όέrth-day.
Décembëri-, mensi- month understood, the tenth moroth (from
IMarch), December.
Státuário- m. (a man) qf statues, a sculptor.
Praetörio- r. (the place) of the praetor, the general's tent.
Gränärio- n. (the place) for grain, granary.
Ouili- ^. (the place) for Sheep, sheep fold.
210. 1 Such compounds in ίο as trienn-io- m. (from tri- three, amno-
3year) a space qf three 3years, interlün-io- n. (from intér between,
* Compare okko- or οααο- and the German auge.
4 DJ β;ct'IVES.
83
lüna- moor) the time when no moon is visòle, are probably in origin
neuter adjectives.
21]
212
AIDJECTIVE S.
Adjectives are declined like substantives.
Adjectives with crude forms in o for the masculine and neuter,
in a for the feminime, are oftem called adjectives of three.termina- .
tions.
213 Eöno- m. and m., böna- f. good.
Símgular. Plural.
Masc. Fem. INeuf. Masc. Fem. Neut.
IV. bönüs bömä bönum | W. böni bömae bömä
IV. bönë bömä bönum | V. böni bönae bömä
Ac. bönum bónam bönum | Ac. bönös bönäs bömä
G. böni bónae bömi G. bömörum bönärum bönörum
D. bönö bömae bönö | D. bönis bönis bönis
Ab. bönö bönä bönö | Ab. bönis bönis bönis
214 Atëro- m. and m., ätëra- f. black.
Singular. - Plural.
Masc. Fem. INeut. Masc. JFem. Λ'eut.
IV. ätër ätrâ, ätrum | W. âtri ätrae ätrâ
V. ätër âträ ätrum | V. ätri ätrae äträ
Ac. ätrum ätram ätrum | Ac. ätrös ätrâs äträ
G. ätri ätrae ätri G. ätrörum äträrum ätrörum
1). ätrö ätrae ätrö D. ätris ätris ätris
Ab. ätrö ätrâ ätrö Ab. ätris ätris ätris
215 Aspéro- m. and n., aspéra- f. rough.
Singular. P/v/rai.
Masc. Fem. INeut. IMasc. Fem. Neut.
IV. aspér aspérâ aspërum | aspéri aspérae aspërä
V. aspér aspërä aspérum | aspéri aspérae aspérâ
Ac. aspërum aspëram aspérum | aspërös aspëräs aspërä
G. aspéri aspérae aspéri [aspërörum aspërärum aspérórum
D. aspéró aspérae aspërö [aspéris aspéris aspëris
Aö. aspéró aspërä aspërö | aspëris aspéris aspëris
216
two terminations.
ID
Adjectives with crude form in * are often called adjectives of
34
ADJECTIVES,
g17 Tristi- δέtter.
Singular. A/v/ral. -
Masc. Fem. Vewt. Masc. Fem. New?,
IV. tristYs tristîs tristë | V. tristês tristês tristiâ
V. tristîs tristîs tristê | V. tristês tristês tristiâ
Ac. tristem tristem tristë
G. tristis tristis tristis | G. tristium tristium tristium
D. tristi tristi tristi | D. tristibüs tristïbùs tristibüs
Ab. tristi tristi tristi | Ab. tristïbùs tristìbùs tristïbùs
218 Acéri- sharp.
Singular. Plural.
IMasc. Fem. Neut. | Masc. Fem. Neaut.
IV. äcêr orácris äcris äcrë | äcrës åCré§ äcriä
V. âcër orácris àcrìs àGrë | äcrës äCrés âcriâ
Ac. äcrem àcrem äcrë | äcris oräcrës äcris or-äcrës äcriâ
G. äcris äcris äcris | äcrium ácrium äcrium
D. äcri äcri äcri | äcribüs äcribüs äcríbüs
Ab. äcri äcri äcri | äcribüs äcríbüs äcríbüs
218.] Céléri- qwick.
Singular. Plura?.
JMasc. Fem. Newt. Masc. Fem. IVe^/?.
IV. célér or célérìs célérë | V. cëlërës célérës célériä
célérís 1
V. célér or célérìs célérë f V. célérës célérës célériä
célérís
Ac. célérem célérem célérë | Ac. céléris or céléris or célériä
célérës célérës
G. célérìs célérìs célérìs || G. célérum célérum célérum
D. céléri célérI céléri | D. céléríbüs céléríbüs célérìbùs
Ab. céléri célérI céléri | Ab. céléríbüs céléríbüs céléribùs
219 Adjectives with one crude form in a consonant, and another in
Ac. tristis or-ês tristis or-ês tristiâ
i, form the singular chiefly from the former, the plural from the
second : as,
Praesenti- or praesent- present.
Singular.
Masc. Fem. Neut.
IV. praesens praesens praesens
V. praesens praesens praesens
Ac. praesentem praesentem praesens
G. praesentîs praesentis praesentîs
D. praesenti praesenti praesenti
Ab. praesenti or -tê
praesenti or -tê
praesenti or -tê
ADJECTIVES.
35
Masc.
IV. praesentés
V. praesentës
Ac. praesentis or -tês
G. praesentium
ID. praesentibüs
Ab. praesentïbùs
PluraJ.
Pem. Meut.
praesentës praesentiâ
praesentés praesentiâ
praesentis or -tês praesentiâ
praesentium praesentium
praesentibüs praesentibüs
praesentïbùs praesentibüs
219.1 Nouns in tör are often used as masculine adjectives; nouns in
trìcì or trìc as feminine adjectives, and also in the plural as neuter
adjectives.
Victór- and uictríci- or uictrìc- conquerìng.
Singular. . Plural.
1Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem. Neut.
IV. uictör uictrix IV. uictörës uictricës uictriciâ
V. uictör uictrix V. uictörës uictricës uictriciâ
Ac. uictörem uictrícem | Ac. uictörës uictricës uictriciâ
G. uictöris uictricîs l G. uictörum uictricium uictricium
D. uictöri uictrici D. uictöribüs uictricibüs uictricibùs
Ab. uictörë uictricë Ab. uictöribüs uictricibüs uictricibüs
220 Adjectives With the crude form in a consonant are sometimes
called adjectives of one termination.
221 Vëtës- old.
Singular. Plural.
Masc. Fem. Neut. IMasc. Fem. Neut.
IV. uëtüs uëtüs uëtüs uëtërës uëtërës uétérâ
IV. uëtüs uëtüs uëtüs uëtërës uëtërës uétérâ
Ac. uëtërem uëtërem uëtüs uëtërës Iuëtërës uétérâ
G. uëtërîs uëtërîs uëtërîs | uëtërum uëtërum uëtërum
D. uëtëri uétéri uétéri uëtêrïbùs uëtërïbùs uëtêrïbùs
Ab. uétérêor uëtërëoruëtërëor | uétéríbüs uëtërïbùs uëtërïbùs
uétéri uétéri uétéri
221. ] Diuít- rìch.
Masc.
IV. diués
J7. diués
Ac. diuitem
G. diuîtîs
D. díuíti
Ab. diuíté or diuîti
Singular.
Fem.
diués
diués
diuitem
diuîtîs
diuítí
diuíté or díuíti
Λ'eut.
diués
diués
diués
diuitîs
diuîtî
diuíté or diuíti
36
ADJECTIVES.
Masc.
IV. diuítés
V. diuítés
Ac. diuítés
G. diuítum
D. dîuîtïbùs
Ab. diuîtïbùs
Plural.
Fem.
diuítés
diuítés
diuítés
diuítum
diuîtïbùs
diuîtïbùs
Neut,
^ot found.
diuítum
dîuîtïbùs
diuîtïbùs
There is also in the poets a contracted form, dit- or diti- ;
whence N. m. f. dis, Ac. m. f. ditem, &c. ; but for the neuter of
the N. V. Ac. sing. dité, plur. ditiä.
222
IV.
V.
Ac.
G.
Tristiös- or tristiör- more öìtter.
Masc.
tristiör
. tristiör
tristiörem
tristiörís
D. tristiöri
Ab.
JW.
tristiörë*
Masc.
tristiörës
IV. tristiörës
Ac. tristiörës
G. tristiörum
JD
tristióríbüs
Ab. tristiöribüs
223
a, I1€Ult
224
a : aS,
er plural.
• bïiügo-
hîläro-
imbécillo-
ínermo-
infréno-
ünänïmo-
Singular.
Fem.
tristiör
tristiör
tristiörem
tristiörís
tristiöri
tristiörë*
Plural.
Fem.
tristiörës
tristiörës
tristiörës
tristiörum
•tristiörïbùs
tristiöríbüs
INeut.
tristiüs
tristiùs
tristiüs
tristiörís
tristiöri
tristiörë*
Neut.
tristiörä,
tristiörä
tristiörä
tristiörum
tristiöribüs
tristiöríbüs
Adjectives whose crude form ends in a consonant rarely have
Some adjectives have a crude form in í as well as that in o or
3yoked-two-together or bíiügi-
cheerful
veak
vmarmed,
vmbrîdled,
of-one-mênd,
* Seldom tristiórì.
99
hílári-
imbécilli-
Inermi-
infrëni-
ünänïmi-.
225. SUFFIxEs οE ADJECTIVES.
Gives an adjective
Suffix Added to meanlng Thus from English Is derived English
åci or aic verbs full för- bear fër-áci- fruitful.
öci or öc verbs full fër- raise fër-öci- haughty.
ici or ic nouns in tör | female uictör- victorious uic-trici- victorious.
Ydi (=i i) verbs full uîre- be green, uîr-idi- green.
li or ili verbs fit to iit- ?/Se üt-ili- useful.
9$ IlOll n § like quo- or qua- | what quä-li- like what, qf what kind.
99 I1Ol1nS; of the s me trîbu- tribe tribü-li- qf the same tribe.
99 InOllnS full fîde- faith fîdë-li- faithful.
99 nOllnS belonging to flüuio- river flüuiä-li- belonging to a river.
(ali)* InOUlnS like, &c. uirgön- maidem uirgin-äli- naiden-like.
bilit verbs fit to äma- love άmä-bíli- lovely.
- tîlif nouns &c. belonging to äqua- QUate^ äquä-tíli- όelongimg to water.
ri (=li) In Oul nS of, like, &c. puella- gir! puellâ-ri- girl-like. .
(ärij* (=áli) | nouns of, like, &c. `| Apollön- Apollo Apollîn-äri- Qf Apollo.
êri «• • «• state [ac- obs. sharpen] àc-ëri- sharp.
bëri (=bíli); | verbs &c. full lüge- 77?0?£7*7?, lügü-bëri- mournful.
cërij verbs fit to uöla- Jîy uölü-céri- able to fy.
estëri InOlln§ |belonging to silua- wood, S'\-estéri- öelonging to the woods.
ensi I1OllI1S belonging to castro- pl. camp castr-ensi- belonging to a camp.
*ti or ti towns in o (n.)] belonging to Arpino- Arpinum Arpinä-ti- belonging to Arpinum.
entif or ent | verbs —ing flu- flow flu-enti-f J?owing.
ölenti 1l OtlnS full ui- force ui-ölenti- violent.
esti 11 Ou nS belonging to caelo- ' sky cael-esti- belonging to the sky.
* See 3 233. f See Appendix II. f These are participles. - - - .
§3


SUFFIXES OF ADJECTIvEs—(contêmated).
Suffix Added to distis;etse 'Thus from English Is derived English
O verbs state uiu- Jive uiu-O- alive.
äco nOll mS belonging to INilo- Nile Nili-äco- of the Nile.
ïco InOUlIlS belonging to ciui- citizem ciu-ico- of citizems.
tîco InOUlImS belonging to Ligüs- a Liguriam Ligus-tico- of the Liguriams.
ücO verbs ready to cäd- fall cäd-üco- ready to fall.
îdo verbs full time- .fear tim-ido- fearful.
endo* verbs being —ed , | döma- da me döma-ndo- taming, beimg tamed.
bundo| verbs full lüd- plagy liidi-bundo- full qf play.
cundo|| verbs full ira- be angry irâ-cundo- passiomate.
€O In OllTIS made of OSS- bome OSS- e0— of bome.
C€O IlOll1nS made of membraina- l skim, membráná-ceo-| of skim or parehment.
In €0 nonns, &c. made of ilíc- áleæ, a tree ilig-neo- of ileae-wood.
io verbs e • • ex-îm- take out exìm-io- select, eæcellent.
io In Ou nS belonging to rég- king rég-io- rogyal.
io Ina me belonging to IRömülo- Romulus Römül-io- mame of a Romam gems.
ício In0unS belonging to tribüno— tribune ] trîbün-ício- of the tribunes.
icio participles that has been —edl facto- made fact-icio-£ artificial.
ilio praenomen | —som* Seruio- Servius Serui-lio- mame of a Romam gems.
rio In OllmS dealing in stätua- stafue stätuä-rio- qf statues, a sculptor.
(ärio)§ IlOllI1S belonging to carbón- coal carbón ário- coal-(merchant).
ülo adj. diminutive longo- long long-ülo- rather long.
ülo verbs diminutive créd- believe créd-ülo- rather credulous.
cülo adj. diminutive longiös- longer longius-cülo- | rather long.
t So that what was originally a patronymic became à permanent surname, like our Johnsom, &c.
* These are participles.
t IFor quantity compare translaticio-, Phaedr. v. 8. 24.
II See Appendix II.
3 See 3 234
è
3

t See 3 231.
|| The$e are called participles.
* See Appendix II.
See the Verbs.
, imo, ümo prep. most pro- forward primo-* first.
l issümo adj. mOst longo- Jong long-issümo- | longest or very lomg.
no, íno • • • state [ple- obs. full or fill] plé-no- full.
no, Yno I1OuInS belonging to IRöma- IÈome Römä-no- belonging to Rome.
(äno)f InOllnS helonging to mont- moumtain, mont-àno- qf the mountaims.
tämo towms belonging to Osca- town in Spain. | Oscî-tämo- öelonging to Osca.
îno InOlln8 made of fàgo- beech, fäg-ino- nmade of beech.
tîno InOllnS belonging to CräS tom0rr07J cras-tino- belonging to tomorrow.
(ino)f In OunS belonging to ansër- g00Se ansér-imo- belonging to a goose.
ternO I10l1I1S belonging to â€llO- age aeuî-terno-§ etermal.
turno nOun§ belonging to diu- day, time diii-turmo- lasting.
êro verbs state täg- touch in-têg-êro- vtntouched, emtire.
éro prep. of two süb vp süp-ëro- higher.
céro (=cêri)* | verbs ? belonging to lüd- plagy 1üdí-céro- belonging to games.
tëro adj. or prep. I of two quo- which, ü-têro- which of the two.
öSO In Oun§ full äqua- vafe^ äqu-öso- watery.
cösol InOllI1§ full bello- (2J027* bellî-cöso- warlike.
toli verbs —ed äma- love ömä-to- loved.
tO I1OUlIlS provided with COrnll- horm. corni-to- hormed.
ento ¢ Qui cù full [cru-*| obs. | gore] Cru-ento- g0ry.
όlento InOl1I1S full ui- force ui-ölento- violent.
cülento verbs fit to ês-, éd- eat es-cülento- eatable.
llO verbs state uäca- be empty uäc-uo- empty.
iuo verbs state uäica- be empty uäc-iuo- empty.
tiuo verbs state füg- Jìy fügî-tiuo- ruraway (slave).
tör verbs male agent uìc- conquer uic-tör- victorious.
iös , adj. Im Ore longo- long long-iös- longer.
* Iristead of pro-imo-. f See 3 230.
3 Contracted imto aeterno-.
MI Of cru-ör-, crü-do-.
!
3
40 ADJECTIVES.
226 Of these suffixes many are closely connected: as, ác and öc ;
Vi, ri, and rio ; δέ and bérâ ; estrì and e8tâ ; άco, íúo, vo, and åo,
from verbs ; ö80 and còso, &c.
227 In adding the suffixes, the last vowel of the preceding word
must not be neglected. Thus, with the suffix ímo or ^0, the
following derivatives are formed :
Röma- Rome, Römä-no- of Rome.
pömo- apple, &c., Pömö-na- (godde88) offrwit.
märi- 8ea, märi-no- of the sea.
tríbu- trìbe, tríbü-mo- (commander) of a trîbe, tribune.
ége- (verb) want, ëgë-no- ín want.
228 Or, with a slight change :
diuo- a god, (diuoino-) diuino- belongìng to a god.
uipéra- a viper, (uiperaino-) uipérino- belongìng to a viper.
229 And, lastly, since o is readily interchanged with a :
Pompeio- Pompey, Pompeiä-no- belongìng to Pompey.
230 Now, as by far the greater number of Latin nouns end in a or
o, and the latter itself is often changed to a, the result was, that
of the adjectives formed with the suffix άno or mo, a large majority
were found to end in άηο. Hence άηο was itself mistaken for a
suffix, and from mont- mowntain, was formed montàno- öelonging
to the mowntain8, &c.
231 Again, as the mouns emding in o or a, when the suffix %no is
added, oftem suffer a contraction so as to form adjectives in 7no,
and as the same termination resulted from adding the same suffix
to nouns in ô, the consequence was that ìno Was mistaken for a
suffix. Hence from ansér- goose was formed ansêrino- belongìng
to a goo8e, &c.
232 Similarly, with the suffix lí, or after a preceding l, rî are
formed :
ancöra- anchor, ancörä-li- of the anchor.
puella- girl, puellä-ri- girl-like.
flüuio- rìver, fliiuiä-li- of the rêver.
pöpülo- state, pöpülä-ri- qf the same state.
ciui- câtôzen, ciui-li- like a cìtìzem.
tribu- trìòe, tríbü-li- of the same tribe.
fîde- faith, fîdë-li- faithful.
233 Again, of adjectives so formed, the greater number will be
.ADJECTIVES, 4l
found to end in áli or árí. Hence these were mistaken for suffixes;
and, accordingly, from cápüt- head, uirgöm- maid, rég- king, &c.
were formed cäpüt-äli-, uirgin-äli-, rég-äli-.
234 In the same way àrio was supposed to be a suffix in place of
'rîo, and from carbón- coal was formed carbón-ärio- coal-dealer.
235 Adjectives are also formed as follows :—a. By prefixing a par-
ticle to a substantive : as,
from ín not, genti- or gent- nature, in-genti- unnatural, immen8e.
,, sé apart, cord- heart, sé-cord- 8en8eless.
,, sé apart, cüra- care, sê-cüro- wnconcerned.
,, cön together, müni- share, com-müni- common. -
236 b. By prefixing a substantive or adjective to a substantive: as,
from cápéro- goat, pëd- foot, cäprí-péd- qoatfooted.
,, [quädr-] fowr, pëd-foot, quädrü-pëd-fovrfooted.
,, centum hwndred, mânu- hamd, centî-mäno- hwndred-handed.
,, magno- great, ânîmo- mînd, magn-ánímo- great-mánded.
,, mïsëro- wretched, cord- heart, mîsêrî-cord- tender-hearted.
237 c. By prefixing a particle to an adjective : as,
from fn not, ütili- vseful, Ín-ütíli- vseless.
,, për thorough, magno- great, per-magno- very great.
,, praepreeminently, cläro- bright, prae-cläro- very άllustrious.
238 d. By prefixing a, substantive, adjective, or particle to a
verb : as,
from tüba- trwmpet, cän- sîng, tübí-cén- trwmpeter.
,, parti- part, cäp- take, partî-cép- partaking.
,, cärön- flesh, uöra- devowr, carnî-uöro- flesh-eatíng.
,, [béno-] good, gén- produce, béni-g'no-* generous.
,, málo- bad, díc-f speak, mälï-dîco- abusive.
,, dé dowm, sëd- sit, dé-síd- slothful.
,, cöm with, [it- obs., go] cöm-ít- accompar3yörg.
239 Adjectives are also formed from prepositions. See the table
of words derived from prepositions, § 838.
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
The suffixes which form the Comparatives and Superlatives are
so much used, that they must be spoken of more at length.
210 The simple adjective is said to be in the positive degree : as,
longo- or -a- long.
* Literally well-born. + See § 451. 1.
42 ADJECTIVES,
241 . The comparative degree takes the suffix êös or iör : as, long
iös-* or long-iör- longer or more long.
242 The superlative degree takes the suffix ììmof or ímo, ìssìmof
or ìssìmo : as, long-issümo-* longest or most long. -
243 If the adjective ends in èro, èri, or èr, the superlative suffix
is slightly changed: as, nígéro- black, nîger-rümo- blackest ; libéro-
free, liberrìmo-; äcéri- sharp, äcerrìmo-; céléri- qwick, célerrümo-;
paupér- poor, pauperrümo- ; uëtës- old, uëterrümo-.
244 If the adjective ends in ììi, the superlative suffix is slightly
changed:. as, fäcfli- easy, fäcil-lümo- easíest ; diffîcîli- dìffìcult,
diffîcillümo-; gräcili- slender, grácillümo-; simili- like, simillümo-;
'dissîmîli- wnlike, dissímillümo-. -
245 The following comparatives and superlatives are irregular:
Pos. Comp. Sup.
böno- good, mêliös- better, optìmo- best,
málo- bad, pëiös- (=ped-iöS-) worse, pessümo- vorst.
mag-no- great, mäiös-(= mag-iös-)greater, maxümo- greatest.
paruo- little, mïnös- less, - mínümo- least.
multo- mwch, plüs-£ m. more, plürümo- n. most.
multo-| pl. many, plür- pl. more, plürümo-|| pl. most.
See also the table of words derived from prepositions, § 838.
246 Sometimes one or more of the positive, commparative, and su-
perlative are deficient : as,
Pos. - Comp. Sup.
öc-iös- quicker, öc-issümo- qwickest.
nèqu-iös- vorse, - néqu-issümo- worst.
nöuo- mew, nöu-issümo- ^wewest.
falso- false,
ingenti- îmmense, ingent-iös- more ímmense.
dêsîd- slothful, dêsîd-iös- more slothful.
iüuêni- 3yowng, iüniöS- 3younger.
fals-issümo- most false.
Sëniös- older has mo corresponding positive : see § 207. l.
* In adding the suffixes of the comparative and superlative the vowels
a, 0, i, at the end of the crude form of the positive are discarded.
* The forms with ü are the oldest. They were used by Terence, &c.,
down to Cicero, inclusive.
t From ple- * full,' the root of plé-no-, is formed ple-ios- contracted
into plous- and plüs-. Compare the Greek τλe-tov and τλe-ov.
|| These are used in the singular in poetry.
• 43
IN U MIE R A LS.
247 Cardinal numbers answer to the question, quöt ? (undeclined)
how many ? as, one, two, three, &c. ; or töt (undecl.) 80 many.
248 Ordinal numerals state the place occupied in a rank or series.
They answer to the question quöto- or -ta- N. quötüs, -tâ, -tum ?
occupying what place in the 8eries ?* answer, first, second, third,
&c. ; or töto- or -ta- occupying such a place. -
249 Distributives answer to the questiom, quöténo- or N. pl. quö-
têni, -ae, -á? how mamy at a tìme ? one at a tìme, two at a tìme,
&c. ; or the preposition by may be used, by twos, by threes, &c.;
Or the word each, as, two each, three each, &c.
250 The numeral adverbs answer to the question, quötiens or
quötiès? how often ? omce, twice, thríce, four-têmes, &c. ; tótiens
or tötiës 80 Qften.
251 Roman Symbols.—The symbols for 1, 10, 100, 1000, seem to
have consisted of one, two, three, amd four limes respectively : viz.
I, X, D, ^^ ; for the last two of which the more easily written
symbols, C, and rt\ or ^, were afterwards substituted. The
mark for l000 seems to have suggested those for 10 000, 100 000,
&c. viz. z$ ae$, or Ae\ Z\, &c. The next step was to find sym-
bols for the halves of these numbers, and the most easy course
was to take the half of the symbols themselves. Thus, V, L, n
or N, R, or N, R or N, severally denoted 5, 50, 500, 5000,
50 000. Lastly, modern printers found it, convenient to use the
existingtypes for letters, to avoid the expense of mew types for
the numerical symbols. Hence, in modern Latin books, we fimd
the letters I, V, X, L, C, D, M, and the inverted O, all used in
the representation of Latin numerals. It was probably an acci-
dent, that of these sevem letters, two were the imitials of the words
for which they stood : viz. C and M, of centum and millé.f
* No single English word corresponds to quoto-. Such a form as
vhat-th, like ff-th, siae-th, would best suit it.
f When a symbol of a smaller number precedes one of a greater, the
smaller is to be subtracted, as IIX=8, IX = 9, XXIX=29, CD — 400.
Further, a bar over a symbol denotes multiplication by 1000: thus
252. NUMERALS.
Distributive.
s;ii, Roman Symbols. Cardinal. Ordinal. *£ N;?- Adverbs.
1 ] I. ünO- primo- singüli sêmêl
2 1 II. duo- sëcundo- or altëro- birìi bîs
3 I III. tri- tertio- termi or trini tër
4 | IIII. or IV. quattuör quarto- quäternI quätër
5 I V. quinqué quinto- quini quinquiensf
6 || VI. SeX sexto- Sëmi sexiens
7 | VII. septem septümo-f septënI septiens
8 || VIII. or IIX. | octö octávo- Octöni octiens
9 | VIIII. Or IX. | nöuem nönO- möuëni nöuiens
l0 ] X. décem décümo- dëni déciens
II | XI. undécim undécümo- umdëni undéciens
I2 | XII. duödécim duödécümo- duödénI duödéciens
13 ] XIII. tredëcim §tertio- décümo- terni déni terdëciens
14 | XIIII. or XIV. | quattuordécim §quarto- décümo- quäterni déni quäterdëciens
15 I XV. quindécim §quinto- décümo- quini déni quindéciens
I6 | XVI. sëdëcim §sexto- décümo- sëni déni sëdëciens
17 | XVII. septendëcim §septümo- décúmo- septënI déni septiens déciens
18 | XVIII. or XIIX.] duödéuiginti duödéuicensümo- duödêuicëni duödéuiciens
19 | XVIIII. or XIX.] undéuiginti undéuicensümo- undêuicëmi undèuiciens
20 | XX. uingintI or uiginti | uIcensümo- or uIcësïmo-|| uicënI uiciens
21 ] XXI. uiginti ünüs §primo-et-uicensümo- | uicëni singüli sémél-et-uIciens
22 || XXII. uiginti duö §altëro-et-uicensümo- | uicënI bini bîs-et-uiciens
È
i

*
*
i
23
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
2,000
5,000
10,000
30
40
LX.
LXX.
IjXXX. Or XXC.
XC.
C.
CO.
CCC.
CCCC. or CD.
I). or I0.
IDCC.
IDCCC.
DCCCC.
M. or CIO.
MM.
IOO.
CCIOO.
uigintt três
&c.
| trigintä“I
quädrägintä
quinquägintä
sexägintâ
septuägintâ
octögintä,
nönägintä
centum
dücento-
trécento-
quädringento-
quingento-
sescento-
septingento-
octingento-
nongentO-
mili- (n.)
**duö or binâ, miliâ,
quinquéorquinámiliâ
décem or démâ miliâ
§uIcensümo- tertio-
&c.
trícensümo-
quädrägensümo-
quinquägensümo-
sexägensùmo-
septuägensümt)-
octögensümo-
nömägensümo-
centensümo-
dücentensümo-
trécentensümo-
quádringentensümo-
quingentensümo-
sescentensümo-
septingentensümo-
octingentensümo-
nongentensümo-
millensùmo-
bis millensümo-
quinquiens millensümo-
déciens millensümo-
uicënï ten*1n1
&c.
tricëni
quädrägëni
quinquägéni
sexâgénI
septuägénI
octögéni
nönägéni
centëni
dücêni
trëcënI
quädringëni
quingéni
SeSCënï
septingéni
octingénI
nongëni
singülä miliâ (n.)
binâ, miliâ,
quiná miliâ
dênâ miliâ
tör-ct-uiciens
&e.
triciens
quádrägiens
quinquägiens
sexägiens
septuägiens
octögiens
nömägiens
centiens
dücentiens
trécentiens
quãdringentiens
quingentiens
sescentiens
septingentiens
octingentiens
nongentiens
miliens
bis miliens
quinquiens miliens
déciens miliens.
* The last four are neut. N. pl.
f Often written and perhaps commonly pronounced quinquiès, seaeiès, &c.
f Often written in later writers septimo-, decìmo- &c.
|| So also tricésimo- &c.
** The last three are neut N. pl.
§ Both parts must be declined. -
*] In later writers trigintä, quadragintä, &c.
A6 . NUMERALS. .
253 Cardinal Wumbers.—Those from quattuör to centum, both im-
clusive, are mot declined. Mili- is both substantive and adjective.
If no smaller number accompany it, it is more commonly used as
a substantive. Hence the phrases mille hömînum or mille hömî-
nés ; triâ milia höminum, triâ miliâ trécenti hömînës.
254 The three first numerals are declined. Uno- ome makes G.
üniüs, D. üni. The other cases are regular. The pluralis used
with those substantives which with a plural form have a singular
meaning: as, N. pl. ünä castrâ one camp.
255 Duo- dua- two is declined thus : Plur. N. duö duae duö, Ac.
duö or duös, duäs, duö, G. duórum duärum duórum or m. f. n.
duum, D. and Ab. duöbüs duäbüs duöbüs. In the same way
is declined ambo- amba- both, except as to the quantity of
ambö.* *.
256 Tri- three is declined regularly.
257 Milli- or mili- thousand is declined: Sing. for all cases millé,
Plur. N. V. Ac. miliâ, G. milium, D. and Ab. milibùs.f
258 From 13 to 19 there occur also décem et trës, &c. * Between .
20 and 100 there are two forms, viz. uiginti unüs or unüs et
uigintI, &c. Above 100, the greater number precedes: as, tré-
centi sexägintä sex or trécenti et sexägintä sex.
259 The practice of prefixing the Smaller number to the greater
in order to denote subtraction, as IV (one from five), IIX (two
from ten), extended also to the names. IIence duödéuiginti, 18;
undèuigintI, 19; duödëtrigintä, 28; undétrigintä, 29 ; duödé-
quádrägintä, 38; undéquädrägintä, 39; and so om to duödécen-
tum, 98 ; undécentum, 99. Series of the same kind belong to the
ordinals, distributives and adverbs. -
260 The high numbers were chiefly required for representing.
money. Here abbreviations were found convenient. Thus mil-
lions of sesterces were commonly denoted by adverbs alome, the
words centënä miliä being omitted: as, déciens tem times (a hum-
dred t/.ousand) sesterces, that is, a mîllion 8esterces ; uiciens twenty
tùmes &c., or two mîllîon, sesterces. .*
261 Ordinal Wurmbers.—From 13 to 19 there are also sometimes
found décümus tertiüs and décümüs et tertiüs, &c. Between 20
* See Prof. Ramsay's Latim Prosody. Yet du5, Plaut. Mil. iv. 9. 7.
+ A single l was preferred before the vowel i : so that from uilla- * a
farm' comes válico- m. * a farm-bailiff.* -
„NUMERALS. 47
and 100 there are two forms, uicensümus quartüs or quartüs et
uicensümüs, &c. For 21, 31, 41, &c., ünüs et uicensümüs, ümä
et uicensümâ or ünetuicensümâ, &c. frequently occur.
262 Distrìbutìve Vumerals.—These are also used as cardinal num-
bers with those nouns which with a plural form have a singular
meaning: as, N. binae aedés tvo hovses, binae littérae two letters
or epistles. Duae aedés, duae littërae, would signify two temples,
two letters qf the alphabet. With üno- there could not be the same
confusion : hence ünä littérâ, ünae littérae, signify respectiveiy
one letter of the alphabet, one letter or epistle. The distributives*
are often used by the poets for the cardinals.
263 Adverös.—Between 20 and 100 there are three expressioms :
bîs et uiciens, uiciens et bîs, uiciens bîs. I3is uiciens would
meam twice twenty or forty times.
264 There is a series formed from plíca- a flat surface or fold,
answering to quötü-plíci- or -pléc-, N. quötüplex how many
fold ? viz. sim-plíci-f, dü-plíci-, trí-plíci-, quädrü-plíci-, quincü-
plíci-, , septem-plíci-,. 9 , décem-plíci-, and
centum-plíci-.
265 There is a series of similar meaming, with crude form end-
ing in plo- (=to our full) and answering to quötüplo- ? viz. sim-
plo-, düplo-, trìplo , quádrüplo-, quincüplo-, , Septüplo-,
octüplo-.
266 There is a series with suffix rio formed from the distributives,
contaìnìng two, three, &c. : viz. , binärio-, ternärio-, quá-
ternärio-, quinärio-, sënärio-, septënärio-, octönärio-, &c.
267 There is a series with suffix no, formed from ordinal series,
öelongìng to the first, 8econd, &c. : viz. primåno-, sëcundäno-, ter-
tiäno-, &c. These terms are chiefly used to denote the legion to
which a soldier belongs. Hence, in the higher numbers are found
such forms in the nom. as tertia-décümä-müs, tertia-et-uicensümä-
müs ; where the feminine form of the first part seems to be deter-
mined by the gender of the Latin word légiön-. -
268 Fractions are expressed by the ordinal series with parti- or
* The distributives are also used in phrases of multiplication, as quater
quini * four times five men.' -
f Not from sinè plicà, but from an old root sìm or säm * one ;' which
is also found in singulo-, simplo-, simili-, sincero-, sëmel, sìmul ; Gr. άμα,
ovöapo-, άτλοο- ; Eng. same ; Germ. sammlung, &c.
.48 IPRONOUNS,
part- part expressed or understood: as, nom. 3, tertiâ parS; 3,
tres septìmae.
269 But many shorter forms were employed. Thus, when the
numerator is one less than the denominator : as, nom. §, duae
partês, two parts out of three ; 3, tres partés, three parts ovt Qf
fo?/r, déc. .
270 Again, when the denominator is 12, the unit or whole being
represented by assi-, N. as (our ace), the parts are
+s uncia- (our oumce and inch) | {; septunci-, n. septunx
& or è sextanti-, nom. sextans | & or è bessi-, n. bes
j, or + quädranti-, n. quädrans | {§; or à dódranti- (from dé-quädranti-)
-fs or à trienti-, n. triens 33 or # dextanti- (from dé-sextanti-)
{$ quincunci-, m. quincunx 43 de-unci-, n. deunx
+&; or $ sémissi-, n. sémis
271 Fractions were also expressed by the addition or multiplicatiom
of other fractions: as, nom. tertiâ septümä, 3 of 4, or £t; tertia et
septümä, # + + or £.
272 Mixed numbers were denoted by the Latim for the fractional
part accompanied by that mumber of the ordinal series which ex-
ceeds by unity the given whole number. Thus, nom. 33 is quadrans
quartüs ; 53, sémis sextüs ; 23, sémis tertiüs, or rather, by con-
traction, sestertiüs. The last quantity, viz. 2}, was represented
in symbols by adding s, the initial letter of sëmis, to the symbol
for too, with a line running through the whole symbol, as in our
own fb, £, for pounds ; thus, —H-s-. But printers have found it
convenient to substitute the letters HS.
PROIN OlUIN S.
273 Promouns are, strictly speaking, substantives, adjectives, ad-
verbs, &c., and therefore belong to those heads of grammar ; but
it is convenient to discuss them separately, partly because they
sometimes exhibit the suffixes in a more complete, Sometimes in
a less complete form tham other words belonging to the same parts
of speech, and partly because they are so much used.
* PRoNoUNs. 49
PERsoNAL PRoNoUNs.
974 FIRST PERSON. 275 sECoND PERsoN.
C. F. not known,* I, déc. c. F. tëb- thow, déc.
Sing. PJur. Sing. PJazr
IV. ëgo mÖS IV. tü uös
IV. — g-* V. tü uÖS .
Ac. mê móS Ac. të uös
G. mei nostrum or -ri ] G. tui uostrum or -ri
D. mihi or mi nöbis D. tîbi uöbis
Ab. mé- nöbis. Ab. tê uöbis
276 For the pronoun of the third person, viz. he, she, ùt, the several
parts of the adjective eo- or i- are used.
277 The nominatives of these pronouns are not expressed unless
emphatic, because the personal suffixes of the verbs already denote
the persons. -
REFLECTIVE PRONOUNS.
278 Reflective pronouns refer to the persom or thing expressed in
the nominative case. In English the word Self is used for this
purpose. -
279 Reflective promouns, from their very mature, cam have no no-
minative or vocative.
280 In the first and second persons, the common personal pronouns
are used, viz. më, mei &c., të, tui &c. For the third person the
several cases formed from the crude form séb- selfare used with-;
out any distinction for number or gender, to signify hómself, her-
self, itself, themselves. .-
c. F. sëb-f self.
Ac. sè, G. sui, D. sibi, Ab. së.
J?emarks on the Pronouns EGO, TU, SE.
281 Ac.—Med and ted are used by old writers, as Plautus, for mê
and të. Mé, tê, sè, are also doubled, as mêmê, têtê, sësë. The
two first are rare, and only used to give emphasis. Sësë is not.
uncommom. Mehe is an antiquated form for më. •
* Probably êgêmêt (corresponding to the Sanscrit asmät), or rather
mêgêmêt. Compare too the Greek ipet- (for ἐγμet-) of juerepos, implied
also in (juees) jueus.
. f The same as the old English adjective sib * related,* still preserved
in Scotch. In Greek the form is ofeq-, whence σφe, σφerepos, &c.
IE
50 Y?f&ONO UNS,
282 G.—Mis and tis are antiquated forms, found in Plautus.
283 D.—Mi is rarely used in prose writers. Me, té or tibe, Sibe,
are severally antiquated forms for mihi, tîbi, sibi.
284 Ab.—Med and ted are found in old writers.
285 G. pl.—These are merely genitives of the possessive adjectives
mostëro-, uostëro-. Indeed nostrórum, uostrórum for the m , amd
nostrárum, uostrárum for the f., are found in old writers. Vestrum,
uestri, with an e, are used by later writers. The genitives nostri,
uostri are used only in the objective sense. (See § 927.) Nostrum,
uostrum are required in partitive phrases. (See § 922.)
285. l D. and Ab. pl.—Nis for nöbis is givem in Festus.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNs.
286 The three demonstrative pronouns are adjectives, which point
as it were with the finger to the place occupied : as, ho- this mea*
^ne, isto- that ^ear yow, illo- that yonder.
287 Illo- (older form ölo-* or ollo-) that 3yonder.
Singular. Plwral,
Masc. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Mew?.
V. iIlê illä illúd IV. illi illae illä
Ac. illum illam illüd Ac. illös illäs illâ
G. illiùs illîùs illiús G. illörum illärum illörum
ID. illi illi illi D. illis illís illis
Aö. illö illâ illó Aö. illis illis illis
288 In the same mammer is declined isto- that mear yow.t
289 To the three demonstratives, and to the adverbs derived from
them, the demonstrative enclitic cé or c (look, lo) is oftem added
for the sake of greater emphasis.
290 Illo- with enclitic cë.
Singular. - P/a/r&J.
Masc. Fem. Neut. IMasc. Fem. ΛVewt.
IV. iflic illaec illöc or illúc | V. ilícé illaec ilIaec
Ac. illunc illanc illöc or illúc , Ac. illoscé illascë i}laee
G. illiuscé illiuscé illiuscé G. illörunc illärunc ihlörume
D.t illic illic illic D. illiscé illiscë illiscë
Ab. illöc illàc illöc I Ab. illiscé illiscé illiscë
* See § 1173. l.
f '1'he Mss. often drop the i, as Hor. Ep. II. 2. 163, nempè mödö sto.
(See Lachmann's Lucretius.) Istus as a nom. m. is in Pl. Mil. 1 v. 6. 18.
£ The dative illic is only used aa an adverb. - -
PRONOUN§. - * 51
291 In mearly all those cases which end in c, the e may be added :
as, Ac. m. illuncê, &c.
292 In the same mammer is declined isto- with cë.
293 If, besides the enclitic cë, the enclitic më whether is also added,
the first enclitic takes the form cY throughout: as, illîcînë illae-
cïnë illöcînë &c. ; istîcînë istaecînë istöcînë &c. ; hîcînë haecînë
höcînë &c.
294 Many of the cases from ho- alone, have disappeared from the
language, their places being supplied by those formed from ho-
with cë. Hence in part the irregularities of the following de-
clension.
295 Ho- this, partly with, partly without the suffix cë.
Singular. Plural.
IMasc. Fem. JNeut. Masc. Pem. Newt.
IV. hîc haec höc IV. hI hae haec
Ac. hune hanc höc Ac. hös häs haec
G. hüiüs hüiüs hüiüs G. hörum härum hörum
D.* huic huic huic D. his his his
Ab. höc hâc hòc Ab. his his his
296 Those cases which do not end in c, as here declined, may have
that enclitic added: as, G. hüiuscé; N. pl. m. hicê, f. haecè or
haec ; Ac. hoscé, &c. Am old N. pl. is hisce, Pl. Mil. III. 6. 9. -
297 An old form of the D. or Ab. pl. is híbüs.
298 The adverbs from illo- (or ölo-) are illó or illöc or illüc to yonder
place, thither ; illim or illinc from yonder place ; illi or illic ίη
3yonder place, 3yonder, there ; illâ or illâc öy 3yonder road, along that
line ; and ölimt formerly or hereafter, în those days. See also
Table of words derived from prepositions.
299 The adverbs from isto- are, istö or istóc or istüc to the place
where yow are, to your part of the country ; istim or istinc from the
place where 3/ow are ; isti or istic where 3yow are ; istâ or istàc alo^g
the place or country where 3/ow are.
300 The adverbs from ho- are, höc or hüc hêther, towards me ;
hinc hence, from me, from this time ; hic here, near me ; hâc along
this road, {y me ; and SI (very rare), more commonly sic, 80, thus,
¢^ this way.
* Hic is the form of the dative whem used as an adverb.
+ Unless olim be the equivalent in form of our whilom, an old dative
of while, and signifying * at times.'
52 : PRONOUNS.
I.OGICAL PRONOUNs.
301 Logical pronouns refer only to the words of a sentence. To
these belongi- or eo- this or that, and qui- or quo- which, &c.
302 I- o* eo-* this or that.
Singula*. • P/ura?. . .
Maso. Fem. Neut. Masc. Fem. Newt.
. îs eä ïd | W. ii or I or rather hi eae eâ
Ac. eum eam íd | Ac. eös eäs , eâ
G. èiùs èiùs éiüs I G. eórum eärum eórum
D, ei ei ei l D. p. iis or is or rather his for all gen-
Aö. eö eä eö Ab. l ders. -
303 Old forms are N. his,f Ac. im or em, D. or Ab. pl. íbüs and
eäbüs. -
304 The adverbs from i- or eo- are, eö to this or to that place or
degree, thither ; indè (in compounds im or in, as exim or exin)
from thisf , from that —, thence ; ibi în or at this , în
that , there, then ; eà along this or that line or road ; îtâ thus,
80 ; iam now, already, at last.
305 Qui- or quo-§ which, what, who, any.
Singular.
Masc. IFem. INeut.
V. quis or qui quae or quä qufd or quöd
Ac. quem quam quid or quöd
G. quöiüs or cüiüs for all genders - »
D. quoi or cui or cüi for all genders
Aö. quö or qui quâ or qui quö or qui
P/wral,
Mage. Fem. IVeut.
AV. qui quae quae or quä
Ac. quös . quäs quae or quä
G. quörum , quärum quórum
D. Ab. quibüs or quis for all genders.
* An older c. F. was in, whence in-dè adv. * from this place.' Com-
pare the Greek ev-6ev, as illustrated by οικο-θev, ep/e-6ev.
f Fest. sub voce * Muger.*
f For the blanks insert time, place, &c., as it may be.
§ An older C. F. was quin or cum, whence um-dè (for cundè, compare
si-cundè) * from what place.' • `s.
PRONOUNS. 53
306. Of the double forms, qui N. and quöd are adjectives ; quîs
commonly a substantive, rarely an adjective; quîd a substantive
only.
307 Qui- or quo- is called a relative when it refers to a preceding
word, as, the per8on, who , the thing which , the knêfe with
•phich , &c. To the relative belong all the forms except quís
quâ and quîd. -
308 It is called a direct ínterrogative when it asks a question, as,
who did it ? and am indirect interrogative whem it only speaks of
a question, as, we do ^ot know who did ît. To the interrogative
belong all the forms, except, quâ.
309 It is said to be used ìndefinitely when it signifies any. In this
case it is plaeed after some word to which it belongs; very com-
monly after Si, në, num, ec, áli. All the forms are used in this
sense, but quâ is more common than quae.
310 N. Ac.—Quîs and quem in old Writers are sometimes feminine.
311 G. D.—Quöiüs amd quoi are oldertham the other forms. They
appear to have been used by Cicero. An old genitive cui occurs
in the word cui-cui-mödi of whatever kind.
312 Ab.—Qui is the older form, and is only used by the later
Writers in particular phrases: as, 1. quicum = quöcum m. or n. ;
2. without a substantive in the sense wherewith ; 3. as an im-
terrogative, by what means, how ?
313 N. pl.—Quës is a very old form.
314 D. and Ab. pl.—Quis, Sometimes Written queis, is the older *
form of the two. • -
315 The adverbs from quo- or qui- are, quö whither, to what 5
undè (formerly cundè) from what , whence ; übi (formerly
cúbi) in what , where, when ; quâ aloiig what road or line, &c.
316 The conjunctions from quo- or qui- are, quom quum or cum
aphen ; quando when ; quam how ; quärë (quâ rê) quür or cür
why ; üt (formerly cüt) or üti how, that, as ; quöd that, because, &c.
OTHER PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, &c.
317 The following adjectives are derived from quo- or qui-: quanto-
ho^p great ; quäli- like what, of what kind ; quöt (undeclined) how
many (whence quótiens how qften); quöto- occupying what place
in, a series. *
318 From am old root, to- thvs, are derived the adjectives, tanto- 8o
great ; täli- like this, qf this kind ; tôt (undecl.) so many (whence
54 PRONOUNS.
tótiens 80 often) ; töto- occupying this place ; also the adverb8 tam
80 ; tum or (with the enclitic cé) tunc them.
319 Of pronominal origin are, nam thus or for, and num mow
(Greek vvv), an old word still used in étiam-num even mow, still,
and in nüdius tertiüs now the third day, two days ago. In com-
mom use the enclitic cé is always added, as, nunc ^ow.
320 Ali is prefixed to many of the relative forms: as, älfqui- any,
80 me (emphatic), declined like qui- any ; N. n. âlîquantum 80 me,
a consîderable quantity ; älïquöt (undeclined) 8ome, a considerable
^^/möer, &c.
321 Ec is prefixed: as, ecqui- &c. whether any ? ecquando whether
at any tìme ?
322 Num whether, si ìf, né mot, are also prefixed : as, numqui-
αυhether any, Siqui- ìf any, nëqui- lest any. N. nümquîs, siquis,
nèquîs, &c.
323 Of the adverbs formed from álíqui-, nëqui-, numqui-, siqui-,
many take the old initial c, as âli-cübi, álí-cundé, &c.
324 Vtëro- (originally cü-têro-)—generally an interrogative, which
qf the two ? and sometimes a relative, he of the two, who ; and after
Si, either, as, Si ütëro- íf either— has G. ütriüs, D. ütri. Hence
neutëro- N. neutër, &c. (formerly ne-cütër) meither.*
325 Ipso- ipsa- 8e(f, very, is declined, N. ipsüs or ipsé ipsâ ipsum,
Ac. ipsum ipsam ipsum, and the rest like illo-.
326 The N. ipsüs is found omly in old writers, as Terence. Apsé
or 'psô undeclined is sometimes found in old writers instead of
the proper case of ipso-: as, re-apsë for re-ipsâ, eampsé for eam
ipsam, &c.
327 Alio- one, amother, has G. äliüs, D. Âlii, amd N. and Ac. neut.
sing. äliüd, and the rest like illo-. From a crude form âli- are
derived the old N. m. f. älis, n. älïd, and the adverbs álibi else-
where, älïtër otherwise.
* The plural of those words which have the suffix tëro must be care-
fully distinguished from the singular. Thus,
N. sing. ütër which of the two individuals.
. pl. ùtrì which of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, &c.
sing. altèr one of the two individuals.
pl. altérì one of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, &c.
. sing. üterquè both of the two individuals.
pl. ütriquè both of the two classes, parties, natioms, armies, &c.
. sing. meutër neither of the two individuals.
pl. neutri neither of the two classes, parties, nations, armies, &c.
i
ÉPRONOUNS. 55
328 When älio- is used in two following sentences, it is translated
by ome —, amother — ; or Some — , others : as, álius
ridet, álius lácrùmat ore laughs, amother crìes ; áliös caedit, álios
dimittît he kills some, and lets others go.
329 When älio- is used twice in the same sentence, that sentence is
commonly translated twice over : as, äliüd äliò tempöré one thing
at one tîme, another at another ; or by each other: as, älii äliis prö-
sunt they do good to eacfi otfier.
330 Altéro- (from áli-) one of two, another qf two, the seco^d, has G.
altéríüs, D. altéri ; but altèriùs occurs im poetry.*
331 When altëro- is used in two following sentences, it is trans-
lated by the orae , the other : as, alter ridet, alter lácrümat
tàe ome lawghs, the other crìes.
332 When altèro- is uséd twice in the same sentence, it is com-
monly translated by each—other : as, altér altérum uolnérat eacj.
£vot^ds the other.
333 As âli- and qui- form âlîqui-, so from altèro- and ütëro- is
formed altér-ütëro- ore qf the two, which is declined in both parts ;
but elision generally takes place if the first part end in a vowel or
^ : as, N. altérütër altér'ütrâ altér'ütrum &c., but G. altëriüs-
ütriús.
334 Ullo- a^y (a diminutive from üno- one) has G. ulliüs, D. ulli
&c. It is accompanied by a substantive, and is used only in nega-
tive sentences. Hence nullo- mone, declined like ullo-.
335 Many enclitics are added to the pronoums to give emphasis to
them : viz.
336 Quídem : as, équídem, for égö quïdem I at least.
337 Mët : as, égömêt I^^gyself; uosmét 3yow 3yourselves. It is com-
monly followed by ipsë : as, suismét ipsi praesídiis they themselves
with their own troops.
338 Tê, only with the nominative tü : as, tütë thow thyself.
339 Cé, only with the demonstrative pronouns. See §§ 286—300.
340 Pöté : as, ut-pöté ìrasmwch as, as.
341 Pté, in certain old forms : as, mihiptê, meptè ; and above all
with the ablatives, meopté, meaptè, suoptè, suapté, &c.
342 Dem, with the pronoun i- or eo- : as, i-dem the same. The
N. m. drops the 8, but leaves the vowel long ; the N. and Ac.
neut. take no d, and have the vowel short. In the Ac. sing. and
* See note p. 54.
56 PRONOUN8.
G. pl. the final m becomes m, before d. Thus, N. idem eä-dem
idem, Ac. eun-dem ean-dem Ídem &c, So also with töt, tötí-
dem (undecl.) precisely as many ; and with tanto-, N. m. tantus-
dem, &c. qf the 8ame magnitude. -»
343 Dam, with quo- or qui-. N. qui-dam quæ-dam quid-dam or
quod-dam, Ac. quen-dam quan-dam quid-dam or quod-dam &c.
a certain person, or thing. It is used when a persom cannot or
will not state whom or what he means, and often serves to softem
adjectives which would express too much : as, divinâ quaedam
êlöquentiâ a certain godlike eloquence, a sort qf godlike eloquence,
I had almost Said a godlike eloquence. From quidam is derived
quondam at Some former or future time, formerly, hereafter.
344 Quam, with quo- or qui- : as, N. quisquam quaequam quid-
quam or quicquam &c. any, in negative sentences. It is cUm-
monly used without a substantive. See ullo- above. From quisquam
are formed the adverbs umquam or unquam (originally cumquam)
ever; from whence numquam rever, né-quiquam în vaìn, haudquä-
quam în no way, by ^o means, neutîquam or rather nütíquam îm,
?vo way, 6y no means, usquam any where, nusquam no where.
345 Piam (probably another form of preceding suffix), with quo-
or qui-: as, N. quispiam quaepiam quidpiam or quodpiam &c. amy
(emphatic). From qui-piam comes the adverb uspiam angy where.
346 Nam : as, N. quisnam or quinam quaenam quidnam or quod-
nam &c. who, which ? in interrogations (emphatic) ; and N. üter-
nam which qf the two ? in interrogations (emphatic).
847 Quë (this enclitic is probably a corruption of the relative
itself): as, N. quisquë quaequë quidquè or quodquè &c. every,
each ; whence the adverbs übiqué every where, undìqué from every
8ide, ütíqué any how, at any rate, usquè every step, every moment;
also N. üterquë ütráquë ütrumqué each of two, öoth.
348 Quisquë in old Writers is used in the same sense as quicumqué.
349 Quisqué is generally placed—1. after relatives and relative
conjunctions : as, ut quisquë uênit as each arrêved ; 2. after reflec-
tive pronouns : as, prò Sé quisquë each for himself; 3. after super-
latives and ordinal numerals: as, optümus quisqué all the best
'men, décümus quisquë every tenth man, quötus quisqué ? (every .
how mamyet ) how feap ? -
350 Cumquè or cunquë (am old variety of quisqué): as, N. qui-
cunquë quaecumquë quodcumqué &c. whoever, whosoever, whichever,
whatever: so also N. ütercunquë ütrâcunquë ütrumcunquè &c.
pRONOUNS. 57
whichever of the two; N. m. quantuscunqué &c. how great soever,
quandöcunquë whensoever &c. Cumquë may be separated from the
other word: as, qui mè cunqué uidit whoeversaw me. Quicunqué
is rarely used as an indefinite, any whatever.
351 Vis (thow, wishest, from uöl- vìsh): as, N. quiuis quaeuis quid- ,
uis or quoduis &c. any one you please (the best or the worst), a
universal affirmative ; whence quamuis as much a83yow please, ^o
matter hoω —, though ever 8o — ; and üteruis ütrãuis ütrum-
uis whichever of the two yow, please.
352 Lübet or libet (it pleaseth): as, N. m. quilübet &c. any one 3/ow
please ; and N. m. üterlübet &c. whichever of the two 3yow, please.
353 Relative forms are often doubled. Thus, qui- doübled: as, N.
m. quisquîs,* n. quidquîd or quicquîd whoever, no matter who ;
whence cuicuimödi, a genitive, qf whatever könd, and quöquö mödo
ên any way whatever. ;
355 Quanto- doubled : as, N. m. quantusquantüs &c. how great
soever, mo matter how great. -
356 Quäli- doubled : as, N. m. quälisquälïs &c. whatever-like, mo
matter what-like.
357 Quöt doubled : as, quotquöt (undeclined) how many soever,
^o matter how many.
358 So also there are the doubled adverbs or conjunctions : quam-
quam however, mo matter how, although, and 3yet ; ütüt however,
mo matter how ; quöquó whithersoever ; undëundö whencesoever;
übiübi wheresoever ; quäquä along whatsoever road.
PossESSIVE PRONOUNs.
359 Meo- mea- mine, my.
Tuo- tua- thóne, thy, 3/owr, 3yovrs (referring to one person).
Suo- sua- hìs, her8, her ; its ; theirs, their.
NostérO- nostëra- ours, our ; N. nostër nostrâ nostrum &c.
Vostëro- uostëra- or uestëro- uestëra- 3yours, 3your (referring to
more tham one); N. uostër uostrâ uostrum &c.
Cüio- cüia- whose. .
360 These are all declined regularly, except that the m. W. of meo-
is mi.
361 Suo- is a reflective pronoun, and can only be used when it re-
fers to the nominative (see § 280). In other cases his, her or its
must be translated by the gemitive éiüs from i-, and their by the
genitive eórum or eärum.
* No special form for the feminine in use.
58
IPRONOUNS,
362 The adjective cüio- is rarely met with, the gemitives cüiüs,
quórum, quärum, being used in its place.
363 The possessive pronouns, if not emphatic, are placed after the -
noun they belong to. If they are emphatic, they are placed before it.
364 From the possessive pronouns are derived:
Nosträti- or nosträt-, N. nosträs of our country.
Vosträti- or uosträt-, N. uosträs of 3yowr country.
Cüiäti- or cüiät-, N. cüiäs of whose country.
365 Formed in the same way are infümäti- belongìng to the lowest,
summäti- öelongìng to the highest. All these are declined like
Arpinäti- or Arpinät- belongìng to Arpinum.
366 TABLE OF PRONOMINAL ADVERBs.
Ending in bì or i, dat. ö (=om) acc. ç â, abl. fem.
Meaming vohere vhither •whence alogat
ho- hic hö,f hóc,; hüc | hinc ¢ häc
isto- |isti, istic |istö, istóc,t istùc istim, istinc|istâ, istàc
illo- ilhi, illic | illó, illöc,£ illüc [illim, illinc | illâ, illàc
i- or eo- íbi eó indé eâ,
i- or eo- + dem | ibidem | eödem indîdem | eàdem
qui- or quo- úbi quö undé quâ
ütëro- ütröbi ütrö ütrindè üträ,
älio- álíúbi | áliö äliundé l âliâ,
áli- âlîbi
altëro- altrö§ altrindé(?)||
neutéro- neutrübi | neutrö
âli-+ qui- or quo-| álícübi | äliquö älïcundë | äliquâ
' si+ qui- &c. Sicübi | siquö SIcundê | Siquâ
: nê+ qui- &c. nécübi | nëquö nëcundé | mèquâ
num + qui- &c. | numcübi | numquö
qui- doubled übiübi | quöquó undeundë | quäquä
qui- or quo- + uis, übíuis quóuis undéuis quäuis
qui- &c. + lübet | übilübet | quölübet undélübet | quälübet
qui- &c. + quê | übiquë | quöquë*| undiquè
ütëro-+- qué ütröbiqué] ütróqué ütrinqué | üträquë
qui- &c. + quam quöquam quáquam**
qui- &c. + nam | übînam | quónam quânam
* See § 790.

t Occürring in horsum for hó-uorsum * hitherwards.'
i Less used than the other forms. «e
§ Occurring in altrö-uorsùs * towards the other side.' .
i virtually occurring in altrinsècùs * from the other side.'
*j In quäqüüuorsùs * in every direction.' 9
•* 1n haqüäquam and haudquàquam * in no way, by no means.
59
VERB S.
367 An active verb denotes action, that is, movement : as, caed-
fell, cut or 8trike, cùr- rum.
368 The person (or thing) from whom the action proceeds is called
the momînatîve to the verb.
369 The object to which the action is directed is called the accusa-
tìve after the verò.
370 A verb which admits a nominative is called personal : as, caed-
8trike ; whence uir caedít the mam strikes.
371 A verb which does not admit a nominative is called ìmpersonal :
as, töna- thw^der ; whence tömät it thwmders.
372 A transitive verb is one which admits an object or accusative
after it : as, caedit puérum he strikes the boy.
373 An íntransitive verbis one which does not admit an accusative :
as, cùr- rwn ; whemce currít he rums.
374 The object of a transitive verb may be the agent himself: as,
caedo mê I strike myself, caedis të 3yow stråke 3/o?/rself, caedit së he
strikes himself, &c. A verb is them said to be used as a reflective.
375 In Latim a reflective suffix is added to a transitive verb, so as
to give it the reflective sense : as, uertö I twrn, uertör I twrm my-
self; uertîs 3yo^, turn, uertêrîs 3yow turn 3yowr8e'f; uertît he twrns,
uertîtür he twrns hómself.
376 A reflective verb them demotes an action upom oneself, and in
Latin is conjugated in the imperfect tenses with a suffix 8 or r.*
It will be denoted by an r between brackets : as, uert-(r.) turn
oneSelf.
377 The perfect tenses of a reflective verb are supplied by the verbs
és- and fu- be, united with the participle in to-.
378 An intransitive verb is generally in meaning reflective : as,
cùr- rwn, i. e. put oneself in a certain, rapid motior, ambüla- walk
* This suffix is no doubt the pronoun sè * self,* which, as itis not limited
in number and gender, was probably at first not limited in person. In
some of the Slavonic languages the same pronoun is actually applied to
all the persons ; and in the Lithuaniam the reflective verb is formed from
the simple verb through all the persons by the addition of s. The inter-
change of s and r has been seen already in the nouns ; another example
presents itself in uertêr-äs, which is formed from uertis, precisely as the
gen. puluèr-ìs from the C. F. pulvás, and the old pl. gen. mucér-um (see
§ 85) from the sing. gen. nucìs. So also lapidërum, regêrum (Charisius,
p. 40 P. tsch.), bouërum Cato R. R. 62).
60 vEiìBs.
i. e. put oneself ίη a certaìn moderate motom ; but as the object in
these cases cannot easily be mistakem, no reflective pronoum or
suffix is added. - a-
379 - When* the source of an action (i. e. the nominative) is not
known, or it is thought not desirable to mention it, it is common
*to say that the action proceeds from the object itself. A reflective
so used is called a passive : thus uertitür, literally, he turns him-
' self, is oftem used for he is turmed.*
380 This passive use of a verb with a reflective suffix is more
common than the proper reflective use. •
38l The nominative to the passive verb is the same as the accusa-
tive after the transitive verb, caedunt puérum they stråke the boy,
or caedítur puër the boy is struck.
382 Hence passive verbs cam be formed only from transitives.
383 An impersonal passive verb however is formed from intransi-
tivesf : as, from nöce- do damage, nöcëtür damage is done ; from
résist- stand in opposition, offer resistance, résistitür resistance is
offered. When the intransitive verb cam be thus expressed by an
English verb and substantive, the passive impersonal may be trans-
lated by what is also strictly impersonal, the person who does the
damage, or offers the resistance, &c. not being mentioned. At
times this is impracticable, and it is necessary to use the word
'they or people with the active, as from i- go, Itür they go.
384 Transitive verbs also may form a passive impersonal: as, from
díc- say, dicîtürf they say ; but in this case the words of the sen-
tence that follow dicítür may perhaps be considered as a nomima-
tive to it. See Syntax, § 1240. •
* Many European languages will afford examples of this strange use
of the reflective ; as the German : Das versteht sich von selbst, * that is
únderstood of itself;* the French : Le corps se trouva, * the body was
found ;* the Italian : Si loda l'uomo modesto, * the modest, mam is praised ;'
the Spanish : Las aguas se secarom, * the waters were dried up.* There
is something like this in our own language: the chair got brokem in the
scufffe. Nay, children may often be heard to use such a phrase as the
chair broke itself. •
f Where the action of an intransitive verb is to be expressed without
mentioning the nominative, the artifice of supposing the action to proceed
from the object is of course impracticable, because am intransitive verb
has no object. Here a second artifice is adopted, and the actiom is sup-
posed to proceed from itself; thus, nocetur, literally translated, is * damage
does itself.' -
£ In Italiam, si dice ; in Spanish, se dize. In German it is expressed
by man sagt, * mam says;' from which the French have literally translated
their om dit, originally hom dit.
VERBs. 61
385 " A statìo verb denotes a state : as, és- öe, dormi- sleep, iáce- 7ie,
uígila- be awake, métu- fear. -
386 Static verbs generally end in e, by which they are sometimes
distinguished from active verbs of nearly the same form and
meaning: as, -
iäc- or iäci- throw, iáce- lie.
pend- hang or suspend, pende- hang orbe suspended.
Síd- (Sidêre) alight or sink, séde- sit or be 8eated.
`cäp- or cäpi- take, häbe- hold or have.
possíd- enter wpon, possession, possîde- po88ess.
feru- boîl, . . ferue- be boí/írg hot.
[cand- set om fire], cande- ölaze, & cále- be hot.
tend- „ stretch, Straîn, téne- hold tight.
alba- ^phiten, albe- be white. '
387 A static imperfect is mearly equivalent to the perfect of an
active : as, possédît he has taken, possession, and possídet he po8-
8e88e8 or is ίη po88e88ion; possédérat he had taken, possession, and
possidébat he possessed or was în possession ; possëdërît he will,
have taken possession, and possidébit he wù possess or be in pos-
session. - .
388 . . Hemce many static verbs in e have mo perfect ; and even in
those which appear to have one, the perfect by its meaning seems
to belong to an active verb. Thus frige- be cold is said to have
a perfect frix-. The compound réfrixit does exist, but not with
a static meaning: thus uinum réfrixit the wine got or has got
cold again. The form of the perfect itself implies a present ré-
frig-, mot réfrige-.
389 Hemce two perfects from active verbs are translated as static
imperfects: as, gno- or gno-sc- eacamine, whence perf. gnöuit he
has examined or he knows, gnóuërat he had evamined or he knew ;
consue- or consuesc- acquíre a habit or accustom oneself, whence
perf. consuéuit he has acquired the habit or is accustomed, consuê-
uêrat he had acquîred the habit or was accu8tomed.
390 Two verbs have only the perfect in use, and these translated
by English imperfects 6f static meaning, viz. öd-*, mémîn-, whenee
ódit he hafes, ödérat he fiated, ödérít he wi' hate; méminit he
* These imply an imperfect crude form âd- or àdi- * take an aversion
to,' whence ödio- sb. n. * hatred ;' and mén- * mind* or * notice,' whence the
sb. f. mem-ti- or ment- * mind.' - -
62 - VERBS.
7'emembers, mémínérat he remembered, mémînérít he will remeffi-
öer.
391 Static verbs are for the most part intransitive ; but some are
transitive, as those which denote possession, hábe-hold, téne- hold
tíght, keep, possídeº possess, sci- know ; and verbs of feeling, as,
. äma- love, time- fear.
IRREGULARITIES oF FoRM AND MEANING,
302 A statio intransitive has sometimes a reflective or passive per-
fect. Such a verb is commonly called a Veuter-Passive : as,
Lat. English. Pres. 3 pers. Perf. 3 pers. masc.
aude- dare, audet ausüs est.
gaude- rejoice, gaudet gáufsüs est.
fíd- trvst, fidît, fisüs est.
söle- be wont, sólet; sölïtüs est.
393 To the same class belong several impersonal verbs of feeling,
&c. : viz.
mïsëre- denoting påty, mîsêret mïsërïtum or mîsertum est.
püde- 99 shame, püdet püduit or püditum est.
píge- 9 9 relvctance, pìget, píguit or pígítum est.
taede- 9 9 veariness, taedet taeduit or per-taesum est.
lübe- ,, pleasure, lübet lübuit or lübítum est.
pláce- ,, approbation, pläcet plácuit or plácîtum est.
líce- ,, permîssîon, lícet, lîcuit or lîcîtum est.
394 Some transitive verbs are used without a reflective pronoun or
suffix, yet with a reflective or intransitive meaning: as, fortünâ
uertërat fortune had turned i.e. had turned herself. In these cases
the pronouns mé, tè, së &c. are said to be understood.
395 This use of a transitive form with a reflective or intransitive
meaning is more common in the perfect tenses: as, réuortîtür he
1'eturns, réuortëbätür he was refurning, réuortëtür he will refurm;
but réuertit he has refurned, réuertërat he had returned, réuertêrît;
he will have returned. So déuortîtür he turns out of the road ìnto
an ânn, but déuertit (perf.) he has done 8o ; plangítür he beats hóm-
8e|f, but planxit he has beaten himself.
396 Some of the principal verbs which are thus used with both
a transitive, and reflective or intransitive meaming, are the fol-
lowing :
VERB8, 63
Lat. Tran8, Intrans.l Lat. Trans. Imtrans.
möue- move, move. | plang- beat, beat one8elf.
auge- încrease, ¢ncrease. | incípi- begîn, öegên.
laxa- loo8em, get loo8e. | inclina- slant, slant.
läua- wash, wash. | abstìne- keep away, abstaïn.
müta- change, change. | rémît- let go again, relaae.
sta- 8et αρ, 8tand. | suppédîta- keepfilling ωρ, abound.
ru- pwt în vîolent rush. | præcípíta-throw head/ong, rush head-
^motíom, long.*
397 In some verbs the transitive meaning, though originally be-
longing to the word, has become mearly or quite obsolete, as in
pröpéra- ha$ten, trans. or intrans., pröpinqua- make ^ear or ap-
proach.
398 The reflective fcrm seems to have been originally given to some
verbs to denote reciprocal action : as,
amplect-ïmür we embrace each other. | parti-mür we share together.
conuiciä-mür we abuse each other. | proeliä-mür we fight each other.
fäbülä-mür we talk fogether. rixä-mür we snarl at each other.
löqu-imür we talk together. sölä-mür we comfort each other.
luctä-mür ve wrestle together. sorti-mür we cast lots toaether.
oscülä-mür we kiss each other. säuiä-mür we kiss each other.
399 Many reflective verbs are translated by an English intransitive:
as, pröfîc-isc- (r.) 8et out, laeta- (r.) rejoice, which have still a re-
flective sense. These are called Intransitive Deponents.
400 Mamy reflective verbs have so far thrown off the reflective
meaning, that they are translated by an English transitive and
take a new accusative : as, mira- (r.) admire, uêre- (r.) fear, am-
plect- (r.) embrace, indu- (r.) clothe oneself, pvt om, séqu- (r.) follow,
Imita- (r.) make onself like, ìmitate. These are called Transitive
Deponents. *
40l Some intransitive verbs, by a slight change of meaning, are
used transitively : as, from horre- bristle or 8hwdder, horret téné-
bràs he dreads the dark ; mäne- wait, mänet aduentum èiùs he avaits
his arrival ; öle- 8mell, ölet unguentâ he 8mells' of perfumes. This
* It is in this way that fì-, only a shortened form offáci-, first sig-
nified * make myself,'and then * become' or * am made.' Itis indeed prò-
bable that the c in fäcio was not always pronounced. This would account
for its disappearance in the Italian infinitive fare and French faire ; and
would also account for the fact that f is commonly long before a vowel,
as fì-o * I am made,' for fai-o.
64 VERB§.
is particularly the case with some neuter pronouns : as, fröm
läböra- labour, id läbörat he is labo/ring at this. (See § 909.)
402 Intransitive verbs may have an accusative of a noun which has
the same meaning: as, uitam iücundam uiuît he is livîng a de-
lightful lífe. This is called the Cognate Accusative (§ 894).
403 Intransitive verbs whem compounded sometimes become transi-
tive : as, uád-* go, ëuäd- go out, escape ; whence êuädéré péri-
cülö or ex përicülö to make one's way out of danger, or èuädërë
përicülum to escape da^ger ;— uéni- come, conuêni- come toge-
ther, meet; whence conuénire àlîquem to meet one, to go and see
a person ;— gräd- or grâdi- (r.) march, egréd- or ègrédi- (r.)
^march out, leave ; whence égrédi urbë or ex urbé to march out of
the city, or ègrédi urbem to leave the city.
404 Some transitive verbs when compounded take a new transitive
sense, mearly allied to the original meaming, and thus have a double
constructiom : as, da- put, circumda- pùt rownd or surroωηα ;
whence circumdärë mürum urbi to throw a wall round the city, or
circumdáre urbem mürö to surround the city with a wall ; —
sér- sow or plant, insér- plant in, graft ; whence insérèré pirum
ornö (dat.) to graft a pear or. a wild ash, or insérère ornum pirö
(abl.) to engraft a wild ash with a pear ; — du- pwt, indu- pw?
om, clothe ; induërë uestem álícui to put a dress or. ore, or induére
älïquem uesté to clothe ome with a dress.
405 The verb them has two forms or voices : the sìmple voîce (com-
monly called the active), which does not take the reflective suf-
fix; the reflective voîce (commonly called the passive), which does
take it.
PERSONAI, SUFFIxEs To VERBs.
406 In English the pronouns I, 3yow or thow, he, she, it, &c. are
prefixed to a verb. In Latin, as in Greek, little syllables with the
same meaning are attached to the end of a verb so as to form one
word with it. -
407 The Greek verb in its oldest shape formed from the promouns
me- me, su- or tu- thow, and to- this, the three suffixes mô, sè, tà,
or, with a short vowel prefixed, ömä, èsà, ètì.f Now the Latin lan-
guage has its personal suffixes not umlike these : viz. όn, ìs, ìt.
* See § 451. 1.
t Compare the old verb eipli (eo-μι), eo-αι, εα-τι, with the old reflec-
tive verb tvTt-op-αι, τυπτ-eo-at, tvTt-et-ai. -
VERB8. - 65
408 The suffix öm, belonging to the first person, is but little altered
in sum (=ès-um) Iam, or in inqu-am* I say.
409 - More commonly the suffix om undergoes ome of two changes.
Either the m is lost, as, scrìb-o I write, for scrib'omt ; Or, if a
vowel precede, the o sometimes disappears, leaving the m, as,
scribêba'm I was writing. -
410 The final o of the first person is always long in Virgilf, but
common in later poets.
41l The suffixes of the second person, %s$, and of the third person,
$t, also lose their vowel, if the verb itself end in one. Thus,
scrib-fs you write, and scrib-it he writes ; but scribëbä's you were
φύrítíng, ärä's yow plouqh, scribëba*t he was wrîtîng, ära't he
ploughs. So also the á is lost in fers 3yov öríng, fert, he brir.gs ; és
(for és-fs) 3yow are, est he ìs ; and uolt he wishes.
412 When the suffix êt thus loses its vowel by contraction, as,
ära-Ìt, ärat he ploughs, it might be expected that the syllable
would be long ; but it is in fact nearly always short. Still in the
reflective the right quantity is preserved, scribëbät-ür, ärät-ür;
and the old poets, including even Virgil, have examples of a long
quantity in such words as versât, augeát, accidét.
413 The form of the second persom suffix in the perfect is t7 for tì :
as, scripsis-tI y0^0 have written.
414 The suffixes of plurality for the nouns were 8 and wm. (See
§ 52.) Those employed for the verbs are nearly the same.
415 From òmè and s is formed the double suffix ômês * we* for the
old Greek verb. The old Latin prefers ìmìs, as in uöl-ümüs we
vìsh, sümüs (=ès-ümüs) we are, quaes-ümüs we ask. Commonly
ômîs is written, as scrib-ímüs we write.||
* The English language still retains a trace of the first person suffix
in the verb am. See also § l 158. l, note +, about sciam.
f See the adverbs of motion towards, where om final is similarly
reduced to o.
£ Spondeo and nescio appear to have a short o in Virgil, but in reality
are to be considered a8 words of two syllables, spondo or spondyo and
mescgyo. Scio in Italian has become so.
§ The English language still retains its suffix of the second person
est, and of the third persom eth or s, as in sendest and sendeth or sehds.
|| See the same interchange of ùm us and åmus in the superlatives
(§ 242), and in the ordinal numerals (§ 252). Nay the Emperor Au-. .
gustus wrote simus (i. e. sìmìs) for sumus in the indicative. • •
F
66 VI3RIB§.
416 The è is lost after a vowel: as, scribëbä-müs we were wrifíng,
ärä-müs we plovgh.
417 From fw or tì and s is formed the double suffix tìs * you' (pl.);
or, with a short vowel prefixed, ïtäs : as, scrib-îtîs 3yow (pl.) write.
418 The prefixed á is lost after a vowel : as, scribëbä-tîs yow (pl.)
were wrótíng, ärä-tîs 3yov (pl.) plough. So also in es-tís gyov, are,
fer-tis gyov, öring, and uol-tîs yow, wish.
419 The syllable attached to the verb to form the third person
plural is wnt : as, scrib-unt they write.
420 The w is always lost if the verb emd in a or e, and sometimes
ifit end in ì. Thus, scribêba-nt they were writìng, scribe-rit they
wìl, write, scripséri-nt they will have written ; but audi-unt they
hear.
421 In the imperative mood the suffixes of the second persom sin-
gular and plural change the ìs into è, and ìtìs into îtë : as, scrib-ê
and scrib-îtë write, scribitö-tê gye shal' write.*
422 The final è is lost after a vowel : as, ärä plowgh ; also in fér
brîng, fäc make, dic Say, düc lead, ës be.
MooDs, &c.
423 The ίndicatìve mood is used for the main verb of a sentemce,
whether it be affirmative, negative, or interrogative. It is also
used in some secondary sentences.
The indicative mood has no special suffix.
424 The ìmperative mood commands. Its suffix in the future temse
is the syllable tò or ító : as, scrib-ítò thou shalt write.
426 The two tenses of the imperative are commonly united as one.
427 The subju^ctôve mood, as its name implies, is used in secomd-
ary sentences subjoined to the maim verb.
428 In some sentences it is mot uncommon to omit the main verb,
and then the subjunctive mood 8eem 8 to signify po^cer, permissior,
duty, wish, pσrpo8e, re8ult, allegatîor, hypothesîs ; whereas in fact
these notions rather belong to the verb which is not expressed.
Thus the phrase, Quid fäciam ? is translated by What should I
do ? or What am I to do ? But the full phrase is Quid uis fäciam?
What do you wish me to do?
* So in the Greek, evem the indicative has rvTtere for rvTtetis.
Compare also the double form s tristis and tristè, magìs and magè, and .
above all the second persons of reflective verbs: uiderìs, uideré ; vide-
barìs, videbaré, &e.
VERBS. 67
429 The suffix of the subjunctive mood cannot be easily separated
from those of the subjunctive tenses.
430 The înfinitíve mood is also used in secondary sentences sub-
joined to the main verb. It differs from the subjunctive in that it
does not admit the personal suffixes to be added to it.
431 The suffix of the infinitive mood is èsè or èré: as, es-sé to öe,
scrib-éré to write.
432 The infinitive mood may also be considered as a meuter sub-
stantive undeclined, but differing from other substantives in that
it has the construction of a verb with a moum following.
433 The svpênes are the accusative and ablative cases of a masculine
substantive formed from a verb with the suffix êw or zw. The ac-
cusative supine has occasionally the construction of a verb with
the noun following.
434 The accusative supine is in many grammars called the supine
active; and the ablative supine, the supine passive.
435 The gerwnd is a neuter substantive formed from a verb with
the suffix endo or wmdo ; of which the first vowel is lost after a
and e. In the old writers it has the construction of a verb with
the noun following.
436 A partìcìple is an adjective in form, but differs from adjectives,
first, because an adjective speaks of a quality gemerally, while a
participle speaks of an act or state at a particular time ; secondly,
because a participle has the construction of a verb with the moum
following.
-^
ON TENSES IN GENERAL.
437 7'ense is another word for time. There are three tenses : past,
pre8ent, and future.
438 The past and future are boundless ; the present is but a point
of time.
439 As am act may be either past, present, or future, with respect
to the present moment, so 3yesterday had its past, present, and
future; and to-morrow agaim will have its past, present, and
future.
Thus, first in reference to the present moment, we have : Past,
fe has written to A ; Pres. he is writi^g to B; Fut. he is going to
vrite to C.
* Secondly, in reference to yesterday or any other moment now
68 VERBs.
gone by : Past, he had written to D; Pres. he was writìng to E;
Fut. he was goi^g to write to F.
Thirdly, in reference to tomorrow or amy moment not yet
arrived: Past, he will have written to G; Pres. he will be writing
to H; Fut. he will be going to write to I. »
440 Or the same ideas may be arranged as follows:
Action finished, or perfect: at a past time, he had writter, to
D; at the present moment, he has writter, to A ; at a future time,
he will, have writtem to G.
Action going on, or imperfect: at a past time, he was wratî^g
to E; at the present moment, he ί8 wrîtîng to B; at a future time,
he will be writông to H.
Action intended : at a past time, he was going to write to F;
at the present moment, he is goëng to write to 0; at a future time,
he will be goin3y to write to I. -
441 Or lastly, the same ideas may be represented by the lines in
the following diagram :
IPAST TIME. FUTURIE TIME.
? 7) t
d. i a-——— g—i
e —; δ—l— h. $
$ f-—— | o § ì
§ }* qη* 7* §
? p. ?

A point in the vertical line pp denotes present time ; a point
in 3/?y denotes yesterday or Some past time ; a point in tt, tomor-
row or some future time.
The several horizontal lines a, b, c, &c. denote the time occu-
pied in writing to A, B, C, &c. respectively. Thus,
a is wholly to the left of pp, and signifies he has written—pre-
sent perfect. ' . . . . * •
VERBS. 69
δ partly on the left, partly on the right: he is writî^g—present
imperfect.
c wholly to the right : he is going to write—present intentiom.
d wholly to the left of 3yy : he had written, at tíme y—past per-
fect.
e partly om the left, partly on the right: he was writi^g at time
3y—past imperfect. -*
f wholly to the right : at tìme y he was goèrìg to write—past
intention. - *
g wholly to the left of tt : he wi// have written, at time t—future
perfect.
h partly on the left, partly on the right : he wí// be wrìtîng at
tême t—future imperfect. .
ì wholly to the right : at time t he will be going to write—future
intentiom.
442 The word * perfect' in all these phrases means relatively past :
thus the present perfect ίs past, the past perfect was past, the
future perfect wîll öe past. -
443 Again, the perfect tenses are used for events recently past, the
consequences still remaining. I have pasSed a good ^àght, and feel :
refreshed ; he had had his breakfast, and was putting on his boots ;
3yow, vill them have finished your letter, and will be ready to walk wit/,
me. But we cannot say, William the Conqueror has died £r. A'or-
^nandy.
444 So also the tenses of intentiom apply to a time soo^ to arrive.
445 The aorist, he wrote, is not thus limited ; it may be applied to
any past time ; as, Cicero wrote a history of his consulship. It does
not, like the past tenses which we have been considering, stand in
any relation to any other point of time. The consequences of the
act are not alluded to, as in the perfects ; nor the duratiom of the
act spokem of, as in the imperfects. On the contrary, the aorist
treats the act as a mere poênt of past time.
446 In the diagram the aorist may be represented by the point ę.
447 The simple future, he will write, corresponds in gemeral cha-
racter to the aorist of past time. It is equally independent of
other points of future time, and speaks of the act as momentary.
448 In the diagram the future may be represented by the poimt l.
449 If the simple present were strictly limited to the mere point of
time which belongs to it, it would seldom be used ; but this, like
some of the other tenses, is employed to denote a state of things,
70 - • VERBS.
cu8toms, general truths, &c., the duration of which in fact is not
limited to a mere moment.*
450 The true present may be represented in the diagram by the
point ºm, in pp.
TENSES OF THE LATIN VERB.
451 The Latin indicative has six leading tenses:—three perfect
tenses, and three which, for convenience, but somewhat inaccu-
ratelyf, are called imperfects; viz. the present, the past-imperfect,
the future ; the present-perfect, the past-perfect, the future-per-
fect.
451. 1 The C. F. of a verb is often strengthened for the imperfect
tenses : (a.) by lengthening the vowel : thus, díc- say, düc- lead,
fìd- trùst, become in the imperfect tenses dic-, düc-, fid-. (b.) by
doubling the final consonant : thus, mìt- let go, cür- rwn, uér-
sweep, become mitt-, curr-, uerr-. (c) by substituting two conso-
nants for the final consonant : thus, rüp- öwrst, scíd- tear, tên-
stretch, become rump-, scind-, tend-.
452 The present has no tense suffix : as, scrib- write, scríbít he
writes.
453 When am affirmation is made with emphasis, also in nega-
tive and interrogative phrases, the verb do is commonly used in
the translation : as, he does write ; he does mot write ; does he
φrète ?
454 The present-imperfect has the same form in Latin : as, scrîbît
he is writîng.
* An example of the true present, as applied to acts, occurs in Ivan-
hoe (c. xxix.), where the agitated Rebecca, standing at the lattice, re-
ports to the sick knight the proceedings of the siege. * He blenches not,
he blenches not!** said Rebecca. * I see him now ; he leads a body of
men close under the outer barrier of the barbican. They pull down the
piles and palisades; they hew down the barriers with axes. His high
black plume floats abroad over the throng, like a raven over the field of
the slain. They have made a breach in the barriers ! they rush in ! they
are thrust back ! Front-de-Boeuf heads the defenders ; I see his gigantic
form above the press. They throng again to the breach, and the pass is
disputed hand to hand amd mam to man. God of Jacob ! it is the meet-
ing of two fierce tides—-the conflict of two oceans moved by adverse
winds.'' Such a use of the true present can only be looked for in dra-
matic writing. The historic present, as it is called, is am imitation of this
dramatic excitement.
f Inaccurately, see § 469.
VERBS. 7V
455 The present is sometimes employed in past narrative, both in
English and Latim, as if the scene described were passing before
one's eyes. This is called the historic present : as, he then, plurges
£nto the rêver, swims across, and seeks the tent of the king.
456 The present is also used in Latin whem a state has continued
for Some time and still exists: as, iam tris menSIS àbest he has
been absent novo three months.
457 The present in Latin sometimes denotes not even the begin-
ning of an act, but only the purpose, when the mind alone is em-
ployed upon it, or the matter at best is only in preparation : as,
uxórem dücít he s going to be married.
458 On the other hand, the present is at times used in Latin after
certain conjunctions when past time is in fact meant : as,
A. Quíd pater, uiuítne ? B. Viuom, quom índe abîmus,*
líquimus (Plaut. Capt. II. 2. 32).
A. Well and your father, is he living ? B. We left him alive,
when we carme away.
Dam studeo obsequi tibi, paene inlási uitam filiae (Ter. And.
v. 1. 3). «
While Ihave endeavouredf to oblige you, Ihave almost trifled
away my daughter's life. -
So also with postquam, übi, and üt, when they signify the moment
that. .
459 The past-imperfect has the suffix êbâ : as, $cribëbä- was writ-
άrg, scribëbat he was wrîtîng.
460 But the e of èòå is lost after the wowels a and e : as, ärä'bat he
was ploughing, döcë'bat he was teaching. While after the vowels
è and w the e is commonly left : as, uêni-ébat he wa8 cománg, äcu-
êbat he was Sharpening.
461 The verb i- go loses the e : as, i'bat he was going. The old
writers and the poets often use this contracted form with other
verbs in δ : as, molli'bat he was softening.
462 Sometimes this tense is expressed in English by the simple
past tense, he wrote. Thus, in answer to the question, What αSed
to be his duties în the cownting-house ? the reply might be, He
wrote the foreign letters. This would be expressed in the Latin
by the tense in éóâ, because a continued state of things is meant,
* In editions generally abiimus, which is against the metre (ábyimus,
see § 25). Some Mss. at any rate have abimus ; and see § 1455 e.
f Or, * In my endeavours."
72 VERBS.
scrib-ëbat he tsed to write, he always wrote. The Latin aorist would
speak only of one act : He wrote the foreign letters on a particvlar
occa8ion, scripsit.
463 The use of the English simple past tense for a continued state
of things is very common with verbs of statio meaming (see § 385):
as, he sat (all the time) om, a rock ; he loved frank and opem con-
duct. * -
464 The past-imperfect is also used in Latin when a state had con-
tinued for Some time, and still existed at the moment spoken of:
as, iam tris mensis âbërat, he had beem, absent them, three months.
465 The past-imperfect sometimes denotes only a past purpose, or
that a matter was in preparation : as, uxörem dücêbat, he was
goông to öe married.
466 The simple future appears to have had for its suffix the syllable
άb, which however loses its vowel after verbs in a or e, and its
consonant* after verbs ending in a consonant, â, or w. Thus
from verbs in a and e we have, ärä'b- will plough, ärä'b-ít, he
will plough ; döcë'b- will teach, döcë'b-ft he will teach.t
467 Those verbs which retaim only the vowel prefer a for the first
person singular, and e for the rest : as, scrib-a'm 1 shall write,
scrib-ê's 3yow will write, scrib-e't he will write, &c.
468 The verbs in ó, according to the preceding rules, form the
future with a or e as, audi-a'm I shall hear, audi-ê's 3yow will
hear, &c. But the verb i- go prefers the future in δ : as, i'b-it
he will go. In the old writers many other verbs in î have a future
of the same shape : as, sci'b-ít, he will know.
469 The Latin future from an active verbis not an imperfect future;
thus scribet signifies he will write, not he will be writîng. -
* The loss of a b has been seen already in the datives of nouns.
f To the doctrines of § 459-61, 466-8, I now prefer the following:
Scábam, scibo, are older than sciebam, sciam ; dicebo (Naev.) than dicam.
The a of am-aö-a-m, ten-eb-a-m, sc-ib-a-m (for sec-ib-am-where sec=
seh- of German seh-en, our see) marks past time, as in er-a-m. The ab
eô ió here, as in amabo temebo dicebo scibo, denote imperfect action. But
an imperfect pres. is akin to a fut. So er-o is in forma pres. The Keltic
(Manx) has a general suffix of this power in agh, which plays a great
part in Latin too, as tr-ah- (= German trag-en) '* bear' for to/-agh, from
tol- (tollo); also in Greek, a$ yeA-a(x)-, fit. yeAa£», our 'laugh. Here
gh= f. So ypaq- for yap-αφ-. But Greek φ= Latin b. Hence dol-ab-ra-,
voc-ab-ulo-, am-ab-ili-, plor-ab-undo-. The suffix-vowel, assimilated to
root, gives ter-eb-ra t(e)r-ib-ulo- (tpiß-), gem-eb-undo-, rid-ib-undo-,
lug-ub-ri-, vol-ub-ili-; and with final consonant lost we have am-a', ten-e',
fin-1', sol-u'. See Appendix II. p. 439, &c.
VER BS. 73
470 The perfect.tenses are formed by the addition of certain suf-
fixes to a crude form of the perfect.
471 A crude form of the perfect is formed from the simple verb in
three different ways :
a. By reduplication, that is, by prefiximg to the verb a syllable
more or less like the verb itself: as, morde- bite, mömord- or mé-
mord- bit ; temd- stretch, tétemd- stretched.*
b. By a long vovet : as, fäc- or fáci- make, féc- made ; uén- or
uêni- come, uên- came.f
c. By s suffixed : as, scríb- write, scrips- wrote ; dic- Say, dix-.
said.
d. But mamy verbs, including nearly all those which end in a
vowel, abstain from all these three changes.
472 All the perfect tenses of the three moods, indicative, subjunc-
tive and infinitive, were formed by adding the tenses of the verb
es- be. This is clearly seen in all but the present-perfect£ of the
indicative, and partly even here ; as, --
* The English language appears to have an example of this formation
um what we may perhaps call one of its oldest verbs, do, perf. did, the
original meaming of which verb was * put," whence d'on * put om,' d'off*
* put off,' d'out * put out.* The German compounds of thv'm would
confirm this view of the meaning. Thus our English verb corresponds
to a Latin verb of kindred form amd meaning, viz. da- * put' (for such is
its meaning), perf. dëd-. The Gothic abounds in perfects of reduplica-
tion : as, hait * call," perf. haihait * called ;' skaid * separate,' perf. skai-
skaid * separated.' -
f This formation also has its parallel in the English come, perf. came.
It is not improbable that the long-wowel perfects originated in reduplica-
tion : as, uëmi- * come,° perf. uéuén- contracted into vén- * came ;* äg-
* drive,' aag- contracted into àg- * drove.' The last contraction is pre-
cisely the same as occurs in the subj. pres. of the verb ama- * love,' C. F.
amaa- umë-, 3d pers. amaat, amet. Compare also the so-called temporal
augment of Greek verbs.
3: In some parts of the present-perfect irregularities conceal the con-
nection of the terminatioms with the present tense of ès- * be.' Yet the
singular scrips-isti * thou hast written' corresponds with great precision
to the plural scrips-istis * you have written.' Agaim, in the third person
singular there is something peculiar in the occasional length of the suffix
it, as uendidit Plaut. Capt. prol. 9, perrupât Hor. Od. I. 3. 36, despeait
Catul. 64. 20; and especially in the compounds of i- * go,' which have
this syllable always long, as praeteriit Ov. A. A. III. 63 & 64 ; rediìt Ov.
Her. VI. 31 and XIII. 29; subiit Hor. Sat. I. 9. 21, Ov. Met. I. 114. This
peculiarity is accounted for, if scripsit had an older form scrips-ist corre-
sponding to est * he is.' The loss of the s in this position would resemble
that which occurs in the French tense fusse, fusses, füt (old French fust).
Indeed the s is silent in the French est. Lastly, scripsi must be regarded
74
VERBS.
INDIC.—Present.
estfs 3yo?, are,
(êsunt* or) sunt they are,
Past.
èram Iavas,
érâs tho^t wast,
Future.
éro 7 shal' be,
ëris thoω φῖlt be,
SUBJUNC.—Present.
(ësim or) sim I am,
(ësis or) sis thow, art,
Past.
essem I was,
essés thow wert,
INFINITIvE.
essé to öe,
Present- Perfect.
scrips-istîs yov have written.
scrips-êruntt they have written, &c.
Past-Perfect.
scrips-ëram 7 had written.
scrips-ëräs thow hadst written, &c.
Future-Perfeet.
scrips-éro 1 shal' have written.
scrips-ërîs thow, wilt have written, &c.
scrips-érim I have written.
scrips-ëris thow, hast written, &c,
scrips-issem I had written.
scrips-issës thow, hadst written, &c.
scrips-issé to have written.
472. 1 Many Latin verbs, particularly those which end in a, e, ô, or a
liquid, have a v£ in the perfect immediately before the suffix
borrowed from ës- be : as,
as a corruption of scripsim, and that of scrips-ism, where ism would re-
present the old Latim èsum * I am.' The loss of the s in this position is
what has occurred in the Greek euui * I am' for eorut, and in our own am.
Nay, the Gothic form is im. If scripsim then be admitted as a theoretical
form, the plural scripsimus is also explained.
* See § 722. 4, note.
+ Though scripsêrunt is the ordinary pronunciation, the short penult
is not rare in the poets.
i This w (pronounced as our w) was no doubt an original part of the
verb és- * be,' in the form vés-. Thus, the Gothic had ùis-am *to be,' the
Icelandie ver-a * to be.* So the German wes-em, * existence* is but an
infinitive mood ; and from a form wes is deduced our own past tense was,
precisely as the Germans form er las * he read* from les-em, * to read.'
We have said that the original meaming of esse was * to eat.' So the form
ves also means to eat in the Latim uescor * I feed myself,' whence the sub.
n. visc-es- * flesh.* In the old Latim Writers uiscera did mot meam * en-
trails.* We have said nothing of the origin of the suffix s as seen in
scrip-s- &c. If this be a genitival suffix signifying * from,' the formation
of all the perfect tenses is simple enough ; as, scripsi * I am from writing,
VERBS. 75
ára- plough, ärä-uistîs you have ploughed.
döc-e- teach, döc-uistîs yov have taught.
audi- hear, audi-uistîs yov have heard.
sér- put, sér-uistîs 3yov have pvt.
cöl- till, cöl-uistîs yow have tilled.
gén- produce, gén-uistis 3/ov have produced.
gém- groam, gém-uistis 3yov have groaned.
473 The present-perfect tense of the Latinis also used for an aorist:
as, Scripsit, he hae written, or he wrote.
474 Thus the English language confounds the aorist and past-im-
perfect ; while the Latin confounds the aorist, and the present-
perfect. See § 462.
475 For the formation of the past-perfect* and future-perfect, see
§ 472.
476 The future-perfect of the indicative bears a very close resem-
blance to the present-perfect of the subjunctive. Hence much
confusion arose, so that even the first person of the indicative
tense in éro is occasionally found where a subjunctive in érim was
to have been expected. But the greatest confusion is in the quan-
tity of the syllables. As the future-perfect is formed from éro,
ërîs, &c., we ought to have had in the indicative scripsêrîs, scrip-
sérímüs, scripsêrîtîs ; and on the other hand, as the present-per-
fect subjunctive is formed from sim, sis, &c. we ought to have
had in the subjunctive scripsêris, scripsêrimüs, scripsêrîtîs ; but
the two tenses are commonly confounded in respect of quantity.
477 The perfect tenses of some intransitive verbs are expressed in
I have written*; scripseram * I was from writing, I had written* ; scrip-
sero * I shall be from writing, I shall have written.' The use of a pre-
position in forming tenses is seen in our periphrastic futures * I am to
write,' * I am going to write'; and also in our periphrastic present * I am
a-writing,* where a represents the old preposition am, now written in. * I
am a-writing' is the old form of the language, now corrupted to * I am
writing.' Compare also the French je viens d'écrire, literally * I come
from writing,' i. e. * I have just written.' -
* The formation of the past-perfect scripsêram agrees with that of
the Greek etetv@ea, which had once a or, etervφeora-, as may be seen
from the third pers. pl. eTetv@eora-v. Thus, the Greek suffix of this tense
is eora corrupted into ea, and the Latin is ëra, itself a corruption from
êsa. Consequently the two tenses have the same suffix, viz. the past
tense of the verb ès- ' be.* Nay, in the first person of the present-perfect
te-rv@-a the a represents ap, that is our first person of the verb * to be ;'
and probably the preceding aspirate represents the suffixed s of scrips-,
or in other words is a genitival suffix=* from.'
76 VERBS.
English not only by the auxiliary verb have, but also by- the tenses
of be, Thus, rédiit, he has returned or he is returned, rédiërat he
had returned or he was returmed, rédiérít he will have retwr^ed or
he will öe returned. These perfect tenses expressed by the auxili-
aries is, was, will be, are often mistaken by beginners for passives.
Eut a little reflection would of course satisfy them that the verbs
in question do not admit of a passive. •
478 The perfect tenses are often expressed in English without the
perfect form. Thus, in the three phrases :
If a Romam soldier left his post, he was put to death,
If an English soldier sleep on his post, he is shot,
If you receíve a letter, you will send it on to me,
the verbs left, sleep, receive, would be expressed in Latin by per-
fect tenses: viz. left by a past-perfect ; sleep by a present-per-
fect ; receive by a future-perfect ; for an offence precedes in order
of time the punishment, and of course a letter must be received
before it is forWarded. (See § 1159.)
479 The împerative has two tenses, a present and a future ; but
the so-called present might be more fitly named an immediate
future. • -
480 The imperative, mémentö, mémentöté, 3yow will remember, is
derived from a perfect crude form, like all the other tenses of the
same verb. (See § 390.)
481 The 8ubjunctìve mood has four tenses : the present, the past,
the present-perfect, and the past-perfect. Of these, the two former
are often called the imperfect tenses.
482. The swójunctìve present has the suffix à, as scrib-à-, whence
the third person, scribat. When the suffix a follows another a,
the two are contracted into é, as ára- plough, subj. pres. äraa-
contracted into ärë-, whence the third person áret. Am old suffix
of this tense was óè or 7, as sië- or Si- from ès- be, third person
siet or sit. So also uëli-m, nöli-m, mäli-m, édi-m, dui-m, amd
perhaps ausim, from the several verbs uöl- wish, nöl- be wnwîllîng,
mäl- prefer, éd- eat, da- or du- pùt, aude- dare.
483 The swójwnctive past has the suffix êsê or èré, as from és- be,
subj. past es'së-, from scríb- write, subj. past scribërë-, whence
the third person esset, scribëret. The suffix êrê loses its short
vowel after a, e, ô, as third person ärä-'ret, döcë-'ret, audI-'ret ;
and sometimes after a consonant, as fer-'ret.
VERBS, 77
484 For the formation of the perfect tenses of the subjunctive see
§ 472.
487 The translatiom of the subjunctive tenses has various forms,
which depend chiefly upon the meaning of the verb to which the
subjunctive is attached.
488 If the preceding words denote a command, the subj. pres. and
past are translated respectively by Shall and should, or by to. Im-
përo ut mittat I command that he 8hall send or I command hám, to
send ; impëräui ut mittéret I comma^ded that he should 8end or
I commanded him to send.
489 If the preceding words denote permission, the subj. pres. and
past are translated respectively by may and might, or more com-
monly by to. Concédo ut mittat 1 grant that he may send or 1
permit hìm to send ; concessi ut mittêret Igranted that he máght
8end or Ipermitted him, to send.
490 If the preceding words denote a pwrpose, the subj. pres. and
past are translated respectively by may and ^night, or is to and
vas to. Ob eam causam scribo ut sciäs I write for this reason,
that yow magy know ; öb eam causam scripsi ut scirês I wrote for
this reason, that 3yow, might know. Mittit qui dicant he 8ends per-
sons (who are). to say ; misit qui dicërent he sent person8 (who were)
t0 8a3y.
491 When the preceding words speak of the cause which leads to
the result expressed in the following subjunctive, the latter mood
is translated as an indicative. Tantüs est terrör ut fügiant 80
great is the alarm, that they fy.
492 The subjunctive in all its tenses may be translated as an ίη-
dicative in passages where the assertions or thoughts Of another are
expressed. Qui scribat who is writóng (they 8a3), qui scribêret
who was writing (they Said), qui scripsêrit who has written, (they
Say) or who wrote (they Said), qui scripsisset who had written (they
8αῖd). -
493 The subjunctive in all its tenses, after certain conjunctions,
may be translated as an indicative. Quum scribat as he is writìng,
quum scribêret while he was writíng, quum scripsêrit as he Jias
written, quum scripsisset when, he had written. *
494 The subjunctive in all its tenses may be translated as an in-
dicative in indirect interrogatives : as, nescio quid fáciat I know
^ot what he is doìng, nesciébam quid fâcëret I knew mot what he
was doìng, nescio quid fëcërit I know not what he has done or
78. VERBS.
what he did, nesciébam quid fécisset I knew not what he had
done.
495 When the two verbs in these phrases have the same nomina-
tive, the meaning is ambiguous : as, nescio quid fäciam I know
^uot what I am doing or I know not what to do, nescis quid fáciás
3yov, know not what yov are doing or what to do &c.
496 In hypothetical sentences, the subjunctive, which marks the
condition, is expressed by English past tenses: as,
Si scribat, £f he were apritíng or were to write.
SI scribêret, £f he had been wrítíng.
Si scripsêrit, íf he were to write.
Si scripsisset, íf he had written.
497 With verbs of static meaning, the past indicative of the Eng-
lish is still used, but somewhat differently : as,
SI sciat, £f he knew.
si sciret, 6f he had known.
si adsit, if he were present.
si adesset, if he had been present.
498 In hypothetical sentences, the subjunctive, which marks the
con8equence, is translated in the pres. by should or would, im the
past and past-perfect by should have or would have : as,
scribat, he would write.
scribêret, he would have been wrìtìng.
scripsêrit, he would write.
scripsisset, he would have written.
499 In elliptical sentences, with quási as àf, tamquam as £f &c., the
subjunctive is translated nearly in the same way : as, tanquam
dormiat as íf he were asleep (when in fact he is not), tanquam
dormiret as £f he had been asleep (when in fact he was not);
quási nunquam antehac proelio adfuéris as fgyov, had never òefore
this öeen, present at a battle (when in fact you have been); quäsi
nunquam anteä proelio adfuisset as f he had mever before that been,
present at a battle (when in fact he had been).*
500 The subjunctive mood has no special future tenses; still all its
four tenses are at times used as future tenses.
50l The so-called subjunctive present is used for a future after
a pres. or fut.: as, mitto qui rögent 1 am sending person8 to ask,
* The clauses in the brackets are useful guides to the Latin tense.
VER.BS. 79
mittam qui rögent 1 &hall, 8end person8 to a8k, mfSI qui rögent
1 have 8ent per8ons to a8}.
502 The so-called subjunctive past is used for a future after past;
tenses: as, mittébam qui rögärent I wa8 8ending person8 to ask,
misi qui rögärent I sent per80n8 to a8k, miséram qui rögärent
I had 8ent per8on8 to ask.
503 The so-called subjunctive present-perfect is used for a fut.-
perf. after a pres. or fut., and the so-calledsubj. past-perf. is used
for a fut.-perf. after a past. Thus, in the phrase, is cörömam
accipiet qui primüs escendérít the man shal' receive a chaplet
who first climös vp, the word escendérit is the ihdicative future-
perfect. But, by making the sentence depend upon such a word
as dicît he 8ays, or dixit he 8aîd, the indicative escendérit will be
changed for a subj. : as, dicît eum cörönam acceptürum qui
primüs escendérit he 8ays that the man &hali receive a chaplet who
first climbs vp, dixit eum cörönam acceptúrum qui primüs es-
cendisset he 8aid that the man &hould receive a chaplet who first
clïmöed αρ.
504 Thus, when the subjunctive perfect tenses are used as future-
perfects, the present-perf. of the Latin is translated by the Eng-
lish ind. pres., the past-perf. of the Latin by the English ind.
past.
505 If them we unite the different uses of the tenses in the sub-
junctive as so far explained, we shall have—
Temse in à PreS. or Fut. after Pres. or Fut.
99 érâ Past, ,, Fut. after Past.
29 èrì Pres.-Perf. ,, Fut.-Perf. after Pres. or Fut.
99 ússé Past-Perf. ,, Fut.-Perf. after Past.
505. I The subjunctive past is often used in phrases denoting a
result with the power of an aorist, as, accídit ut primus nuntiáret
út /appened that he was the first to öräng word. Hence, although
the present-perfect indicative is habitually employed as an aorist,
the present-perfect subjunctive is rarely SO used. Still examples
occur (see § 1182, ex. 5; § 1189, last two examples), especially in
negative clauses.
506 The infinitive has strictly but two forms, the imperfect and
perfect.
507 The ìnfinitive imperfect has for its suffix êsê or èré: as, from ës.
be, inf. es'së; from scrfb- write, inf. scribéré.
80 VERBS,
508 Slightly irregular are the infinitives, fer'ré, from fér- bear ;
uel'lé, nol'lè, mal'lê, from uöl- or uél- wish, nö1- be wnwilling, mâl-
prefer. Plautus, Mil. I, 1. 27, Iv. 8. 6, has diceré; III. 2.34,promerè.f
509 , The infinitive imperfect may be translated in three ways :—by
to : as, incipit ridéré he begìns to laugh : in some phrases the
English language omits this to, as, pötest ridéré he can laugh
i.e. îs able to lawgh, uIdi eum ridéré I 8aw him, laugh;—by îng :
as, incipit ridërë he begìns laughing, or uidi eum ridéré I saw
him laughing;—as an indicative, with that before the English
nominative: as, scio eum ridéré I know that he is laughing, scié-
bam eum ridërë 1 Kinew that he was laughing.
510 For the formation of the infinitive perfect, see § 472.
511 The infinitive perfect may be translated in three ways:—by to
have : as, scripsissë dicítür he is said to have written ;—by havîng :
as, risisse exîtiö fuit the having laughed was fatal ;—as an indi-
cative, with that before the English nominative : as, scio eum
scripsissë I know that he wrote or that he has writtem, Sciébam eum
scripsissë I knew that he had writtem.
512 Thus the infinitive imperfect scribéré corresponds to two indi-
cative tenses, scribît and scribëbat ; and the infinitive perfect
Scripsissë also to two, scripsit and scripsêrat.
513 The infinitive imperfect is sometimes used as a future, where
the preceding verb itself implies a reference to futurity: as, pol-
licétur dàré he promises to give.
514 The participle in enti or ent is an imperfect, and belongs alike
tO past, present and future time.
515 The participle or gerund in endo is also am imperfect, and
belongs alike to past, present and future time.
516 The participle in to is a perfect, and belongs alike to past,
present and future time. -
517 . The participle in túro denotes imtention or destiny, and belongs
alike to past, present and future time.
CoNJUGATIoNs.
518 As the changes which take place in adding the suffixes to a
verb depend in a great measure upon the last letter, verbs may be
divided into the following classes or conjugations*, viz. :
* See a similar division of nouns into declensioms, §§ 54, 55, 56,
88, 89. t Compare a of the Greek inf., as διδοναι,
VERB§. 81
The consonant (or third*) conjugation, a8 scríb- aorite, whence
scribéré to write, and scribîs thow, writest.
The a (or first) conjugation, as ára- plough, whence ärärë to
plough, and äräs thow ploughest.
The e (or secomd) conjugation, as döce- teach, whence döcërë
to teach, and döcës thow teachest.
The w, (or thirdf) conjugation, as âcu- sharpen, whence ácuéré
to &harpen, and åcuïs thow, &harpenest.
The è (or fourth) conjugation, as audi- hear, whence audiré to
hear, and audis thow, hearest.
519 The o conjugation has nearly disappeared from the Latin lan-
guage. There remain however fragments of two or three verbs of
this conjugation, viz. :
gno- eacamine, whence gno-sco, gnó-ui, gnó-tum, or, as they are
more commonly writtem, no-sco, nó-ui, nötum ; also the substan-
tives nö-mén- ^., nö-tión- f. &c. ; po- £ drìnk, whence the par-
ticiple pó-to- drunk, the substantives pó-cülo- ^. dränking-cup,
pö-tión- f. drinking, amd the adjective pö-cülento- drinkable, &c. ;
aegro- make 8íck, implied in the participle or adj. aegrö-to- 8îck.
520 The other verbs, which might have been expected to end in o,
have changed that vowel for a (see § 229): as from auro- gold is
formed the verb ín-aurä-rë§ to gild. -
521 The monosyllabic verbs emding in a consonamt generally denote
an act, and may be considered as belonging to the old verbs of the
language: as düc- draw. (See § 30.) •
522 The verbs in a are generally formed from substantives or ad-
jectives of the a or ο declension, and have a factitive meaning, that
is, signify to make : as from albo- or alba- white, alba- make
white ; from mêdîco- physìcìam, médîca- (r.) make oneself a phy-
sîciam, act the physicîar, cwre.
523 The two monosyllabic verbs, da- pwt, and sta- stand, must be
classed with the old verbs of the language. So also many other
* The numbers of the conjugations are given, because they are so
arranged in nearly all grammars and dictionaries.
f Observe that the w and consonant conjugations are united to form
the third conjugation, just as the i and consonant nouns are united to
form the third declension.
f Comparethe Greek verb truv-ω * I drink,' or rather the tenses roo-ara,
^ir€T(9- RCOZ.
§ The Greek language retained many verbs of the o conjugation: as
δουλο-etv * to enslave,' xpvoro-euv * to gild.'
G.
82 VIERIBS.
verbs ending in a had older forms without that final a, which
therefore belonged to the consonant conjugation and the old verbs.
See those verbs of the first or a conjugation, which are said to
form their perfects and supines irregularly, as cüba- lie, &c.
524 The verbs in e generally denote a state, as iäce- lie ; and often
Correspond to a consonant verb, as iäc- throw. (See § 386.)
525 The monosyllabic verbs, fle- weep, ne- spón, &c. should per-
haps be classed with the old verbs of the language. So also mamy
other verbs in e had older forms without that final e, which there-
fore belonged to the consonant conjugation and the old verbs, as
ride- or rid- laugh.
526 The verbs in ω are often derived from substantives in α, as
from mêtu- fear is formed mëtu-ërë to fear ; from trìbu- a divi-
sîon, tríbu-ërë to allot. .
527 The monosyllabic verbs, nu- ^od, su- 8ew, &c. must be classed
with the old verbs of the language.
528 The verbs in ô are oftem derived from substantivesor adjectives
in â, as from tussi- a cough is formed tusSI-ré to cowgh ; from
molli- sQft, molli-ré to soften.
529 The monosyllabic verbs, sci- know, i- go, ci- rouse, must be
classed with the old verbs of the language. So also those verbs
Which had am old form without the â, as uêni- or uën- come.
530 An attention to the fimal vowel of a verb is required in the
formation of the derivatives, particularly as regards the quantity.
tég- cover, tëg-ü-mento- coverîng.
arma- eqwip, armä-mento- eqαῖρment.
[cre-] grow, in-cré-mento-* ìncrease.
argu- prove, argü-mento- proQf.
ê-möli- heave αρ, ëm5li-mento-* great effort.
[gno-] eaeamine, know, co-gnó-mentO- SVrname.
IPRINCIPAL PARTs oF A VERB.
531 When the infinitive, the indicative present, the perfect, and
the supine or verbal in tw of a Latin verb are known, there is
* Momîmento-, docúmento-, said to be derived from the verbs mome-,
doce-, imply rather verbs of the consonant comjugation, viz. mon-, doc-, as
do also the perfects and supines of the same.
f Not to be confounded with 8-möJ-*-mento- * outgrinding or profit
(of the miller, who pays himself by the excess of bulk in grinding his
customer's corn).
VERIBS.
83
532
5:34
seldom any difficulty in conjugating it.
the prîncîpal parts of the verb.
In the following lists the crude form of the verb with its trans-
lation, the infinitive, the first person of the present, amd perfect
are given, and the accusative of the supine, or for reflective verbs
the nominative masculine of the perfect participle.
brevity.
They are therefore called
Im most of
the compounds the infinitive has beem omitted for the sake of
THIRD OR, CONSONANT CONJUGATION.
scäb- scratch
läb- líck
bíb- drímk
scríb- write
cüb- lie down,
müb- veíl oneseJf*
cäp- or cäpi- take
räp- or răpi- seize
rép- creep
strép- resowmd
scalp- 8cratch
carp- nibble, pluck
serp- creep
cüp- or cüpi- desire
rüp- burst
fäc- or fáci- make, do
iäc- or iäci- throw
péc- comô
fléc- bend
pléc- plaέt
néc- link, join,
íc-f stråke
díc- show, Say
uic- conquer
LIP-LETTERS, B, P.
scâbëre
lambêre
. bibêre
scribêre
[cumbére
nübëre
câpère
râpère
répère
strépêre
scalpêre
carpëre
serpëre
cùpère
rumpêre
THROAT-LETTERS,
fâcëre
iäcêre
pectêre
flectêre
plectêre
nectêre
Icére
dicêre
uincêre
scábo
lambo
bíbo
scribo
cumbo]
nübo
cápio
räpio
répo
strépo
scalpo
carpo
serpo
cúpio
rumpo
C, G, H,
fäcio
iácio
pecto
flecto
plecto
mecto
iGO
dico
uinco
* As a female in the marriage ceremony.
f But im-meaeuit Virg.
scäbi
lambi
bíbi
scripsi
cübui
nupsi
cëpi
rápui
repsi
strépui
scalpsi
carpsi
serpsi
cúpiui
rüpi
Q, X.
féci
iëci
pexi
flexi
plexi
mexif
Ici
dixi
uici
scriptum
cübítum
muptum
captum
raptum
reptum
strépítum
scalptum
carptum
serptum
cùpitum
ruptum
factum
iactum
pexum
flexum
plexum
Í\€XUlfì
ictum
dictum
uictum
3. Another form of iac- * throw.'
í
§
84
VERBS.
parc- spare parcëre parco péperci parsum
posc- pray, demand poscêre posco pöposci
düc- draw, lead dücêre düco duxi ductum
535 äg- drìve ägêre ágo êgi actum
pläg-* strike plangère plango planxi planctum
päg- fiae pangére pango pépigit pactum
'fräg- break frangère frango frégi fractum
täg- touch tangère tango tëtîgi tactum
lég- soJeep, read légère lêgo légi lectum
rég- make 8traight régère rëgo rexi rectum
tég- thatch, cover têgêre têgo texi tectum
fîg-f fia; figêre figo :fixi fixum
fig- mould, ìnvent fingére fingo finxi fictum
pig- paint pingére pingo pinxi pictum
strig- grasp, graze stringêre stringo strinxi strictum
tìg- dye tingère§ tingo tinxi tinctum
fulg- flash fulgêre fulgo fulsi
ang- strangle angére ango anxi
cing- górd cingëre cingo cinxi cimctum
ung- grease ungêre§ ungo unxi umctum
sparg- or spär-|| Scatte* spargëre spargo sparsi sparsum
merg- or mér-* sînk mergère mergo mersi Im€rSUlIÌm
terg-** or tér- wipe tergére tergo tersi tersum
füg- or fügi- flee, fy fügëre fügio fügi fügîtum
iüg- 3yoke, joân. iungêre iungo iunxi iunctum
püg- ρωnctwre pungêre pungo püpügi punctum
süg- suck sügëre sügo suxi suctum
536 träh- drag trähëre träho traxi tractum
uéh- carry uéhére uëho uexi uectum
537 líq- leave linquére linquo liqui
cöq- coo}. cöquëre cöquo coxi coctum
538 tex- weave texêre texo texui textum
* For the quantity compare eTλαγην.
* But panaeit Enn., pegi Pacuv.
£ Fig- * fix' and fig- * mould' may perhaps be originally one, with the
sense * squeeze,' like orqoity-. See Paley's Propertius. Observe too that
fictus for.fiaeus was preferred by Varr. R. R. III. 7. 4, affictus III. 3. 2, &c.
§ Also tinguère, tinguo ; unguêre, unguo.
[] Comp. στep- of σretpo». •| Comp. mari- * sea.'
** Also terge-. Comp. rep- of re.po», and ter-ra * dry-land.*
VERBS.
85
539 uiu- or uig- live
flu- or fluc-flow
uiuêre uiuO
fluére fluo
stru- or struc- pile, build struêre
540 cäd-* falI
rád- scrape
êd- or ès- eat
caed-fell, Strike, cut
laed- strike, hwrt
céd- go qwietly, 3/ie/d.
sëd- sit down,
scíd- tear, cut
fîd- cleave
stríd-§ hiss, 8creech,
scand- clïmö
mand- chew
pand- or päd- spread
pend- hang, weigh
tend- or tén- stretch
föd- or födi- dig
röd- gnaw
clüd- shout
plaud- clap
cüd- hammer, coîn,
füd- pour
lüd- play
trúd- thrus;
tüd- hammer, thump
quät- or quãti- strike
mët- mo^o
pét- or péti- go, seek
mft- let go, send
cädëre
rädëre
êdêre or esse
caedëre
laedëre
cëdëre
Sîdëre
scindëre
fimdëre
stridëre
scandëre
mandëre
pandëre
pendêre
tendêre
födëre
rödëre
claudëre
plaudëre
cüdëre
fundëre
lüdëre
trüdëre
tundëre
quätëre
métére
pétère
mittére
struo
TEETH-LETTERS, D, T.
cädo
râdo
édo
caedo
laedo
cédo
sIdo
scindo
findo
strido
scando
mando
pando
pendo
tendo
födio
rödo
claudo
plaudo
cüdo
fundo
lüdo
trüdo
tundo
quâtio
mëto
pëto
mitto
* Akin to caed-, just as our fall to fell.
* The forms with ss seem to have been ori
uixi
fluxi
struxi
cëcîdi
räsi
êdi
cécidi
laesi
cessi
sëdi
scîdif.
fídi
stridi
scandi
mandi
pépendi
tétendi
födi
rösi
clausi
plausi
cüdi
füdi
lüsi
trüsi
tütüdi
messui
pétiui
misi
uictum
fluxum
structum
cäsumt
räsumf
êsumf
Cà,€SUIIOLl
laesum
CeSSU1I1
SeSSUlI1
scissum
fissum
8CamSUlIim
Imà, mSÜLIIl .
passum||
pensum
tentum*
fossum
rÖSum
clausum
plausum
cüSum
füsum
lüsum
trüsum
tunsum
quassum
ImeSSUlDm
pétitum
missum
ginally in use with old
Writers, and even with Cicero, Virgil, &c. as cassum, essum. -
f Scicidi and ffidi were probably the older forms of these perfects.
Ennius has the former.
§ Also stride-.
Comp. tetuli, afterwards tuli.
|| But pansis in Germanicus and Vitruvius.
“| Temsus in Quintiliam and late writers.
86
VERB§.
stert- snore
uorti- or uert- turm,
sist- make to stand
542
stertêre sterto stertui
uortêre uorto uorti llOrSU1II1
sistère sisto stétior stîti státum
The compounds of da-* put or gêve, with prepositions of one
syllable, are all of the third comjugation ; as, with
äb, put away, hide
åd, put to, add,
cöm, put together
dé, pùt dowm, surrender
dîs, dîstrîôùte
ëc, put o?/t, vtter
in, pºlt o^
për, fordo, destroy
öb, put to (as a bar)
prò, aba^do^, betray
rëd, pút δack, restore
süb, put vp
trans, hand ove*
To these add two other compounds of da- pwt :
uend-t eaehibit for Sale
créd- trvst, belíeve
543 äl- raise, rear, feed
fäl- cheat
säl- salt
pél- push, drive
uél- pull, pluck
cöl- dig, tîl',
möl- gránd
abdêre abdo abdìdi abdítum
addére addo addîdi addîtum
condëre condo condîdi condîtum
dëdëre dëdo dédîdi dédîtum
didêre dido didîdi dîdîtum
êdêre êdo ëdïdi êdítum
indëre indo indîdi indítum
perdêre perdo perdîdi perditum
obdêre obdo obdídi obdítum
prödére prödo prödidi pröditum
reddêre reddo reddîdi reddîtum
subdêre subdo subdîdi subdîtum
trädêre trädo trádidi tráditumt
uendêre uendo uendidi uenditum
crédére crëdo crédîdi crédîtum
L, M, N.
âlêre älo âlui âlîtum or altum
fallêre fallo fëfelli falsum
sallêre sallo s- salsum
pellëre pello pépüli pulsum
uellëre uello uelli uolsum
côlêre cölo cölui cultum
mölére mölo- mölui mölïtum
They forget
Eesides 6e- or rather 8eo- (0eo-μοs) is repre-
* Some Sanscrit scholars would lay it down that da- in these com-
pounds represents the root 6e- of τιθημι, not δο- of διδωμι.
that the archaic forms perduim, creduim claim immediate connection with
the archaic duim of da-.
sented in Latin by ser- * put,* whence eaeser-, inser- &c.
f Praedito-, * armed' or * endowed (with),' implies a vb. prae-dere.
f Literally * put in the window.* The first syllable is an abbreviation
of uënum, which occurs in vénum i-re, wémî-re, uênum-dä-re.
VERBS. 87
töl- raise, bear tollére* tollo tiílif lätumf
uöl- wish uelle uölo uölui
544 ém- take, buy êmêre ëmo ëmi emptum
gém- groan, gémére gémo gémui gémîtum
frém- roar frémére frémo frémui frémîtum
prém- press prémére prémo pressi pressum
trêm- tremöle trêmêre trémo trémui
545 cán- sîng cânêre cäno cécíni cantum
gén- produce gignêre gigno génui gémîtum
lin- smear lînëre lîno léui litumí
Sin- pwt, permit sînëre sîmo siui or sii sftumI
R, S.
546 pár- or päri- produce pärëre pário pépéri partum
quaer-, quaes-§ 8eek, a8k quaerére quaero quaesiui quaesitum
cér- sîft, $eparate cernëre cerno créui crétum
fér- raise, bear ferre féro tüli lätum
gér- or gés- wear, carry gérère géro gessi gestum
spér- reject, despóse spernëre sperno sprêui sprêtum
sér-|| pvt sërëre séro sérui sertum
sér-|| plant, soω sërëre séro séui sätum £
tér- rò tërëre tëro triui*| tritum
stér- strevo sternëre sterno sträui** strätum**
uér- sweep uerrêre uerro uerri llerSUlIm.
ür- or üs- δω^n. ürëre ürO ussi ustum
cùr- ^/^, currêre curro cücurri cursum
547 pás- or pa- feed pascére pasco páui pastum
ès- öe €SS€ SUlTOl fui •
* In meaning the following go together : tollere, tollo, sustuli, subla-
tum. See fer-.
f An old form of the perfect is tätüli.
tÃ?]ptt, ra\αs, ^ro^μη.
f Observe the quantity of lätum, sátum, sätum.
§ Quaeso is used in the sense, * I pray* or * prithee.* A form quaesi-
is implied in quaesitum ; as also in quaesitor * a commissioner' or *judge.'
|| Sër- * put' and sér- * sow* are one in origin.
•| Trìui, trìtum imply a secondary verb trib-, whence trìbulo- sb. n.
* a threshing harrow.' Comp. tpiß- of τρίβω.
** From a secondary verb strag- (= ster-ag-), whence sträg-e- sb. f.
sträg-ulo- adj. ; also strämen- * straw.* Comp. our verb strew, old form
Sí rat?J.
Latum is for tlatum. Comp.
88 VERBS,
uis- go to &ee uisêre uÍSO uiS1
läcess-* provoke läcessêre läcesso läcessiui lácessitum
fäcess-* perform, cause fäcessêre fácesso fäcessi
arcess-* semd for arcessêre arcesso arcessiui arcessitum
cäpess-* take cäpessêre cäpesso cäpessiui cäpessitum
pös- pwt pönëre póno pösui pösitum
V.
548 lău-f was}, lăuêre läuo làui lautum orlötum
tríbu- dis7rÉów£e tríbuêre tríbuo trîbui trîbütum
äcu- &harper. ácuére ácuo äcui äcütum
argu- prove arguêre arguo argui argütum
solu- loosen, soluêre soluo solui sölütum
uolu- roll, uoluêre uoluo uolui uölütum
mfnu- lessen, mínuêre mínuo mínui minütum
sternu- sneeze sternuêre sternuo sternui
spu- spìt spuêre spuo spui spütum
ru- make to rush, rush ruêre rUlO rui rütum £
Sll- S€'?/) suëre SUlO sui sütum
stătu- set αρ stătuêre stătuo státui stätütum
mëtu- fear métuére métuo métui mëtütum
FIRST OR A CONJUGATION.
549 da-§ pùt, gîve däre do dëdi dátum
sta-||^nake to stamd, &tamd stäre sto stëti stätum
cüba-* ÉÉe cübäre cübo cúbäui
nécâ- stìfle, kill nécäre nëco nécäui** nécätum
séca- cut sécäre sëco sécui sectum
plíca- fold plïcäre plíco plïcäui plïcätum
* These four verbs are formed from läc- or läci-, fäc- or fáci-, arci-
(compound of ci- * call*), cäp- or cäpi-. So also pëtess- * seek,' from pét-
or péti-.
* See also lăua- § 549, and dilu- § 555. 2.
f Observe the short vowel of rìtum. Ruáturo- is the participle in
tttrO.
§ Da- stands apart from the other verbs in a by the irregularity of its
quantity. See § 732.
|| The derivatives from sta- have often a short vowel, as stătu- sb.,
stäbili- adj., stätim adv.
4| See also cùò- § 533. ** Necuit Enn. and Phaedr.
VERBS.
89.
551
552
mîca- vibrate mÌcäre mîco
fríca- ruò frïcäre fríco
döma- tame dömäre dömo
söna- sownd. sönäre söno
or söno
töna- thúmder tömäre tónat
crêpa- creak, chatter crêpäre crépo
uéta-* foröíd uëtäre uéto
läua- wash läuäre läuo
iüua- assîst iüuäre iüuo
mîcui
frícui
dómui
sönäui
sönui
tömuit
crépui
uëtui
läuäui
iüui
frictum
dömftum
sönätum
sömítum
tömîtum
crêpîtum
uëtîtum
läuätum
iütumt
The thirteen disyllabic verbs givem in the preceding section
were probably at one time all monosyllabic, and consequently of
the consonant or third conjugation. The verbs láuêre, abluêre,
pröcumbëre, plectêre, &c. are met with in the best authors ; and
in the older writers there occur such forms as sönëre, sönït, sönunt,
Observe too that the same thirteem verbs have all
the first vowel short.
The other verbs in a form their principal parts like
tönïmüs, &c.
ära- plough
äräre åro
äräui
SECOND OR E CONJUGATION.
553 háb-e- hold, have hâbëre hábeo
sorb-e- suck vp sorbère sorbeo
iüb-e- öid, order iübëre iübeo
iác-e- lie iácêre iáceo
täc-e- be silem? täcêre táceo
döc-e- teach, döcëre döceo
nöc-e- do damage möcëre möceo
arc-e- corfine, keep qff arcêre arceo
misc-e- miae miscêre misceo
suäd-e- recommend, suâdêre suädeo
rid-e- lawgh rïdëre rideo
uíd-e- see uîdêre uîdeo
prand-e- breakfast prandêre prandeo
pend-e- hang (intrans.) pendêre pendeo
* Old form wöta-. Persius has vetauit.
f Iuuaturo- in Sal. and Plin. ep.
f Iacituro- Stat.
hábui
sorbui
iussi
iácui
tácui
döcui
nöcui
arcui
miscui
suäsi
risi
uidi
prandi
pépendi
ärätum
hábítum
iussum
täcítum
doctum
möcîtum
mixtum
SuäSum
riSum
uÍSum
pransum
§ Arcto- or arto- as an adj. * confined.'
90 WICRB$.
spond-e- promise
tomd-e- shear , tondêre
mord-e- bite mordêre
urg-e- press urgëre
aug-e- óncrease (trans.) augére
lüg-e- mowrr. lügëre
C1-e- 7*0?/ZSe Ciêre
fle- weep flëre
öl-e- smell, ölêre
döl-e- ache dölêre
tfm-e- fear tîmëre
ne- spón, nére
män-e- remaîn, mânêre
tém-e-* hold, tënëre
mön-e- warm, mönëre
torque-or tor- twist, hurl torquére
cár-e- öe without cärëre
pär-e- wait om, obey pärëre
haer-e- stick haerére
mér-e-£ earn, deserve mérère
torre- or tör- roast tOI'rêre
cem-se- or cën-§ covnt censêre
lät-e- líe hód, lätëre
nît-e- shine mîtëre
cäu-e- be on, one's gward cäuêre
fäu-e- wìsh well, fäuêre
páu-e- fear páuêre
föu-e- keep warm, föuêre
möu-e- move möuêre
uöu-e- vow uöuêre
feru-e- δοέλ'| feruêre
* Comp. temd- * stretch.
* From a root ter- or tor-, whence tor-tor-, tor-mem-.
£ Also mere-ri (r.).
§ The literal sense of cen- was * puncture,' and so * count."
cem-tro- sb. n. * centre.?
tondeo
mordeo
urgeo
augeo
lügeo
CleO
fleo
öleo
döleo
tímeo
In eO
mäneo
tëmeo
möneo
torqueo
cäreo
páreo
haereo
mëreo
torreO
CenSeO
läteo
mîteo
cäueo
fäueo
páueo
föueo
möueo
uöueo
ferueo
tötondi
mömordi
ursi
auxi
luxi
ciui
flëui
δlui
dölui
tímui
nêui
mansi
ténui
mönui
torsit
cärui
párui
haesi
mérui
torrui
censui
lătui
nîtui
cäui
fäui
päui
möui
uöui
ferbui
|| Cauitum and fauitum were preferred by Cicero.
•[ Also feru-êre.
spondère spondeo spöpondi sponsum
tonsum
mOrSum
auctum
cîtum
flëtum
dölïtüs
nëtum
IY18 m SUlIIm
mönïtum
tortumf
pärïtum
haesum
mérîtum
tostum
GenSU1IY)
cautum||
fautum|| .
fötum
mötum
uötum
Hence
vERBS. 9)
FOUIRTH op I CONJUGATION.*
554 i- go ire eO iui or ii ítum
fulci- prop fulcire fulcio fulsi fultum
sanci- hallow sancire sancio sanciui sancitum
or sancio sanxi sanctum
uinci- bìnd, uincire uincio uimxi uinctum
farci- cram farcire farcio farsi farctum
sarci- mend. sarcire sarcio sarsi sartum
säli- leap sälire sälio säluiorsaliisaltum
sëpëli- bury . sëpëlire sépélio sépéliui sépultum
uêni- come uênire uénio uéni uentum
saepi- hedge in saepire saepio sepsi septum
ápéri- open, ápérire äpërio ápérui ápertum
öpéri- cover öpérire öpério öpérui öpertum
hauri- draw (water) haurire haurio hausi haustum
555 The other verbs in ę form their principal parts like
audi- hear audire audio audiui auditum
555. l Some inceptive verbs with a suffix esc or èsc:
lang- droop, flag languesco langui
díc-f learm, di$co dídíci
luc- get light lüciscît, luxit
ard-f ölaze up ardesco arsi
püt- become putrìd pütesco pütui
cál- get hot cälesco cälui|
uäl- get 8tror.g uálesco uälui|
sfl- become silent silesco sílui
quie- öeco^ne quiet quiesco quièui quiétum
cre- grow CreSCO crêui crétum
* The irregular supines of the verbs in § 554 imply verbs of the con-
sonant conjugation ; and indeed such forms as euenat, &c. for the imper-
fect tenses occur in Ennius and Plautus. Perhaps in Hor. Od. Iv. 4, 65
we should read pulchrior euenet.
f Dic- * learn,' originally identical with dic- * say,' or more properly
* show.' Comp. öek- of öeukuvpu * show.* Döce- * teach' is also of the same
family. Disco is for dic-sco.
f Ard- is probably akin to ä/- * raise,* so often used with flammam.
Compare as to form arduo- * lofty,' which is immediately formed from al-
* raise.* Comp. too ap- of αιρω.
|| Calituro-, ualituro-.
92
VERBS.
555. 2
sue- become accusto med. suesco suëui suëtum
rê+säp-* come to one's 8enses again rësïpisco rësïpiui
rê+frig- get cold again, réfrigesco réfrixi
rê+uiu- come to life agaìr, réuiuisco réuixi
re+sci- find out (a 8ecret) rescisco resciui rescitum
cön-Häl- or öl- grow together coälesco coälui coálítum
äd+öl- or öle- grow wp ädölesco ädölëui ädultum
äb+öle- grow out of use äbölesco äböléui
ob+söle-f get covered with dirt obsölesco obsóléui obsölétum
Compound verbs:
prö+cúb- líe down, pröcumbo pröcübui pröcübítum
rê+cäp- or cäpi- take back récípio récépi réceptum
ab+räp- or răpi- carry off abrìpio abripui abreptum
dis+carp- pull to pieces discerpo discerpsi discerptum
per+fäc- or fäci- finish perfîcio perfëci perfectum
cön--iäc- or iáci- hurl, cönïcio coniéci coniectum
rê+iäc- or iäci- throw back rëiîcio rëiëci rêiectum
ad+läc- or läci- draw to allício allexi allectum
ec+läc- or läci- draw ovt êlîcio êlîcui êlîcîtum
in+spéc- or spéci- look án, inspîcio inspexi inspectum
réd-+äg- drìve back rëdïgo rëdëgi rédactum
cön+äg- drive together * cógo coëgi coactum
con--päg- fiae together compingo compëgi compactum
per+fräg- break through perfringo perfrégi perfractum
con+täg- touch closely contingo contìgi contactum
con+lég- 8weep together collígo collègi collectum
rê+lég- read again, rélégo rélégi rélectum
inter+lég- pick vp, perceîve intellégo intellexi intellectum
di+lég- esteem, dilìgo dilexi dilectum
neg+lég- leave behênd neglégo neglexi neglectum
por+lég- lagy ovt (a corp8e) pollingo pollinxi pollinctum
por+rég- stretch forth porrìgo porrexi porrectum
por+rég- keep straight on, pergo perrexi perrectum
sub+rég- rìse surgo surrexi surrectum
ab+flîg- dash, down, affligo afflixi afflictum
* Read the symbol (+) as plus or * with.'
f The root of this verb is connected with sólo- sb. n. * soil,' also with
sordes and sordido-.
and in the Eng. soil vb. or sb., as well as sully and slush.
It appears again in the French sale * dirty,* souillir ;
VERBS.
93
con-*fìg- dash, 'ogether
ec+stìg- Stamp ovt
dis+stîg- spot
ec+müg- wipe (mose)
con-*sparg- bespafter
con+püg- puncture forcíbly
rê+líq- leave
ob+cäd- 8et (a8 sum), die
rê+cäd-fall back
ec+uäd- come out
ob+caed- cut down, kïll
con--laed- dash together
re+scíd- cut away again,
dis+fîd- cleave ίη έωo
rê+síd- subsîde
di+uîd- dîvîde
sub+cand- set fire to from below
ec+scand- climö up
dé+fend- ward off
ex+pend- weigh, out
prae+hand- take hold Qf
obs+tend- hold towards
ex+clüd- shvf ovt
con--tüd- hammer to pìeces
per+quät- strike violently
rê+sist- stand agaînst
per+cél- overtwrn, .
con*pél- drìvc άogether
rê+pél- drìve back
con*söl-ll sit together, consult
ex+ëm- take out
de+ëm- take down,
con*ëm- arrange (the hair)
pro+ëm- brì^g ovt
confligo conflixi
extinguo extinxi
distinguo distinxi
émungo
ëmunxi
conflictum
extinctum
distinctum
ëmunctum
conspergo conspersi conspersum
compungo compunxi compunctum
rélinquo rëliqui
occído occîdi
récîdo reccídit
êuädo ëuäsi
occido occidi
collido collisi
rescindo rescîdi
diffindo diffîdi
résido rësëdi
diuído diuisi
succendo succendi
escendo escendi
dëfendo défendi
expendo expendi
prehendo prehendi
or prendo prendi
ostendo ostendi
exclüdo exclüsi
contundo contúdi
percútio percussi
résisto restíti
percello percüli
compello compüli
répello reppülif
consülo consülui
exîmo exëmi
dëmo dempsi
cÖmO compsi
prömo prompsi
* Also in the older writers occassum, divissum, &c.
f For re-cecidi, re-pepuli.
rëlictum
occásum*
récäsum
êuäSum
OCCISum
collisum
rescissum
diffissum
rësessum
diuisum*
SUiCCenSUlI1
eSC€nSUlIO
dëfensum
expensum
prehensum
prensum
ostensumi
exclüsum
contüsum
percussum
restîtum
perculsum
compulsum
répulsum
consultum
exemptum
demptum
comptum
promptum
Hence the double consonant.
1 Ostenso- in Lucan ; but in Ter. Ph. v. 4, 7. and in Varr. ostemto-.
|| Sól-, an obsolete verb, is the parent of sölio- sb. n. * a seat.'
also akin to séde- sb. f., séde- vb., södali-, sella-, subsellio-.
It is
94
VERBS.
süb+ëm- take up
rê+prëm- press back
con--têm- (cut αρ) despise
con--cän- sìng together
dê+$in- (pwt down) leave off
con--quaer- get together
ab+fér- carry off
ec+fér- carry out
ob+fér- present
ré+fér- bring back
con*sér- plant all over
con-!-bür- δυrη αρ
ob+cúr- rum, towards
in+du- put o^,
ec+du- put off
dis+lu- or lâu- dissolve
ob+ru- overaphelm,
in+su- 8ew έr.
re+stătu- 8et vp again,
ec+nëca- kill off
ex+plíca- αηfold
im-+crêpa- chîde
pro+häbe- keep off
de+hábe- owe, ought
prae+hábe- present
co+arce- confine
ex+erce-§ work out, drill.
re+sponde- answer
in+dulge-|| be kind
dé+le- or lîn- ölot out
άb+öle- abolish
* For re-tetuli, re-peperi.
f Rellatum also in old writers.
f Also occucurri.
sümO sumpsi sumptum
réprímo rêpressi répressum
contemno contempsicontemptum
concîno concínui concentum
dêsîmo désii dêsîtum
conquiro conquIsIuiconquisitum
auféro abstüli ablätum
effëro extúli ëlätum
offéro obtúli oblätum
référo rettüli* rëlätumt
conséro consëui consîtum
combüro combussi combustum
occurro occurrij: occursum
induo indui indütum
€XUlO exui exütum
diluo dilui dilütum
obruo obrui obrütum
insuo insui insütum
restîtuo restîtui restitütum
êmêco êmêcäui ënëcátum
or éméco ênêcui ênectum
explíco explïcäui explïcätum
or explíco explícui explîcîtum
incrépo incrépäui incrépátum
or incrépo incrépui incrépítum
prohíbeo prohîbui prohîbîtum
débeo dëbui débítum
praebeo praebui praebítum
coerceo coercui coercîtum
exerceo exercui exercîtum
respondeo respondi responsum
indulgeo indulsi indultum
dëleo dêlêui délétum
äböleo äböléui äbölïtum
Hence the double consonant.
Comp. reddùc-, redd-.
§ Erce- or arce- is an obsolete vb. akin to the Greek Fepfy-, whence
peg- and the meut. sb. epyo-.
|| Dulge- must be an obsolete vb. akin to the adj. dulci-.
VIERIBS.
95
ex+ple- fill up expleo . expléui
rê+tême- hold δac}; rëtîneo rëtînui
ré+cense- review récenseo récensui
ex+ i- go out eXeO exii
äm-+íci- throw rovmd ome ámício ämícui
im+farci- cram, în, infercio infersi
rê+päri- fnd répério reppéri*
con--päri- find out
555.3 Reflective verbs:
läb- 87ip läbi
am-plect- emöracef amplecti
lîc-e- öid at am auctîon, lîcêri
pläg- beat oneself plangi
fung- discharge oneself fungi
séq- follow séqui
löq- talkf löqui
fru- or frug- enjoyj: frui
gräd- or grâdi- march [grádi]
ec+grád- march ovt égrédi
ordi- öegin, weaving ordiri
fät-e- confess fätöri
pro+fät-e- profess pröfîtëri
pät- or päti- suffer páti
per+pät- suffer to the last perpéti
níc-§ kneel, leam, miti
mën- or menti- measσre mëtiri
ad+sén- orsenti-agree withassentiri
üt;- ^^Se üti
ex+përi- try expériri
ob+péri- wait for opperiri
quër- complain*I quêri
* See note * p. 94.
f See § 398.
f More literally * feed oneself.'
compërio compéri
läbor
amplector
lîceor
plangor
fungor
séquor
löquor
fruor
grãdior
ègrëdior
ordior
fâteor
pröfíteor
pátior
perpétior
nitOr
mëtior
assentior
ütOr
expérior
oppërior
quéror
explétum
rëtentum
récensitum
exîtum
åmictum
infertum
répertum
compertum
lapsus
amplexus
lîcîtus
functus
sécütus
löcütus
fruítus
gressus
êgressus
OTSUlS
fassus
pröfessus
passus
perpessus
misus or nixus
1Y1€IlSUlS
8SSenSUlS
üSuS
expertus
oppertus|
questus
§ Old form gnìtor &c. from genu- (or genic-) * a kmee.' See Festus.
|| But Plautus has opperitus.
*| Literally * beat oneself;' for quës- is but a variety of ouät- * strike.'
Comp. pläg- (r.) and komt- (r.) * beat oneself.'
- 96
VEBBS.
ör- or öri- rìse
mör- or möri- die
re- reckon,
mér-e- earn,
uêr-e- fear
tu- or tue- guard,
áp- oötain,
äd+äp- obtain,
pro+fäc- 8et ovt
mäc- win, obtain,
päc- fía, bargain,
ulc- averge
ex+por+rég- wake up
dê+fät- give ἐr.
com-+mén- invem?
ob+lfu- forget
v _ _•_ •
Oriri
möri
rëri
mërëri
uêrêri
tuëri
âpisci
ädipisci
pröfîcisci
nancisci
päcisci
ulcisci
exporgisci
dëfëtisci
commînisci
obliuisci
örior ortus
mörior mortuu§
reOr rât;118
mëreor mërîtus
uêreor uérítus
tueor tuítus ortütus
âpiscor aptus
ádípiscor ädeptus
pröfîciscor pröfectus
manciscor manctus*
päciscor pactus
ulciscor ultus
exporgiscorf exporrectus
dëfëtiscor dëfessus
commíniscorcommentus
obliuiscor oblitus
* Sorather than mactus in Mss.
t Literally * I begin to stretch myself out.'
VERBS.
97
556 CoNJUGATION oF IMPEBFECT TENSES.
Last letter {\, e consonant, lì i
Conjugation l 2 3 3 4
Lat. C. F. àva- döce- scríb- ácu- audi-
English plough, teach, write Sharpen, hear
$: S. äro döceo scribo ácuo audio
§ | äräs döcës scribís ácuís audis
§ | $rät* döcëti* scribit ácuît; audít*
§ [P.ärämüs | döcëmüs | scribímüs | äcuimüs | audimüs
§ | ärätïs döcëtîs scribîtîs äcuîtîs auditîs
S. | ärant; döcent scribunt ácuumtf audiunt
3 3 [S. äräbam | döcëbam | scribëbam | âcuébam | audiébam
> | $ | äräbäs döcëbäs scribëbäs | äcuëbäs | audiëbäs
È §. |_ àräbät* | döcëbät* | scribëbät* ] ícuébät* | audiêbât*
3 || § [P.äräbämüs | döcëbämüs, scribëbämüslácuëbämüs] audiëbämüs
3 | 3 | öräbätis | döcebátis | scribebátis [ácuebátis | audiêbâtis
§ | & äräbant | döcëbant | scribêbant | âcuébant | audiébant
* A
§ S. árábo döcëbo scribam ácuam audiam
§ | äräbis döcëbîs scribês ácuês audiês
§ | äräbit, döcëbít; Scribët,* äcuêt* audiêt*
§ [P.äräbimüs | döcëbimüs | scribemús [äcuèmüs | audiémüs
§ | äräbîtîs | döcëbîtîs | scribëtis äcuëtîs audiëtîs
* l árábunt ldöcëbunt | scribent äcuent audient
ß || § IS. 2. ärä döcë scribë ácuë audi
§ §. P. 2. ärätë | döcëtë scribîtë äcuîtë auditè
£,
3 || § IS. 2. äräto | döcëto scrîbîto ácuíto audito
3 || § I. 3. äräto | döcëto scribito äcuîto audito
§ || § P.2. ärätöté | döcëtöté | scribítöté ] äcuïtöté auditöté
[= 3. äranto | döcento scribunto | ácuumto laudiunto
§ S. ärem dóceam scribam ácuam audiam
§ | ärës döceäs scribäs ácuäs audiàs
G § |_£r8t* döceát,* Scribãt,* ácuât,* audiät*
3 || § P.ärëmüs | döceämüs | scribämüs | äcuämüs | audiämüs
$ | § | ärëtis döceätïs | scribätïs | äcuätïs | audiâtîs
È ^ | ärent; dóceant, scribant äcuant audiant
É „ S. ärärem | döcërem | scribërem |ácuêrem | audirem
E || § | ärärës döcërës scribërës ácuërës audirës
§ j § | ärärët* | döcërët* | scribêrêt* |8cuêrêt* | audirêt*
° | 3 [P.ärärëmüs | döcërëmüs | scribërëmüs | äcuêrëmüs | audirëmùs
§ | ärärëtîs | döcërëtîs | scribêretis [ícuérétis | audirétis
ärärent döcërent l scribêrent lácuêrent, | audirent

* But see for quantity § 412 and mote.
EI
f Or acuomt.
9S VERBS.

|
|
|
Last, letter 8, € consomant, \l i
Conjugation 1 2 3 3 4
Lat. C.F. ära- döce- scrîb- άcu- audi-
English | plough, teach, Φrête sharper. hear
INFINI-
TIVE , άrärë döcërë scribéré ácuêrë audiré
MooD.
P.£T9I- | äranti- or | döcenti- or | scribenti- or, äcuenti- or audienti-or
ELE. ärant- döcent- | scribent- | äcuent- audient-
£ART. |$rätüro- | doctüro- | scriptüro- |[&cuftüro- | auditüro-
FUTURE. | or —a- | TorLa- |ori La- or —a-] | or —a-
GERUND.fl ärando- | döcendo- | scribendo- [acuendo- audiendo-
557 There are certain verbs which mix together the consonant and
à conjugations in the imperfect tenses, viz. :
fäc-
iác-
[läc-i.
[spéc-f,, spéci- look]
or fáci- make
föd-
,, iäci- throw
,, läci- draw]
or födi- díg
füg- 99 fügi- flee
cäp- ,, cäpi- take
räp- ,, răpi- seize
Together with the reflective verbs:
gräd- or grâdi- march | mör- or möri- díe
ör-
99 öri- rise
pät- ,, páti- 8uffer
säp- or säpi- taste
cüp- ,, cüpi- desîre
pär-
,, päri- produce
quät- ,, quãti- shake.
pöt- or pöti- make
oneself master.
Observe too that all these seventeen verbs have the vowel short.
558
MIXED CONSONANT ANID I CONJUGATION.
INDICATIVE MooD.
Present TenSe.
P. fugímus fugítis fugiunt.
S. fugio fugfs fugît ;
S. fugiebam, fugiebas &c.
Past-Imperfect.
Future.
* Declined like praesenti- or praesent-. See § 219.
f Declined like a neuter noun in o.
S. fugiam fugies &c.
£ Only used in compounds.
VERBS. 99
IMPERATIVE MooD.
Present. S. fugé ; P. fugite.
Future.
S. 2. fugíto, 3. fugíto ; P. 2. fugítote, 3. fugiunto.
SUBJUNCTIVE MooD.
Presemt Tense. Past Temse.
S. fugiam fugias &c. AS. fugérem fugéres &c.
INFINITIVE, fugêre. PARTICIPLE, fugienti- or fugient-.
PARTICIPLE FUTURE, fugíturo-. GERUND, fugiendo-.
559 Observe that those forms, which have the vowel after g marked
short, follow the consonant conjugation ; the others are derived as
from a verb in ę.
560 In old writers such forms as capire, fodire, parire &c. occur.
561 CONJUGATION OF PERFECT TENSES.
Crude form of perfect, ärä-uYs-.
INDICATIVE MooD.
Present-Perfect or Aorìst.
S. äräui äräuistI äräuit ; P. äräuímüs äräuistîs äräuërunt
or äräuërë.
Past-Perfect. .
AS. äräuêram äräuëräs äräuërat ; P. äräuërämüs äräuërätïs örä-
uêrant.
Fufure-Perfect. ê
S. äräuêro äräuêrís äräuérít ; P. äräuérímüs äräuêrîtîs äräuërint.*
SUBJUNCTIVE MooD.
Present-Perfect or Aorìst.
AS. äräuérim äräuëris äräuérit; P. äräuérimüs äräuêrîtîs äräuërint.*
Past-Perfect.
S. äräuissem äräuissës äräuisset ; P. äräuissëmüs äräuissëtîs ärä-
uissent.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
äräuissë.
562 The conjugation of a perfect which takes the suffix äs, instead
of wäs, differs solely in the absence of the w. See §§ 584, 588, 590,
613, 620, 628.
* These two tenses are often confounded by Latin writers as regards
the quantity of the i. See § 476.
:
¢
$
I00 VERBS. *
563 The perfect tenses oftem undergo a contraction : as,
« áräui äräuímüs
äräuistI o* ärasti äräuistîs or ärastîs
äräuit äräuërunt or ärärumt oräräuéré.
äräuêram or äräram &c.
äräuéro ,, äräro &c.
äräuérim ,, ärärim &c.
äräuissem ,, ärassem &c.
äräuissë ,, ärassë.
564 In the perfects of the è conjugation similar contractions oc-
Cur : as, •
audiui or audii audiuîmüs or audiîmüs
audiuisti, audiisti, or audisti audiuistîs, audiistîs, or audistis
audiuit or audiit audiuërunt or audiérunt, or
audiuéré or audiéré.
audiuéram or audiéram &c.
audiuéro ,, audiéro &c.
audiuérim ,, audiérim &c.
audiuissem ,, audiissem or audissem &c.
audiuissë ,, audiissè or audissé.
565 Ifthe crude form of the perfect have ae or 8 before îs, as dix-is-,
the following contractions are foumd :
dixi dixîmüs
dixistI or dixti dixistîs 07 dixtís
dixit r dixêrunt or dixêrë.
dixissem or dixem &c.
dixissé ,, dixê &c.
566 As the future-perfect of the indicative originally ended in êso,
rather than èro, and the subjunctive perfect in ësim, rather tham
érâm, the following contractions, which occur in old writers, are
explained:
Ind. fut.-perf. faxo, faxìs &c. for fëcëro &c.
Subj. pres.-perf. faxim, faxis &c. ,, fëcërim &c.
ASubj. past-perf. faxem*, faxès &c. ,, fëcissem &c.
567 So again, ärasso, ärassfs &c. for ärävëro &c.
* See § 1209 f. note.
REFILECTIVE OR, PASSIVE VERBS.
101
568
ärassërë.
569
wndo, rather than endo ; as scribundo-.
From this future-perfect is formed an old infinitive future
The gerund of the consonant and â conjugations often ends in
570 REFLECTIVE OR. PASSIVE VERBS.
CoNJUGATION OF IMPERFECT TENSES.
Last letter 8, Θ consonant U! i
Conjugation 1 2 3 4
Lat. C.F. Orma,- döce- uort- mëtu- audi-
English dress teach, to/7*ro, fear hear
$: S. Ormör döceör uortör mëtuör audiör
§ | ornärïs* döcërîs* uOrtêrîs métuérís audîrîs
§ ornätür döcëtür uOrtîtür mëtuítür auditür
§ [P.ornämür | döcëmür uortîmür | mëtuîmür audimür
§ | ornämíni | döcëmîni | uortîmîni | mëtuîmîni | audimìni
S | ornantür | döcentür uortuntür | mëtuuntürt | audiumtür
-S || § S. Ornäbär döcëbär uortëbär métuébár audiëbär
â §. ornäbärïsorl döcëbärïs or | uortëbärïsor| mëtuëbärïs orl audiëbärïsor
3 || §, ornäbärë | döcëbärë | uortëbärë | métuébärë | audiëbärë
g || § I, ornäbätiir | djcebatiir | uortebätüy | mètuebätüy | audiebätür
£ | 3 [P.ornäbämür | döcëbämür | uortëbämür] métuébämür | audiëbämür
3 §. ornäbämíni] döcëbämîni | uortëbämînil métuébámíni| audiëbämîni
È ornäbantür | döcëbantür | uortébantür l métuébantür laudiêbantür
Ka- i
. iS. ornäbör döcëbör uortär mëtuár audiär
§ | ornâbërïs or|döcëbérís or | uortêris or | métuérìs or | audiêrîs or
§ ornâbërë döcëbërë uortërë métuéré audiéré
§ | ornäbítür | döcëbítür | uortëtür | métuétür audiétür
§ [P.ornäbîmür | döcëbímür | uortëmúr | métuémür j audiémür
§ | ornäbîmîni | döcëbîmîni | uortëmîni | métuémîni | audiémîni
ornäbuntür | döcëbuntùr | uortentür , métuentúr | audientür
Q. *S
3 || § IS. 2. ornârê | döcërë uortërë métuéré audiré
â § [P. 2. ornämfni] döcëmîni uortîmîni | métuímínI | audîmîni
$ | $
â § 83} ornätör | döcëtör uortïtör mëtuïtör auditörj.
â §. P.3. ornantör i döcentör uortumtör | métuuntör§ | audiuntör |

* Arbiträrë, vidéré, for arbitráris, vidérâs, occur.
f Or metuontur.
f There was also for the 2d and 3d person of the singular am old form
in máno ; as fà-mino, progredi-mino.
§ Or metuontor.
!
102
IREFLECTIVE OR, PASSIVE VERB3.

ILast, letter a, e consonant, ll i
Conjugation l 2 3 4
'I'at. C.F. OÌTÌ8,• döce- uort- mëtu- audi-
'English dress teach, t^///*??, fear hear
„ S. ornër döceár uortär mëtuár audiár
§ ornërïs or | döceärïs or | uortärïs or | mëtuärïs or | audiärïs or
§ ornërë döceärë uortärë mëtuärë audiärë
. i £ Ornëtür döceätür uortätür mëtuätür audiätür
|| 5 | â [P.ornëmür | döceämür | uortämür | mëtuämür | audiämür
|3 || § | ornémini | döceámini | uortámini | métuámini | audiámini
E ornentür , döceantür | uortantür | métuantür | audiantür
?, 1—
j È S. ornärër döcërër uortërër métuérër audirër
i £ | 3 | ornârêris or döcërërïs or | uortérêrïs ori métuérèrìs or] audirërïs or
£ j 3 ornärërë döcërërë uortërërë | métuérërë audirërë
7; f § ornärëtür | döcërëtür | uortêrëtür | mëtuêrëtür | audirétùr
3 P.ornàrëmür | döcërëmür | uortërémür | métuérëmür | audirëmür
, j S j ornärëminI | döcérémîni | uortêrëmini | métuérémîni | audirémini
i ornârentür j döcërentür | uortêrentùr | métuérentür | audirentür
| iSERE •-• • v* • • • v / � • j • • — °
i TÎΧΠornäriêr or | döcëriêr or | uortiêr or | mëtuiêr or audifièr 07*
i Miööí *, ornäri döcërI uOrti mëtui audiri
Ê, Ornando- | döcendo- | uortendo- | métuendo- | audiendo-
57] MIXED CONSONANT AND I CONJUGATION.i
INDICATIvE MooD.
S. möriör mörërîs möritür ;
Past-Imperfect.
„S móriëbär möriëbärïs &c.
Future. S. 2. mörïtör, 3. mörïtör ;
S. móriár móriárís &c.
Present Temse.
P. mörímür mörïmïnI möriuntùr.
Future.
3. möriär móriërîs &c.
IMPERATIVE MooD.
Present Temse. S. mörërë;
P. mörïmïni.
SUBJUNCTIVE MooD.
Present Temse.
INFINITIVE, möri.
PARTICIPLE FUTURE, mörïtüro-.
Past Temse.
P. 3. möriuntör.
AS. mörërër mörërërîs &c.
PARTICIPLE, mörienti- or mörient.
GERUND, möriundo-.
* The infinitives in er belong to the old language.
+ The reflective verbs have also participles in enti- or ent- and in
furo-.
f See § 557.
JREFLECTIVE OR, PASSIVE VERBS. 103
571. 1 In old writers such forms as mörïmür and möriri occur.
572 Ori- (r.) rise, and pöti- (r.) make oneself master, partake more of
the è conjugation : as, örirër, öriri ; pötiris, pötitür, pötimür, pö-
tirër, pötiri.
573 The perfect tenses of a refective or passive verb are formed by
the perfect participle in to and the verbs ës- or fu-.
574 CONJUGATION OF THE PERFECT TENSES OF A
IREFLECTIVE OR PASSIVE VERB.
INDICATIVE MooD.
Present-Perfect or Aorìst.
A$. ornátus* sum or fui P. ornätif sümüs or fuîmüs
ornätüs és ,, fuistI ornäti estîs ,, fuistîs
ornätüs est; ,, fuit ornáti sunt fuérunt or fuêrë.
Past-Perfect.
S. ornätüs öram or fuêram P. ornätï ërämüs or fuërämüs
ornätüs éräs ,, fuérâs ornätï ërätïs ,, fuérâtîs
ornätüs érat ,, fuérat ornätï ërant ,, fuêrant.
Future-Perfect.
S. ornätüs éro or fuéro P. ornätï ërïmüs or fuérímüs
ornätüs ërîs ,, fuêrîs ornätï ërîtîs ,, fuêrîtîs
ornätüs érît; ,, fuérít ornätï ërunt ,, fuérint.
SUBJUNCTIVE MooD.
Present-Perfect or Aorìst.
S. ornätus sim or fuérim P. Ornäti simüs or fuérimüs
ornätus sis ,, fuëris Ornáti sîtîs ,, fuéritîs
ornätus sit ,, fuérit ornäti sint ,, fuërint.
Past-Perfect.
S. ornätüs essem or fuissem P. ornäti essémüs or fuissémüs
ornätüs essés ,, fuissës ornäti essëtîs ,, fuissëtîs
ornätüs esset ,, fuisset, ornätI essent ,, fuissent.
INFINITIVE MooD.
ornatüs essè or fuissë.
* Ormatìs, ornatâ or ornatum, to agree with the nominative.
f Ornati, ornatae or ornatä, to agree with the nominative.
104 VERBS.
CONJUGATION OF A SIMPLE* VERB, WITH THE
ENGLISH TRANSLATION.
575 C.F. SCRfB- write.
Prìncipal parts : scribéré scribo scripsI Scriptum.
INDICATIVE MooD.
Present Tense, scrib-.
As a present-imperfect, am, δrg :
Ad frätrem meum scribo, I am wrìtìng to m3y brother.
Ad frätrem tuum scrîbîs, Yow are writìng to 3your brother.
Ad frätrem suum scribít, He is wrítíng to his brother.
Ad frätrem nostrum scribímüs, We are wrìtìng to oVr brother.
Ad frätrem uostrum scribîtîs, Yov, are wrìtìng to 3your brother.
Ad frätrem suum scribunt, They are wrìtìng to their brother.
576
as an historic present :
Postërö die ad sénem scribo, The meaet day I write to the old man.
577 as a present of custom :
TEgö cölämö scribo, I write with a, reed.
Tü pinnâ scribîs, Yow write with a pen.
578 as a present, translated by do :
Egö uërö scribo, Yes I do write.
Tü uërö scribìs, Yes yow, do write.
579 as a present, including past time, have been —ìrg :
Iam duäs höras scribo, I have been writîng now two ho^/rs.
580 Past-Imperfect, scribëbä-.
As a past-imperfect, was V^9 :
Scribêbam cum puër inträuit, I was writóng when the boy came în.
581 as a past tense of custom, </$ed to — :
Egö cälämö scribêbam, I vsedf to write with a reed.
Tü pinnâ scribëbäs, Yow wSed to write with a pen.
* That is, not reflective or passive.
f Or * I wrote,' &c.
VERBS. I05
582 — as a past tense, including time preceding, had been,
—ing :
Iam tris höras scribêbam, I had been then writing three
hours.
583 JFufure Tense, scribä- or scribé-.
Translated by shall, will : -
Cras máné scribam, I 8hall write tomorrow morning.
Cras máné scribés, Yow, will write tomorrow morning.
Present-Perfect Tense, scripsîs-.
584 AS a present-perfect, have —en :*
Quattuör ëpistölas scripsi, I have Φrìtten, fowr leffers.
585 as an aorist, translated by the English past :
Hëri ad négötiätörem scripsI, I wrote yesterday to the mer-
chant.
586 as an aorist, translated by did :
Egö uërö scripsi, Yes I did, write.
Tü uërö scripsisti, Yes yow, did write.
587 as a present-perfect, translated by an English pre-
sent :
Egó si scrip$i, rescribît, If 7 write, he writes again.
Tü SI scripsisti, rescribít, If 3yow, write, he writes agaìn.
588 Past-Perfect, scripsêrä-.
Translated by had —en :
Ante id tempus scripsêram, Ihad writter, before that time.
589 translated by an English past :
Egö SI scripsêram, rescribëbat, If I wrote, he wrote again.
Tü SI scripsêras, rescribêbat, If3/ov wrote, he wrote again.
• That is, the perfect participle of the English verb.
I06 VERBS.
590 Future-Perfect, scripsêr-.
Translated by shal' have —en, will have —en ?
Antè noctem scripsêro, I shall have written before night.
Antè noctem scripsêrîs,* Yow will have written before ^ight.
59]
translated by an English present :
Egó si scripsêro, rescribet, If I write, he will write again.
Tü Si scripsêris, rescribet, If 3yow, write, he will write again.
592 IMPERATIVE MooD.
Present Temse.
Translated by the simple verb :
Scribe ad pätrem tuum, Write to your father.
Scribíte ad pätrem uostrum, Write to 3your father.
593 Future Temse.
Translated by Shall, must, let ; or by the simple verb :
Scribîto, Thow shalt write. Scribítöté, Ye shall write.
Scrîbîto, He shal' vorite. Scribunto, They shal' write.
594 SUBJUNCTIVE MooD.
Present Temse, scribä-.
As a present-imperfect, am, δng (indirect interrogative):
Nescio quid scribam, I know not what I am writing.
Nescio quid scribäs, 1 know not what 3yow are writing.
595
translated by an indicative present (result):
Indé fit ut nihil de hac rê scri- Hence át happens that I write
bam, ^othing on this subject.
Indè fit ut nihil de hac rê scribäs, Hence it happens that 3yow, write
^othing on this subject.
596
translated by do (concession):
Vt scribam, nön est sätïs, Even granting that I do write, ìt ìs not
enough.
Vt scribas, nön est sätïs, Ever, grantìng that 3yov do write, út ís
^ot enough.
* But see, as regards the quantity of the i after r, § 476.
VERB8. 107
597 translated by should, would (hypothesis):
Si pinnâ mihi sit, scribam, If I had a pen, I would write.
Si pinnâ tîbi sit, scribäs, If3/ow had a pen, 3yoυ φοιιld write.
598 translated by were —áng:
Sëdeo hic, tamquam scribam, I sit here, as £f I pere writing.
Sëdës istic, tanquam scribäs, Yow sit there, as fgyov vere writing.
Sédet illic, tanquam scribat, He sits 3yonder, as fhe were writing.
599
translated by may (purpose):
Pinnâ dätur, quä* scribam, The per is gêven, me, that I may
write* with it.
Pinnâ dätur, quâ scribäs, The pem is gêver 3yov, that 3/ov may
write with it.
599. 1 translated by m^/st or shal' (command) :
Lex est ut scribam, There is a law that I must write.
Ilex est ut scribäs, There is a law that 3yov must write.
600 —— translated by to (indirect interrogative):
Nescio quid scribam, 1 kmow mot what to write.
Nescis quid scribäs, Yov %now mot what to write.
601 —— translated by shall, will :
Puer tîmet në scribam, The boy is afraid I shall write.
Puer tîmet në scribäs, The öoy is afraid yow will write.
602 translated by from —ing :
Hoc impëdit né scribam, This prevents me from wrîtîng.
Hoc impëdit më scribäs, This prevent8 yow from writîng.
602. l translated by English infinitive :
síné scribam, Let me write. Síné scribámüs, Let us write.
Sinë scribat, Let him write. Sînë scribant, Let them write.
* Literally, * with which.'
f Or rather, * to write with.*
108 vERBs.
602. 2 translated by an English imperative :
Në scribam, Let me not write. Né scribämüs, Let vs not write.
Në scribäs, Do mot write. INè scribätïs, Do mot wróte.
Në scribat, Let him mot write. Né scribant, Let them ^ot write.
603 Past Tense, scribêrê-.
As a past-imperfect, was —ing (indirect interrogative):
Nesciébam quid scribërem, Iknew not what I was writáng.
Nesciébam quid scribérés, I knew not what you were writîng.
604
translated by an English past (result).
Indè factum est ut nihil de hac Hence it happened that I wrote
rë scribërem, nothing or. this subject.
Indè factum est ut nihil de hac Hence it happened that 3yow wrote
rë scribérés, ^othing or, this subject.
605 translated by should or would have beem, ing (hy-
pothesis):
Si pinná mihi esset, scribërem, If there had been a pen for me, I
should have been wrítíng.
Si pinná tíbi esset, scribérés, If there had beer, a per for 3yov,
3yow, would have been writîng.
vrg :
606 translated by had been,
Sëdëbam hic, tanquam scribërem, I was sittirg here, as ìf I had
been wrítíng. »
Sëdëbäs istic, tanquam scribérés, You were sìttìng there, as fgyov
had been wrítíng.
Sëdëbat illic, tanquam scribêret, He was sittìng gyonder, as f he
had been writîng. -
607
translated by might (purpose):
Pinnâ dáta est quä* scribërem, The pen was gêver, me, that Imightf
^prite with it.
Pinnâ dáta est quâ scribérés, The per opas given 3yow, that yow
anight write with it.
* Literally, * with which.' + Or rather, * to write with.'
VEEBS. I09
608 translated by must or should (command):
Lex ërat ut scribërem, There vas a law that I must aprite.
Lex ërat ut scribërës, There was a law that $yου, must write.
609 translated by to (indirect interrogative):
Nesciébam quid scribërem, I knew not what to write.
Nesciébas quid scribërës, You, %new not what to write.
610 translated by Should or would :
Puer tîmëbat në scribërem, The boy was afraid I should write.
Puer tîmëbat në scribérés, The boy was afraid yow would write.
611
translated by from
áng:
Hoc impëdiébat në scribërem, This prevented me from writing.
Hoc impëdiébat në scribérés, This prevented 3yow from wróting.
612
translated as a past order* :
Në scribërem, (He δade) me not write.
Në scribërës, (He bade) yow not write.
613 Present-Perfect, scripsêrI-.
As a present-perfect, have —en (indirect interrogative):
Nescio quid scripsêrim, I know ^ot what I have written.
Nescis quid scripsêrisf, Yov, know not what 3yov have written.
614
as an aorist (indirect interrogative):
Nescio quîd héri scripsérim, Iknow not what I wrote gesterday.
Nescis quíd héri scripsêris, You know^ot what you wrotegesterday.
615 translated by may have —en :
Forsîtan nìmium scripsêrim, Perhaps I may have written too much.
Forsitan nîmium scripsêris, Perhaps yowmay have writtentoomuch.
* In reported speech.
* But see, as regards the quantity of the i after r, § 476.
110 VERBS,
616
as a future-perfect after a present, translated by an
English present (reported speech):
Caesar pollïcëtur së, SI scripsérim, Cæsar promises that f I write, he
rescriptürum, wil, write again.
Caesar pollïcëtur sé, si scripsêris, Cæ$ar promises that €f3yow, write,
rescriptürum, he will, write again.
6] 7 translated by were to —, or English past tense (hy-
pothesis):
Si* scripsérim äd eum, rédeat, If I were to writet to hóm, he would
7r€fw//^/?.
SI scripsêris äd eum, rédeat, If 3yow opere to write tohim, he would
7*e£V7^7?.
61S translated by should, would (consequence of hypothesis):
Erustrâ scripsérim, Ishould write în vaìn.
Erustrâ scripsêris, Yow, wowld, write în vaìn.
619 translated by had —en :
Sëdeo hic, tanquam ëpistölam I sit here, as f I had writter, the
perscripsérimí, whole lefter.
Sëdës istic, tanquam épistölam Yow sit there, as óf 3yow, had writ-
perscripsêris, ten, the whole lefter.
Sédet illic, tanquam ëpistölam He sits 3yonder, as íf he had writ-
perscripsêrit, tem the whole letter.
620 translated as an imperative :
Id numquam scripsêrim, Let me mever write that.
Id mumquam scripsêris, JWewer write that.
Id nunquam scripsêrit, JLet him, never write that.
* This si might be omitted. Thus in the English too we might drop
the ìf, and say, *were I to write to him,' &c.
-f Or, * if I wrote,' &c.
f Per-scrib- literally signifies * write through, write to the end.'
VERB8, 111
621 Past-Perfect, scripsissê-.
As a past-perfect, translated by had, —en (indirect inter-
rogative):
Quaesitum est, ütrum scripsissem, The question was asked, whe-
ther I had writtem.
Quaesitum est, ütrum scripsissés, The question was asked, whe-
ther 3yow, had written.
622
as a future-perfect after a past, translated by an English
past (reported speech):
Caesar pollïcëbätur së, SI scripsis- Cæsar promised that f I wrote,
sem, rescriptürum, he would write again.
Caesar pollïcëbätur sè, Si scripsis- Cæsar promised that åf 3yo^,
sés, rescriptürum, wrote, he would write agaîr.
623
translated by had —en (hypothesis):
Etiamsi scripsissem, frustra esset, Even êf Ihad written, it would,
have been in, vain.
Etiamsi scripsisses, frustra esset, Even êf yow, had written, ît
φοιιld, have beem, in vaìn.
624
translated by Should have, would have (consequemce of
hypothesis):
Tum* quóqué scripsissem, Even in that case* I should have written.
Tum quöquë scripsissés, Even in that case 3/ov would have written.
625 INFINITIVE IMPERFECT, scribërë.
Translated by an English infinitive :
Débeo scribéré, I ought to write.
Nëqueo scribéré, I cam not write.
626 translated as an English indicative :
Scio eum scribéré, I know that he is wrítíng.
Sciébam eum scribërë, 1 %neo that he was writing.
627
translated by an English perfect infinitive :
Dêbêbam scribéré, Ioωght to have written.
* Literally * then.'
112 VERBS,
628 INFINITIVE PERFECT, scripsissë.
Translated by an English perfect infinitive :
Scripsissë dicítür, EHe is said to have wraztem.
629 s- translated by an English indicative :
Scio eum scripsissé, I know tha* he has writter.
Scio eum héri scripsissé, Iknow that he wrote 3ye8terday.
Sciébam eum scripsissé, Iknew that he had written.
630
translated by the havîng —en :
Scripsisse exîtio ei fuit, The having writter, was fatal to him.
631 PARTICIPLE IMPERFECT, scribenti- or scribent-.
Translated by δrg :
Sënex épistölam scribens décîdit, The old man, while wrîtîng a
letter, fell, down.
632 J^ARTICIPLE FUTURE, scriptüro-.
Translated by about to —, ìntending to J'
Ad ipsum cras scriptürüs, haec I^tending to write to himself to-
nunc ömitto, morrow, 1 pass over these things
7?0?/).
632. l Dico më scriptürum essé, 7 say that I will write.
Dixi mè scriptürum essé, I said that 7 would write.
632. 2 Dixi mè scriptürum fuissé, Isaid that I would have written.
633 translated as an intentiom not fulfilled:
Hâbëbam ei grätias, scriptürus* 7 felt grateful to hêm, and should
quöqué, nisi aegrötärem, have writter, too, éf I had not
öeen, áll.
634 GERUND, scribendo-.
Translated by rg :
N. Mihi est scribendum épistö- To me belongs the writìng the
läsf, letters.
Ac. Délígítür ad scribendum He ìs Selected for writìng the
épistöläsf, letters.
* See also the conjugation of the verb fu- with the participle in turo.
f Most of these constructions are comfined to the old Writers. See
the use of the Gerundive, § 1287.
VERBS. I 13
G. Véniépistölas scribendi caussâ, I came for the sake of writing
the letters.
D. Aptüs est scribendo ëpistöläs*, He is fit for writing letters.
Ab. Scribendof ëpistöläs occüpá- He is engaged in writing letters.
tüs est,
635 SUPINE, scriptu-.
Translated as an English infinitive:
Ac. Eo illüc scriptum, Iam going 3yonder to write. .
Ab. Hae littérae diffícíles sunt These letters are difficult to write.
scriptü, -
CONJUGATION OF A REFLECTIVE VERB, WITH
THE ENGLISH TRANSLATION.
636 Arma- (r.), arm oneself.
637
638
Principal parts : armärI, armor, armätüs.
INDICATIVE MooD. *
Present Tense, am arming myself, arm myself, &c.
Armor, Iam armîng m3y8e!f.
Armärïs or armärëí, Yow are arming 3yourself.
Armiätür, He is arming himself.
Armämür, |We are arming owrselves.
Armámini, You are arming 3yourselves.
Armantür, They are arming themselves
Past-Imperfect, was arming myself, &c.
Armábar, & , ' I was armáng myself.
Armäbärïs or armäbärë, Yow were armáng gyowr3elf.
Armäbätür, He was arming hóm8elf.
Armäbämür, VWe were arming ourselves.
Armäbämîni, Yow were arming 3yowrselves.
Armäbantür, » They were arming themselves.
£* See note -f p. 112.
f This form of the Gerund, although an ablative, is oftem shortened
in láte writers, as uigilandö (Juv. 3. 232).
it The form in ré is not common for the présent indicative ; it may
be from fear of confusion with the infinitive.
I
1Í4 VERES.
639 Future, shall or will arm myself, &c.
Armábor, - Iahal] arm myself.
Armäbërïs or armäbéré, Yow will arm yourself
Armäbítür, He wú arm hómself.
Armäbímür, }We shall a^m, ov/) selves.
Armâbîmîni, Yov, will arm yowr8elves.
Armábuntür, - They will arm themselves.
640 Present-Perfect, have armed myself, &c. (or Aorást, armed myself.)
Armátus* sum, I have armed myself.
Armätüs* ës, Yov have armed yourself.
Armätüs* est, He has armed himself.
Armätïf sümüs, We have a^med ourselves.
Armätif estîs, You have armed $yourselves.
Armätif sunt, They have armed themselves.
64] Past-Perfect, had armed myself, &c.
Armätüs éramf, Ihad armed myself.
Armätüs érâs, You had armed yourself.
Armätüs érat, He had armed himself.
Armäti ërämüs, We had, armed ourselves.
Armäti érâtîs, Yow had armed $yourselves.
Armäti éramt, They had, armed themselves.
(542 Future-Perfect, shall have armed myself, &c.
Armätüs éro, § 1 shal' have armed myself.
Armätüs érís, You wú7 have armed 3yourself.
Armätüs érít, He wù/ have armed himself.
Armäti érímüs, We 8hall have armed ourselves.
Armäti érítís, You will have armed $yourselves.
Armäti ërunt, They will have armed themselves.
643 IMPERATIVE MooD.
Presem,£. 4.
Armärë, Arm, 3yovrself. | ArmämYni, Arm yowrselves.
• Armätä if the nominative be feminine, armátum ifit be neuter.
f Armätae ifthe nominative be feminine, armatâ if it be neuter.
f Or fuéram, &c. § Or fuéro, &c.
VERBS. Il5
644 . Future.
Armätor or armämÌmo, You must arm, 3yowr8elf.
Armätor or armämíno, He must arm himself.
Armantor, They must arm themselves.
645 SUBJUNCTIVE MooD.
Present. (See the several translations of scriba-m.)
Consül impërat üt armer, The consul commands me to arm myself.
Consül impërat, üt armërïs The consul commands yow to arm ?yowr-
or armërë, self.
646 Past. (See the several translations of 8crìbere-^.)
Consül impëräuit üt armärer, The consul commanded me to arm
7ny8elf.
Consùl impëräuit, üt armärërïs The consul comma^ded3/ow to arm
or armârêrë, 3yourself.
647 Present-Perfect. (See the several translations of scripseri-m.)
Nescio quäre armátus sim, 7 know not wÄgy 7 have armed myself.
Nescio quäre armátus sis, Iknow not phy3/ov have armed3yourself.
648 Past-Perfect. (See the several translations of 8cripsisse-^.)
Nesciébam quäre armätüs essem, I knew not why I had armed
^ySelf.
Nesciébam quäre armätüs essés, I knew mot why 3/ow had armed
3yourself. -
649 INFINITIVE IMPERFECT.
I)ëbeo armári, Iought to arm myself.
Scio eum armári, Iknow that he is armáng himself.
Sciébam eum armári, Iknew that he wa8 arming himself.
Armäri signum belli est, To arm oneSelf is a sìgn of war.
Dêbêbam armári, Iought to have armed myself.
650 ' INFINITIVE PERFECT.
Scio eum armátum essé, I know that he has armed himself.
Sciébam eum armätum essé, I knew that he had armed himself.
Scio eum armätum förë, Iknow that he will have armed himself.
II6 VERBS.
65] PARTICIPLE IMPERFECT.
Armanti- or armant-, (While) arming oneself.
652 PARTICIPLE PERFEGT.
Armäto-, IHaving armed oneself.
653 PARTICIPLE FUTURE.
Armätüro-, About to arm o^eSelf.
654 GERUND.
Armando-, , Armång oneself.
CONJUGATION OF A PASSIVE VERB, WITH THE
ENGLISH TRANSLATION.
Prëm- press.
Principal parts : prémi, prémor, pressüs.
INDICATIVE MooD. *
655 Pres. Prémor* I am pressed, préméris 3yow are pres8ed, prémîtür
he ìs pres8ed. Prémîmür we are pressed, prémîmîni 3yow are pressed,
prëmuntür they are pre88ed. .-
656 Past. Prêmêbarf I was pre88ed, prémëbärïs or prémëbärë 3yow
vere pres8ed, prêmêbätür he was pres8ed. Prêmêbämür we were
pressed, prémébámini 3yow were pressed, prêmêbantür they were
pres8ed. -
657 Future. Prêmar I shal/ be pressed, préméris or préméré you will
öe pressed, prémétùr he will öe pressed. Prêmêmür we shal/ öe
pressed, prémémîni 3you will öe pressed, prémentür they will öe
pressed. •
* With many verbs this translation would not give the meaning, and
indeed the English passive is defective in the imperfect tenses. Thus
domus aedificatur means, not * the house is built,' for that would imply
that the building is completed, but *the house is being built* or * is a-build-
ing ;' but of these two phrases, the first is scarcely English, and the second
is obsolete. Again, such a verb as occìdor must not be translated * I am
killed,' but rather * I am on the point of being killed.'
.f Similarly, domus aedifieabatur would signify * the house was being
built' or * was a-building.' So occìdebar must not be translated * I was
killed,' but rather * I was on the point of being killed.'
VIERIBS. II 7
658 Pres.-perf. Pressus* sumf 1 have been pressedit, pressüs és yow,
have been, pressed, pressùs est he has been pres8ed. Pressi sümüs
we have been pressed, pressi estîs yow, have been pressed, pressi sunt
they have been pressed.
659 Past-perf. Pressüs* éram§ 7 had been pressed||, pressùs éräs 3yow
had been pres8ed, pressüs érat, he had been, pressed. Pressi érämüs
we had been pressed, pressi érâtis you had been pressed, pressi érant
they had been pressed.
660 Fut.-perf. Pressüs* éro* I shall have been pressed, pressùs érîs
3yoù will have been pressed, pressüs érít he will have becr, pressed.
Pressi érímüs we shal' have been pressed, pressi érîtîs you will have
been pres8ed, pressi érunt they will have been pressed.
IMPERATIVE MooD.
661 Present. Préméré be thow, pressed, prémîmîni öe ye pressed.
662 Future. Prémîtor thow, shalt öe pressed, prémitor he shall öe
pressed. Prëmuntor they shall be pressed.
663 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense. Rês eô rédît, ut mälis prëmar, Matfers are come
to thês, that I am pressed with trowöles.
664 Egö Si tot mälis prëmar, péream, If I were pressed by 80 ^ary
trovöles, I &hould die.
665 Tum nimium prémar, In that case I should be too mwch pressed.
666 Timör est né prémar, The fear is that I shall be pressed.
667 Stat per Cäium, quómínus prémar, Caius prevents me from being
pressed.
668 Nitor né prémar, Iam strîvîng not to öe pressed.
669 Past Tense. Tïmör ërat né prémérer, There vas a fear that I
should be pressed.
670 Rês eô rédiërat, ut mälis prémérer, Matters had come to this,
that I was pres8ed with troubles. &
* i. e. Pressùs, -â, or -um.
f Or as an aorist, * I was pressed,' &c.
j With some verbs the translation * is ed* is admissible. Thus
domus aedificata est means * the hquse is built* or * the building is now
completed.* Occisus sum, * I am killed.? § Or.fueram, &c.
II With some verbs this tense maybe translated * was — ed.* Thus,
domus iam aedificata erat, “ the house was now built,' i. e. the building
was completed.
“I Or fuero, &c.
Il8 VIERIBS.
671 Egó si tot mälis prémérer, périrem, If I had been pre8sed with
so man3y troubles, I should have died.
672 Tum nimium prémérer, In that ca8e I should have been too mwch
pres8ed.
673 Stétit per Cäium, né prémérer, Caîus preverted me from being
pre88ed. -
674 Nitebar ne prémërer, I was strivîng ^ot to öe pres8ed.
675 Pres.-perf. Nescit, quam gráuiter pressus sim, He knows not
hoω heavily I have been presseú.
676 As am, Aorisf. Némo scit, quantis tum mälis pressus sim, Vo
one knows with what great troubles 1 was ther pres8ed.
677 Si pressus sim, cédam, If I were pres8ed, I Should give way.
678 Palleo, tamquam áb ursô pressus sim, I look pale, a8 f I had
been pressed by a bear.
679 Wéquiquam pressus sim, 1 8hould be pres8ed to ^0 purpo8e.
680 Scit mé, si mälö pressus sim, tâmén incölümem ëuäsürum, He
knows that åf I am pressed by trouble, $till 1 8hall come out vnhurt.
681 Past-perf. Nesciëbat, quam grâuîter pressùs essem, He Aenew
qvot how heavily I had been pressed.
682 Néquiquam pressüs essem, I should have been pressed to no pur-
p08e.
683 Sciébat më, Si mälö pressüs essem, tämen nunquam cessürum,
He knew that f I were pressed by trouble, still I should never gyield.
684 INFINITIVE IMPERFECT. Prémi to öe pressed. .
INFINITIVÉ PERFECT. Pressüs* essé to have been pressed.
PARTICIPLE IMPERFECT. Prêmendo-being pressed or to öe pressed.
PARTICIPLE PERFECT. Presso- pressed.
6S5 CONJUGATION OF A DEPONENT VERB.
C. F. Sëqu- follow. t.
Prmcipal parts : sèqui, séquor, sécütüs.
INDICATIVE MooD.
686 Present. Séquor I follow, séquéris yow follow, séquitür he fol-
Wow8. Séquímür we follow, séquimini yow follow, séquunturf they
foliou)
* The case and gender will vary with the sentence.
* The forms sequontur and secuntur also occur.
WIERIBS. II9
687 Past. Séquébar I was following, séquébáris or séquébáré you,
vere following, séquëbätür he was following. Sëquëbämür we were
following, séquëbämînI 3yow were following, séquébantür they were
following.
688 Future. Séquar I shall follow, séquérís or sëquêrë you will fol-
low, séquétür he will follow. Séquémür we shall follow, séquémînI
3yov, will follow, séquentür they will follow.
689 Pres.-perf. Sécütus* sum I have followedf, sécütüs és 3yov have
followed, sécütüs est he has followed. Sécütij sümüs we have fo?-
lowed, sécüti estîs gyov have followed, sécüti sunt they have followed.
690 Past-perf. Sécütüs* éram§ I had followed, sécütüs éräs you had
followed, sécütüs érat, he had followed. Sécütif érämüs we had fol-
Zowed, sécüti érâtîs you had followed, sécüti érant they had followed.
691 Fut.-perf. Sécütüs* éro] I shall have followed, sécütüs érìs 3yov
vìïò have followed, sécütüs érít he will have followed. Sécütif éri-
müs we shall have followed, sécüti érîtîs you will have followed,
sécüti érunt they will have followed. '
IMPERATIVE MooD.
692 Present. Séquéré follow thou, séquímini follow ye.
693 Future. Sëquîtor or sëquïmïno thow shalt follow, séquítor or
séquímino he shal' fol/ow. Sécuntor they shall fol/ov.
694 SUBJUNCTIVE MIOOD.“
Present. Séquar, séquärïs or sëquärë, séquätür ; séquämür,
séquàmîni, séquantür.
695 Past. Séquérer, séquérërïs or séquérêrê, séquérétùr; sëquërë-
mür, sëquërémîni, séquérentür.
696 Pre8.-perf. Sécütus sim**, sécütus sis, sécütus sit ; sécüti si-
müs, sécüti sitîs, sécüti sint.
697 Past-perf. Sécütüs essemtf, sécütüs essés, $écütüs esset ; sécüti
essêmüs, sécüti essëtîs, sécüti essent.
* Secutüs, -â, -um, according to the gender of the nominative.
f Or as an aorist, * I followed,* &c.
f Secuti, -ae, -â, according to the gender of the nominative.
§ Or fueram, &c. || Or.fuero, &c.
For the English translation, see the mode of translating scriba-m,
&c. §§ 594-624 ; and observe that Deponent verbs are trànslated by
English active verbs.
** Or fuerim, &c. ff Or.fuissem, &c.
] 20 VERIBS,
698 INFINITIVE. Sëqui to follow.
INFINITIVE PERFECT. Sécütüs essé to have follooed.
PARTICIPLE IMPERFECT. Séquenti- or sëquent- following.
PARTICIPI.E and GERUND. Séquendo- following.
PARTICIPLE PERFEGT. Sécüto- having followed.
699 CONJUGATION OF AN IMPERSONAL VERB.
C. F. Plu- raîm.
INDICATIVE MooD.
Present. Pluit it rains.
Past. Pluêbat, it was raining.
JFwfo/re. Pluet it ovil/ raìn.
Pres.-perf. Plüuit it has rained, or
A8 an Aorìst. Plüuit êt rained.
Past-perf. Plüuërat, it had rained.
Fwt.-perf. Plüuérít it will have rained, &c.
700 CONJUGATION, IN PART, OF AN IMPERSONAL VERB
- OF THE FEELINGS. (See § 393.)
C. F. Püde- shame.
'INDICATIVE MooD.
Present.
Püdet me ignäuiae, I am ashamed of my cowardice.
Püdet te ignäuiae, Yoº are ashamed of your cowardice.
Püdet eum ignäuiae, He is ashamed qf hìs cowardice.
Püdet nös ignäuiae, We are ashamed qf ovr cowardice. -
IPüdet uös ignäuiae, Yow are ashamed qf 3your cowardice.
Püdet eös ignäuiae, They are ashamed qf their cowardice.
Past.
Püdëbat me ignäuiae, I was ashamed of my cowardice.
Püdébat te ignäuiae, Yow were ashamed qf your cowardice, &c.
JFuture.
Púdébit me ignäuiae, 1 shall be ashamed of my cowardice.
Püdëbit te ignäuiae, Yoat will öe ashamed of 3yowr cowardice, &c.
VERBS. 12I
70]
702
Conjugation, in part, of a Passive Impersonal Verb :
C. F. Résist- 8tand against, make oppo8itior, oppo8e.
INDICATIyE MooD.
Present.
Résistîtur mihi, Opposition is made to me, or I am opposed.
Résistîtur tîbi, 0pposìtìon ìs made to yov, or yow are opposed.
Rësistítür ei, Opposìtìon ìs made to hóm, or fie äs opposed..
Résistîtur nóbis, 0pposìtìon ìs made to vs, or we are opposed.
Résistîtur uóbis, Opposition is made to you, or yow are opposed.
Résistítür eis, 0pposition is made to them, or they are opposed.
Past. Résistëbätur mihi, 0pposition was ^ade to me, Or I was
opposed.* -
Résistëbätur tîbi, 0pposîtîor, was made to 3yov, or 3yow were op-
p08ed, &c.
Future. Résistêtur mihi, 0pposition will be made to me, or I
8hall öe opposed.
Résistétur tibi, 0pposition ἀσέl/ be made to 3/ow, or gyow wì'/ öe
oppo8ed, &c.
Pres.-perf. Restìtum mihi est, 0ppositior, has been made to me,
or I have been opposed.f
Restîtum tîbi est, 0pposition has been made to 3yow, orgyov have
öeen opposed, &c.
Past-perf. Restîtum mihi érat, 0pposition had been made to me,
or Ihad been oppo8ed. -
Restìtum tîbi érat, Oppositîor. had been made to yow, or yow had
been oppo8ed, &c. -
Conjugation, in part, of the participle in túro with the verbs
ès- and fu- be in the sense of intention or destiny.
INDICATIVE MooD.
With the present of és-, ìntend to —.
Nihîl actürus sum, I întemd to do motháng.
* i. e. * All this time” or * for a time.' This tense must, not be con-
founded with the aorist.
* Or as an aorist, * Opposition was made to me,* &c.
122 VERBS.
am, destìned to —.
Quid tîmeam, si beátus fütürus sum ? What am I to fear, €f I
am destined to öe happy ?
703 With the Past of ës-, ìntended to —.
Nihíl actürüs éram, I ìntended to do notháng.
was destìned to �
Quid tîmërem, si beátus fütürüs ëram ? What was I to fear, if
I vas destêned to öe happy ?
705 With the Perf. of fu-, ìntended fo —, and should have dome
80, êf ę
Dédítós, occisürus fui, If they had been given wp, I should have
Å?/ed them.
was destined to , and should have done so, íf �
Nísi réuertissem, intérítürus fui, If I had not turned back, I
should have perished.
706 With the Past-perf. of fu-, had întended to —, and would
have done 8o, €f ę
Quam uim lätrö mihi fuérat illätürüs, ín ipsum conuerti, The
vîolence which the robber had ìntended to direct against me, I turned
against himself.
707 • SUBJUNCTIVE MooD.
With the Pres. of ës-, îmtend to �
Scribam quîd actürus sim, I will write word what I ìntend
to do.
am destined to
Nescio quandö sim mörïtürüs, I know mot when, I am, to die.
708 With the Past of ës-, intended to —.
Scripsi quid actürüs essem, I wrote word what 1 intended to do.
vas destìned to —.
Nesciébam quando essem mörftürüs, I knew not when I was to
die. -
VERB8. Il 23
709 With the Perf. of fu-, intended to, and should have done so,
êf • -
Quis dübitat quin dédîtös occisürus fuérim ? Who dowózs δα;
that, ífthey had been given, up, I should have killed them ?
was destìned to, and should have done so, èf —-.
Séquitür ut nîsî réuertissem, intérítürus fuérim, It follows that
êf 1 had ^ot turned back, I should have perished.
710 With the Infinitive of ës-, ìnfend to —.
Scio* eum nihîl actürum essé, I know* that he íntends* to do
^othing.
£s destìned to —.
Scio omnës hömines mörftürös essë, I know that al/ men are
destîmed to die.
711 With the Perf.-inf. of fu-, intended to —, and should have
dome 80, êf �
Fáma est më dëdïtös occisürum fuissé, There is a report that $f
they had been gìvem vp, I should have killed them.
was destìned to , and should have done so, óf ¢*
Certum est mé nîsî réuertissem, intérítürum fuissë, It is cer-
tain that f I had not turned back, I should have perished.
712 Conjugation of the participle in endo when used with the verb
és- and fu- be in the sense of duty or necessity.
INDICATIVE MooD.
With the Pres. of ës-.
Mihi omnia ünö tempörë sunt àgendà, I have every thông to do
άέ 07) Ce.
713 With the Past, of ës-.
Mihi omnia ünö tempöre ërant ägendâ, I had every thing to do
αί, 07?.C€.
714 With the Fut. of ës-.
Mihi omnia ünö tempöre ërunt ägendà, I 8hall have every tháng
to do at omce.
* After a past tense, as sciebam * I knew,' the infinitive would be
translated by *intended' or ' were destined.' -
] 24 VERBS.
715 With the Pres.-perf. of fu-.
Nisi firmáta extréma agmínis fuissent, ingens clädes accipiendâ
fuit, If the rear qf the line of march had not been strengthened, a
tremendo^/8 ölow m^/st have been, received. . •
- Ab Alexamënö fuit häbenda örätiö, The 8peech, was to have beer,
7made òy Alexamenus, (but as he is now dead) &c.
716 With the Past-perf. of fu-.
Ab Alexamënö fuèrat häbenda örätiö, The speech, was to have
been made by Alexamenvs, (but as he was then dead) &c.
717 SUBJUNCTIVE MooD.
With the Pres. of ës-.
Nescio quid sit nöbis ágendum, 1 know not what we ought to do.
718 With the Past of és-.
Nesciébam quîd esset nöbis ágendum, 1 knew not what we ought
to do. -
719 With the Pres.-perf. of fu-.
Hoc haud dübium fëcit quin nîsî firmäta extréma agmînis
fuissent, ingens clädës accìpiendä fuérit, This made fit certaìn that
êf the rear of the line qf march had not been strengthened, a tremen-
dous blow must have been received.
720 INFINITIVE MooD.
With Imperf. of és-. -
Sentit différendum esse in aestätem bellum, He feels that the
war mvst be pwt off to the 8ummer. -
721 With the Perf. of fu-. - -
Hoc scio, nîsî réuertisset, ín illo eI concläui cübandum fuissé,
This I know, that $f he had ^ot twrned back, he would have had to
sleep êr, that chamber.
722 SOME IRREGULAR, ANID DEFECTIVE VERBS
CONJUGATED.
The verb ës- meams, first, eat ; secondly, live ; thirdly, ezist for
the senses, be ; fourthly, eæist for the mind, öe. In the first sense
the forms in use are as follows :
VERBS. 125
ës- eat.
INDICATIVE MooD. Present. S. és you eat, est he eats ; P. estIs
3yo^/, eat.
IMPERATIvE. Present. S. és* eat thow ; P. esté eat ye.
Future. S. estó thou shalt eat, estô he shall eat; P. estöté ye
&hall eat.
SUBJUNCTIVE. Past. S. essem essës esset ; P. essémüs essëtîs
essent.
INFINITIvE. essé to eat.t
PASSIVE. Indic. Pre8. S. 3. estür. Subj. Past. S. 3. essëtür.
722. l The same forms exist for Several of the compounds, as cömös-
eat vp, whence cömös, cömest, cömestîs, cömessë.
722. 2 The verb ëd- eat is but a variety of ès- eat. It is declined
regularly, except that for the subj. pres., besides the regular édam
&c. it has also an old form édim, ëdis &c.
723 ès- or fu- öe.
(a) Imperfect Tenses.
INDICATIVE MooD.
Present. Past. JFuture.
A. sum I am | S. ëram I was A. ërö 1 shall öe
èsf 3yow are ëräs 3yow were ërîs gyov wú öe
estf he is èrat he was êrît; he wïò ôe
P. sümüs we are | P. ërämüs we were | P. ërïmüs we shal , ôe
estîs gyov, are ërätïs 3yow were ërîtîs you will be
sunt they are érant they were érunt they will be.
IMPERATIvE.
Present. S. ës be ; P. esté öe.
Future. S. estó thou shalt be, estó he shal! öe ; P. estóté ye
8hal! öe, suntö they shal', be. .
• The quantity is not proyed by the authority of any. poet, but in-
ferred from the statements of the grammarians Priscian (ix. l, 11) and
Servius (ad Aen. v. 785). •
f Thus it appears that forms which begin with es, and these alone,
are used with the double sense of * eat' and * be.'
f Es and est often lose the e, as sanù's, iussü's, for &aniis ès, iussis
ès ; bonust, bonast, bonumst, for bonüs est, bona est, bonum est ; quantist
for quanti est; umbrä's ämantum, Plaut. Mil. III. l. 3l.
] 26 VERB8.
723. 1
SUBJUNCTIVE.* 3.
Present. Past. Or
AS. sim I am, S. essem I was A. förem
§ÍS 3yow are eSSéS 3yow were förës
sit, he is esset, he was föret;
P. simüs we are P. essëmüs we opere P.
sîtîs yov, are essëtîs yow were
sint they are essent they were förent.
INFINITIVE.
essé to be ; förë will be.
IPARTICIPLE FUTURE.
fütüro- about to be.
(b) Perfect Tenses.
INDICATIvE.
Present-perfect.
AS. fuI- I have been, P. fuímús we have öeen,
fuistI yov have been fuistîs 3yow, have beer?
fuit, he has been, fuêrunt or fuêrê they have been.
0r as Aorìst.
AS, fui I opas P. fuímüs Qρ€ QJ)€7*e
•fuistI 3yow were fuistîs 3yow were
fuit he was i fuérunt or fuêrê they were.
Past-perfect.
AS. fuêram I had beer.
fuêräs you had been
fuêrat, he had, öeem,
P. fuêrämüs ope had beem
fuérâtîs 3/ow had been,
fuêrant they had been.
a* Future-perfect.
A. fuërö I shall have beem P. fuérímüs we shal' have been,
fuêrîs you will have been, fuêrîtîs yow will have been,
fuérít he will, have öeem, fuërint they will have been.
* For the other meanings of the subjunctive tenses see the conjuga-
tion of scribam, &c.
VERB§. 127
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present-perfect.
S. fuérim I have beer, P. fuérimüs ve have been,
fuëris yoυ, have been fuéritîs yow have been,
fuérit he has been, fuërint, they have been.
Or as Aorìst.
P. fuérimüs ^ve were
fuêrîtîs 3yow vere
fuërint, they were.
A. fuérim I was
fuëris yow. were
fuërit he was
Past-perfect.
P. fuissëmüs we had been,
fuissëtîs yow, had been
fuissent they had been.
3. fuissem I had been,
fuissës 3yov, had been,
fuisset, he had been,
INFINITIVE.
fuissê ío have been, was or had been.
724 As regards quantity, a. Es is often long in old Writers (as
Plautus, Mil. Gl. III. 1. 30), which agrees with the formation from
esis (eis), with ês eat, and with the Greek eis. b. For the quantity
of the % after r in fuëris, fuérimüs, fuéritîs, of the indicative and
subjunctive, see § 476. •
725 Old forms are, a. ësum I am, ësümüs, ësunt, ësim &c. (see
Varr. L. L. Ix. 57), which are in mearer agreement, with the root
ës-. ö. Sîmus for sümus (comp. scribîmus) was used by Augustus
(Suet. Aug. 87). c. escit, an inceptive present (§ 752), occurs in
old writings (as xII. Tab. ap. Gell. xx. l. 25, Lucr. I. 612) as a
future. So indeed the whole future tense éro, ërîs &c. is in form
a mere present. Compare also förë (=fuéré), a present in form, a
future in meaning. d. A fuller form of the subjunctive present,
siem, siès &c., is common in the older writers. e. Another form
of the present subjunctive, used in old writers, is S. fuam, fuäs,
fuat ; P. fuant. f. The past subjunctive—S, förem, förës, föret;
P. förent—sometimes takes the place of essem in classical writers,
especially in hypothetical sentences (§ 1209), and those which de-
note a purpose (§ 1179). It also occurs in compound tenses for
essem, but not in Cicero.* g. In the perfect tenses a fuller form,
* This from Madvig.
128 VERBS.
;
2
7
728
729
fü-uîs- existed for the older writers, as füuímüs (Enn. ap. Cic. de
Or. III. 42), füuisset (Enn. ap. Gell. XII. 4. 4). h. An imperfect
participle enti- (N. ens) is attributed to Caesar by Priscian. The
compounds praesenti- pre8ent, absenti- absent, for prae-ês-enti-,
äb-ês-enti, are in form participles, in meaning adjectives. So also
consentës for cön-ës-entés, in the phrase, DI consentês, literally
the wnited gods. In late philosophical writings ens is used as a
substantive for a tháng.
Es- or fu- compounded with prò or pröd, öe profitaóle.
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Prósum prödés pródest, P. prösümüs
pródestîs prósunt. Past. S. Prödéram prödöräs &c. Fut. S.
Prödërö prödérìs &c. Pres.-perf. Prófui &c. Past-perf. Prófué-
ram &c. Fut.-perf. Prófuërö &c.
IMPERATIVE probably not in use.
SUBJUNGTIvE. Pres. Prösim &c. Past. Pródessem &c. Pres-
perf. Prófuérim &c. Past-perf. Prófuissem &c.
INFINITIvE. Imperf. Pródessé. Perf. Prófuissë.
PARTICIPLE. F.zf. Pröfütüro-.
Es- or fu-, compounded with the adjective pöti- or pöt-, öe
able, ca^. .
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Possum pötés pötest, P. possümüs pö-
testîs possunt. Past. S. Pötéram pötéräs pötérat, P. pötérämüs
pötérâtîs pötérant. Fut. S. Pötérö pötérîs pötérít, P. pötérïmüs
pötérítís pötérunt. Pres.-perf. Pötui pötuisti &c. Past-perf. Pö-
tuêram &c. Fut.-perf. S. Pötuërö pötuêrîs pötuérít, P. pötué-
rîmùs pötuêrîtîs pötuêrint.
IMPERATIVE mot in use.
SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Possim possis &c. Past. Possem possés
&c. Pres-perf. S. Pötuérim pötuëris pötuërit, P. pötuérimüs
pötuéritis pötuërint. Past-perf. Pötuissem pötuissës &c.
INFINITIvE. Imperf. Possé (used sometimes as a future, wü7
be able). Perf. Pötuissé.
PARTICIPLE. Pötenti-* or pötent-.
Fér- bríng. (For the perfect tenses see § 546.)
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Fërö fers fert, P. férímüs fertfs férunt.
Past-imp. Férébam &c. Fut. Féram &c.
* This is used rather as an adjective than as a participle.
VERB§. I29
IMPERATIvE. Pres. S. Fër, P. fertë. Fut. S. Fertö fertö, P.
fertöté féruntö.
SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Féram &c. Past. Ferrem &c.
INFINITIVE. Ferrê. Part. Férenti- or férent-. Gerund. Fö-
rendo-.
The passive is regular except in the indic. pres. ferrîs, fertür ;
imperative fertor ; subj. pa8t ferrër &c. ; ìnfin. ferri ; and part. perf.
läto-.
730 Inqu- or inqui- say has only IND. Pres. S. inquam inquîs in-
quît, P. inquímüs inquîtîs inquiunt. Past-êmperf. — —
inquiêbat. Fut. — inquiés inquiet. Perf. inquistI in-
quit.
IMPERAT. Pres. S. inqué. Fut. inquïtö. The present inquam
is only used in repeating a phrase, I 8a3/, Itell 3yow once more ; and
inquit sagys he or Said he introduces a direct speech, and always
follows one or two words of this speech.
73] Céd- give, tell, oIìly used in the imperative present.
S. Cédö give (me), tell (me); P. cettè gêve (me), tell (me).
732 Da- put or give.
INDICATIVE. Pre8. S. Dö däs dat, P. dämüs dàtîs dant. Pasg-
άmp. Dábam &c. Fut. Däbö &c. Pres.-perf. Dédi &c. Past-
perf. Dédéram &c. Fut.-perf. dédérö &c.
IMPERATIVE. Pres. S. Dâ, P. dätë. Fut. S. Dätö dätö, P.
dätöté dantö.
SUBJUNCTIVE. Pre8. S. Dem dës det, P. démiis détís dent.
Past-imperf. Därem &c. Pres.-perf. Dédérim &c. Past-perf.
Dédissem &c.
INFINITIVE. Imperf. Därë. Perf. Dédissé.
PARTICIPiE. Imperf. Danti- or dant-. Fut. Dätüro-. GE-
RUND. Dando-.
The Subj. Pres. has also am old form, duim, duis &c., from a
crude form du-.
733 Wöl- or uël- wigh.
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Wölö uis uolt or uult, P. uölümiis uoltis
or uultîs uölunt. Pa8t-êmp. Völébam &c. Fut. Wölam uölés &c.
Pree.-perf. Völui &c. Past-perf. Völuêram &c. Fut.-perf. V8.
luërö &c.
K
130 - VERBS.
IMPERATIVE not in use.
SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. S. Wëlim uëlis uëlit, P. uélimiis uëlitis
uélint. Past. Vellem uellès &c. Pres.-perf. Völuérim &e. Past-
perf. Völuissem &c.
INFINITIvE. Imperf. Vellê, Perf. Völuissë.
EARTICIPLE. Imperf. Völenti- or uólent-. GERUND. Wölendo-.
734 Néuöl- or möl- be wnwilóng, a compound of ne or nön and uöl-.
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Nölö mëuis* or nonuis nêuolt* or mon-
uoltf, P. nölümüs nêuoltîs* or nonuoltîsf nölunt. Past-êmp.
Nölébam &c. Fut. nölös nölet &c. Pres.-perf. Nólui &c.
Past-perf. Nóluéram &c. Fuf.-perf. Nóluërö &c.
IMPERATIvE. Pres. S. Nöli, P. nölité. Fut. S. Nölitö, P.
nölïtöté.
SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Nölim nölis &c. Past. Nollem &c. Pres.-
perf. Nóluérim &c. Past-perf. Nóluissem &c.
INFINITIvE. Imperf. Nollé, Perf. Nóluissé,
PARTIGIPLE. Imperf. Nölenti- or mölent-. GERUND. Nölendo-.
735 Mäuöl- or mäl- prefer, a compound of mägé and uöl-.
INDIGATIvE. Pres. S. Mäuölö£ or mälö mäuis màuolt§, P.
mälümüs mäuoltîs§ mäuölunt; or mälunt. Past-êmp. Mälëbam
&c. Fut. mälës mälet &c. Pres.-perf. Mâlui &c. Past-perf.
Mäluêram &c. Fut.-perf. Mäluërö &c.
IMPERATIvE not in use.
SUBJUNCTIVE. Pres. Mäuëlim£ or mälim mälis &c. Pa8t.
Mäuellemf or mallem &c. Pres.-perf. Mäluérim &c. Past-perf.
Mäluissem &c.
INFINITIyE. Imperf. Máuellët or malé, Perf. Mäluissé.
736 Fi- become, used in the imperfect tenses as a passive offáci- or
fäc- make (see § 534).
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Fiö fis fit, P. — — fiunt. Past-
imp. Fiébam &c. Fut. Fiam fiès &c.
IMPERATIvE. Pres. S. Fi, P. fitë.
* The forms with me are found in the older Writers.
f Or monuult and nomwultis.
t The longer forms mauolo &c. are found in the older Writers.
§ Or mauult and mauultis.
VERB§. 131
SUByUNCTIvE. Pres. Fiam &c. Past. Fférem* &c.
INFINITIVE. Imperf. Fféri.*
737 I- go.
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Eô Is it, P. imüs itís eunt. Past-imp.
Ibam &c. Fut. Ibö ibfs &c. Pres.-perf. Iui or ii iisti iit &c.
Past-perf. Iuêram or iéram &c. Fut.-perf. Iuërö or iërö &c.
IMPERATIVE. Pres. S. I, P.Itê. Fut. S. Itö itö, P. Itöté euntó.
SUBJUNCTIvE. Pres. Eam eäs &c. Past. Irem &c. Pres.-perf
Iuérim or iérim &c. Past-perf. Iuissem or iissem or issem &c.
INFINITIvE. Imperf. Iré. Perf. Iuissé iissé orissé.
PARTICIPIE. Imperf. Ienti- or ient-, V. iens, Ac. euntem, G.
euntìs &c. Fut. Itüro-. GERUND. Eundo-.
737. 1 The passive is used impersonally. INDIC. Itür, ibätür, ibítür,
ítum est &c. - SUBJ. Eätür, irëtür, ftum $it &c. INFIN. Iri, ítum
essë.
737. 2 Some of the compounds being transitive form a passive, as àdi-
approach. EIence IND. Pres. S. ädeör ädirís áditür, P. ädimür
ãdimînî ádeuntür &c.
737. 3 Véni- for uénum i- öe offered for Sale, is a compound of i- go,
and consequently conjugated like it.
738 Qui- be able, and nëqui- be unable, are conjugated as i- go ; but
have no imperative, no participle imperfect or future, and mo ge-
rund.
739 Ai- affirm, say, is seldom used except in the following forms :
INDICATIVE. Pres. S. Aio aïs or ais ait or ait, P. — —
aiunt. Past. Aiébam or aibam aiëbäs &c.
740 IDERIVATION &G. OF VERBS.
It has been stated that many substantives and adjectives in a
and o are used as verbs in a (§ 522) ; that some substantives in w
are used as verbs in w (§ 526); that Some substantives and adjec-
tives in ί are used as verbs in i (§ 528). '
* The i is sometimes long in old writers, as Terence (Ad. 1. 2, 26)
amd Plautus (Trin. II. 4. 131, and Men. v. 5. 24).
132 VERBS.
741
742
742.
It has been stated (§ 224) that some adjectives have a crude
form in ί as well as that in o or a. Similarly some adjectives in o
or a coexist with verbs in î ; and some adjectives in î coexist with
verbs in a. Thus there is
An adj. insäno- mad, and a verb insâni- be mad.
,, largo- bowntiful, ,, largi- (r.) lavish.
,, céléri- quick, ,, céléra- qwicken.
,, léui- light, ,, léua- lift.
,, léui- smooth, ,, léua- polish.
As so large a number of substantives and adjectives ended in o
or a, and these led to verbs in a, the consequence was, that there
was a tendency to introduce an a in all such secOndary verbs, even
when the substantive or adjective ended in a consonant. Thus
there is
A subst. nömën- mame, and a verb nömina- name.
,, laud- praîse, 99 lauda- praîse.
,, önës-* load, 99 önëra- load.
,, röbör- hardness, 9 9 röböra- harden.
,, exül- am, eaeile, 99 exüla- öe an, evile.
An adj. mëmör- mindful, ,, mëmöra- mention.
,, exoss- boneless, 99 exossa- öome.
,, praecìp- or praecîpît- head foremost, and a verb prae-
cîpîta- Send head foremost.
1 A few compound verbs take a final a although the simple verb
ends in a consonant: as,
From spéc- or spéci- (obsolete) look, conspîca- (r.) behold.
,, düc-f lead, ëdüca- brîng ωρ, ηύr8e.
,, spern- despáse, asperna- (r.) spurn.I.
* Verbs formed in this way from nouns in ës, δs &c. are very numer-
ous: as, pignera-, uenera- (r.), frigera-, tempera-, uolnera-, genera-,
glomera-, modera- &c. The neuter noun modes- is obsolete, it is true, but
its existence is proved by the adj. modesto-. Ramshorn erroneously con-
siders èra as a verbal suffix,and even quotes as an example uocifera- (r.).
f See § 451. l.
f This class is probably formed directly from compounded nouns, as
is certainly the case with rem?ga- * row,* from remig- * rower ;' and that
from remo- (m.) * oar,* and ag- * put in motion.* ' Velifica- (r.) * make
sail,' from uelifico- * making sail ;* and that from uelo- (n.) * sail' and
IDERIVATION OF YERBS. 3:33
742. 2 Some verbs in a from substantives signify to supply with tlie
thing which the substantive denotes :* thus there is
A subst. täbüla- plank, and a verb contäbüla- cover with planks.
,, tigno- (m.) beam, and a verb contigna- furnish with
beam8.
,, calceo- shoe, and a verb calcea- shoe.
743 Such verbs are oftem found only as perfect participles in to :
thus, •
From barba- beard, barbäto- bearded.
,, öcülo- eye, öcüläto- provided with eyes.
,, auri- ear, aurito- provided with eara.
,, cornu- horn, cornüto- hor^ed.
,, aes- bronze, aeräto- armed with bronze.
,, denti- or dent- tooth, demtäto- armed with teeth.
,, cord- heart, bënë cordäto- good-hearted, ί. e., in the R0-
man sense of the phrase, clever.
744 Certain reflective verbs from substantives also signify to pro-
vide oneself with what the substantive denotes. The verbs im
question belong chiefly to military phraseology:
From äqua- water, äqua- (r.) fetch water.
,, frümento- (m.) corn, frümenta- (r.) fetch cor^, forage.
,, päbülo- (n.) fodder, päbüla- (r.) fetch fodder, forage.
,, mätëria- túmber, mätëria- (r.) fetch timber.
,, ligno-firewood, ligna- (r.) fetch.firewood.
,, praeda- booty, praeda- (r.) go plurìderìng.
,, pisci- fish, pisca- (r) fish.
744. 1 Agaim, certain reflective verbs from adjectives signify to regard
as what the adjective denotes: as,
From gráui- heavy, gráua- (r.) regard as heavy, be wnwîllông to
bear.
,, digno- worthy, digna- (r.) deem worthy qf one, deign.
fac- * make.? . Vocifera- (r.) * raise one's voice,' from an obsolete adj.
vocifero- * raising the voice;* and that from voc- * voice* and fer- * raise.*
Opitula- (r.) * bring help,' from an obsolete adj. qpitulo- * bringung help ;'
and that from op- * help' and tol- * bring.'
* The English language agrees in this use of substantives as verbs.
Thus we use the phrases, to shoe a horse, to water a horse, to horse a
coach.
134 IDERIVATION OF VERB3.
From indigno- wnworthy, indigna- (r.) deem wnworthy qf one.
», misérO- wretched, mïsëra- (r.) regard, a8 wretched, pity.
745 . Verbs called frequentative, and they are very numerous, are
formed by adding the suffix íta to the simple verb : as,
Ag- put ίη motion, âgîta- put in constant motion.
Quaer- 8eek, quaerìta- seek perseverìrìgly.
Cläma- cry out, clàm fta- keep crying ovt.
Mina- (r.) threater, mînîta- (r.) keep threatening.
Flu- ftow, flufta- keep ftowing.
Sequ- (r.) follow, secta- (r.) be în the habit offollowing.*
746 As this suffix ita is very similar to îto, the suffix of perfect
participles, similar contractions and alterations commonly take
place : thus,
Μerg- sink, participle merso-, frequentative mersa-.f
Trah- draw, participle tracto-, frequentative tracta-.
Pél- drive, participle pulso-, frequentative pulsa-.f
747 Some frequentatives are formed by the suffix £ta : as, from
scrib- 20 rite, scriptîta- ; from lég- read, lectîta- ; from uiu- live,
uictita-. -
748 Many frequentatives have superseded the simple verb: thus,
gus-ta- taste was formed from an obsolete verb güs- tasfe, which
is also the root of the substantive gus-tu- taste ; ímíta- (r.) copy
was formed from an obsolete verb ima- (r.), which is also the root
of the substantive ïmä-gön- likeness ; pöta- drink to excess, was
formed from an obsolete verb po- drink, which is also the root of
the participle póto- drunk, and of the substantive pö-cülo- (n.)
drinking-cup.
749 A few verbs form, what are at once diminutives and frequenta-
tives, with the suffix êca: as, föd- dig, födîca- keep digging or nwdg-
τια ; uël- pull, uellîca- keep plucking.
750 A few diminutive verbs are formed with a suffix illa or ti77a :
as, föue- warm, föcilla- cherish ; scríb- write, conscrîbilla- scrïòóle
over ; sorbe- suck, sorbilla- swck a drop or two ; cän- sìng, can-
* The so-called frequentatives in cina- (r.), as sermo-cina- (r.) * con-
verse,' patro-cina- (r.) * act the patron,* uati-cima- (r.) * act the prophet,'
are probably formed upon the same principle from the verb cam- * sing,'
just as medita- (r.) is at one time applied to music, at another to any
repeated act.
* But the frequentatives merta-, pulta- are used by the old writers.
IOERIVATION OF VIERIBS. Ii35
tilla- varöle. Ventila- fam, from the subst. uento- wind, and
ustüla- sirge, from the verb üs- or ür- bwrn, are also diminu-
tives.* .
751 A few imitative verbs are formed from nouns, with a suffix in
is8a : as, from pätër-father, pátrissa- take after one's father ; from
Graeco- a Greek, Graecissa- öe ín the Greek fashion.f
752 Inceptive verbs are formed from verbs, substantives and adjec-
tives, with the suffix escf or èsc: as,
Prom feru- boil, feru-esc- or feru-isc- begîn to boil.
,, [sén- an, old man], sën-esc- grow old.
,, lüc- light, lücisc- or lücesc- get light.
752. 1 If the substantive or adjective end in o or a, the e of esc is
sometimes omitted, and the wowel a prevails : as, from
Puêro- a boy, rê-puêra-sc- become a boy again.
Intégéro- or -a- whole, réd-intégra-sc- become whole again.
753 But there are exceptions both ways, those verbs taking am a
which are not entitled to it, and those which should have it,
dropping it : as,
From mätüro- or -a- ripe, mätüresc- ripen.
,, uétés- old, uëtërasc- öecome old.
754 The suffix ess is added to a few verbs in â Without amy marked
change of meaning: thus,
From căpi- take is formed cäpess- take.
,, [láci- obs. draw] ,, lácess- provoke.
,, [arci- obs. cal/ to ore] ,, arcess- send for.§
755 A few verbs, called desiderative, are formed from verbs with a
suffix tìri, which is liable to the same changes as the participial
suffix to: thus, &
* Ramshorn erroneously treats as diminutival verbs eaeula-, iacula-
(r.), opitwla- (r.), uigila-, strangula-, the last of which is probably formed
from an obsolete subst. strangula- *a halter,* corresponding to the Greek
oTpayyaXa-.
f These verbs are formed after the Greek verbs in ις: as, Mn8i£etv.
Indeed the later Latin writers use the z instead ofss, and write patriz-are.
f In Greek eorx or torrc.
§ Petess- * seek* is formed in this way from the obsolete form peti-
* seek,' which is also the root of petiui, petitus, petitor.
£36 (JOMPOSITION OF VERB§.
Erom ém- δυγ, emptüri- desêre to öwy.
,, éd- eat, ésüri- be hungry.
,, pär- or päri- bring forth, partúri- öe in, laboùr.
So Sullätüri- desire to play Sulla, implies such a verb as Sulla-
(r) play Sulla. (See § 522.)
756 Compounds of fäc- or fäci- and fi- are made with prefixes com-
monly supposed to be verbs : as,
From tépe- be warm, tëpëfäc-*-or tëpëfáci- make warm, tëpëfî-
become warm.
,, lfque- melt, lîquöfäc- or líquáfíci- melt, cau8e to melt,
lfquéfi- melt, öecone melted.
757 The compound verbs formed by prefixed prepositions are very
numerous. (See prepositions in the Syntax.)
758 The verbs so compounded oftem undergo certain changes of the
vowel: thus, â frequently becomes è before one consonant, e be-
fore two consonants : thus,
From stătu- 8et vp, is formed constîtu- establish.
,, cäd- fall, 99 occíd- 8et or die.
,, säli- leap, ,, insíli- leap wpo^.
,, cäp- or cäpi- take, ,, accîp- or accìpi- receive, and ac-
cepto- received.
,, iäc- or iäci- throw, ,, cönïc- or cönfci-f hwrl, and con-
iecto- hwrled.
But the compounds of cäue- öevare, mäne- wait, tráh- draw, äma.
love, remain unaltered.
759 Again, è generally becomes è before a single consonant : as,
Erom séde- sit, assîde- sit near.
,, rég- make 8traight, dirìg- gwíde.
,, téne- keep, abstine- keep away.
Eut the compounds of pét- go or $eek, tég- cover, tér- ^wö, gér-
wear or carry, remain umaltered.
760 The diphthong ae becomes 7, and aw becomes o or w : thus,
Prom caed- cut, occid- kill.
,, laed- strike, illid- dash against.
* In these words the wowel e before fis seldom long except in the
older poets.
f Commonly written comjic- or conjici-.
COMPOSITION OF VERBS. I37
Prom quaer- $eek, exquir- 8eek out.
,, claud- or clüd-* shut, reclüd- open.
,, plaud- clap (the hands), explöd- drìve off(the stage by
clapping the hands).f
Eut the compounds of haere- stick retain the diphthong. Gene-
rally for the changes in compound verbs see § 555. 2, &c.
761 A few compound verbs are formed with a prefixed particle:
thus,
From né mot and sci- know, nesci- know mot.
,, në not and qui- be able, nëqui- öe wnable.
,, në not and uöl- wish, nêuöl- or nöl- be wmwîllîng.
,, málé ìll and díc- speak, mâlëdïc- abu8e.
,, bënë well and fäc- do, bénéfäc- do a kindness.
,, mägé more and uöl- wish, mäuöl- or mäl- prefer.
,, sät enough and äg- do, sätäg- have enough to do.
762 The negative în appears neverto be prefixed to verbsf, except
to the participles, especially those in to, and even them the com-
pound participle commonly becomes an adjective ; except, also the
verbals in tw, which occur only as ablatives, as iniussu- without
orders, incultu- without cultìvatìon.
Docto- taught, indocto- wnlearned.
Löto- washed, illöto- wnwashed.
Scienti- knowing, inscienti- not knowing.
Dicenti- &peaking, indicenti- ^ot speaking.
763 Many of these participles in to with έn prefixed are to be
translated by ^ot to öe —ed : as,
uicto- conquered, inuicto- învîncîöle.
menso- measured, immenso- ìmmeasuraöle.
penso- weighed, impenso- too enormows to be weighed.
* Probably contracted from such a form as cläuid-. Compare the
Greek substantive κληFιδ-, Latin cläui-, and gaudeo gauisus.
f Corresponding in effect to the English * hooting off, hissing off.*
it Hence it is probably an error to derive ignosc- * pardon' from in
* not' and gnosc- *take cognizance.' See § 1308. 2.
I38
IP ARTICILES.
764 This term includes those secondary parts of speech which have
little or no variety of form, and are called adverbs, prepositions,
conjunctions and interjections.
765 It is not always possible to draw the line between these, as the
same word may be at one time an adverb, at another a preposi-
tion ; or again at one time am adverb, at another a conjunction.
Thus, antë before or formerly may be either adverb or preposition ;
and simül at the samejtime or as soon as may be either an adverb
Or a conjunction.
766 A large number of the particles must be treated individually
to show their origin. In a grammar, however, it is out of place
to do more than exhibit those suffixes which apply to whole
classes. +
A ID VER BS.
767 Adverbs are formed in Latin from adjectives and substantives,
including pronouns, and also from verbs.
768 From adjectives in o or a are commonly formed adverbs in à :
as, from the adjective läto- or -a- vide, the adverb lätë wìdely ;
from the adjective përicülöso- or -a- dangerous, the adverb përicü-
lósé dangerously.
769 From participles in o or a, used as adjectives, are formed in
like manner adverbs in ë : as, from docto- learned, the adverb
doctè learnedly ; from ornäto- dres8ed, the adverb ornätë with
ornavent ; from doctissümo- ^08t learned, the adverb doctissümê
mo8t earnedly. -
770 But málo- bad, and böno- (old form béno-) good, form their
adverbs, mälë ïll, and bénè well, with a short è. Inferné below,
and süpermê above also occur with a short è. So also rité duly
has a short è, though only a shortened form of rectë.
771 Some adjectives and participles in o or a form adverbs in δ :*
* In some cases this termimation isthe ablative of the noun ; in others
it probably corresponds to the Greek adverbs in ωs, from adjectives of
the same form. Thus, even in Greek, oῦτωs and oότω *thus,' aqovws and
aqvœ * suddenly,' coexist. .
ADVERB8. 139
as, from räro- or -a- scattered, an adverb rärö seldom ; from tüto-
or -a- safe, an adverb tütö 8afely, and tütissümö most 8afely.
772 But cfto- or -a- quick forms its adverb cftö quickly with ö.*
773 From adjectives and participles in i or a consonant are formed
adverbs in îtèr or tér : as,
Erom molli- &gft, the adverb mollitër softly.
,, céléri- swift, célérîtër swîftîy.
,, félici- or félic- fortunate, félicftër fortunately.
,, mëmör- mëndful, mëmörïtër from memory.
774 If the adjective or participle end in tì or t, one t is omitted:
thus, from ámanti- or ámant- lovìng is formed the adverb ämantér
lovingly.
775 As adjectives in 0 or a sometimes coexist with adjectives in i,
so adverbs in îtèr or tèr are sometimes found in connexion with
adjectives in 0 or a : as,
From düro- or -a- hard, the adverbs dürë and dürîtër severely.
largo- or -a- bowntìful, the adverb largîtër bowntifully.f
99
776 Many adjectives, particularly comparatives, use their neuter
singular as an adverb: thus,
From fäcili- easy, the adverb fácílé easìly.
multo- or -a- mwch, the adverb multum mwch.
doctiör- more learned, the adverb doctiüs more learmedly.£
9 9
9 9
776. l The neuter comparative should end in êùs (= io8), as just seem ;
but in a few words a shorter form is produced by the omission of
one of the vowels : thus without the , we have mînùs (for mí-
niùs) less, plüs (for ple-iùs§) more ; and without the α, mägis (for
* Vero * in truth,' sero * late,' postremo * at last,' have always a long o
in the best Writers. It is only in the late writers, such as Martial and
Statius, that these words are used with a short o. Even cáto has a long o
in the old writers, as Ter. And. III. l. 16, and elsewhere.
+ Observe the same irregularity in the formation ofthe verb largi- (r.)
* lavish.* Aliter * otherwise,* like alibi * elsewhere,' is formed from the
obsolete pronoun ali-, whence the nominatives alis and alid.
£ The poets use adverbs óf this form more freely tham the prose wri-
ters, and even in the plural ; as Virgil, acerba tuens, crebra ferit.
§ Comp. τλeuov and τλeov (for TAe-tov).
140 ADVERBS.
mägiùs) more, nîmîs too much, sätïs enough.* So prisf for priüs
öefore enters into the formation of the adjective pris-tíno- former.
777 From adjectives and substantives are formed adverbs in ìtìs or
tüs I: thus we deduce from
antiquo- old, antiquïtüs from of old.
caelo- heaven, caelítüs from heaven. .
diuino- divine, diuinítüs from a divine 80^/rce.
fundo- bottom, fundítüs from the foundation.
rädic- root, rädicítüs from the roots.
publíco- sb. n. pwblic money, publícítüs at the public cost.
778 A few adjectives form adverbs with a suffix për, denoting time:
as, from nöuo- or -a- meo, nüpêr late!y. So also pärumpër and
paulispër for a little while, tantispér 80 lo^g, quantispër as long as,
sempér§ always.
778. 1 The adverbs of numerals have already been givem in § 252, last
columm.
779 Adjectives and substantives form adverbs in tim with the sense
of one at a time or one by ore: thus, from the adj. singülo- or
-a- one at a tìme, the adverb singülätim or singillätim or singultim
one at a time ; from paulo- (n.) little, paulätim little by little ;
from uìro- mam, uìritim man by mam ; from tríbu- trìöe, tríbütim
trìbe by trìbe ; from grèg- ftock, grëgätim *tock δy flock ; from
grädu- step, grädätim step άγ Step. ||
780 From verbs also are formed adverbs in fim : as,
From sta- stamd, stätim constant?y, stätim immediately.
* For the meaning of mimis compare the use of the comparative,
§ 1155. 4, &c. Satis literally signifies * rather full* (see § l 155. 7).
f To this corresponds the Greek Trpiv (for Tpiov) * before.* So also
ττλειν for Tλειων. IIpuv has more than omce a long vowel in Homer.
f This termination corresponds in meaning to the suffix of the old
Greek genitive 0ev : as, ovpavo6ev * from heaven.° Indeed the forms also
are identical; for the 0 must necessarily lose its aspirate in Latin, and the
final syllable ev of the Greek would be us in Latin : compare rutrtopwev,
scribimus. The corresponding Sanscrit suffix is täs.
§ The first syllable of semper is probably the same root which is
spoken of in the note to § 264; so that it would signify * one unbroken
time.*
|| Compare the irregularities of paulatim, viritim, gregatim &c. with
the irregularities in the formation of adjectives, §§ 227-229. This suffix
tim is identical with the Greek öov : as, from ayeÅα- * herd,' ayeAmöov
* by herds.'
ADVERBS, 141
From prae before and sér- pwt, praesertim especìal/y.
,, caed- cut, caesim* öy cwttóng.
,, pung- pîerce, punctim άgy pòercing.t
781 From substantives and verbs are formed a few adverbs in ììs :
thus from
Cön together and mânu- hand, cö-mîn-üs hand to hand.
Ec from and mänu- hand, ë-mín-üs from a distance.
So from the verb ten- stretch, the adverbténüsí stretcháng; whence
pröténùs forthwith.§ And from the verb uort- turn the adverb
uorsùsf, which has also the form uorsum, corresponding in mean-
ing to the English termination -wards.
782 From substantives and verbs are formed a few adverbs by
adding the suffix am.§
Thus cön together and öS- or ör- (n.) mowth, or face form am
adverb, cöram face to face. '.
The verb pand-|| oper, forms an adverb, pälam openly.
The verb cêla- hide forms an adverb, clam 8ecretly.
783 In analogy with bîs twice (for duis), we might have expected
trîs'| and quätrïs, but instead of these we have tér and quätër, an
s being commonly réjected after an r.
784 The cases of adjectives and substantives, particularly pronouns,
are oftem used as adverbs : thus the following, sometimes called
adverbs, are in origin datives denoting the tìme when, or the place
where &c., héri 3yesterday, mänï ôn the morning, lücï ôn the daylight,
dömi at home, rüri in the country, förIs out of doors, multïmödis in
mangy a way, quötannis every 3year.
785 The pronominal adverbs in δέ or 7, which answer to the ques-
* The s in this word represents the t, as it does so often in the per-
fect participle with verbs in d. .
-f This corresponds to the Greek suffix δην added to verbs: as, from
^ypaq- * write,' ypaβδην * in writing.'
£ These are also prepositions.
§ There is also a form temam of the same meaning as tenus, whence
protenam * forthwith.'
|| Compare scand- * climb' and scala- * ladder ;' mand- * chew* and
mala- *jaw ;' sede- * sit' and sella- * chair.*
*| Compare the Greek tpus, and perhaps tetpakus. For the loss of
the s compare linter * a boat' for lintris, puer for puerus, uidebare for
videbaris.
142 • ADVERB8.
tion where or when, and may be seen in the second column öf the
table in § 366, are probably old datives.
786 Again, the following, sometimes called adverbs, are in origin
accusatives :
Dömum home i. e. to one's home, rüs into the oountry, föräs
out of doors i, e. going out of doors.
787 The pronominal adverbs in ó, which answer to the question
whither, and may be seem in the third columm of the table § 366,
are probably old accusatives which have lost the final m.
788 Closely related to the pronominal adverbs in ò are the adverbs
in trò from prepositions &c. : as,
Rê-trö öackward.
Por-rö* forward.
Cí-tröf towards the speaker.
Vl-tröf to a distance, forward, voluntarüy.
In-trö önwards.
Con-trö towards.j.
789 Adverbs in ó§, chiefly from pronouns, are used with compara-
tive adjectives or comparative adverbs : as,
Eö mägfs so much the more or the more.
Quó mímüs öy how much the less or the less.
Höc ütïlîùs to this eaetent the more vsefully.
Nihîlö minüs mever the less.
790 The terminations ìndé, án, and âm, seem in the fourth column
of the table § 366, must be considered as varieties of one suffix,
since the compounds deindè, exindë &c. have also the shortened
* Pör is the old preposition, corresponding to our * for,' whence comes
por-tro, por-ro, amd by contraction pro.
* Whence ultro citroque * backwards and forwards,' in which the
word * backwards' is a translation of citro. The common derivation of
vltro * willingly,' from vol- * wish,' is altogether indefensible.
f This word is seen in the compound verb contro-uort-* turn against.'
These adverbs in tro, though ultimately derived from prepositions, are
immediately formed from adjectives, more or less obsolete, in tero.
§ These are commonly held to be ablatives, and supposed to be trans-
lated literally when we sây multo maior * greater by much.* The Greek
too uses 7roAλω μevgov. Still it is possible that they are in reality only
the old accusatives in o, which have lost their final m : eo maior * the
greater to this degree.*
ADVERBS. 143
forms dein, exin, exim* &c. The suffix is strictly déf, the m be-
longing to the pronominal base.
791 The adverbs in am, from pronouns, denote hoω mwch : as, tam
80, quam how, quanquam however, no matter how, although, quam-
uis or quamlübet as much as 3yow please, although.
792 The adverbs in wm, chiefly from promouns, denote the time
vhen : as, tum or tuncf ther, (num) or nunc£ ^ow, quom or quum
or cum when, umquam or unquam (formerly cumquam) ever, num-
quam or numquam (for ne-umquam) mever, quondam (for quom-
dam) at a certaón, time (pa8t or future), plêrumqué generally.
793 The adverbs in ᧠generally denote the road along which any
thing is done. A large majority of these are from pronouns, as
may be seen in § 366. Other examples are, rectä ör, a straight
line, dextrâ along the road on the right, sînisträ alo^g the road or.
the left.
794 Some ablatives of nouns are used as adverbs : thus, ergö| ίη-
deed, really, in the matter of, is the ablative of am old Latin noum,
ergo- (n) work ; and similarly mödö* only is literally by measure,
being the ablative of mödo- (m.) measure. Likewise máné ín the
morning, diü ín the daytime, noctü or nocté òy night, lücê ê^ the
daylight, may be considered as ablatives.
795 The adverb quandö, from the relative, and those connected
with it, denote time : as, quandö** when, äliquandö** sometìme,
quandöcumquë whenever, quandóqué whenewer, 80me time or Other.
* This is the orthography used in Virgil.
+ This suffix corresponds to 0ev of ev-6ev, Tro-6ev: and indeed the
final v of the suffix 6ev disappears at times in Greek, as in oTria-0e or
otruo-0a for otruo-6ev.
f This c is the demonstrative enclitic : see § 289. And if the inter-
rogative enclitic me be added, ci is preferred to c, as in nuncine : see
§ 293.
§ It is generally held that these are feminine ablatives agreeing with
viâ * road' understood.
|| Corresponding to the Greek dative epyq/ * in reality.'
“T Whether we are speaking of a very great or a very small quantity,
it adds weight to our assertion if we cam speak of the quantity as known
by measurement. Hence, with small quantities, modo ' by measure' may
be trans!ated by * only ' On the other harid, with great quantities, ad-
modum ' up to the measure' is equivalent to * full, quite.* Observe that
modo in old writers has a long final o, as in Ter. And. IV. l. 6, Plaut.
Asin. prol. 5, Aul. II. 2. 62, Pseud. II. 3. 23, Poen. I. 2. 7, Lucr. II. 941
and ] 135, Cic. Arat. N. D. II. 42. 107.
** The later Writers shortem the o in these two words.
144 ADVERBS.
796 The adverb üti or üt how, that, when (itself connected with
the relative), has many adverbs compounded with or derived from
it : as, ütíqué anyhow, at least, ütüt no matter how, utcunqué
hoωsoever, whensoever, neutîquam or nütíquam (for ne-ütïquam)
' în ^o vay, ütïnam O that /
796. 1 The adverbs in vs, from pronouns of relative origin, commonly
denote the place where or ophither : as, usquam any where or to
any place, uspiam a^y where or án, any place, nusquam no where
or to ^o place.
797 Many adverbs are nouns and prepositions written as one word:
thus,
Pröfectö* indeedt is from prò factó for a tháng done.
Imprimis $pecial/y, from in primis among the first.
Ilicö immediately, from in löcö on the spot.
Indiés every day (more and more), from in diës.
I)ënuö a fresh, from dë nöuö.
Obîtër in passîng (or in French, en passant), from öb Ítér or.
the road.
Intérim meanwhile, from intér im£ durìng this.
Admödum quite, from ad mödum wp to the measure.
798 Thus the preposition or adverb uorsum or uorsùs -wards is
added to a number of adverbs in o, prepositions &c. : as,
Eorsum hitherward, istorsum towards yowr meighbourhood, illor-
sum towards 3yonder place, quorsum in, what direction, äliorsum in,
another direction, älïquöuorsum in some directîon, quöquöuorsum
in every direction, ütröquêuorsum în both, directions, aduorsum
towards, prorsum § or prósum § forwards, downright, rursum or
rüsum§ (for reuorsum) δackward, again, deorsum downwards, sur-
sum or süsum wpwards, intröuorsum or introrsum invards, ré-
trorsum backwards, dextröuorsum or dextrorsum towards the right,
sinistrorsum towards the left. ||
* Plautus uses this word with the first syllable long.
f Indeed=in-deedis itself a parallel example from our own language;
so also forsooth.
f Am old accusative, or perhaps rather dative, of the pronoun i- * this,'
for am older form is interibi.
§ Prosum is preferred by Plautus, and rusum by Virgil. Prosus and
rusus occur even in Cicero, if we follow the Medicean Ms. ad Fam. xIII.
13. and Ix. 9. 3.
|| Most of these adverbs have also amother form ending in uorsus in-
stead of worsum, and also in uersum, uersus.
ADVERBS. 145
799 Thus too prepositions that govern an accusative are attached
to the pronominal adverbs in δ : as,
Adeö to this or that degree, so ; in addition to this, moreover.
Quoád to what degree, how far ; to what time, hoω long.
Adhüc to this time, 80 far, a8 yet.
800 The prepositions that goverm am ablative are prefixed to the
pronominal adverbs in dè, or their shortened forms in ίη (see
§ 366) : as,
Eroindé* or proin henceforward, therefore, accordingly, at o^ce then.
Deindè or dein after this, afterwards. *
Súbindé 8oo^, after, ever and anom,
IExindé, exin or exim after this.
Abhinc from this time (reckoning towards the past).
Dehinc from this time forward, after thês.
801 Thus too the suffix sécìs is added to pronominal and other
adverbs in dè, or rather to the shortemed forms in ίη : as,
Altrinsécüs from the other síde. Extrinsècùs from without.
Vtrinquësëcüs from both sides. Intrinsècùs from, withón.
802 Thus too the prepositions that govern an accusative are pre-
fixed to pronouns in am or à, Which last also appear to have been
corrupted from accusative pronouns in am : as,
Anteä before this or that. Praeterquam besíde8 that. . . .
Posteà after this or that. Súperquam over and above that...
Intéreà in the meam while. Antehàc before thás.
Proptéreà for this or that reason. Posthäc after this.
Praetëreâ besîdes this or that. Praetérhäc besîdes thês.
Antëquam before that. . . . IPostillâ since that tîme, from that
Postquam after fhat.... time.
803 Thus too the preposition témüs stretching, is suffixed to pro-
nominal forms in â : as,
Eätönüs to this or that extent, Istacténüs 8o far a8 to reach 3yovr
80 far. neighbourhood.
EIacténüs to this eaetent. Quätënüs to what extent, 80 far as.
* Perinde is only a corruption of proinde or rather por-imde, and in
no way related to the preposition per. Indeed the Mss. generally have
proinde where editions give perinde.
I.
146 PREPOSITIONS.
Aliquätënüs to some eaetent. Quâdamtënüs to a certain eaetent.
804 Some so-called adverbs consist of an adjective and substantive
Written as one word : thus,
Quömödo how is from quó mödö ίη ωhat man^er.
Magnöpéré greatly is from magno öpéré with great labour.
Hödié, or rather hódiè, today, is from hó* diè.
Quötidiê every day, from quötif dië.
805 Nüdiustertiùs, or rather nüdiustertiüs, the day before gesterda®,
is for numi dius tertiüs now the third day.
806 Some adverbs are formed by the addition of two or more par-
ticles : as, étiam even now, still, also, from ét even, and iam ^0v ;
and étiamnum even, mow-a-days, from ët, iam, and num.
807 Scilicet, uidelicet, ilicet, though called adverbs, are in origin
verbs. When literally translated, they signify respectively :
Scilicet§ one magy know, qf cowr8e.
Vídelícet one magy 8ee, no doubt.
Ilîcet one may go, ät is all over.
PREPOSITIONS.
808 Prepositions are particles that are prefixed|| tO substantives
and verbs, and sometimes to other parts of speech. In their
* The old ablative before the enclitic c was added. We should pro-
bably pronounce hodie as a disyllable, hûjee ; or like the Italiam oggi.
* An old dative case.
(*
i The old form which with the enclitic ce produced munc * now.* Dius
is that nominative of the w declension which has an ablative diu * in the
daytime.' Further, dius is but a monosyllable, just as dies often is (see
hodie above). Hence mudiustertius should be pronounced something
like màjustertius (Plaut. Most. Iv. 2, 40).
§ These words are actually employed as verbs. Thus scilicet, Plaut.
Curc. II. 2, 10, Lucr. II. 468, Sal. Jug. 4; uidelicet, Plaut. St. Iv. 1, 49
and 51, Lucr. I. 210; ilicet, Ter. Ph. I. 4, 31. Similarly licet * it is per-
mitted,' became used as a conjunction in the sense of * though.'
|| The name preposition itself implies this. But in fact they occa-
sionally follow (more particularly in the older authors); as in me-cum
* with me,' quo-ad * to what degree,* de quo or quo de * concerning which.'
So in English we have here-im, here-upom, &c.
PR.EPOSITIONS. I47
original sense they denote the relations of place : as, süb αρ, dé
down, öb towards.
809 The letter 8 is oftem added as a prepositional suffix. Thus áb
by Sometimes becomes abs, aps or as ; süb αρ becomes sus ; öb
towards, obs or os ; ëc owt, ex ; di different ways, dîs ; [ci, obs.,
thîô], cîs ; [ol, obs., 3yon], uls.
810 The first three of these prepositions, viz. äb άy or fro^, süb
αρ, δb towards, take this 8 more particularly in composition with
verbS which begin with one of the letters p, c or q, t * as,
As-porta- carry away Sus-pend- hamg up Os-tend- 8tretcfi to-
Abs-cond- put away Sus-cíp- take wp vards.
Abs-tìne-* keep away Sus-tìne- hold αρ
811 Ecf ovt takes am 8 before the same consonants, and also before
vowels: as,
Ex-pös-f put out Ex-cür-í 1^/m, ovt
Ex-tend- stretch out Ex-îm- take owt.
812 Di different ways takes an s before the same consonants, and
takes s, Or its substitute r, before vowels : as,
Dis-pös-f put in, different places DIS-fc-§ throw different ways
Dis-céd-t depar; Dír-Ím- disperse
Dis-tìne- keep apart.
813 Ec before a verb begimming with an s has two forms, as from
säli- leap, exsíli- or exíli- leap vp, which do not differ in sound. ||
814 DIs is preferred to di before a verb beginning with s, ifthat s
be followed by a vowel : as, dis-sóna- 800/^d a different ^ote ; but
* Abs is found even before nouns in old authors, if a temvis follow :
as, abs te * by you,* abs quiuis homine * by ány man you please.'
f This form became obsolete, but was still preserved in the composi-
tion of verbs which begin with f: as, ec-fer- * carry Out,' ec- fod-* dig out,'
$c. Such at least was the orthography of Plautus, Terence, Cicero and
Virgil. The Greek too has eic.
£ See § 451. l. .
§ Commonly written disjic- or disjici-. For the quantity of the pre-
position in the compounds ofiaci-, as cönici-, súbici-, see A. Gellius, IV. 17. '
|| XS, i. e. X>. to use the Greek characters, was the symbol originally
of the sound chs ; but as the Romans never used the aspirate X in any
other combination of letters, they eventually came to look upon X as re-
presenting the sound eæ, and therefore discarded the superfluous s. Hence
eaesili- may be looked upon as the older form, but representing ech-sili-.
148 PR.EPOSITIONS.
not So ifthat s be followed by a consonant, as di-scríb- distribute
in wrîtîng.
8lô The letter d is oftem added as a prepositional suffix. Thus prò
for, în in, rë back, become severally pród, ind, réd*, as in pród-i-
go forward, ind-ige- be in want, réd-i- go back, red-d- put back,
red-dúc- brîng bacλ, and by assimilation of d to the following
relligiön- relîgîon, rellîquiae N. pl. remains.
816 The prepositions oftem lose one of their final letters. Thus äb
becomes â in the compositiom of verbs which begim with the letter
m : as, ä-möue- move away. Before the verb fu- be, áb and å are
both found : as, ab-fuit or à-fuit he was absent ; while before the
verbs fér- carry, and füg- ffy, the form aw is used : as, au-fér-
carry away, au-füg- fy away. Similarly â instead of áb is used
before many nouns beginning with a consonant.
817 In like manner éc out becomes è before other consonants than
p, c or q, t : as, ê-bíb- drink ωρ, è-düc- lead out, &c.
818 Pör for (see § 834), süpër wpon, and intër αρ (see § 834), be-
fore words beginning with l, assimilate the rto this l, as pollîce- (r.)
bòd beforehand, promise ; polling-t lay ovt (a corpse); súpellëg-f
(mom. süpellex) and súpellectili-, strictly adjectives, laúd upon,
and hence as sb. f. tapestry, furniture ; intellég- pick ωρ or gather
(information), perceive.
819 Trans across before verbs sometimes takes the form trà : as,
trä-düc- lead across, trä-d- ha^d over.
820 Cum with before verbs becomes com or cön or co : as, cöm-ëd-
eat αρ, con-cid- cut to pìeces, co-i- go together, meet.
821 The other changes which prepositions sometimes undergo be-
fore verbs maybe seem in the tables of perfeets and supines, §§ 533-
554.
822 From prepositions and two of the promouns demonstrative are
* The preposition sè * aside' might have been added to these, as the
conjunction sëd * but' is amother form of that word. Sëditiom- * a division
of the people,' or * emeute,' implies the previous existence of a verb sé-d-
* put apart, separafe,' from da- * put* (§ 542), rather than sed-i-, a com-
pound of i- * go,' as Madvig would have it (Lat. Gr. § 203), for then the
e would be short. In old authors other prepositions take this d : thus
post, ante, supra, eaetra, &c. become postid, antid, suprad, eætrad, &c.
Perhaps apud * near' may be only another form of ab, or, as the Greeks
wrote it, apo * by.' This is consistent with the original meanimg of ab, as
may be seen in the Syntax.
f These compounds imply a simple verb lëg- or ling-, corresponding
to the Greek root Àex-, German legem, and our lay.
PREPOSITIONS. 149
formed adjectives in téro* and éro ; and from these again, prepo-
sitions in tér or èr, and in trà or rà. Thus from süb vp is formed
the adiective süpéro- upper ; whence the prepositions süpér and
suprä above. So from the obsolete root inf-, or rather énéf-, below,
is formed first the adjective inféro- lower, and secondly the prepo-
sition infrà below. Again, from în în is formed first the obsolete
adjective intëro- önner, and thence the prepositions intér between,
and inträ wêthôn, &c. From the obsolete preposition ád again is
deduced a comparatival form îtërum again.f
823 From prepositions and two of the pronouns demonstrative are
formed comparatives and superlatives. .Thus from prae or prò
before, a comparative priör- former, a superlative primo- first ;
from ín án, a superlative Imo- înmost or lowe8t ; from süb Vp, a
superlative summo-f uppermo8t ; from post after, postümo-§ last ;
from ëc or ex ovt, extümo- outmost or vtfermost ; from the obsolete
pronominal root ci this or mear, cítümo-|| hithermost, mearest ; from
an obsolete ol 3yon, ultümo-|| farthest.
824 Comparatives and superlatives are also formed from the inter-
mediate adjective in téro or èro. Thus from post after is formed
first the adjective postëro- after, and thence a comp. pOstériör-
and a superl. postrèmo- ; from ex out, an adj. extëro- outer, and
thence a comp extëriör-, and superl. extrémo- ; from dé down, an
obsolete adj. détéro-, and thence a comp. détériör-* worse, and
superl. déterrümo-* worst ; from süb αρ, an adj. sùpèro- wpper,
and thence a comp. sùpériör- higher, and a superl. süprémo-
highest, &c.
825 From the simple prepositions and from the adjectives in téro
and èro are formed other adjectives in mo: as,
Süpino- looking wpward, pröno- looking downward.
* These are in fact comparatives, as may be seen in the Greek Tpo-
tepo- &c.
f Compare the Welsh ad, old German if or ita, Danish atter, Swedish
äter, all signifying * again.' See § 1308. 3. c.
f For subimo- or supimo-. In the same way from sub * up,* and em-
* take,* is formed the compound sum- * take up.* Indeed the best Mss.
more commonly have summ-.
§ The vulgar orthography is posthumo-, which is grounded upon a
ludicrously erroneous derivation from post humum.
|| Related respectively to ho- * this,* and illo- * yonder.'
“I Literally * lower, lowest ;' but they occur only in the sense of value.
I50 IPREPOSITIONS,
Süperno- above, inferno- below.
Externo- without, interno- withìn.
826 From some of the prepositions are formed adjectives in %co.
Thus,
Postico- behind, as postîcâ iänuâ the back gate. •a
Antico- or antiquo- preceding (either in time or value).
827 From some of the prepositional superlatives are formed adjec-
tives in tí : as,
Erom summo- highest, summäti- or summát- qfthe highest ra^k.
,, infümo- lowest, infümäti- or infümät- of the lowest ra^k.
828 Adverbs in tüs (§ 777) are formed from prepositions : as,
Intüs from within, or withón, subtüs wnder.
829 For the adverbs in tro and trìn, from prepositions, see § 838.
830 The prepositions* in use before substantives are the following.
First, before accusatives alone :
äd to contrà facíng praetër öeside
aduorsum or aduorsùs ergà towards própè ^ear
towards infrä, öelow pröpiùs mearer
antè before intér betweem proptér mear
ápùd mear intrâ vêthôn, proxümë ^eareSt
circà roo/md, iuxtà near sëcundum following
circîtër about öb towards sùprà above
circum round, pénés in the hands Qf trans acro88
cìs on this side Qf për through [uls, obs., beyond]
cîtrà om. this side qf post after ulträ öeyo^d.
831 Secondly, before ablatives alone :
äb, abs, or ä öy or from [éc], ex, or è 0wt of
absquê without prae before
cum with prò before
dê down from, sînë withowt.
832 Thirdly, before an accusative or ablative :
ím ám, subtër vnder
süb vp or under süpër wpom.
* Many of these prepositions are common to the Greek language, viz.:
ab= atro. eC = €K. con or cum = arvv or §vv.
ob = eTrt. ante= αντι. pro = Tpo.
sub and super= îrro and ùTep. im= ev or eus. post = μeta or treâa ?
EREPOSITIONS. 151
833 Clam secretly, cöram face to face, pälam openly, simül at the
8ame time, tênüs eaetending, uorsùs or uersüs towards, usqué all
the way or all the time, are rather adverbs than prepositions. But
see the Syntax of prepositions.
833. 1 Some substantives in the ablative followed by gemitives partake
of the nature of prepositions, as causâ for the 8ake (of), grätiä for
the 8ake (of), and in old Latin ergö or, account (of). So instär
ênstead (of), like its English equivalent, appears to be compounded
of In and some substantive signifying * station.* This also is
followed by a genitive : as, Pláto mihi ümüs est instär omnium
(Cic. Brut. 51. 191) Plato alone in my eyes is worth the whole lot.
834 Other prepositions are found in the composition of verbs and
adjectives, and therefore called inseparable prepositions, viz. :
a. Amf round, as, am-bür- burm round, sirge ; am-bëd- eat
τούnd ; and the adj. an-cíp- or an-cîpît- two-fieaded. •
b. Anf wp, as án-hêla- send αρ (a blast of air). (See § 1308.
1.)
c. Di§ or dís dífferent ways, as, dis-céd- depart, and from corda-
stríng, the adj. dis-cordi- or dis-cord- of a different ^ote.
d. Intér|, inseparable prefix, up,—a corruption of an obsolete
antèr, and related to în or àn up (see two paragraphs above and
§ 1308. 1), as praetêr to prae, and proptér to própè (see § 822),
—as intel-lég- pick up or gather (information), perceive. (See
§ 1342. l.)
e. Pör for or forth, as por-rìg- stretch forth, pol-lîce- (r.) bid
öeforehand, promise ; pol-ling- lagy ovt (a corpse).
f. Rê or rëd back, as, rê-pél- drive back, réd-i- go back, and the
adj. ré-düc- returning.
g. Sé* or sëd aside, as, së-pös- put aside, and the adjectives
sé-cüro- v^co^cerned, sé-cord- or sö-cord- spìrìtless.
* As if for in-stärï or in-stárë, where star- might be an obsolete neuter
substantive derived from the verb sta-. Compare the German am-statt.
f Related to the Greek αμφt, and German wm.
f Related to the Greek ava, German ent, and English um. See
* Transactions of the Philological Society,' for Jan. 27, 1854.
§ Related to the Greek διa, and the German zer.
|| This inter, which must be carefully distinguished from inter * be-
tween,' corresponds to the Germam inseparable unter in untermehmom,
&c., to our under in undertake, understand, and to entre in the French
entretenir and entreprise.
•] Related to the English sumd-er and Germam sond-erm.
152 IPREPOSITIONS.
h. Veh* or uè- away, as the adj. uë-cord- (heartless, i. e.) sense-
Vess, uehémenti- or uehément- (devoìd qf mind), furious.f
835 The prepositions in modern editions are usually written in
immediate connection with verbs, but separately from nouns.
The Romans themselves however generally wrote them in con-
mection with nouns also : as, införö ïm, the forum.j.
836 Hence if am enclitic be inserted, it commonly follows the noun,
not the prepositiom : as, införöqué and ίη the forum, or, to copy
the modern mode of printing, in foroque (Cic. ad Att. Iv. l. 5).
837 If the preposition be repeated, it has a stronger emphasis, and
may be separated from the moum : in cüria inqué förö§ in the
Senate-hovse and in the forum. -
838 It will be convenient to exhibit a table| of words derived from
prepositions:
* Related to the German weg, and English away.
f To these might be added the solitary example of neg * after ;' viz.
neg-leg- (* leave behind,*) * neglect.' This prefix is identical with the
German mach, and consequently with the English migh.
Ë This consideration is of importanee in the laws of metre.
§ Precisely om the same principle and under the same circumstances
Lucretius separates the preposition even from a verb, and Writes disiectis
disque supatis (I. 652).
|| The contents of this table may be usefully compared with similar
formations in our own tongue. To the superlatives in umo correspond
Anglo-Saxon superlatives in ema : as, imm-ema, ut-ema, for-ma, aff-ema,
mid-ema, nid-ema, lät-ema, hind-ema. The Latim language forms several
comparatives and superlatives from words already in the comparative
form. Nay, in prim-ores * front-(men or teeth)' we see a comparative
from a superlative. So the Anglo-Saxon formed superlatives upom super-
latives, as autem-est, nidem-est, lätem-est, or forem-ost, himdm-ost, vtm-os?
(see Grimm, D. G. III. p. 630). Our own form-er agrees accurately with
the Latin prim-or- ; and in mear-er we have a comparative formed upon
a comparative ; simce near itselfis but a compression of nigh-er, as meat is
of migh-est. Under the head of pronominal prepositions we may com-
pare begond, before, behind, beneath, beout (obs.), afore, amid, abaft,
above.
TABLE OF DERIVATIoNs FRoM PREPOSITIONS.
f Preposi- • Comnarativ *
Ę X; èro, tëro. ër, tër. rä, trä. ró, tró.* $ Superlative. £E Θ ,j;?;,
ę » • $. '• ■ • • '• ■ • • Imo-f ę * e .
în ind [intëro-] | intér inträ, intró — | √,., j | intériör-
[ôc] eX extëro- extrâ — | extümo- | extëriör- l extrémo-
süb SU1S süpëro- ;í, } suprà - - - — | summo- | süpériör- | süprémo-
dë 6- [détéro-] *-*-» •_ -_- détériör- | déterrümo-
infi] infëro- •_-_- infrà, infúmo- | infériör-
pör] pröd —§ •_-_- porrö priör- | primo- -_-
rë rëd rëtëro- • • • rétrö -_-
ci| cîs cîtëro- ._-_-» cîträ, Cítrö — | cîtümo- cîtëriör- | —
ol| uls ultëro-] | — ultrà ultrö — | ultümo- | ultëriör-
post postYd | postëro- | — - — | postümo- | postériör- | postrémo-
antë antîd* | — -_- - - -
cön *- [contëro-] | — conträff | contrö£I: | — | —- •_- - -*
* Adverbs in de are implied in intrin-secus, eaetrim-secus.
+ * Inmost or lowest.' Compare with the corresponding
words in this column the Greek eo Xato- (for exorato-), άτατο-,
ττρωτο-.
f Or perhaps ënëf-. Compare the English meath, the
Greek e-ve-pou, e-vep6e, vep6e, vev-α».
§ This place might be filled by the Greek Trporepo-.
|| From ho- * this,' illo- * yonder.'
ar
“I For the rest of this column, as formed.from other pre-
positions, see note *, p. 148.
** The word which naturally suggests itself for this place
is of doubtful latinity.
ff As contra is to com or cum, so is the German widem to
the English with.
ff This word is seen in the participial form controu0rso-
* opposed.'
|
É

l54
CONJ U NCTIONS.
839 The mame * conjunction' is commonly given to several classes
of particles which require to be distinguished.
840 Copulative conjunctions are those which unite words, phrases
or sentences, without making one dependent upon amother. Such
are ét and, the enclitic quë* and, atqué and ; uélf or, autf or ;
together with the interrogative particles án or, né or.
84l There are several words compounded of the above particles
which also serve as copulative conjunctions : for instance, néqué
^or, nêuê mor, siuè or èf.
842 Many of these may be used in pairs: as, ét hoc ét illüd both
thês and that, Dique höminesquê both gods and men, uél hoc uël
illüd eîther this or that, aut hoc aut illüd eîther this or that, néque
hoc nëque illüd meîther this mor that, siue hoc siue illüd whether
this or that.
843 Several ofthe particles above mentioned admit of abbreviation.
Thus, atqué, uël, néqué, nêuê, siué, may severally become äc, uè,
néc, neu, seu.
844 Many adverbs, when used in pairs, perform the part of copu-
lative conjunctions : as, nunc hoc nunc illüd now this ^ow that,
mödo hoc mödo illüd at ome time this at amother that, tum sápiens
tum fortîs om, the one hand wise om, the other brave.
845 Certain phrases which rum in pairs may also perform the office
of copulative conjunctions : as, nön mödo hoc, sëd étiam illüd
^ot only this, but also that. -
846 Accessary conjunctions are those which unite an accessary sen-
tence to the main sentence : as antëquam in the compound sen-
tence, antéquam lux nös obprímat, ërumpämüs let 18 Sally out
before daylight comes wpon vs.
847 Accessary conjunctions are often formed by prefixing a prepo-
sition to some derivative from the pronoun quo- : as, quam, quöd,
* The same as the Greek te. Compare the interrogatives ris and
quis.
f Probably an obsolete imperative of the verb uol- * wish.'
f Probably a corruption of alterum, as our or is of other. Compare
the German oder.
CONJUNCTIONS. I55
üt.* Thus there are : post-quam after that or after, antë-quamf
ôéfore that or before, süper-quam beyond what, pro-üt according as.
848 Conjunctions ofthis character perform for a secondary sentence
the same office which simple prepositions perform for nouns, Thus
the same idea might be expressed by antè lücem érumpämüs let us
sal\/ out before daylight. Or, again, we may say either post rédi-
tum éiüs after his return, or postquam rédiit after he returned.
849 Sometimes instead of a preposition, a comparative adjective or
adverb, or other word of comparison, precedes the relative adverb :
as, mäior quam spëräuêram greater than I had hoped, priusquam
spëräuêram before I had hoped, äliter quam spëräuêram differently
from what I had hoped, simül ut uidi eum the moment I saw him.
85() Or Some phrase may precede : as, eö consilio ut tè terrërem
vith the design that I might frighten 3yow or of frightening 3/ou, hac
lège ut né rédeäs with the conditio^ that yow shal/ not refurn.
85] Sometimes the relative adverb is doubled : as, ulträ quam ut
uideam beyond seeirog, süper quam quod dissensérant besides the
fact that they had disagreed. •
852 Sometimes a derivative from eo- this is inserted between the
preposition and the relative adverb : as, post-eä-quam after, pro
* This use of quam, quod, ut is probably to be explained on the prin-
ciple om which Horne Töoke has explainedºthe origin of the English con-
junction that. * I know that he is returned' may be resolvedTinto two
Sentences: * He is returned, I know that fact.* So, in Greek, Aeyoo 6t,
te8vmice * I say this : he is dead.' The quam, quod, ut then have, in
the phrases we are speaking of, the signification this or that ; a meaming
which accords with the use of the Greek relative in Homer. The par-
ticles in question enable the reader to pause before the words to which
they refer. So long as we have only a preposition and noun, no such
pause is requisite. In the same way the mathematiciam reads a x b,
a into b ; but if we substitute for b a quantity containing more than one
term, a pause is required in reading, and a vinculum in writing: as,
a x δ + c, which is read, a into . . . . b + c. Precisely in the same way, if
a long infinitive or subjunctive clause be employed after a Latin verb, it
adds to perspicuity if we insert near the main verb hoc, ita or sic. Thus
Cicero says, Velim ita statutum habeas, me tui memoriam cum summa
beniuolentia temere (ad F. vf. 2. 1); and again, Sic habeto, meminem esse
qui me amet quin idem te amet (ad F. xvI. 4. 4): and Terence (Andr. I,
5. 46) says, Hoc scio, esse meritam ut memor esses sui. Lastly, the French
form in the same way their conjunctions puis-que, sans-que, pour-quoi,
par-ce-que ; the Germans, in-dem, mach-dem, dar-aus dass ; and the
English, before that, beyond what, according as. See * Penny Cyclo-
pædia,' under the words Article and Conjunction.
f Sometimes the preposition is separated : thus We might say, Ante
erumpamus quam luae mos obprimat.
156 CONJUNCTION §.
eo üt accordingly as, pro-inde üt just as, proptér-eä quöd for the
reason that, ex eö quöd from the fact that, ín eo üt in the act qf.
853 Sometimés the particle atqué* or àc occupies the place of the
relative. Thus we may say simül üt at the same time that, as soon
as, or simül atqué as soon as ; and in familiar Latin, mäiör atqué
greater than. *
854 Sometimes the relative particle is omitted. Thus we may say
símül ut rédiit or sîmul rédiit as soom, as he retur med.
855 Very frequently the prepositional word is omitted, and a soli-
tary relative adverb performs the office of a conjunction : as, üt
hoω, when, ín order that, quum when, quando when, quöd öecatse.
856 Or the relative may be accompanied by its noum : as quà-rê, or
abbreviated cür, why.
857 Or the relative adverb may have an enclitic particle attached
to it: as, quandö-quìdemf since, quön-iam (= quom iam) since.
858 These relative adverbs, with the exception of quum and quöd,
are used in direct questions, in which case they no longer perform
the office of conjunctions, and may be more conveniently called
interrogative adverbs : as, quando oohen ? cür why ? üt how ?
quoád how long ? &c.
859 Many conjunctions have correlative adverbs in the maim sen-
tence which point to them ; and these, in one sense, may also be
called conjunctions.f
Thus, ftä 80, and Sic 80, answer to üt a8 ; tam 80 %uch, to quam
as ; tum then, to quum when ; tâmén 3/et, to quanquam although ;
ità on the condition, to Si âf; sic on the condition, to Si óf; ät, 3yet,
to Si ìf, &c.
* This use of atque grows out of the abbreviation of a longer phrase.
Thus, Aliwd ego dico atque aliud tu dicis * I say one thing and you say
another,' easily degenerates into Aliud ego dico atque tu. See § 1148. 8.
f Perhaps this word was pronounced as a trisyllable, quandóquem,
for there is good reason to believe that quidem and ye represent the same
word, as in equidem and eyo) ye. See * Penny Cyclopædia,' under Terentiam
metres.
£ In fact, they are to their conjunctions what the antecedent is to the
relative ; and the relative itselfis the great conjunction of all languages.
157
IN'I'EIRJ ECTIO N S.
860 Interjections are abbreviated sentences which denote a sudden
and hasty emotiom of the mimd. They are commonly inserted in
another sentence as a parenthesis.
861 In respect of form, they are for the most part violently cor-
rupted from what they were ; yet a few admit of being analysed.
Thus, the formula, 80 magy such a deity preserve me, is the source
of several.
Itä me Hercülés adiüuet is corrupted into mehercüles, meher-
cüle, mehercle, mercüle, hercle. -
Itä më Deus Fídiüs* adiüuet, into médius-fidiüs.
Ità më Deus Pollux adiüuet, into édépol, ëpol, or pol.
And similarly, from the names of Castor, Iuno, Ceres, there
arise the interjections mëcastor or ècastor, ëiüno, êcêre.
862 Some of the more common interjections are :
Ah, ä, ah, alas.
Attät (for ätätät) denoting a, suddem discovery, ah ah.
Auf don't, have dome.
JEccéí öehold.
Ehem, hem, denoting surprise, ah, oftem best translated by
repeating the word which caused the surprise.
Eheu, heu alas. -
Ehö§, calling a, person's attention to a question, here, answer
me this, or expressing surprise, what ?
Eiä do 3/ow hear ?
En, em, hem behold, See.
Eu a^d eugé good, öravo (ev and evye, theatrical phrases).
Ha ha or ha ha ha ha ha ha (laughing).
Hei or ei alas.
�.
* That is, * the god of Faith,' like the Greek Zevs öpicuos or Zeus truo-
qtios. Some incorrectly derive this phrase from Auos filius, i. e. Hercules.
f Perhaps for aufer te * take yourself away.*
f Probably the imperative of an old verb.
§ Probably connected with ho or huc * hither.*
158 INTERJEGTION §.
Heus* harkee, hol7oa.
Hui bless me / or more strictly a whistle.
Në verály, almost always at the beginning of a sentence, and
followed by a pronoun.
Oh, o, denotes emotion, oh.
Ohê (ö) avast.
Päpae 3ye gods.
Pröhf, prò avert it heaven, oh.
St hist, hush. •
Vae woe, as uae tibi woe to you.
Vah has various senses, depending upon the tone in which it
is uttered, and must be translated according to the context.
863 There are also several neuter adjectives which are used as ex-
clamations: as, mälum îll betide 3/ow, the deuce ; infandum w^-
utteraóle tfiought, &c.
864 A few umaltered verbs are used almost as interjections : as,
ägë qùîck, quaeso prithee, ämäbo please, obsécro by al/ that's
sacred, äbi that'7 do.
865 The prepositiom për with its accusative, in the sense of im-
ploring, belongs to the class of interjectioms : as, per dextram
hanc öy this right hand. (See § 1350, j and }.)
* Probably the imperative of an old verb. Comp. the root-syllable
of aus-culta- * listem.”
f Perhaps for prohibe * keep off.*
SYNTAX.
866 SYNTAx means the commection of words in a sentence. In
treating this part of grammar the same order will be followed as
in the former part.
NOUNS.
NoMINATIVE CASE.
867 The nominative* case marks the quarter from which an actionf
proceeds. Hence the nominative is commonly a living being: as,
WIpërä limam mömordit (Phaedr. vIII. 5), a viper bit a file.
Aper ségétes pröculcat (Ov. Met. VIII. 290), the wild boar tram-
ples down the crops.
868 Instead of living beings, inanimatef and abstract nouns are
often used as the nominative : as,
Cursum mütäuit amnîs (Hor. ad Pis. 67), the rêver has changed
άts cowrse.
Dies lénit irás (Lîv. II. 45), tíme a88uages wrath.
Verbérât imbër hümum (Virg. A. Ix. 669), lashes the ground
the raim.
869 The agent may act upon the agent. Hence the nominative is
used with reflective verbs: as,
Rhënus septentriönäli öceänö miscëtür (Tac. Ger. I.), the Rhêne
miaces (itself) with the Worthern, Ocea^.
870 As the use of the passive§ has growm out of that of the reflec-
tive, the nominative is also found with passive verbs: as,
Insüla adpellätur Monä (Cae8. B. G. v. 13), the island is called
Mona—more literally : calls itself Mona.
* See §§ 44, 48, 368, 381.
f The active verb is probably the oldest form of the verb.
£ This savours of poetry, but language in its early state is always and
of necessity what we call poetical. § See §§ 379-382.
I 60 SYNTAX.
871 As verbs of a static character have generally something of
action* mixed up with them, the nominative is used before static
verbs: as,
Türë cälent ärae (Virg. A. r. 421), with încense glow the altar8.
872 The old construction of verbs of feeling is seen in §§ 700, 889,
&c. But a large mumber of verbs which demote feeling have a
nominative like other static verbs: as,
Cicéro eum ét ämäbat et uérëbätür (Cic. ad Q. F. I. 3. 3), Cicero
öoth loved and respected hôm.f
872. l Impersonal verbs admit a mominative of a neuter pronoun, just
as in English we use ît, there.
Lüciscît hoc (Ter. Haut. III. 1. 1), ät is getting light, look.
Non te haec púdent ? (Ter. Ad. IV. 7. 36), are 3yow not ashamed
of these things ?
873 Thus the nominative is used before verbs of almost every kind.
A very common use of it is before the verb signifying * be :' as,
Tu es tristîs (Ter. Ad. v. 1. 6), 3yow are out Qf Spìrits.
Sénectüs ipsast morbüs (Ter. Phor. IV. 1. 9), old age itself is a
disease.
874 Some grammarians are in the habit of treating those sentences
which have the verb öe as the form to which all others are to be
reduced. Hence they divide a sentence into three parts :
The Subject, that of which you speak ;
The Predicate, that which you say of the subject ; and
The Copula, or verb be, which umites the subject and predicate.
Thus, for instance, in the sentence or proposition, mam, is am,
animal, mam is the subject, animal the predicate, is the copula.
The subject, according to this system, is the nominative case.
Whem, instead of the verb be, another verb is used, they resolve it
into some part of the verb öe and a participle. Thus, Cícero writes
a letter is resolved into Cicero is apriting a letter, where Cicero is
the subject, writîng a letter the predicate, όs the copula.
* Thus, he who sleeps often snores or drops his head, or dreams. At
any rate, the going to sleep is commonly preceded by certain acts of pre-
paration. -
f The old writers said Cicero eius uerebatur, or even Ciceronem eius
;;:;!r. Nay, Cicero himself has quos mom est ueritum (de Fin. II.
3. 39).
NOMINATIVE. 161
875 The substantive, adjective, or participle that accompanies the
verb öe as a predicate, is in Latin made to agree in case with the
subject nominative, and is called the nominative ofthe predicate.*
Thus,
Sápientia est rërum diuinärum ët hümänärum scientiâ (Cic.
de Off. I. 43. l53), philosophy ìs the knowledge qf things
dîvîne and hwmam.
Insignís annüs hiémé mfuösâ fuit (Liv. v. 13), the 3year was re-
markable for a Snowy winter.
Viae clausae, Tibérís inmäuîgàbìlis fuit (Liv. v. 13), the roads
vere blocked wp, the Tiber not navigable.
876 In the same manner other verbs have at times a nominative in
the predicate referring to and agreeing in case with the subject
nominative (see § 1050): as,
Münitiönës intégrae mánébant (Caes. B. G. vI. 32), the forti-
fications remained wntowched.
Haud inrîtae cécidéré mìnae (Liv. VI. 35), the threats did not
fal/ without effect.
876.1 Although a noun substantive or adjective with ès- be usually
constitutes the predicate, the place may be supplied by a descrip-
tive word or phrase of a different form: as, a. a genitive or ablative
of quality (§§ 928, 1010); ö. dative of the light in which a thing
is regarded (§ 983); c. a prepositional phrase ; or d. an adverb : as,
a. Némo ë dëcem sänä mente est (Cic. de Leg. III. 10. 24), not
a mam of the ter, is qf sound mînd.
Nätüra hümäna aeui bréuís est (Sal. Jug. 1), human nature is
shortāved.
ö. Cui bönö fuit ? (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 30. 84), to whom was ìt
beneficial ? .
c. Sunt in hönörë (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 28. 77), they are held in
honoùr.
d. Tütö nön ërîs (Cic. ad Att. xv. ll), yow will not be safe.
See also § 1401.
* This nominative in the predicate must be referred to what gram-
marians call * attraction.* The German language in such cases very pro-
perly divests the adjective of all case : Der Mann ist gut, not guter. TSee
also § 1060. «*
M.
162 SYNTAX.
877 The accusative with the active verbbecomes a nominative with
the passive : as,
Rêgem eum appellant, they salute him as king-—hence
Rex ab suis appellätür (Caes. B. G. VII. 4), he is 8aluted king
ᾶγ his frìends. •
Cäium Térentium consülem creant, they elect C. Terentìus con-
8ul,--hence
Cäius Térentius consul creätür (Liv. xxII. 35), C. Terentîus îs
elected consul.
Doctiörem fácérë ciuïtätem, to make the citizens more learned—
hence
Disciplinâ doctior factast ciuïtäs (Cic. R. P. II. 19. 34), by
άn8tructíon, the citìzens vere made (or became) more learned.
878 Even when verbs are in the infinitive mood dependent upom
another verb, the noun in the predicate referring to the subject
nominative will still agree in case with the subject nominative, if
no reflective pronoum in the accusative be interposed: as,
Hömínes mìnus crëdüli essé coepêrunt (Cic. de Div. II. 57. 117),
men, öegan to be less credulows.
Cum omnibus pötius quam söli përïrë uöluérunt (Cic. in Cat.
Iv. 7. 14), they resolved to perish with all rather than, to peris/,
alone.
Vis formósá* uídëri (Hor. Od. IV. 13. 3), 3yow, wish to appear
beautêful.
879 It is only in poetry that we find such phrases as
Sensitf délapsüs ín hostis (Virg. A. II. 377), he perceived that
he had wnwittingly fallen, among the enem3y.
880 In the old authors, and in the poets, the nominative is found
for the vocative : as,
Agëdum Pontîfex Publícus praei uerbá quíbus mé prò légiö-
níbus dëuöueam (Liv. vIII. 9), come, Prîest of the State, re-
peat (for me to follow) the words ίη which I am, to devote my-
self for the legîon8.
Almae filius Maiae (Hor. Od. I. 2. 42), thow, son of fosterìng
JMaia.
* The insertion of the pronoun te would require a change : thus, Vis
te formosam uideri, * you wish yourself to appear beautiful.'
f In prose it must have been Sensit se delapsum in hostis.
VOCATIVE. ACCUSATIVE. I 63
881 In interjectional phrases the verb is often understood : as,
Eccé littérae (î. e. mihi träduntür) (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 16. 1),
öehold, a letter is all at once put into my fiand.*
VocATIVE.
882 The vocative is used in addressing a person : as,
Dic Marcé Tulli (Cic. ad Att. VII. 7. 7), speak, Marcus Tullíus.
882. l The interjection o is only used in strong exclamations : as,
O Di böni, quîd est in höminis uitä, diü ? (Cic. de Sen. 19. 69),
good heavens, what is there lasting in the life of ma^ ?
882. 2 The vocative, if emphatic, commences the sentence ; if not, it
is usually preceded by a few words. It is also frequently placed
immediately after the pronoun of the second person.
883 In the old writers, amd in the poets, the vocative is sometimes
used with verbs of the second person, instead of the nomina-
tive: as, -
Mactëf uirtüte estö (Liv. Iv. 14), be încreased în vîrtue, i. e.
go on în thy vìrtuous course, and heaven, ble88 thee.
Quó mörítürë ruis? (Virg. A. x. 811), whither dost rush to die ?];
AcêUSATIVE.
884 The accusative case answers to the questiom whither. Hence .
motion to towns§ or Small islands is expressed by the accusative :
a8,
Câpuam concessit (Liv. xxIII. 18), he withdrew to Capua.
Näufgábat Syräcüsäs (Cic. N. D. III. 34. 83), he was 8ailing to
ASyracu$ae.
885 With the mames of countries the preposition ín is usually em-
ployed. | But the poets use the simple accusative with mames of
countries, and evem other words, after verbs of mqtion : as,
* For the nominative im appositiom see below.
f The Romans, losimg sight of this being a vocative, retain it in the
construction of the infinitive, as, Iuberem macte uirtute esse (Liv. II. 12).
f For the vocative in apposition, &c., see below.
§ If any phrase be added by apposition to the name of the town, the
prepositiom in is required : as, Se contulit Tarquinios in urbem Etruriae
florentissumam (Cic. R. P. II. 19. 34). Peruenit in oppidum Cirtam
(Sal. Jug. 102). See also Sal. Jug. 75.
| Thus, Tarentum in Italiam venit, * he came to Tarentum in Italy."
I64 SYNTAX.
Itäliam fätó prófügus Läuinäqué uênit Littörä (Virg. A. I. 6),
?o Italia, by fate an, outcast, and to the Laváre óeach he came.
886 The accusatives dömum, rüs, föräs, uénum, and in the old
Writers infïtiäs, mälam rem, are used after verbs of motion : as,
Dömum réuortêrê (Cic. Tusc. v. 37. 107), they returmed home.
Rüs ibo (Ter. E. II. 1. 10), I shall go into the country.
Ecfügi föräs (Ter. E. v. 4. 23), I escaped into the street.
Därë uënum (Liv. xxIv. 47. 6), literally to put ôn the wì^dow
(for Sale)—hence to 8ell.
Infitias ibit (Ter. Ad. III. 2. 41), he will have recourse to subter-
fuges.* .
Malám rem hinc ibis ? (Ter. E. III. 3. 30), will 3yow go and öe
ha^ ged ?
887 The verbal substantives in tw (called supines) are used in the
accusative after verbs of motiom (see also § 1299) : as,
Eö päbülätum uénient (Caes. B. G. VII. 18), they will come here
to get fodder. -
In eam spem êrectâ ciuïtäs ërat, débellátum iri (Liv. XXIX. 14),
the citizens had been encouraged to hope that they were going
to finish the war. £x
888 After active verbs the object to which the action is directed is
put in the accusative case : as,
Dóminus Seruom uerbëräuit, the master flogged the slave.
889 The impersonal verbs of feeling have the accusative of the per-
som who suffers that feeling : viz.
Më mîsêret ëiüs, et pìget;
Püdet taedetque ac, paenítet : as,
Eös infámiae suae non pùdet (Cic. I. Verr. 12. 35), they are not
ashamed qf their ìnfam3y.
890 So also certain other impersonals take an accusative of the
person who suffers: viz.
Më uel të iüuat décetqué,
Tum praetërit fügit lätetqué,
Eallft öportet dédécetquë : as,
• The usual translation is * deny ;' but th's is inconsistent with such
a passage as Liv. VI. 40. 4: Neque mego neque infitìas eo.
ACCUSATIVE. 165
Némínem uostrum praetërit (Cic. II. Verr. III. 5. 11), it escapes
^o one amorg 3yow.
891 Many reflective verbs, called transitive deponents, take an
accusative :* as,
Nätüram séquif (Cic. de Off. I. 28. 100), to follow nature.
892 The so-called perfect participles are used, particularly by the
poets, like those of reflective or deponent verbs, and so take an
accusative case : as,
Membrâ süb arbüto Strätüs (Hor. Od. I. 1. 21), having spread
λί8 límós wnder an, arbute tree.
Aduersum fémur trägüla ictüst (Liv. xxI. 7), wownded án, the
front of the thigh with a tragle.
893 Similarly, Some verbs, which are commonly intransitive, are
Occasionally used (by the poets more particularly) with an accu-
sative : as,
Ingräti áními crimën horreo (Oic. ad Att. Ix. 2 A. 2), I shudder
at the charge of ángratítude.
Meum cäsum döluërunt (Cic. p. Sest. 69. 145), they lamented
my másfortune.
894 Some verbs, commonly intransitive, take an accusative of a
noun related to the verb in form or meaning (called the cognate
accu8ative), often in order to attach thereto an adjective : as,
Mirum sómniaui sómnium (Plaut. Rud. III. 1. 5), I have
dreamed a wonderful dream.
Amánti hero qui séruitutem séruit (Plaut. Aul. IV. 1. 6), he
ασho ês ên the Service qf a master that ìs ìn love.
Alium cursum petiuit (Cic. ad Att. III. 8. 2), he went another
7*0?/£e.
895 Similarly, the verbs of smelling and taste, and a few others,
take an accusative which defines the nature : as,
Piscís ipsum märë säpft (Sen. Q. N. III. l8), the fish tastes qf
the very 8ea.
* This and some of the following sections have been anticipated. See
§§ 400 to 404. But the repetition was necessary for completeness.
f The compound obsequ- (r.) * follow the wishes of any one, oblige,'
requires a dative of the person obliged, agreeing thus with the Greek con-
struction of the allied word ἐτ-ομαι (Aorìst ê-ατ-ομην).
£ Ictus, * having it wounded.*
Il66 §YNTAX«
Olet pérégrinum (Cic. de Or. III. 12. 44), út has a foreign 87nell.
Rédölet antiquïtätem (Cic. Brut. 21. 82), ît Savours of antiquity.
896 Verbs of making, creatíng, electing, have an accusative of the
new conditiom or office (called the factótìve accusative), besides the
accusative of the object : as,
Me hébétem mölestiae reddïdërunt (Cic. ad Att. Ix. 17), for
myself, troubles have made me dull Qffeelông.
Rectâ präuä fäciunt (Ter. Ph. v. 2. 6), they make straight tháng8
crooked.
Ancum Marcium rëgem pöpülus creäuit* (Lîv. I. 32), the cítí-
zens elected Ancus Marcius king.
897 So also verbs of calling, thinkingf, showing, seeing, take two
aeeusatives : as,
Octäuium sui Caesărem sälütäbant (Cic. ad Att. XIV. 12. 2),
Octavìus his own friends saluted as Cæsar.
Söcrätes tötius mundi se incölam et ciuem arbíträbätür (Cic.
Tusc. v. 37. 108), Socrates thought himself an önhabitant and
cìtìzen, qf the universe.
Grätum mé praebeo (Cic. p. Planc. 38. 91), I 8how myself
grateful.
898 The verbs döce- teach, cêla- hide, keep êrò the dark, may have
two accusatives, one of the thing, one of the person : as,
Quid tê littëras döceam ? (Cic. in Pis. 30. 73), what, am I to
teach gow your letters ?
Non tè céläui sermónem Ampi (Cic. ad Fam. II. 16. 3), I did
^ot conceal from, 3yow the conversation, with Ampius.f
899 With the passives of these verbs, the accusative of the person
becomes the nominative, and the thing taught or cOncealed may
be in the accusative : as,
* There is a sort of motion to in this construction: * They put him
into the office.* A Germam indeed would insert the preposition signify-
ing * to:' as, Sie wählem ihm zum Führer, * they choose him leader.*
f With verbs of thinking the ablatives mumero and loco, and the pre-
position pro, are also nsed : as, in numero hostium eum habeo, in loco
hostis habeo, pro hoste habeo.
Ì These two verbs are also used with de of the matter referred to, or
with an ablative alone of the means employed : as, celare or docere de
aliqua re, docere fidibus.
ACCUSATIVE. 167
Cëläbär (Cic. in Bull. II. 5. 12), I was kept ίη the dark.
Nosne h6c celatos támdiu ? (Ter. Hec. IV. 4. 23), to thánk that
we, qf all people, should have been kept in the dark about this
80 lo^g.
DulcIs doctâ mödös (Hor. Od. III. 9. 10), taught 8weet measvres.
900 Some transitive verbs of motiom, compounded with trans, cir-
cum, praetër, ád, may have two accusatives, one of the thing
crossed &c., one of what is conveyed across &c.: as,
Ibérum cöpias träiécit (Liv. xxI. 23), he threw his forces over
the Ebro.
Equìtàtura pontem transdùcit (Caes. B. G. II. 10), he leads the
cavalry over the öridge.
Idem iusiürandum ádígít Afränium (Caes. B. G. 1. 76), he com-
pels Afranîus to take the Same oath.
Arbítrum (aliquem) ádígéré (Cic. Top. 10. 43), to force (a per-
80r) to go before a judge.
901 The thing crosSed, &c. may, with the passive verb, be an ac-
cusative:* as, - -
Eelgae Rhënum transdücuntür (Caes. B. G. rr. 4), the Belgae
cross the Rhêne, -
Scöpülos praeteruectâ uîdëtür örätiö meâ (Cic. p. Cael. 21. 51),
my 8peecfi seems mow to have passed by the rocks.
Tunc deindé cétérâ mandantur iusiürandum ädactis (Sen. ep.
95, p. 602 C.), ther, amd mot till them the other dwties are
êntrusted to them, when, they have been sworn.
902 Many verbs of askúg, öegging, demanding, may have two ac-
cusatives, one of the person, the other of the thing : viz.
Röga- perconta- (r.) flàgîta-qué,
Posc- réposc- interröga-qué,
Quaes- êt öra- postüla-qué: as,
Pàcém té poscimüs omnës (Virg. A. xI. 362), peace of thee ask
we all.f -
* Or, so far as traie-, ramit are concerned, in the nominative: as,
Rhodanus traiectus est, * tìe Rhome was crossed.' With the thing con-
veyed the nominative is required in the passive: as, eaeercitus traiectus
est.
*f Pet- * beg,' and quaer- * ask,' never take an accusative of the per-
son, but employ a preposition ; the first aò, the second aö, ea, or de.
I68 SYNTAX.
Frümentum Aeduos flägitäbat (Caes. B. G. I. 16), he kept de-
manding corn of the Aedui.
903 The thing asked with the passive verb may be an accusative :
àS,
Scitö mä nön essë rögätum sententiam (Cic. ad Att. I. 13. 2),
3yow must know I was not asked my opînîom.
904 Many verbs which are originally intransitive* become transi-
tive whem compounded: as, from i- go is formed co-i- yo together
or meet, and hence
CoIrö söciétâtem (Cic. Phil. II. 10. 24), to form a partnership. f
So, from uersâ-ri to turn is formed ä-uersä-ri to tur^ away (in
horror) : and hence,
Filium äuersätüs (Liv. vIII. 7), turning away in, horror from
hís 80n.
Auersätur scélüs (Curt. vI. 7), he twrns away in, horror from the
(propo8ed) crìme.
905 Some transitive verbs, when compoumded, slightly change their
meaning, and thus have a changed constructiom : as, from sparg-£
8catter, sprinkle, spargére áquam to sprinkle water; but consper-
gêre§ älïquem äquä to besprínkle angy one with water.
906 Hence some compound verbs have a double construction], one
derived from the simple verb, one from the changed meaning of
the compound, viz.
Adsperg- ét insperg- indu-ö-qué,
Exu- circúmda- inperti-ö-qué,
Addê circúmfüd- insér-ö-quë.
907 Abstract nouns from verbs occasionally follow the construction
of the verb, and take an accusative : as,
Dömum rédîtiónis spê sublätä (Caes. B. G. I. 5), the hope of
retwrning home beîng íaken away.
Quid tibi hanc curátiost rem ? (Plaut. Am. I. 3. 21), what busî-
^ess have 3yow to trowöle 3yoùrse faöo^t this matter ?
* See § 403.
f Hence in the passive societas coitur, * a partnership is formed.'
f Only the poets, and their prose imitators, use sparg- in the sense of
* besprinkle.*
§ The same difference exists between spu- and conspu-, between ser-
and conser- or obser-.
|| See § 404.
ACCUSATIVE. 169
Quíd tibi istunc táctiost ? (Plaut. Cas. II. 6. 54) what busìness
have 3yow to touch that person ?
908 The adjectives pröpiór- and proxümo-, and the adverbs pröpiùs
and proxümè, from the preposition pröpë, Sometimes, like that :
preposition, take an accusative (as well as a dative): as,
Exercítum hàbéré quam proxìme hostem (Cic. ad Att. vI. 5. 3),
to keep the army as near as possible to the enemy.
Läcónícüs áger proxîmus finem eórum est (Liv. xxxv. 27), the
territory of the Lacones ìs mearest ov their frontíer.
909 The neuters of pronouns and of adjectives or substantives
which denote quantity are oftem used in the accusative where
other nouns in the accusative would be rare, or even inadmissible.
In these cases the English language often requires the insertion of
a prepositiom :
Id tîbi suscensui (Plaut. Pers. III. 3. 26), it was at this 1 took
offence. *
Vnum omnes stüdëtîs (Cic. Phil. VI. 7. 18), 3yow are all eager
for one object.
Cétéra assentior Crassö (Cic. de Or. I. 9. 35), as to the other
poênts I agree with Crassus.
Iam hoc áliud est quod gaúdeamus (Ter. E. v. 8. 11), then,
again, we have thìs other matter to rejoice at.
Id öpëram do (Ter. And. I. 1. 130), I am laboûrîng at this.
Vtrumqué laetör (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 1. 1), I am delîghted at both
thóngs.
Quid lácrümäs ? (Ter. Ad. IV. 5. 45) what are 3/ov crying for ?
Idne éstis auctorés mihi ? (Ter. Ad. v. 8. 16) is this what 3yow,
recommend to me ?
Eënîfîcio istö nihil ütítür (Cic. in Rull. II. 23. 61), that ad-
vantage 3yow offer he makes no vse of.
Eâ quae ab nätürä mönëmür (Cic. de Am. 24. 88), those warn-
άngs which we receive from nature.
And evem uncommected with a verb : as,
Id tempörïs (Cic. de Fin. v. l. 1), at that time.
Hömïnës id aetätïs* (Cic. de Or. I. 47. 207), men at that age.
Ego istúc aetätïs (Ter. Haut. I. l. 58), I at your time of life.
* The phrase hoc aetatìs was at last corrupted to hoc aetatê. See
Nonius, p. 192; and compare magè, uererè, for magìs, uererís. In Plaut.
Trin. iv. 3. 83. we should read hoc aetate, not hac aetate. Compare also
illuc aetatis qui sit, Pl. Mil. III. l. 56; quid tibi ego aetatis uideor? Pl.
Merc. II. 2. 19.
170 SYNTAX.
910 The possessive pronouns in á which accompany the impersonal
verbs rëfert and intérest are in origim accusatives feminime singular.
Thus,
Meâ rêfert, ôt concerns me, is a corruption of meam rem fert, ít
carries with it something öelongìng to me. So,
Nostra* intérest is a corruption of nostram inter rem est, it is
ôn the mádst of and consequently miaeed wp with something
belongíng to vs.
911 After mamy active verbs, instead of a single word, a whole sen-
tence may take the place of the object, im which case the secondary
verb is put in the infinitive mood, and the agent, or subject of that
verb is put in the accusative, called the subject accusative. Thus,
Caesar rédiit, Caesar îs refurned.
Nuntiant Caesărem rédiissé, they brîng word that Caesar is re-
turmed.f
Por other remarks on the construction of the accusative and
infinitive see below.
912 Similarly, when a subordinate sentence is attached to a verb
as its accusative, the nominative of that sentence is sometimes
picked out and made the accusative of that verbf : as,
Nôsti Marcellum quam tardus sit (Caes. ap. Cic. ad Fam. VIII.
10. 3), 3yov know how slow Marcellus ës.
Istam tfmes ne illum tälem praerìpiat tîbi (Ter. E. I. 2. 80),
«*
* The use of re- in this sense of * interest' is common : thus we find
Imea res agitur, * my interest is at stake ;* in rem meam est, * it is to my
advantage ;' e re mea est, * it is suggested by my interest.* The expla-
nation above given applies equally to the use of the genitive of the per-
son, as Ciceronis rëfert, Ciceromis interest ; as well as the genitive of
the yalue, as magni réfert. The long quantity of the a is proved by
Ter. Ph. v. 7. 47. and Haut. Iv. 5. 45. - Similarly, posteà, from posteam,
lengthens the a when the m is discarded. See also §§ 409, 787, 802.
f A mathematiciam might have expressed this by—Ferunt (Caesar re-
diit)em, attaching the symbol of the accusative case to the clause. As
the Romans were afraid to do this, adopting what under the circumstances
was perhaps the best make-shift, they selected for the addition of the
suffix the chief substantive. Again, the passive construction should have
been (Caesar rediit)s fertur ; but here again, by a similar make-shift,
they wrote Caesar rediisse fertur ; and even in the first person, ego rediisse
feror.
f Hence even in the passive voice, an dea sim dubitor (Ov. Met. vI.
208), *it is doubted whether I am a goddess.' So Cic. N. D. II. 44. 115,
intellegi qualia sint mom possunt ; and 59. [47, eæ quo scientia intellegitur
qualis sit.
ACCUSATIVE. I7l
3yov, are afraid that that girl yov, speak of will, cut 3yow out
with that fine gentleman.
Impurúm uide Quantúm ualet (Ter. Ph. v. 7. 93), see how
strong the scowmdrel is.
Non sátis me permosti étiam qualis sim (Ter. And. III. 2. 23),
3yov do ^ot qwite thoroughly wnderstand even. 3yet what sort of
per80^, I am.
Virtus tuâ më fácít ut te audacter möneam (Ter. Haut. I. l. 4),
3your own worth makes me boldly warn 3/ou.
Fac me ut sciam (Ter. Haut. I. 1. 32), mönd 3yow, et me know.
912. l Although the employment of the accusative as the agent or
subject of a verb in the infinitive should, according to the ex-
planation above givem (§ 911), be limited to the case where such
a clause follows a, transitive verb as its object, this use of an accu-
sative before am infinitive mood became general (see §§ 1239, 1240,
1246), and even when not expressed affected the case of words
referring to it* : as,
Visumst ütilius sölum quam cum altërö regnärë (Cic. de Off. III.
10. 41), it was thought better for one to hold royal power alone
tha^ to share ît with another—where in the indicative we
should have had sölus regnat.
913 The prepositions ín and süb Sometimes require the accusative,
and always after a verb of motion : as,
In urbe est, he ίs ίη the city ; but, In urbem uênit, he came
¢nto the city.
Sub mürö stat, he stands under the wall ; but, Sub mürum
uênit, he came wp to the wall.
914 The majority of the other prepositions, which do not imply
* motion from,' also govern the accusative. See Prepositionst.
915 Extent of place or time or degree is commonly expressed in
the accusativef : as,
* But see § 878.
f Those prepositions which require the ablative are included in the
first two of the following lines ; those which are found with both, in the
third line. All others have the accusative alone.
Absque cum sine, ab coramque,
Prae pro de tenus, ec palamque ;
1Both, super in sub, subter clamque.
Eut the use of clam with an ablative seems doubtful.
f Where a point of space is fixed by a distance from another point,
172 SYNTAX.
A rectâ conscientiä nön transuorsum unguem discëdit (Cic. ad
Att. XIII. 20. 4), he departs not a nail's breadth from a right -
conscience. - -
Fossâ quindécim pédes lätä (Caes. B. G. VII. 72), a ditch fifteen
feet broad.
I)ëcem annös urbs oppugnäta est (Liv. v. 4), for ter, 3years was
the city besieged.
Vndéuiginti annos mätüs (Cic. Brut. 64. 229), ^ineteen gears old.
Maxîmam partem lacté uiuunt (Caes. B. G. IV. 1), for the most
part they live on milk.
916 The accusative is occasionally used by the poets in connection
with am adjective, to define the particular part, and is often called
the Greek accusative. Cétérâ in other respects is SO used even im
prose writers (Sallust, Livy, Velleius).
Ecus trémît artüs (Virg. G. III. 84), the horse trembles ín hís
άmös.
Vir cétéra égrégiùs (Liv. I. 35), a mar, in other respects Qf dis-
tìnguìshed merit.
Os hümérosquë dëò sìmìlis ( Vîrg. A. I. 593), ἀr, face and
shoulders like a god.
917 The accusatives uícem* turn, lot, génùs kind, amd sécüs Seae,
are often used in an independent manner : as,
Stüpentis et suam iam uìcem mägis anxios quam illius (Lîv.
VIII. 35), amazed and mow more anacious about theôr own,
than the other's position.
In id génus uerbis (Var. L. L. x. 5. 180), ἀn, words of that class.
Scis me âlîquîd id génus sölïtum scribéré (Cic. ad Att. XIII.
12. 3), 3yow, know that I am ìn the habit qf writóng somethê^g
of that kind.
Libérórum cäpîtum uîrilé sécüs ad décem miliä, captä (Liv.
xxvI. 47), qf free person& qf the male seae full 10,000 were
taken.
917. 1 The accusative partim is used even as a nominative to a verb :
aS, -
Partim ë nöbis tîmîdi sunt, partim à républfca äuersi (Cic.
the ablative is used by good Writers, and sometimes with the preposition
ab. See also § 1018. l. -
* The equivalent perhaps in form and meaning of the German wegen.
GENITIVE. 173
Phil. VIII. 11. 32), some of us are tim id, some îll-dispo8ed to
our country.
918 In sentences of exclamatiom the accusative often appears, the
word with which it should have beem connected being suppressed :
aS
' Me caecum* qui haec antë non uidérim (Cic. ad Att. x. 10. l),
my öl indness, not to have seen, all this before.
Quo mi, ínquit, mutam spéciemt, si uincόr sono ? (Phaedr. III.
18. 9), what good, says she, is dumb beatty to me, £f ùv 8org
I am, worsted ?
Hem Dáuom tibij: (Ter. And. v. 2. 1), look, here is Davu8 at
3yowr servîce.
Eênê tê pätër§ (0v. Fast. II. 637), a blessing on thee, sire.
GENITIVE.
919 The genitive, like the nominative, denotes * from.' The dif-
ference between their uses is this, that the nominative denotes
the Source of the action expressed by a verb, while the genitive is
used chiefly in connection with substantives. It will often be found
that the preposition dë with the ablative may be substituted for
the genitive, and sometimes áb or ex|.
GENITIVE WITH SUBSTANTIVES.
920 The genitive is attached to amother substantive to denote the
origin of an action, and may be translated by from, Qf, or the
English genitive in 8 : as,
Consülis iussü (Cic. in Cat. I. l. 2), by an order from the consul,
by order of the consul, òy the consul's order.
921 This phrase corresponds to consul iussit, where consül would
be called the subject of the verb iussit. Hence this genitive is
oftem called the subjective gemitive.
* Perhaps dico understood.
f Perhaps das understood. Literally thus : * To what end do ye give
me beauty ?' -
f Perhaps hem itself (§ 862) is an old verb.
§ Perhaps Di adiuuent understood.
II Hence the substitution of de, or a word like it, in all the European
languages derived from the Latin. In our own language too qf appears
to be only a variety of the preposition off.
174 SYNTAX.
922 When of or from a whole a certain part only is takem, that
whole is expressed by the genitive.* This is oftem called the par-
titive gemitive : as,
Pars milítum (Caes. B. G. vr. 40), a part of the soldiers.
Orätörum praestantissümi (Cic. Opt. Gen. Or. 4. 13), the most
distinguished of orators.
VIs auri (Cic. Tusc. v. 32. 91), a quantity of gold.
Nêmo nostrum (Cic. de Fin. II. 8. 23), ^ot one of vs.
Qui eörum cürülis gessêrant mägisträtüs (Liv. v. 41), such Qf
them as had held curule magistracies.
Rêlîquom uitae (Liv. xxxIx. 13), the rest qf his life.
Délecti pédîtum (Lîv. xxvr. 5), men chosen from among the ίη-
fan£ry, or a picked body qf infantry.
Exîguom campi (Liv. xxVII. 27), a Small portion of the plaìn.
Vltümä Celtïbëriae (Liv. xL. 47), the farthest parts Qf Celtíbería.
Décemuîri ägro Appülö, quöd ëius publfcum pöpüli Römämi
ërat, diuídendö (Liv. xxxI. 4), ten commîssîoners for dìvìd-
zr^g the Apuliam territory, i. e. 8o ^wch of êt as was the publîc
property of the people qf Rome.
Id négóti (Ter. And. Prol. 2), that piece of busìness, or that
ότι&έ^ess.
Aliquid möui (Cic. ad Att. v. 6. 2), 8omething of new matter, or
SO77®€ 7?.€?JS.
Quödf ëius fácéré possum (Cic. ad Att. xI. 12. 4; ad Fam. III.
2. 2, and v. 8. 5; and de Inv. II. 6. 20), 80 mwch qf it as I
cam, or 80 far as îs în my power.
Obs. When the whole are included, the genitive in Latin can-
mot, be used, although in English we still use the word * of.* Thus,
* Three hundred of us have sworm'—ifthree hundredform the whole
—must be expressed by Trécenti coniüräufmüs (Liv. II. 12).
922. 1 Still, as the promouns quisquë and üterquë deal with each
unit of the whole mumber separately, though ultimately including
the whole, they are entitled to a genitive of the whole : as,
Tuörum quisqué nécessäriörum (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9. 25), every
one of 3yowr connections. -
* Instead of this partitive genitive, the prepositions of kindred mean-
ing, such as eæ and de, are often used, and even the preposition inter.
f In this construction our editions have quoad, but the best Mss. quod.
GENITIVE, .175
Vtriqué nostrum grätum fécérìs (Cic. de Am. 4. 16), 3yow will
oblige both of us.
Vterque eórum exercítum èdücunt (Caes. B. C. III. 30), both.
lead their armies out.
'23 The same partitive use of the genitive is found with adverbs :
8S
' Vbinam gentium ? (Plaut. Merc. II. 3. 97), where among the
^ations ? in what part of the whole world ?
Eö consuétüdïnis rês adductast (Liv. xxv. 8), the tháng was
brought to that degree of habit.
Nesciré uídémînI quo ämentiae prögressi sitîs (Liv. xxvIII. 27),
3yow seem ^ot to know to what a degree of madness 3yov have
adva^ced.
Intéreà löci (Ter. Haut. II. 3. 16), in the meamwhile.
Sulpíciüs omnium nóbílium maxümé Graecis littêris stúduit.
(Cic. Brut. 20. 78), Sulpìcìus of all our nobles applied hîy-
Self ^ost zealously to Greek literature.
324 When a thing is Said to belong to a persom, it has generally
come from him. Hence the owner to whom any thing belongs is
in the genitive, which is them called the possessive gemitive: as,
Thébae pöpüli Römäni iürë belli factae sunt (Liv. xxxIII. 13),
Thebes became the property qf the Romam people by right Qf
QUOZ7*.
Pröpè Caesärïs hortos (Hor. Sat. I. 9. 18), mear Cæsar's park.
Omnia hostium ërant (Liv. xxI. ll. ad fin.), the whole cowntr?/
öelonged to the enemy.
Plebs Hannibălis töta ërat (Lîv. xxIII. 14), the commonalty
were entirely at the disposal of Hannibal.*
925 The possessive or partitivef genitive is very common in speak-
ing of a characteristic, office, part, dutyf : as,
* Instead of the genitive of the personal pronouns, the possessive
adjectives are required: as, est tuum uidere, quid agatur (Cic. p. Mur.
38. 83), *it does belong to you to see what is going on ;' nos nostri sumus
(Plaut. Mil. Gl. II. 5. 21), * we belong to ourselves, we are our own mas-
ters.* So also humanum, alienum, imperatorium, muliebre, regium, &c.
may be used instead ofthe genitives ofthe nouns whence they are derived.
f The term * partitive' has been used, because in all these cases the
motion of a part is perceptible. * To make mistakes is one elernent in
the character of man.' So again, *it is one element towards constituting
a perfect judge to' &c.
3. A term for part, duty, &c. is oftem expressed : as, munus, negotium,
176 SYNTAX. ę
Cüiusuis höminís est errärë*, nullius nîsi insípientîs în errörë
persêuêrärë (Cic. Phil. xII. 2. 5), ät is in the character Qf
every man to make a mistake, of none but a fool to persíst ìr.
a mistake.
Sápientis iüdïcïs* est, quid lex cögat, cögitärë (Cic. p. Clu. 58.
159), it is the duty of a wise judge to consider what the law
^equires.f •
926 The genitive of connectior, is not unfrequent : as,
Söröris suae uîrum (Cic. in Cat. IV. 6. 13), his sister's husband.
Hüiüs äuös Lentüli (ibid.), the grandfather of this Lentulus.
Diuom pätër atque höminum rex (Vìrg. A. I. 65), sîre qf gods
and king of men.
926. l A genitive is occasionally found where a case in apposition
might have been expected (genitive of definition): as,
Haec uox Wöluptátís (Cic. de Fin. II. 2. 6), this word * pleasure.'
Aliis uirtütïbus—contînentiae, iustítiae, fídei—tê consülätü
dignissümum iüdïcäui (C%c. p. Mur. 10. 23), în respect of
Other good qualities, as those of ìntegrìty, justice, honowr, I
thought 3/ow thoroughly fitted for the consular office.
Vnum génùs est infestum nöbis, eórum quos Clödi füror räpinis
päuit (Gic. p. Mil. 2. 3), one class and but one regards ws
with deadly hostility, I meam those whom the demon, of Clodius
has faitened on rapêne.
927 The gemitive of the quality or quantity requires an adjective or
participle with it : as,
Vir et consíli magni et uirtütïs (Caes. B. G. III. 5), a mar, of
great talent and great covrage.
Quattuor iügërum âgér (Liv. III. 26), a farm offour jugers.
Possâ quindécim pëdum (Caes. B. G. v. 42), a ditch qf fifteen
feet (in width).
Erümentum diërum trigintä (Caes. B. G. VII. 71), 30 days' corr.
Hannibäl, annörum fermë nöuem (Liv. xxI. 1), Hannibal, a
öoy qf about mine 3years.f
officium, proprium, &c. ; but it is idle to talk of an ellipsis when no such
noun is expressed.
* See note t p. 175. + See note * p. 175.
. f. See also the ablative of the quality, § 1010. The use of the geni-
tive in this sense is less common tham that of the ablative, and limited to
GENITIVE. 177
928 The objectìve genitive is that where the genitive takes the place
of what would be the object after a verb.* In this case the
English often requires the substitutiom of another prepositionf for
* of :' as,
Lectió líbrörum (Cic. Acad. Pr. II. 2. 4), the reading of books.
Cüpídítätës immensae diuítiárum, glóriae, döminätiönis (Cic.
de Fin. I. 18. 59), δούndless desires, as for wealth, for glory,
for power.
Iniüriâ müliérum Säbinärumj: (Liv. I. 13), the wrong done to
the Sabine women.
Which phrases severally correspond to libros légéré ; diuftias, gló-
riam, döminätiönem cùpéré ; müliërës iniüria affïcërë.
928. l In the construction of the objective genitive, mei, tui, sui,
nostri, uestri are required.
Grätä mihi uehémentêr est mëmöriâ nostri tuâ (Cìc. ad Fam.
XII. 17), I am eæceedingly pleased with 3your rememberîng vs.
Hâbëtis dücem mëmörem uestri, oblitum sui (Cic. in Cat. IV.
9. 19), 3/ow have a general, who thênks of 3yov, and forgets hóm-
8elf.
Magnâ mei imágo (Vìrg. A. IV. 654), a great åmage qf me.
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.
929 Adjectives amd participles are sometimes followed by a gemitive
of the cause§ in the poets and later writers : as,
Lassus märïs (Hor. Od. II. 6. 7), weary of the 8ea.
Interrïtus léti (Ov. Met. x. 616), not frightened at death.
Inuictus läbörïs (Tac. Ann. I. 20), w^conquered by toîl.
permanent qualities; the ablative denotes both permanent and temporary
conditions.
* Yet such phrases as amor virtutis, taedium laboris, can scarcely be
considered as objective phrases, seeing that the virtue and the labour are
the causes or origin of the amor and the taedium.
f This objective genitiye is far removed from the true meaning of the
case; hence it is not surprising that our own language does not follow it.
f Sometimes the subjective and objective genitivesare at once attached
to the same noun : as, Heluetiorum iniuriae populi Romani (Caes. B. G.
I. 30), *the Wrongs done by the Helvetii to the Roman state;' where Hel-
vetiorum is the subjective, populi the objective comes, as usual, last.
§ More commonly an ablative of the cause is preferred.
N.
I78 SYNTAX.
930 Adjectives or participles which denote removal or separation
may be followed by a genitive in the poets :* as,
Opérum sölütüs (Hor. Od. III. 17. 16), set loose from work.
Liber läbörum (Hor. ad Pis. 212), free from, toîls.
Scéléris pürüs (Hor. Oíl. I. 22. 1), clear of crime. •
Wäcuas caedis mänüs (0v. A. A. I. 6. 42), hands free from öWood-
shed.
931 Adjectives offulness may be followed by a genitive : as,
Dömus pléna êbriórum (Gic. Phil. II. 27. 67), a house ful/ gf
drunker, men.
Lactîs äbundans* (Virg. Buc. II. 20), abounding in milk.
932 Some adjectives, formed from substantives, retain the substan-
tive's power of being attended by a genitive : as,
Stúdiósüs équórum (0v. Met. xIv. 321), fond of horses.
Expers érüditiónís (Cic. de Or. II. 1. 1), without any share of
educatío^.
Consors läböris (Cic. Brut. 1. 2), having a common, lot of laöo^tr.
Sécürus fämae (Ov. Trist. I. l. 49), without regard for what the
^world may Sagy.
933 Adjectives denoting accusatîon, gwîlt, or innocence, are fol-
lowed by a genitive : as,
Reüs äuärïtiae (Cic. p. Flac. 3. 7), charged with avarìce.
Sanguînîs insons (Ov. Met. XIII. 149), gwililess of blood.
934 Many adjectives from verbs, and participles imperfect, are used
as substantivesf, and followeὰ by an objective genitive : as,
Cüpîdus uërïtätïs (Cic. de Or. I. 11. 47), eager for truth.
Auîdus glóriae (Cic. p. Marc. 8. 25), greedy of glory.
Ténax pröpösiti (Hor. Od. III. 3. 1), ever clónging to his pùrpose.
Edax rërum (Ov. Met. xv. 234), devowring all things. -
Effíciens uöluptätïs (Cic. de Off. III. 33. 116), productìve Qf
pleasvre.
* More commonly am ablative with or without ab is preferred.
* This and many such adjectives prefer an ablative of the cause.
, i Observe the difference between laborem contemnens, * despising the
labour,' and laboris contemnens, * a despiser of labour ;' the former speak-
ing of the single occasion, the latter of an habitual feeling ; which is the
usual distinction between a participle and an adjective.
GENITIVE. 179
Gërens négóti (Cic. p. Quinct. 19. 62), engaged in business as a
^merchant.
935 Adjectives, more particularly in the later writers, take a gemi-
tive which may be translated by in, in respect to, án poênt Qf* : as,
Wälfdüs öpum (Tac. Hist. II. 19), strong in resources.
Strénuus milítiae (Tac. Hist. III. 42), energetic ίη φar.
Intéger uitae (Hor. Od. I. 22. 1), pure (in point) Qf life.
936 Some adjectives, which commonly govern the dative, being
used as masculine or feminine substantives, take a genitive: viz.
Söcio-, süperstît- affini-quë.
Finit'mo-, cógnât (o-) aequâli-quë.
Pröpinquo-, sim'li- consorti-quë.
Pár-, fam'liäri- uicino-quë.
Nécessário- conträrio-quë.
Amic(o-) et inuîd (o-) aemülo-qué.f
937 In the same way some neuter adjectives have become substan-
tives, and as such take a genitive : viz.
Pär, pröprium, sîmîlë and commüné.
- GENITIVE WITH VERBs.
938 The impersonal verbs of feeling (see § 889), together with the
* An ablative with or without in is preferred by the older and better
writers. Ruddiman (Stallbaum's ed. II. 73) has given from Johnson a
list of adjectives found with the genitive in addition to those which fall
under his seven defined classes. In this list 133 are of that kind which
are to be translated by * in' or * in point of.* But not one of these is from
Terence, Lucretius, or Cicero, and only five from Plautus ; whereas,
among the later writers, there are twenty-six from Tacitus, and forty-four
from Silius. Agaim, of the whole 133, not less than fifty-five have the
one word animi. For instance, of the five examples from Plautus, four
have this word, one passage having also memtis (Trin. II. 4. 53, and this
evidently corrupt); and of sixteen quoted from Apuleius, thirteen have
the same. From these facts we are inclined to infer, that animi is in
truth, what the sense requires, a dative (see § 114), as it certainly is when
used with the verb ea crucior, &c. (see § 952), and that the use of the
genitive with this sense in later writers grew out of a false analogy from
animi, and words of like form, aided by the ambiguity between the two
eases in the first declension (see § 951). Virg. A. Ix. 255. has integer
aeui ; Albinovanus, III. 5, integer aeuo.
f That many of these are substantives is confirmed by the fact, thal.
they admit the possessive pronouns : as, invidos meos. Even their super-
latives are so used as substantives: as, inimicissumum suum, Cic. p. Mil.
9. 25 ; meus familiarissumus, Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 35. l.
I80 SYNTAX.
personal verbs mîsêre- (r.) and miséresc-, take a genitive of the
moving cause : as,
SI duärum paenítébit, addentur duae (Plaut. St. Iv. l. 45), êf
3yow think two not enough, two more shal' be added.
Hunc nostrum cöpiärum suppaenítet (Cic. ad Att. VII. 14), ovr
friend here half thinks that he has not force enough.
Frätris më püdet (Ter. Ad. III. 3. 37), I'm ashamed of my brother.
Püdet deörum höminumquë (Liv. III. 19), Ifeel ashamed before
heaver, and before man.*
939 Occasionally in the older poets a genitive is found with other
personal verbs of feeling: as,
Fastidit mei (Plaut. Aul. II. 2. 67), he has taken, a dislike to me.
Stüdet tui (quoted by Cic. N. D. III. 29. 72), he is fo^d qf 3yow.
Quae non uërëturf ufri (Afran. ap. Non. Ix. 3), who has no
respect for her husband. •
Iustítiaenè prius mirerf bellinê lãbórum ? (Virg. A. XI. 126)
tfiy justice first should I admóre or toîls Qf war ?
Nec uëtërum mémîni laetoruët mälörum (Virg. A. xI. 280),
nor their old griefs remember I or glory n. '
Nëque ille
Sépösiti cïcëris nec longae inuidît äuënae (Hor. Sat. II. 6. 84),
^or hoarded vetch ^or taper oat he grwdged.
940 Occasionally verbs of removal or separation have a genitive of
the whence in old writers and in poetry£ : as,
Abstînëto irärum cálidaequë rixae (Hor. Od. III. 27. 69), abstain,
shalt thow from wrath and heated fray.
Dësïnë mollium tandem quérëlärum (Hor. Od. II. 9. 17), cease
at last from plaints wnmarly.
Tempus désistêrê pugnae (Vîrg. A. x. 441), 'tis time to desist
from battle.
* The genitive of the person with pudet may be either one who has
acted shamefully or one who has been dealt with shamefully, so that the
sight of him in either case raises the feeling of shame.
+ The refective form of these verbs proves that the construction with
an accusative could not originally have belonged to them. The idea of a
Grecism is unnecessary. The genitive is the very case that might have
been expected from the nature of the idea.
3: The legal language here, as in so many cases, retained traces of the
old construction : as, liberare tutelae (Dig. xxx11. 50. 2).
GENITIVE. 181
Mänü signífícáré coepit, ut quiescèrent pugnae (Quadrig. ap.
Gell. Ix. 13), he began to make a signa] with his hand that
they should rest from battle.
Me ómnium iám laborám leuas (Plaut. Rud. I. 4. 27), 3yow at
last relieve me of all my troubles.
Nec sermónis fallebár tamen (Plaut. Ep. II. 2. 55), mor 37et was
I cheated out of what they saîd.
Miror morbi purgätum te illíüs (Hor. Sat. II. 3. 27), I wonder
thow, art cleansed of that disease.
941 Some verbs of fu/ness, want, and need, may have a partitive
genitive (as well as an ablative): as,
Ollam dënäriörum implêrê non pötés (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 18. 4),
3yow cannot fill the pótcher with denaries. -
Complétus iam mercätörum carcër ërat (Cic. II. Verr. v. 57. 147),
the prison was at last filled with captains of trading ships.
Non tam artís indígent quam läbörïs (Cic. de Or. I. 34. 156),
it is not so mwch skill they are ìn ^eed of as índusfry.
942 The verb pöti-* (r.) make oneself master has a genitive (as well
as an ablative): as,
Si explörätum tibi est, possé te illius regni pötiri (Cic. ad Fam.
I. 7. 5), f 3yow, have ascertaìned that 3yow really ca^ make
3yourself master of that kingdom.
Hi qui pötiuntur rërum (Cic. ad Fam. I. 8. 4), those who are
^0^0 masters qf every thing.
943 Verbs of memory, although they take an accusative ofthe thing
actually remembered, have a genitivef of that about which the
memory is concernedí: as,
Mémîni Cinnam (Cic. Phil. v. 6. 17), I remember Cinna (i. e.
his person).
Mémîni uiuörum (Cic. de Fin. v. 1. 3), I remember or think of
the lîvîrg. • -
* If the adjective poti- was ever used as a substantive, signifying * the
powerful one, the master,* as potenti- in fact was, the verb would natu-
rally take the genitive. Tacitus uses a genitive with the reflective verbs
apisc- (Ann. vI. 45) and adipisc- (Ann. III. 55).
+ De with the ablative is also very common.
f Hence verbs of * reminding,* * making mention,' must have a geni-
tive of the thing brought to mind, unless indeed it be a neuter pronoum.
(See § 909.) -
I82 §YNTAX,
944
9
4.
5
946
Nëque unquam obliuiscar noctîs illiùs (Cic. p. Planc. 42. 101),
nor shall I everforget (the occurrences) Qf that might.
Vénit mihi Plätönïs in mentem (Cic. de Fin. v. 1. 2), the thought
of Plato comes acro88 me.
Flägítiörum suórum rëcordäbítür (Cic. in Pis. 6. 12), he will
remember his scandalows proceedings.
Dulcis rémîniscítür Argös (Vîrg. A. x. 782), he remembers speet
Argê.
Verbs* of accusáng, convìctìng, acqvîtting, take a genitivef of
the offence charged : as,
Altérum ambítüs accussat (Cic. p. Cael. 7. 16), he accuses arother
of bríbery.
Pötestne hères furti ägéré ? (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 22) cam, an heir
δring an action for theft ?
Prödîtiönïs eum insímüläbant (Caes. B. G. VII. 20), they were
ênclined to accuse him oftreachery.
The penalty is expressed in the genitive in a few phrases: as,
Arcesséré cápítís t (Cic. p. Deiot. 11. 30), to öräng a charge affect-
ing a person's status as a citizen.
Octüpli§ dampnätust (Cic. II. Verr. III. 12. 29), he was co??-
demºned to a payment of eightfold.
Dampnátus läböris (Hor. Od. II. 14. 19), condenned to toîl.
With verbs of öwyîng, sellîng, costing, the price is expressed by
the genitives tanti§, quanti, mïnöris, plürís ; in all other cases by
an ablative. (See Ablative.)
* For adjectives of this class see § 933.
+ Or de with the ablative, which in some phrases is necessary, or at
least more common : as, de vi, de moribus, de testamento. Cicero (p.
Clu. 41. l 14) says de pecuniis repetundis ; Tacitus (Amm. III, 33) repe-
tundarum without the substantive.
£ Also capite dampnare (Cic. Tusc. I. 22. 50).
§ We have called these genitives, in d* ference to common opinion,
but they are perhaps old datives; a supposition which will account for the
use of the forms in o (see following note), and remove the strange com-
tradiction of idioms*which appears in Hor. Sat. II. 3. 156:
Quanti emptae ? Paruo. Quanti ergo ? Octussibus.
The phrase too in Catullus (xvII. 17), nec pili facit uni, will no longer
have a license in the last word. If our theory be right, minoris, pluris,
huius and assis will afford another instance of an anomaly growing out
of a false analogy (see § 935).
IDATIViE. 183
947 The worth or value is expressed by the same genitives, and also
by parui, magni, mínümI, maxümi, and plürümi,* as well as the
following, which generally are 'strengthened by the addition of a
negative: viz.
Hüiüs et assis, flocci piliqué,
Nauci nîhîli, têrunciiqué.f
948 With the verbs rëfert and intérest are employed tanti, quanti,
parui, magni, besides the ordinary adverbs of quantity.
949 Qf being so commonly the translation of the genitive, it may
be a useful caution to observe that the English phrases signifying
to talk Qf, to think Qf, are to be translated with the preposition dé.
Still certior fiëri, to be înformîed, oftem takes a genitive.
DATIvE. £
950 The dative case answers to the question where ? in or ^ear
what place ? and to the time when ? Hence its place is often
supplied by such words.as fm or cum with the ablative, or by the
ablative alone, seeimg that the ablative is often only amother form
of the dative.
951 At a town or in, a small island is expressed by the dative ; but
in the o (or second) declension the old dative in ì is very generally
preferred : as, -
Römae (Lîv. xxI. 6), at Roma (or Rome);
Athënis (Cic. de Sen. 13. 43), at Athenae (or Athens);
Tärenti§ (Cic. de Sen. 12. 39), at Tarentum ;
* Ablatives however are occasionally found, even in Cicero: as, in
II. Verr. Iv. 7. 13, ista permagno aestumax ; de Fin. IV. 23. 62, mom mihilo
aestumandum. Festus has bos centussibus, ouis decussibus aestimaretur ;
and asse carum est is an old phrase.
*f We have not added pensi, because the phrase neque quidquam pensi
habebat is equivalent to neque quidquam pendebat, the word pensi being,
according to the common idiom, attached to the neuter pronoun (§ 922).
Aequi boni consulere, ' to take in good part,' has never, so far as the writer
knows, been satisfactorily explained.
3. As the order of the paragraphs under this head has been much
altered, the numbers of the sections will not correspond with those of the
previous edition.
§ In the phrase habitat Mileti (Ter. Ad. Iv. 5. 20) Donatus saw no
genitive case; he calls it aduerbium locale. The dative of mouns in o
ended at one time, like the Greek οικοι, λογφ &c. in the diphthong oi,
of which tlie old dative quoi is an example ; and from this diphthong
arose the two forms of the case, seen in mullo and mulli.
184 8YNTAX.
952
953
954
955
Tjrö (Virg. A. Iv. 36), at Tyre ;
Läuiniö (Liv. v. 52), at Lavíníum ;
Püteölfs (Cic. ad Att. xvI. 14. 1), at Puteol;; -.
TibúrI* (Cic. ad Att. xvr. 3. 1), at Tibur (or T$vol;);
Cüríbüs (Liv. I. 18), at Cures ;
Ithăcae (Cic. de Off. III. 28. 97), in Ithaca ;
Lemnit (Ter. Ph. Iv. 3. 75), în Lemnos ;
Karthägfni* Nöuae (Epit. of Liv. xxvIII.—for so the Mss.), at
AWew Carthage.f
The dative signifying vohere ? maintained itself in certain
words in spite of the increasing tendency to express this idea by
in and an ablative. Such datives are: hümI om the ground, terrae
(Vírg. A. xI. 87) on the ground, dömi at home, rüri in the country
(in poetry also rürë), föris out of doors, AchéruntI (Plaut. Capt.
III. 5. 31) in Acheron, or Tartarus, cömitiis at the election, lüdis
at the games, Lätinis (sc. fëriis) at the Latin festival, gládiätö-
ríbüs at the gladiatorial exhíbitior, änimi în the mind (pl. änï-
mis).
The so-called,adverbs in bì and i, which denote oohere, as, übi
where, ibi there, &c. (§ 366, col. 2), are all datives in origim.
The time wher, is put in the dative im certain words : as,
hëri (also héré) 3yesterday, máni (or máné) in the morni^q, ues-
péri (or uespéré) în the evening, lüci in the daylight, diê quinti
(or quinte) om the fifth day (see Gell. x. 24), diè pristîni the day
öefore, dië crastîni tomorrow, idíbus martiis om the ides (or 15th)
Qf March, belli ίη ωar, militiae on military service, übi when,
íbi them, &c.
Adjectives which denote nearness take a dative : as,
* The poets take the liberty of shortening such forms as Tiburi to
Tiburë (see § 990). w
f See note §, p. 183.
£ If the word urb- or oppido- be expressed, the preposition in must
be used, as, Milites Albae constiterunt in urbe munitu (Cic. Phil. Iv. 2. 6),
Civis Romanos Neapoli in celeberrumo oppido cum mitella vidimus (Cic.
p. Rab. Post. 10 26). * In a country* or *in a large island* is commonly
expressed by in, with the ablative ; yet there are passages where the dative
is found, especially in the poets, as Cretae ( Virg. A. III. 162), Libyae
(Virg. A. Iv. 36), and late prose writers, as the Pseudo-Nepos, Cher-
sonesi (Milt. 2), Cypri (Chabr. 3). The passage in Cic. R. P. III. 9. 14
is not an example, for there Graeciae, as Madvig has pointed out, is a
genitive in connection with delubra.
IDATIVE. 185
956
957
Belgae proxfmi sunt Germänis (Caes. B. G. I. 1), the Belgae are
mearest to the Germans.
Heu quam uicina est ultîmâ terrâ mihi (0v, Trist. III. 4. 52),
alas, how mear is the end of the world to me.
Tibi généré pröpinqui (Sal. Jug. 10), those ^ear aki^ to 3/ou.
Verbs which denote mearness take a dative : as,
Pärërë* uöluntäti architecti (Cic. N. D. I. 8. 19), to wait upon,
the will qf the architect.
Ciuftätës ämicítiä Caesări comcfliärë (Caes. B. C. III. 55), to
wnite 8tates ίη frìendship with Caesar.
•Si pöpülus Römänus foedéré iungérétur régi (Liv. XXVI. 24.
13), €f the people of Rome should be united to the king by
treaty.
Currü iungit EHälaesüs équös (Virg. A. VII. 724), to his car
Halaeso yokes the steeds.
Nescît équo haerërëf (Hor. Od. III. 24. 54), he knows not hoω
to clìng to 8teed.
Forti miscébat mellâ Fälernö (Hor. Sat. II. 4. 24), with strong
Falernian, he would honey miae.
Luctantem Icăriis fluctïbùs (Hor. Od. I. 1. 15), wrestling with
Icariam, waves.
Sölus tîbî certét Amyntas (Virg. Buc. 5. 8), let Amynta8 alone
contend with thee.
Adjectives compounded with prepositions of rest take a dative
dependent upon that preposition : as,
Qui mihi consciüs essé sölés (C%c. ad Att. I. 18. l), 3yo% who are
wont to share m3y 8ecrets with me.
Mihi conscius sum (Gic. Tusc. II. 4. 10), I share the knowledge
with myself (alone)—or Iam conscious.
Eius mors consentäneã uitae fuit (Cic. Phil. Ix. 7. 15), his
death was în agreement with his life.
Coenisqué tríbus iam pernâ süperstes (Mart. x. 48. 17), and a
ham that had 8wrvíved three dinmers.
* That * to be present,' * to wait upom,' rather than * to obey,' is the
true meaning of this verb, to say nothing of other evidence, is shown by
the use of the verb appare- with such a dative as magistratibus, and by
the noun apparitor- * an officer in waiting.'
+ This use of the dative with many of these verbs is limited to the
poets : Cicero would rather have said haerere in equo, miscere cum
Palerno, luctari cum fìuctibus, certare tecum.
186 SYNTAX.
958
9
5
9
Verbs compounded with prepositions of rest take a dative*
dependent upon that preposition.
Quem quóndam Ioni Iäno custodem áddidit (Plaut. Aul. III.
6. 20), whom Juno of 3yore 8et as a watch o'er Io.
Hi scribendo affuêrunt (Cic. ad Fam. VIII. 8. 6), the following
were present at the registration.
Iüdíces sibi constärë dëbuêrunt (Cic. p. Clu. 22. 60), the jury
ought to have been consistent with themselves.
Tü meo infélici erróri sólüs illácrùmasti (Liv. XL. 56), 3/ov.
alone have wept over my wrfortunate mistake.
Campüs interiäcens Tibéri ac moenibus Römänis (Liv. XXI.
30), the plain that lies between the Tiber and the walls Qf
IRome.
Püdor nön öbest örätiöni (Cic. de Or. I. 26. 122), modesty does
^ot stand in the way of a speech, or is not prejudicial to öt.
Omníbüs éius consíliis obstîti (Cic. in Cat. III. 7), all his plans
I have thwarted. *
Qui classìbus praeërant (Caes. B. C. III. 25), those who were í^
command of the fleets.
Hömines bestiis praestant (Cic. de Inv. I. 4. 5), men stand before
(or eæce!) beasts. -»
Magnítüdine änïmi pötest répugnäri fortünae (Cic. de Fin. IV.
7. 17), with magnanimity a battle may be mai^tained against
fortune. -
Süperfuit pätri (Lîv. I. 34), he survîved his father.
In the examples just quoted the verbs are of a static cha-
racter ; but even after verbs of motîon, whem the resulting position
rather than the movement to attain it is before the mind, the
dative is still used (see § 1336 b) : as,
Antëtülissem uöluntätem tuam commödö meö (Cic. ad Fam. v.
20. l), I should have preferred 3/owr wishes to my ow^, advan-
tage.
* Thus the Latin here agrees with other languages in attaching a
dative to prepositions of rest. So we have in the old language postibi
and interibi, the latter of which was eventually corrupted to înter-im.
So too in postquam, antequam &c., the quam is probably a dative in
origin rather than an accusative, as is admittedly the case in the parallel
forms of the German mach-dem &c. It is thus too that we find a dative
in auro contra, § 1320.f. *a
IDATIVE. 187
Contiömanti circumfundébátur multîtüdo (Liv. xxII. 14), a8
he went on harangwing, a mob kept powróng round húm.
Vénienti occurrité morbo (Pers. III. 64), ha$ten to meet the com-
ir^g disease.
Ora ipsa öcülis pröpönïtë (Cic. p. Sest. 7. 17), place their very
faces before 3your eyes.
Dum circumuentö filiö subuênit, interfícítür (Caes. B. G. v.
35), as he advance8 to support his 8om who was surro unded,
he is killed.
Amätum öuâ gallinis saepé suppönïmüs (Cic. N. D. II. 48. 124),
we ofter, put ducks' eggs wnder hens.*
960 Evem simple verbs at times take a dative to express the where:
aS
2 I)ummörigi custódes pönït ut quae ägat sciré possit (Cae8. B. G.
I. 20), he places men about the person of Dumnoriæ to watch
hìm, that he may know what he is doârg.
Custos frümentö publîco est pósítüs (Cic. p. Flac. 19. 45), he
qvas set as sentìne', over the publîc corr.
Finem örätiöni fäcérë (Cic. II. Verr. II. 48. 118), to set a limit to
a 8peech.
961 Adjectives, being in their very nature static, express the rela-
tion to an object by a dative : as,
Collîs aduersüs huic et contráriüs (Caes. B. G. II. 18), a hi/7
facîng and opposite to this.
Sita Anticyra est laeuâ parté sínum Cörinthiäcum intrantïbùs
(Lîv. xxvI. 26), Anticyra lîes on the left as yow enter the bay
of Corinth.
Aptum est tempöri et persónae (Cic. Or. 22. 74), it is adapted
to the time and to the person.
Verbum Lätinum par Graecö (Cic. de Fin. II. 4. 13), a Latin
word equal in force to the Greek one.
Eilius pätri sîmîlîs (Cic. de Fin. v. 5. 12), a son, like his father.
Nihil tam dissîmîlë quam Cottä Sulpiciö (Cic. Brut. 56. 204),
there is nothèng so wnlike as Cotta to Sulpîcîus.
Liuiüs Ennio aequâlis fuit (C%c. Brut. 18. 73), Livius was of the
8amne age with Ennius.
* But some verbs so compounded, especially with ad, are occasionally
regarded as transitive verbs, taking an accusative : as, allabitur aures
(Virg. A. Ix. 474), cum Tiberi genua aduolueretur (Tac. Amn. I. 13).
Y 88 SYNTAX.
962
963
Quöd illi caussae maxìme est áliánum (Cic. p. Caec. 9. 24),
^what is most wrfavorable for that síde.
Is dölor commünis uóbis mëcum est (Cic. de Prov. Cons. l. 2),
£r dignation at thês ês commo^ to yow with me.
Eius căput Iöui sácrum estó (Liv. III. 55), that man's head shal',
öe devoted to Jupiter.
Id uërö milítíbus fuit pergrätum (Caes. B. C. I. 86), this indeed
Qvas most acceptaóle to the soldiers.
Hömînës omníbüs ImIquI (Cic. p. Planc. 16. 40), men wrfriendly
to every one.
Virtus fructuósa, äliis, ipsI läböriósa aut përicülösa aut certé
grätuitâ (Oic. de Or. II. 85.346), energy full offrwit for otfiers,
for himself full of sufferìng or danger, or at best without re-
vard.
Nëque ádeö tîbi uilis uita esset meâ (Liv. xL. 9), nor would
my life have been so cheap êm 3your eyes. -
Nëquáquam spécie aestìmantîbus pärës (Liv. VII. 10), by ^o
means equal in the eyes of tho8e who judged of them from out-
ward appearamce.
Hömêrus Scepträ pötitüs eädem äliis* söpitù quiétest (Lucr.
III. 1038), e'er, Homer, who won, our sceptre, was drugged by
the same sleep (of death) with others.
Similarly adverbs may have a dative of relation : as,
Conuênienter nätürae uiuërë (Cic. de Off. III. 3. 13), to lîve agree-
ably to nature.
Quam sîbi constanter dicat, non läbörat (Cic. Tusc. v. 9. 26),
how far he talks consistently with himself, he heeds mot.
Impröbo et stulto et ínerti mémînî béne essé pötest (Cic. Parad.
2. 19), with a villain, or a fool or a sluggard things cannot be
well. -
Static verbs express their relation to an object by a dative: as,
Hoc ünum Caesări défuit (Caes. B. G. Iv. 26), this one thing wa8
vantìng to Caesar.
Qui diligébant hunc, illi fàuébant (Cic. p. Rosc. Com. 10. 29),
tho8e who esteemed this mam, wished well to the other. -
Aeduórum ciuïtäti praecîpue indulsêrat (Caes. B. G. I. 10), he
had been particularly indulgent to the state of the Aedui.
* This construction occurs only in poets.
XI) ATIVE. 189
964
965
Irasci ämicis non têmêre söleö (Cic. Phil. VIII. 5. 16), I am mo?
vont with light cause to be angry with friends.
Nullâ fuit ciuitas quin Caesări pärëret (Caes. B. G. III. 81),
there was not a single state buz was obedient to Caesar, or ready
to oöey his orders.
Hoc omnibus pätet (Cic. p. Mur. 13. 28), this ìs opem, to al'.
Non pläcet Antöniö consülätus meüs, at plácuit P. Seruiliö
(0%c. Phil. II. 5. 12), mgy consulship does ^ot find favowr août),
Antony, true, 3yet it fownd favour with Publius Servilius.
Qui nec sibi néc altëri prösunt (Cic. de Off. II. 10.36), men, who
are v8eful ^either to themselves nor to their ^eighbour.
Sic nostër hic rector stúduérit lêgîbus cognoscendis (Cic. R. P.
v. 3), so let this ruler of ours first devote himself to the study
of the laws. •
Adülescenti nihil est quod suscenseam (Ter. Ph. II. 3. 14), with
the 3yowng man I have ^0 reason, to öe offended.
Quod tíbi lubét, id míhi lubet (Plaut. Most. I. 3. 138), what
pleases yov, that pleases me.
CätönI lícuit Tuscüli së dëlectärë (Cic. R. P. I. 1), it was per-
mitted to Cato to amuse himself at Tusculum.
In the older writers décet admitted a dative of the persom,
unless an infinitive followed the verb ; but in other writers an
accusative of the persom is alone admissible.
Istuc facinus, quód tu insimulas, n6stro generi n6n decet
(Plaut. Am. II. 2. 188), an act, such as that 3yow complain
Qf, would not öe öecoming ín oùr famęy.
Some verbs compounded with dfs, which often require an Eng-
lish translation by from, and in Latin are usually accompanied by
the prepositions áb or intér or cum, occasionally in the poets take
a dative* : as,
Longé meâ discrépät istis Et uox et rätiö (Hor. Sat. I. 6. 92),
7ny words, my views are wholly ovt of harmony with them.
Pëdë certo Differt sermóni (Hor. Sat. I. 4. 48), ôy the fired
rhythm alone from prose êt differs.
Quantum Hjpänis dissïdët Erfdäno (Prop. I. 12. 4), far as the
Hypanós from the Eridanvs ìs distant. -
* This constructiom is like that of the dative in connection with such
adjectives as dissimili-, dispar-.
190 SYNTAX.
Scurrae distát ámicus (Hor. Ep. I. 18. 4), from the buffoon far
dífferent the friend.
966 The verb ès- be stands out from among other statio verbs by its
frequent use of a dative of the person to denote relationship, con-
nection of office and owmership.
Natúra tu illi páter es (Ter. Ad. I. 2. 46), by nature yow are hìs
father.
Mihi quaestör impërätöri fuérat (Cic. post red. in S. 4. 35), he
had been my quaestor when I was commander-án-chief.
Quíbüs öpes nullae sunt (Sal. Cat. 37), those who have ^0 pro-
perty.
967 From this idea of * having' comes the use of ës- with a dative
of the person in connection with a perfect participle and a gerun-
dive ; a, use which was extended to phrases of apposition where
the verb ës- is no longer expressed.
Quicquid mihi susceptumst (Cic. p. leg. Man. 24. 71), whatever 1
have w^dertaken,—less accurately, whatever has Ö€en, Vnder-
taken by ^ne.
Légendus mihi saepiüs est Cätö mäiör (Cic. ad Att. XIV. 21),
I have to read again, and again, the * de Senectute,'—less ac-
curately, öt must öe read δy me, or I nvst read it.
967. I Participles often become virtually adjectives, and as such are
entitled to a dative of relation : as,
Pinnäs in littörë pandunt Dilectae Thëtîdi alcyönës (Virg. G.
I. 399), their feathers on the beach spread out the kingfishers
£o Thefîs dear.
Nótás mihí nóminé tantum (Hor. Sat. I. 9. 3), known to me öy
^ame alone. -
968 It is rare, even in the poets, for a dative to be used of the
agent with imperfect tenses of a passive. Some passages in prose
writers, which seem to fall under this head, admit of a different,
explanation. :
Carmînâ quae scribuntür äquae pötöribüs (Hor. Ep. I. I9. 3),
verses that are written in the realm of water-drinkers.
Scribêris Wäriö fortís (Hor. Od. I. 6. 1), thy bravery shall öe told
£n Varius? page.
Hoc in lábóribus uiuenti nön intellégitúr (Cic. de Sen. 11. 38),
thês to one lîvîng immer$ed in labowr is not perceptôle.
IDATIVE. 191
Earbärüs hic égö sum, quiä nön intellégör ulli (0v. Trist. v.
10. 35), a barbariar, here am I, for to no one am I intelligible.
969 Even substantives take a dative to denote the object referred
to : as,
E bestiärum corpörïbus multâ rémédiâ morbis et uolnéribüs
êlîgimüs (Cic. N. D. II. 64. 161), from the bodìes ofbeasts we
8elect man3y remedies for diseases and wownds.
Nëque mihi ex cüiusquam altîtüdíne aut praesîdiâ péricúlis aut
adiümenta hönörïbus quaerö (Cic. p. leg. Man. 24. 70), nor
do I seek in the exalted conditior. qf any one whatever either
protectior, against danger, or aid to political advancemerit.
Têgîmentâ gäleis milîtës ex uimînîbus fäcéré iübet (Caes. B. C.
III. 62), he bids the soldiers make coverings for their helmets
of the osiers.
Equítätum auxïliö Caesări misérant (Caes. B. G. I. 18), they
had sent a body of cavalry a8 an αἰd to Caesar.
970 Where an habitual state of things is expressed, a dative of the .
person is sometimes used to define those with whom the habit;
prevails: as,
Earbäris ex fortünä pendet fîdës (Lîv. xxvIII. 17), with bar-
barìans fidelity depends wpon fortune.
Hönestâ bönis uîris, nöm occultâ quaeruntür (0%c. de Off. III.
9. 38), with good men the honoûraóle, ^ot the mgsterious, ûs
the object 8ought.
Etiam säpientîbus cüpido glóriae nöuissfma exuìtùr (Tac. Hist.
Iv. 6), even, among the wise the love qf glory is the last thing
discarded.
971 Verbs of habitual action mayin one sense be regarded as static,
and so have a dative of the person to whom the habitual action
refers. Such verbs are often reflectives.
Appius mihi blanditùr (Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 12. 2), Appìus performs
the part of the * blandus homo' to me,—is all smoothness to me.
Né quid pars altérâ grätïfïcäri pöpülö Römänö* posset (Liv.
xxI. 9), for fear that the other party should do the obligìng to
* Instead of populo Romano the MSS. have pro Romanis, which,
though nonsense, is retained in all the editions. Populo Romano was
shortened as usual to p-ro-, and then mistaken for pro, which of course
needed a noun, and to supply this need Romanis wa8 added.
I92 SYNTAX.
the Roman people, i. e. should sacrífice any mafter to obligu
Rome.
Caesări supplïcäbo (Cic. ad Fam. VI. 14, 3), I will play the part
of suppliant to Caesar.
Alii glóriae seruiunt, älii pécüniae (Cic. Tusc. v. 3. 9), some are
slaves to glory, some to money.
972 Where an action is done to part of the body, the party suffer-
ing is expressed by the dative (though the English language pre-
fers a possessive pronoun or possessive case): as,
Cui ego iam linguám praecidam atque 6culos ecfodiâm domi
(Plaut. Aul. II. 2. 12), I will at orce cut off her tongue, and
dig her eyes out here în the house.
Tuö uiro öcüli dölent (Ter. Ph. v. 8. 64), your husband's eges
ache.
Quid uis tibi dari ín manum ? (Ter. Ph. Iv. 3. 29) hoω πωch
do 3yow, wish paid down, into 3yowr hand ?
Tibi sicä dë mänïbùs extortast (Cic. Cat. I. 6. 16), the dagger
was wrested out of your hands.
973 Thus verbs alike of giving and taking away have a dative of
the person ; but it must not be inferred from this that either
motion to or motion from is really expressed by the dative.
Dédi ad tê libertö tuö littëräs (Cic. ad Att. vI. 3. 1), I gave a
letter to yowr freedmam (to be delívered) to 3yow.
Reddidit mihi littéräs (Cic. ad Att. v. 21), he delìvered the letter
to ^me.
Ingéns* cùí lümén ádemptum (Virg. A. III. 658), from whom a
monstrous eye had been taken, away.
Id tötum ërìpéré uóbis cönätust (Cic. in Rull. II. 7. 19), all this
he has endeavoured to tear from yow.
974 Verbs of frustîng, for to trust is to put a thing into a person's
handsf, have a dative of the person in whom the trust is placed :
a8, û
* That ingens is the epithet of lumem is shown partly by the same
epithet having been given to lumen in v. 636, telo Jumen terebramus acuto
Ingens ; partly by Virgil's habit of making the relative in this part of his
verse an enclitic attached to the preceding word. See § 1463 note. I
had to thank a friend and then colleague för the suggestion.
* Indeed cre-do, cre-didi, ere-ditum, and the old subjunctive cre-duim,
evidently belong to a compound of do.
I)ATIVE, 193
Sè suâque omnia áliénissùmis crédîdérunt (Caes. B. G. VI. 31),
they trusted themselves and all their property to perfect stran-
gers.
Credón tibi hoc ? (Ter. And. III. 2. 17) am I to believe this that
3yow, tell me ?
Mihi crëdë (Cic. in Cat. I. 3. 6), take my word for ìt.
Qui sîbî fîdît* (Hor. Ep. I. 19. 22), who in himself confides.
Multítüdo hostium nulli rei praeterquam nümërö frétâ* (Liv.
VI. 13), the mob constitutìng the enemy's force, tru8tìng tc
nothâng but their nwmbers.
975 Some verbs of gîvîng are used with a dative of the persom in
the sense of doing something out of regard to that persom, par-
ticularly in cases of forgiveness or concessiom : as,
Praetêritâ frätri condónat (Caes. B. G. I. 20), the past doings
(qf Dumnoriae) he forgives owt of regard to his örother (Dívá-
tiacvs).
Peccátâ libérum párentum mïsërîcordiae concessêrunt (Cic. p.
Clu. 69. 195), they have passed over the offences qf sons out Qf
pity to their parents.
Tu ínímicítias reipublícae dönasti (Cic. ad Fam. v. 4), 3yov have
dropped 3your enmities ovt of regard to the public welfare.
Mëmöriam sïmultätum pátriae rémittîtf (Liv. Ix. 38), he for-
gets his private quarrels out qf regard to his coω^try.
Quantum consuétüdini fämaequè dandum sit (CVc. Tusc. I. 45.
109), how farwe ought to make allowance for custom and what
the world may 8ay.
976 Many verbs which denote an act done in the presence of or in
reference to amother concerned therein, take a dative of the per-
som, in addition to the accusative of the thing, especially verbs of
showing and telling.
Altérî monstrant uiam (Enn. ap. Cic. de Div. I. 58. 132), they
Show a fellow-creature the way.
* See also § 1002.
+ Literally * lets go back,* * sends back.* The idea of punishment in
the Latin language generally takes the form of a fine. The offender dat,
pemdit, soluit poenam, * pays the fine ;' the injured party sumit, eæigit
poenam, * takes, exacts the fine;* or should any common friend succeed
in assuaging his anger, them the offended party remittit poenam interces-
sori,* returns the fine to the interceding party,' that the offender receiving
it from him may know to whose kind offices he is indebted.
O
194 SYNTAX.
Haec hërö dicam (Plaut. Am. I. 1. 304), all this I will tell (to)
my master.
Virgo nupsit Métellö (Cic. de Div. 1. 46. 104), the maiden took
tlie veíì* to Metellus, i. e. married him.
977 This dative of the person oftem denotes for his advantage or on
his account, and is translated by for : as,
Sic uos non uóbis mellffïcätïs äpes (Virg. in uita), 80 3/e too,
beee, not for yourselves are honey-makers.
Non sölum nöbis diuîtës essé uölümus, sed libêris, pröpinquis,
άmicis, maxüméqué reipublícae (Cic. de Off. III. 15. 63), ít ás
^ot merely for ourselves we wish to öe rich, but for our children,
owr relations, our friends, and above all our country.
Tὰ fors quid me fiat, parui péndis, dum illi cónsulas (Ter. Haut.
IV. 3. 37), yow perhaps care little what becomes of me, 8o3yow
provide for him.
Tfbi tímui (Ter. Haut. III. 2. 20), I was alarmed for yow, or or.
3yoωr acco^/nt.
Méliüs eI cäuêrë uölo quam ipse äliis sölet (Cic. ad Fam. III.
l. 3), I am determined to take better secwrity for hîm than, he
himself is won* for others.
Nec tëf tuä fünérâ mäter Pröduxi pressiue öcülös aut uolnérâ
läui (Virg. A. Ix. 486), mor for thee led thêne own, mother
forth the funeral pomp, or closed thêne eyes, or bathed thy
vownds.
978 The dative of the personal pronouns more particularly, is used
to denote an interest of the party (dativus ethicu8), and oftem
ironicaliy. In this case much latitude of translation is requisite
to give the shade of meaning: as, -
Tongilium mihi éduxit (Cic. in Cat. II. 2. 4), Tongîlius he has
done me the favour to take out (of Rome) with him.
At tîbi rêpentë uênYt ad më Cäniniüs (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 2. I),
but (what think yow) all at once there comes to my house your
friemd, Cam ìnìus.
*. The flame-coloured veil, flammeolum, used in the ceremony of
marriage.
t. Te a dative, and tua a nominative, the two pronouns being thrown
together for the sake of emphasis. Another instance of te as a dative is
seen in Ter. Haut. v. 2. 34, te indulgebant. See also p. 197, note f.
DATIVE. 195
Haec uóbis istörum militiâ fuit (Liv. xx. 60), this was the mú-
tary 8ervice yow have to thank 3your petîtîoner8 for.
970 A dative and accusative seem to be rivals with each other in
the constructiom of some verbs. The cases of this nature fall for
the most part into two classes : a. those of older Writers, who,
adheringto the original meaning of a verb, employ a dative, which
in later Writers gives place to an accusative ; or the two construc-
tions may even coexist with a slight difference of meaming in the
verb : b. those where, the verb being entitled originally to a dative
of the persom and accusative of the thing, the thing is in a mam-
ner personified, and so put in the dative.
Adülä-ri, * to Wag the tail at,* hence * to wheedle*, fawm om.'
Pötenti ädülätüs est (Vep. in Attico, 25), he fawned o^ the
powerful man.
Praesentibüs ädülamdö (Liv. xxxvI. 7. 4), by fawning on those
present.f •
Aemülä-ri, * to play the rival,' hence * to rival, envy.?
EIis aemülämur, qui ea häbent, quae nös häbéré cüpfmüs (Cic.
Tusc. I. 19. 44), we envy those who po88ess what we are eager
to po88es8.£
Ignosc-êrê, literally * to forget?§, and hence * toforgive,' strictly
with acc. of offence forgiven, dat. of person.
Vt eis delicta ignóscas (Plaut. Bacch. v. 2. 68), that you may
forgóve them, their shortcom îngs.
Hoc ignoscant di immortäles uëlim pöpülö Römänö (Gic. Phil.
I. 6. 13), for this I would pray the ìmmortal gods to forgóve
the Roman people.
Inuïdë-ré, * to regard with am evil eye,' hence * to envy, grudge ;'
originally it would appear with an acc. of the thing envied and a
dat. of the owner.
* Observe that the German verb wedel-n meams * to wag the tail.'
f So again plebi a., Liv. III. 69. In Cic. in Pis. 41. 99, omnibus a. is
justly preferred by Lambinus. But in later writers the acc is used: as,
canes furem a., Col. VII. 12; principem, Tac. Hist. I. 32, aut quem
aiium, Ann. XVI. 19 ; dominum, Sen. de Ira, II. 31. Hence in Quint.
Ix. 3, huic non hunc adulari iam dicitur, the words huic and hunc should
be transposed.
£ But Pindarum ae., Hor. Od. Iv. 2. 1; uirtutes, Tac. Agr. 15; uinum,
Plin. xiv. 2. 4.
§ * To un-know,' if we had the word, would best suit.
196 §YNTAX.
Iampridem nöbis caelîtë rëgiä, Caesar, Inuïdët (Virg. G. I. 503),
long, long has the palace of the sky envied α8 thy presence,
Caesar.
Afrícae sólo öleum et uinum Nätüra inuidit (Plin. xv. 2. 3),
nature grudged the soil of Africa oïl and wine.*
Mëdïcä-ri and médè-ri, literally * to act the physiciam,' hence
* to cure, heal, remedy,' with a dat. of the patient or acc. of the
disease.
Ego possum in hâc re medicari mihi (Ter. And. v. 4. 41), óm,
this matter I can plagy the part of physicîar. to myself;—but
Ego istum lépide medicabórf metum (Plaut. Most. II. 1. 40),
I will cure that fear nicely.
Dies stultis quöqué médéri sölet (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 28. 3), time
is wont to cure even fools ;—but
Eiusmodi . . . cúpiditátes, Quas quám res aduorsaé sient, pauló
mederi p6ssis (Ter. Ph. v. 4. 2), desires of such a kind that
øhen thê^g$ go wro^g, 3yow can, cure them at little cost.
Mödérâ-ri, *to act as a limit or check (to)', hence * to check,
moderate,' and so generally * to goverm, control.?
Nöm uinum hominibús moderari, séd uino homines ássolent
(Plaut. Truc. Iv. 3. 57), it is mot the bottle for the most part
that has contro', over the mam, but the man that has control.
over the öottle ;—so at least the unfairly abused bottle would
say ifit could speak.
Mödéräri ét ánimo ét örätiöni quum Sis Irätüs, est mom mêdiö-
crís ingéni (Cic. ad Q. Fr. I. 1. 13. 38), to check both one's
feelings arú orie's words wher, Jîve is arigrj, ís íìdeed the act
Qf^o ordinary character.£
Parc-éré, * to Save, to spare,' originally with acc. of the thing
amd dat. of the person for whom.
Argenti atque auri mëmöras quae multâ tälenta Gnätis parcè
* Thus i. florem liberum (= liberorum) in Att. ap. Cic. Tusc. III. 9. 20 ;
i. nobis maturam (as an instructress), Cic. Tusc. III. 2. 3, ifthe text be sound.
As the evil eye might also be directed upon the owner himself, an acc.
would not have been out of place ; and so we have am explanation of the
forms imvideor * I am envied,' Hor. Ep. II. 3. 56, and the participles in-
viso- * envied,' inuidemdo- *enviable."
f Some good Mss. with Ritschl medicabo.
£ In the general sense of* governing' an acc. is common in Cicero ; but
even in the sense of* checking' an acc. is found in later writers, as Tac, and
Suet.
DATIVE. }97
tuTs (Virg. A. x. 532), the sìlver, aye and gold qf which thow,
speakest, all for thy children, Save.
Suädë-ré, literally * to sweeten**, hence * to recommend, give
advice,' with acc. of thing recommended, dat. of person to whom
the advice is given.f £•
Quód tibi suádeam, suádeam me6 patri (Plaut. Capt. II. l. 40),
an3y thing 1 would recommend to 3yow, I would recommend to
^mgy own father.
Tempërä-ré,f * to act as a limit, to set bounds (to)', hence
* to check, spare,' and so * to regulate, govern, mix in due propor-
tion ;' originally, it would seem, omly with a dat.
Linguae témpera (Plaut. Rud. IV. 7. 28), 8et limits to 3your
torgwe.
Nëque sibi hómìnes féros tempërätürös existïmäbat quin &c.
(Caes. B. G. I. 33), ^or did, he thánk tfiat, Savages as they
avere, they would keep a check wpo^ themselves so as not déc.
Eum sibi crédîs â mendáció tempërätürum (Auct. ad Her. Iv.
8. 25), this man 3yow suppo8e wil, réfrain from a lie.
Si cuiquam ulla in re unquam tempëräuërit, ut uos quöque ei
tempërärëtîs (Cic. II. Verr. II. 6. 17), that if he ever spared
a^y one în a^y thing, 90®, also 8howld spare him. §
980 Of the extension of the dative from the person to the thing
the following are examples :
Ignoscas uëlim huic festinätiöni (Cic. ad Fam. v. 12. 1), pray
forgóve my present haste.
* From suaui- * sweet,* Greek άδυ-. Advice is oftem represented
under the idea of medicine, wholesome, yet bitter and so needing some
sweet to disguise it, as in Lucr. I. 936, sed ueluti pueris &c.
f In quis te persuasit (Enn. ap. Serv. ad Aen. x. 10) te is a dative.
Βut an acc. ofthe person was eventually used, as uæorem eius suasi, Apul.
Met. Ix. p. 288. Hence in the passive, animus persuasus uidetur esse,
Auct. ad Her. I. 6; persuasus erit, Ov. A. A. III. 679 ; persuasa est.
Phaedr. I. 8.
f Perhaps originally, like modera-ri, a refective verb. In the sense
of * regulate, mix in due proportion,' an acc. was soom used: as, rempub-
licam, Cic. de Div. I. 43. 96; acuta cum grauibus, Cic. R. P. VI. 18; iras,
Virg. A. I. 6l. ç
§ That imita-ri * to make oneself like (to)', and sequ-i * to attach
oneself (to)', must in some olden times have had a dative, seems to fol-
low from their reflective form, as well as from the meaning. Thus the
Greek éreo-6ai and Germ. folg-en always take a dat.
19S SYNTAX.
Hönöri inuidërunt meó (Cic. in Rull. II. 37. 103), they looked
?with envy on the office 7 held.
Cum câpîtî médéri débeö, rëdüuiam cürö (Cic. p. Rosc. Am.
44. 128), when I ought to öe doctorìng the head, Iam dressing
an ag^ail.
Rögö sumptü né parcäs (Cic. ad Fam. xvI. 4), I beg 3/ov ^ot to
spare expen8e.
Téque his érîpè flammis (Virg. A. II. 289), and thyself too rescue
from these flames.
981 When the active or simple verb requires a dative, care must
be taken to use the passive as an impersonal.
Eius testïmöniö crëdi öportet (Cic. II. Verr. III. 71. 166), his
evidence ought to be believed.*
Omnes déprécätöres quibus nön ërat ignótum, étiam quibüs
érat, în Afrícam dicuntur mäuìgätüri (Cic. ad Att. XI. 14. 1),
all the întercessors who have not been forgówen, even, those who
have been, are about to sai! it is saîd for Africa.
Inuidëtür ënim commödis höminum ipsörum (Cic. de Or. II.
51. 207), for even the advantages they themselves enjoy are re-
garded with an evit eye.
Mihi nihil äb istis nöcëri pötest (Cic. in Cat. III. 12. 27), I
ca^not be înjured by yowr frìends in any way.
Cui ënim parci pötuit ? (Lîv. xxI. 14) for who could have been
spared ?
Dictö pärëtür (Liv. Ix. 32), the order is obeyed.
His persuädéri ut diütius mörärentur non pötérat (Caes. B. G.
II. 10), they could not be persuaded to Stay any longer.t
982 In Romam book-keeping, the account where an item was to be
entered was expressed by a dative. Hence in phrases of this
class two datives often present themselves, one pointing to the
account, the other to the side of the account, whether Cr. or Dr.
* It is useful for beginners to translate verbs of this class by phrases
which include a substantive and verb: as, cred- * give credit,' ignosc- * grant
pardon,' moce- * do damage.' By this contrivance an impersonal transla-
tion is obtained for the passive: creditur * eredit is given,* ignoscitur * par-
don is granted,' nocetur * damage is done;' and thus a hint is given for
putting the person * to whom' in the dative.
f Still, exceptions occur: as, credemur, Ov. Fast. III. 351 ; creditus,
Ov. Met. v11. 98. See also p. 196, note *, and p. 197, note t.
IDATIVE. 199
Mínus Döläbellâ Verri acceptum rettúlit,* quam Verrès illi ex-
pensum tülérit (Cic. II. Verr. I. 39. 100), Dolabella placed to
the credit of Verres a smaller sum than Verres placed to his
(Dolabella's) debit.
Quem fors diérum cumqué däbit, lücro Appönë (Hor. Od. I.
9. 14), every day that fate shall give, set down to profit.
Póstulare id grátiae appóni sibi (Ter. And. II. 1. 32), to expect
that it should be set down to his credit as a favour received.
IIoc uftiö mihi dant (Cic. ad Fam. xI. 28. 2), this they 8et down.
agaìnSt ^ne as a fault.
Nostram culpam illi (sc. terrae) impütämüsf (Plin. xvIII. 1. 1.
2), we debit her for our own, misconduct.
983 Hence a dativef is used to denote in what light a thing is re-
garded, what it serves as.
Nec eam rem hábuit religióni (Cic. de Div. I. 35. 77), nor did,
he regard this as a warming from heaven.
Vt sint rélíquis döcümentö (Caes. B. G. VII. 4), that they may
serve as a les8om, to the rest.
Vos eritis iúdices Laudin an uitio dúci id factum opórtuit (Ter.
Ad. prol. 5), 3yow shall be judges whether this act a fault or
credit should öe deemed.
Cui§ bönö fuit ? (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 30. 84), to whom wae it an
advantage ? or who was the gainer öy it ?
Mätrönis persuäsit më sibi uftiö uertêrent quôd àbesset ä pätriâ,
(Cic. ad Fam. VII. 6), she persuaded the matrons mot to inter-
pret her absence from her fatherland os a fault in her.
984 Hence again the dative is sometimes used to denote the pur-
pose : as,
* The first entries being made into the day-book (aduersaria), are
thence carried to the proper heads in the ledger (tabulae). Hence the
compound re- fer- used of the second entry. Acceptum and ea pensum
meam * received' and * spent' by the book-keeper.
f Literally * score against.'
Ë For this dative may be substituted pro or in loco. Often a mere
nominative or accusative may be used ; but the dative softens the phrase.
$unt reliquis documentum (Q. Curt. vIII. 14,26) is, “they are a lesson to
the rest.' Still, in the English translation of this dative the * as' is often
omitted for brevity. -
§ The favourite test of the old lawyer Cassius for discovering the
author of a secret crime. A ridiculous blunder commonly marks the
modern use of this quotation.
200 §YNTAX.
Quinqué cohortis castris praesídió réliquit (Caes. B. G. VII. 60),
he left five battalions as a garrisor, for the camp, or to guard
the camp.
Hunc sfbi dömfcrliö löcum dêlêgêrunt (Caes. B. G. II. 29), this
place they selected as (or for) a residence.
Hic núptiis dictúst dies (Ter. And. I. 1. 75), this is the day.fived
for the marriage.
Triumuir rei publícae constîtuendae* (Vep. in Attico, 12), one
of three commissioners for regulatìng the state.
985 The dative of a name is often used by attractionf to the dative
of the object named : as,
Nömen Arctur6stf mihi (Plaut. Rud. prol. 5), my ^ame äs Arc-
ά^/ro.
Cui nunc cognömën Iülo: Additür (Virg. A. I. 271), to whom,
the swrname Iulo now is added.
Léges quíbus täbülis duödécim est nómén (Liv. III. 57), the
Zaws which have the name of the * twelve tables.'§
986 The phrase soluendö nön ërat, * he was not able to pay, he was
insolvent,' as in Cic. ad Fam. III. 8. 2, seems difficult of explana-
tion.
987 The poets use the dative (especially in nouns of the o declen-
sion) after verbs of motion : as,
It clämor caelö| (Virg. A. v. 451), rises the shout to fieaven.
ABLATIVE.
989 The ablative appears to unite in itself two cases of different
origin, one similar in form and power to the dative, the other
originally ending in a final d, signifying from. We commence
with the former.
* Written briefly IIIVIR. R. P. C-
f Other instances of similar attraction are to be seen in § 1060.
f Can this construction have grown out of the use of the crude form,
which in reason should have been used in such phrases ?
§ Sometimes the name is in the same case as momen. But in Cicero
II. Verr. iv. 53. 118, fons cui momen Arethusaest, the letters st alone per-
haps constitute the verb, leaving a dative Arethusae.
|| Can this be a corruption of am accusative caelom, as the so-called
`adverbs quo, eo, &c. have also probably lost a final m. See also tenus.
§ 1384 b. note.
AIBILATIVE. 201
990 At a towm or în a small island the poets express by am ablative
when the metre requires it, which can be Only in the third or com-
sonant declension : as,
Dardämiumquë dücem Tyriä Karthâgînë* qui nunc Expectat
(Vîrg. A. Iv. 224), and the Dardam, chief at Tyrían, Carthage
who Wooo loîtereth.
991 The place where in Some other phrases may also be expressed
in the ablative, as rürë ôn the country. Not unfrequently it is
better to insert the preposition fn. But this may be omitted at
times, particularly if an adjective accompany the substantive.
When that adjective is tóto- whole, it would be wrong to use the
preposition.
992 Time when is commonly expressed in the ablative : as,
Bellum eódem tempörë mihi quöque indixit (Cic. Phil. II. 1. 1),
he declared war at the 8ame time against me too.
993 The time within, which any thing occurs is expressed by the
ablative, whether the whole orany part be meant : as,
Säturni stellâ trigintä fére annis cursum suum confîcît (Cic.
N. D. II. 20. 52), the star Qf Saturn, completes its course in
about thirty years.
Vrbës Afrìcae annisf própè quinquägintâ nullum Römänum
exercîtum uidérant (Lîv. xxIx. 28), the cities of the Afri
during a space of ^early fify 3years had 8een, ^0 Roma^
ar^gy.
994 Hence the interval withóro which one event follows another may
be expressed by ablatives : as,
Mors Rosci quätriduò quot îs occisust Chrysögömö nuntiátür
(Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 36. 105), the news of the death qf Roscius
is brought to Chrysogonus with in four days after he ás killed.
* See Dative, § 951. That the ablative is only a license is stated by
Servius on this passage: “ Carthagine pro Carthagini . . . Sic Horatius :
Romae Tybur amem, ventosus Tybure Romam, pro Tyburi.” In Livy the
best Mss., where reported, have Karthagini &c.
f Hence the ablative is occasionally used when the accusative might
have been expected. See § 1018. 1.
t Literally * the death of R. is reported to C. in the same four days
in which he was killed,' the death occurring near the commencement of
that period, the communication near the end ofit.
9()2 ' SYNTAX.
995 Hence
Testàmentum fëcit, atque his diébus paucis est mortuä (Cic. p.
Clu. 7. 22), she made a will, and a few days after this died.
996 From the notion of where, the ablative is used with the prepo-
sitions în and süb ifthere be no motion implied, and also with
prae, prò, &c. (See § 914, note.)
997 In, în point of, δη respect to, is often the meaning of the abla-
tive where it is used to define or limit the sense of amy word or
phrase : as,
Ennius fuit mäior mätü* quam Plautüs (Cic. Tusc. L 1. 3),
E^mius was older tham Plautus.
Scéléré pár est illi, industria infériör (Cic. Phil. Iv. 6. 15), in
wickedness he is equal to the other, án industry below him.
Sunt ënim quidam hömines non rê sed nómînë (Cic. de Off. I.
30. 105), for there are, ôt must be confes8ed, some who are
hwman, öeings rot în reality, övt ίη name.
Lépöre omníbus praestîtit (Cic. de Or. II. 67. 270), în vît he
eaccelled all. ,*
Victöriä suä glóriamtür (Caes. B. G. I. 14), they pride themselve8
on, their victory.
998 The ablatives of verbals in ία, called supines passive, are often
so used with adjectives, though the more familiar translation is
by an English infinitive : as,
Elëräqué dictü quam rê sunt fäciliörä (Liv. xxxI. 38), most
things are easíer in the sayìng than în the reality, i. e. ea8ier
to 8ay than to do. .
Quîd est tam iücundum cognítu atque auditü ? (Cic. de Or. I.
8. 31) what ås so delightful to see and to hear ?
999 The substantive öpës- (n.) work, and occasionally üsu- (m.)
advamtage, have an ablativef to express the object which it is
necessary to obtain : as,
Opus; fuit Hirtiö conuentö (Cic. ad Att. x. 4. 11), öt was neces-
sary to have an, ínterview with Hìrtius.
* Literally * greater in point of birth.'
+ The nominative is also found in this construction, more particularly
ifit be a neuter pronoun. (See § 909.)
f * The work to be done consisted in seeing Hirtius,' which accom-
plished, other thiDgs might follow. This might have been expressed by
ABLATIVE. 203
Primum ërat nihil, cur pröpëräto öpüs esset (Cic. p. Mil. 19. 49),
ên the first place there was nothing which made it necessary to
hurry.
Vbi saeua ortast tempestas, tum gübernätöre* ópust (Liv. xxIv.
8), when rough weather sprìngs vp, then there is need qf a
pilot.
1000 By, with, or from, &c. is frequently the translation of the ab-
lative when it denotes the instrument, means, or cause : as,
Cornibus tauri, äpri dentîbus sé tütantür (Cic. N. D. II. 50.
127), with his horns the bull, the boar with his twsks defends
hi m&elf.
Pätriae igni ferróqué mînîtätür (Cic. Phil. xIII. 21. 47), he
threatens his country with fire and sword.f
Etësiárum flätü mímii tempérantur cälörës (Cic. N. D. II. 53.
131), by the blowing qf the Etesia^ winds the eaccessive heat ìs
moderated.
1001 The ablative ofthe means accompanies the five reflective verbs,
{ìt-f, ^ìt-, ue8c-, frw-, pasc- : as,
Pellíbüs ütuntür (Caes. B. G. VI. 21), they use skins.
Pürä qui nitîtür hasta (Virg. A. VI. 760), who rests hóm on a
simple shaft.
Lacté uescëbantür (Sal. Jug. 89), they lived wpo^ milk.
Lücé fruîmür (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 45. 131), we enjoy the light of
day.
Frondibus pascuntür (Virg. G. III. 528), they feed themselves
with öranches.
1002 The ablative of the means in the same way accompanies the
verbs, uiu- live, fìd- trust, and the participle fréto- relying : as,
a somewhat similar phrase in Greek: as, epyov ην ανyyeveo-6ai eus Àoyovs
'Ipttg.
* Perhaps such a phrase as this had originally its participle also, as,
for instance, invento.
f * Fire and iron' would be a more precise translation, the latter re-
ferring to the destructive axe quite as much as to the sword.
f The literal translation of these verbs would perhaps be, utor * I assist
myself with any thing,' i. e. * I use it ;' mitor * I strain myself by acting
upon something,' i. e. * I lean upon it ;' uescor * I feed myself with,* or
* I eat* (used in speaking of human beings exclusive of slaves) ; fruor * I
feed myself with,' or * I enjoy ;' pascor * I feed myself with,' or * eat?
(used in speaking of animals and slaves).
204 SYNTAX.
Lacté uiuunt (Caes. B. G. Iv. 1), they lîve upor, milk.
Prüdentiâ consílióqué fidens (Cic. de Off. I. 23. 81), trusting
in foresîght and mental power.
Ingéniö fréti* (Cic. de Or. II. 24. 103), relying wpon their talent.
1003 The ablativef of the means is used with the verbs fäc- or fáci-
make or do, fi- become, and fu- be, especially in the participle
fütüro-.
Nescit quid fáciat aurö (Plaut. Bac. II. 3. 100), he knows ^ot
what to do with the gold.
Quîd höc hömînë fáciätïs ? (Cic. II. Verr. I. 16. 42) what are
3yow to do with this fellow ?
Tuö quid factumst pallio ? (Plaut. Cas. v. 4. 9) what ìs become
of your cloak ?
Quid Tulliölä meä fiet ? (Cic. ad Fam. xrv. 4. 3) what will
become of my little Tullia ?
SI quíd eö fuêrît (Plaut. Trin. I. 2. 120), ìf any thing happen,
to hóm.
1004 The ablative of the means oftem accompanies verbS or adjec-
tives of filling, increasing, mixing, joining, &c. : as,
Näuis cölönis pastörïbusqué complet (Caes. B. C. I. 56), he fills
the ships vith farm-labowrers and shepherds.
Macté uirtüte estö (Liv. Iv. 14), heaven, bless thy noble deeds.t
Villa äbundat§ lacté, cäseö, mellë (Cic. de Sen. 16. 56), the farm-
house abounds in milk and cheese and honey.
Lápídíbus] plüuit (Liv. I. 31), it rained &tones.
1005 The price is the means by which any thing is obtained* in
purchase, and hence the ablative accompanies verbs and adjectives
of buying, selling, bidding and valuing:** as,
* Literally * supported by,* freto- being in origin a participle of fer-
' bear.'
f? f In these phrases the preposition de is oftem used, as quid de me
íet ? •*
i Literally * be increased by thy manliness.'
§ This should perhaps have been referred to § 997.
ll The accusative also is found.
. $ Em-, commonly translated * buy,' means properly * take,' as is seen
in the compounds dem-, eaeim-, sum-, &c. See § 544.
** Qr it would perhaps be more correct to be guided by the English
preposition at, defining the point at which the price stands at a given
ABILATIVE. 205
Emére áquae sextärium cöguntur mïnä (Cic. de Off. II. 16. 56),
they are compelled to buy a pênt of water for a mâna.
Multö sanguînë Poenis uictöriâ stétit (Lîv. xxIII. 30), the vic-
tory cost the Carthagìnìans mwch blood.*
Quod nön öpüs est, assë cärum est (Cato ap. Sen. Ep. 94), what
3yow, don't want ìs dear at a farthing.
1005. 1 To affix a penalty implies an estimation of a crime. Hence
the amount of penalties, like prices, is in the ablative:f as,
Décem milibüs aeris dampnätüs (Lîv. VII. 16), sentenced to pay
a penalty of 10,000 pìeces qf money.
Multärë uítia hömînum dampnis, ignöminiis, uincülis, uerbé-
ríbüs, exîliis, mortê (Cic. de Or. I. 43. 194), to pwnish the
vice8 Qf me^ with fine, degradation, impriso^ment, flogging,
eϔle, death.
1006 Verbs of sacrificing often take an ablative of the victim, that
is, the means employed: as,
Cum fäciam uítülä, prö frügíbüs, ipsë uênito (Virg. Buc. III.
77), when I offer a caúffor my crops, thyself shall come.
Quinquägintâ cápris sácrífícärunt£ (Liv. xLv. 16), they 8acri-
ficed fify goats.
1007 Verbs signifying to accustom, take an ablative of the means,
though in English the preposition to is prefixed : as,
Hömines lábóre adsiduo et quötidiáno adsuëti§ (C%c. de Or.
III. 15. 58), accustomed as they are to constant and daily
labowr.
Crédéré régii génus pugnae quo assuêrant förë (Lîv. xxxI. 35),
the king's troops thought the battle wówd be of the kind they
were accustomed to.
1008 The road by which any thing is moved is also a means, and
therefore expressed by the ablative: as,
Frümentum flümíne Arärï näuîbus subuexêrat (Caes. B. G. I.
16), he had conveyed corn în ships vp the rêver Arar.
moment. We often talk of prices rising, falling, and being stationary.
* I bought consols at 63, and sold out at 94.' -
* Literally * stood them in much blood.*
f See also § 945. f The accusative is also used.
§ The dative also occurs after this word, as well as ad with the accu-
sative.
206 |SYNTAX.
1009 The attending circumstances, manner, feelings, are expressed
by the ablative : as,
Summâ contentiönë dixit (Cic. Brut. 20. 80), he spoke with the
eaeertion qf all his power.
Infestis armis concurrunt (Lîv. I. 25), they rum together with
their arms aimed at each other.
Expédito* exercítu íter fëci (Cic. ad Fam. xv. 4. 8), I proceeded
vith my army in, light marcháng order.
Id aequo änïmöf non féret ciuïtäs (Cic. de Or. II. 33. 144), this
the citizens will mot bear calmly.
Duärum cohortium dampno exercítum rëdücérë (Caes. B. G. VI.
44), to lead the army back with the loss of two battalions.
1009. 1 In this construction, if no adjective accompany the noun, the
prepositiom cum is commonly added, as summâ cürä with the
greatest care, or cum cürä with care. Yet certain ablatives have
become virtually adverbs, and so are used without either adjective
or preposition : as, ordíné in order, rätiönë rationally, iürë justly,
iniüriä without reasom, mörë according to custom, fraudé fraudu-
lently, ui forcíbly, uYtiö vnduly, silentiò sìlently (but also cum
silentiö), sérënö with a cloudless sky, auströ with a south vind.
1010 The ablativet of quality is the name usually given to that use
of the case which denotes a condition of mind or body, &c. But
it is essential that an adjective accompany this ablative :
Tanta est ëlöquentiâ (Cic. de Or. II. 13. 55), he is so eloquent.
Quâ fäcié fuit ? Crassis süris, magnó cápíte, admödum magnis
pëdïbùs (Plaut. Ps. Iv. 7. 119), how was he made ? He had
thîck calves, a great head, and very great feet.
Spêlunca infinitâ, altîtüdïnë (Cic. II. Verr. Iv. 48. 107), a cavern,
of boundless depth.
Hömînës ëmérftis stipendiis (Sal. Jug. 84), veterans who have
served out their tìme.
1011 This ablative is occasionally used when the state is mot a per-
manent, one : as,
Nullò frigöre addücítür, ut cäpfte öpertö sit (Cic. de Sen. 10.
34), mo cold weather ever induces him, to go with his head
covered.
* Literally * unencumbered.' f * With a level or calm mind.'
1 See also genitive of quality, § 927.
A1BLATIVE, 207
Magnö tfmörë sum (Cic. ad Att. v. 14. 2), I am in great alarm.
1012 Similar to this is the addition of the ablative of the name of
the tribe or city to which a person belongs : as,
Ser. Sulpicius Q F* Lemoniat Riifiis (Cic. Phil. ix. 7. 15),
Servius Sulpicius Rufus, son of Quìntus, of the Lemonían
tríbe.
Cn. Magius Crëmönät (Caes. B. C. I. 24), Cneius Magius of
Cremoma.
1013 Ablative ab8olute is the name commonly employed when am
ablative of a noun is accompanied by a substantive, adjective, or
participle, to denote the time when, the means by which, or any
attending circumstances. It therefore belongs properly to the
heads already givem. There is however this peculiarity of trans-
lation, that the English often requires no preposition : as,
Abl. abs. of time when : Is, M. § Messälä, M.§ Pisönë coss. §
coniürätiönem fécit (Caes. B. G. I. 2), this man, în the con-
sulshipll Qf Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso formed a con-
spiracy,
Abl. abs. of means : Cätäpultis dispósitis müros dëfensórìbus
nüdäuërat (Liv. XXI. ll), by his catapults placed at different
poênts he had cleared the wall of its defenders, or he had
placed his catapults at different poênts and so had cleared &c.
Abl. abs. of circumstances : Nätürä düce erràri nullö pactö
pötest (Cic. de Leg. I. 6. 20), with nature for owr gwide, the
path can, no way be mistaken.
Quid dicam hac iüuentüté ? (Cic. ad Att. x. 11. 3) what am 1
to 8ay with 8wch 3yowng men as we have ^ow-a-days ?
Wöluntas täcftis nöbis* intellégi non pötérat (Cic. p. Caec. 18.
53), our wish could not have been wnderstood, had we been
silent.
1014 That by which any thing is measured is a means of measure-
ment, and therefore in the ablative : as,
* Quinti filius. t Triòu understood.
f Or the same might have been expressed by an adjective, Cremo-
mensis.
§ To be read, Marco, Marco, consulibus.
|| Literally * M. Messala, M. Piso (being) consuls.'
q[ Literally * we (being) silent.'
208 SYNTAX.
Völuptäte omniä dirìgéré* (Cic. de Fin. II. 22. 71), to test every
thông by pleaswre.
Non nüméro haec iüdícantur, sed pondërë (Cic. de Off. II. 22.
79), it is not by mumber that these things are estímated, όut ày
apeight.
Discriptus pöpülus censü, ordíníbüs, aetätïbùs (C%c. de Leg.
III. 19. 44), the people distributed înto different classes accord-
¢ng to income and rank and age.
1015 The comparative takes an ablative of the object with which
the comparisont is made : as, ''
Viliüs argentumst aurö, uirtütïbùs aurum (Hor. Ep. I. 1. 52),
sólver than gold ęs cheaper, gold than vìrtwe.
1016 Similarly the adjectives digno- îndîgno- and the verbs formed
therefrom, take an ablative of the object with which the compari-
son is made : as,
Eum omnes cognîtióne ét hospîtiö dignum existümärunt (Cic.
p. Arch. 3. 5), this (foreigner) all deemed worthy of their
acquaintance and frìendship.
Haud équîdem täli mé dignör hönöre (Virg. A. I. 339), mot in
truth of such, an honour do I deem me worthy.
1017 The amount of distance or difference in time, space, or quan-
tity is commonly expressed in the ablative.
Id uiginti annis ante äpud nos fëcërat Cöriölänüs (Cic. de Am.
12. 42), this Corìolanus had done amorg ws twenty years be-
fore.
Haec est aetas décem annis mînor quam consülärïs (Cic. Phil.
v. 17. 48), this age is ten 3years less tham, that required for a
• consul.
Tribus tántis illií mínus redit quam obséueris (Plaut. Trin. II.
* Literally * to keep in a straight line as a carpenter does by apply-
ing his rule.'
f A comparison implies proximity of the things compared. Hence
this use of the ablative flows easily from the original meaning of the da-
tive. Observe too that all the werbs denoting comparison signify strictl
the bringing together, as com-para-, con-fer-, con-tend-, com-pos-. So
also the prepositions of proximity, üd (§ 1304 k.), prae (§ 1356 d.), prò
(§ 1361 g.), are used in comparisons.
3: The adverb.
ABLATIVE, 209
4. 128), for every bushel 3yov, 8ow on that land, 3yow lose three
bushels ìm the refurm.*
Milfbus passuum sex à Caesăris castris consédit (Cae8. B. G. I.
48), he took a position siae miles from Caesar's camp.
1018 The ablativesf of pronouns and adjectives of quantity are much
used in this way with comparatives : as, -
Viâ quantö tütior, tantò féré longiör (Liv. Ix. 2), a road longer
ên, about the same proportior, a8 it wa8 8afer.
Quö mäiör est ín ánímis praestantia, eö mäiöre indígent di]i-
gentiâ (Cic. Tusc. IV. 27. 58), the greater the eaecellence ὰν the
soul, the more attentìom, it ^eeds.
1018. l An ablative is occasionally used instead of an accusative (§915)
to denote duration of time.
Quinque höris proelium sustînuêrant (Caes. B. C. I. 47), they
had kept up the battle for five howrs.
Octöginta annis uixit (Sen. Ep. 93), he lived to the age qf eighty.
1019 The form of am ablative is sometimes found in inscriptioms, old
writers, and certain phrases, where a dative would be expected :
a8,
IovE OPTVMO MAxSvMo (Inscr. Grut. xVI. 8), to Jvpiter, the best,
the greatest.
J'ostquam mortë dätust Plautus, cömoediä lüget (Plaut.f), ^ow
that Plautus is gêver, to Death, Comedy îs în movrning.
Triumuiri auro argento aeré flamdö fériundö (Inscr. Orell. 569),
the three commîssîoner& for Smelting and Stampìng gold, 8ilver
and örom2e. *•**
1020 Hence the poets, to accommodate their metres, occasionally
substitute the form of the ablative where a, dative might have
been expected : as,
At si uirgineum suffüdérít órë rübórem,
- Ventüs érit (Virg. G. I. 430),
Buz f a maiden's blush she§ pour from beneat] wpon her cheek,
|Wìmd, will there be.
• Literally * less by three times as much.* Thus the extravagance
of the phrase runs beyond possibility.
+ But see § 789, note.
f First verse ofthe epitaph writtea by Plautus for himself. Gell. II. 24,
§ i. e. * £he moon.*
IP
210 8YNTAX.
Mollë Cálénum
Porrectürä ufrö miscet, sítientë—rübëtam (Juv. I. 69),
Míld Calene about to hand
To her thirstìng lord, she mives therein—a toad.
1021 A true ablative ending in the le£ter d* belonged to the old
language, and the loss of this d led to a form very similar to the
weakened dative commomily called the ablative. Hence, from a
town is sometimes expressed by a mere ablative: as,
„ Cörinthöt fügit (Cic. Tusc. v. 37. 109), he fed from Corinth.
1()22 Similarly the ablatives rürë and dömö are used : as,
Cibáriá sibi quemqué dömo efferré iübent (Caes. B. G. I. 5),
they bìd them brîng food from home, every mam for hómself.
Páter rürë rédiit (Ter. E. III. 5. 63), my father îs refurned from
the country.
1023 Verbs and adjectives of removal and separatiom are followed by
an ablative : as, -
Signum non pötérat möuêrê löcö (Cic. de Div. I. 35. 77), he
could mot move the 8tandard from where it was.
Tuos culpâ libéro (Cic. ad Att. xIII. 22. 3), I free 3yowr people
from blame. -
Praetürä se abdîcatî (Cic. in Cat. Iv. 3. 5), he lays down the
office of Praetor.
Défuncti§ rêgîs impériö (Liv. I. 4), having discharged the king's
order.
Eis äqua atque igni interdixérat (Caes. B. G. VI. 44), these he
had forbidden fire and water.
Inuidet igné rógi mïsëris (Lucr. vII. 798), he grudges the poor
wretches the fire qf a funeral pile. -
* As, for example, on one of the epitaphs of the Scipios (Orelli 550),
Gnaiuod patre prognatus for Cnaeo &c.
f More commonly a Corintho, as a Gergouia discessit (Caes. B. G.
VII. 59). When a word denoting town is added, a preposition is neces-
sary, as Eaepellitur ea, oppido Gergouia (Caes. B. G. vII. 4) ; Generis
antiquitatem Tusculo eae clarissumo municipio prqfectam (Cic. p. Font.
, 41). See also §§ 884 note, and 951 note £.
f Literally * he unbinds himself from,* the office being a sort of charge
2. burden which for security he had fastened to his person.
§ The reflective verbs fung-, defung-, probably meant originally to
relieve oneself; and the burden, as with abdico me, will for the same
reason be in the ablative. Hence the word * discharge,' i. e. * unload.'
will be literally correct.
NUMBER, OF SUBSTANTIVES. 211
Römä cärëmüs (Cic. ad Att. Ix. 19. 1), we are deprived of Rome.
1024 The verbs or participles which denote birth or origin take an
ablative : as,
Mercürius, Iöuö nätüs et Maiä (Cic. N. D. III. 22. 56), Mercury
born, of Jupiter and Maia.
1025 The prepositions which signify removal or separation have an
ablative : as, éc, dé, áb, síné, absqué, clam. See § 914, note.
NuMBER OF SUBSTANTIVES.
1026 Some substantives are used in the plural where the English
translation has a singular* : as,
Cassi ádípèsf (Cic. in Cat. III. 7. 16), the fat of Cassius.
Inímicítiae cum Rosciis (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 6. 17), a quarrel,
opith the Ro8cî.
Ceruicesi sécürI subiécit (Cic. Phil. II. 21. 51), he presented his
neck to the hatchet.
1027 The terms of weather are sometimes used in the plural where
the English language would almost require the singular : as, cá-
lörës, frigörä, grandïnës, imbrës, nîués, plüuiae, pruinae. Thus,
Terrére ánímos fulmînîbus, nîuîbus, grandíníbüs (Cic. N. D. II.
5. 14), to frighter, the minds of men, with thúnder, and Snow,
and haîl.
Transcendêre Apenninum intölérandis frigöríbüs (Liv. XXII. 1),
to cross the Apennìnes when the fros: was wnbearable.
1028 The plural is preferred in general truths, where the English
has commonly a singular : as,
Víri ín uxóres uitae nëcisque häbent pötestätem (Caes. B. G.
vI. 19), the husband (în that country) has the power of life
and death over the wífe.
1029 The singular of some words is found where the English trans-
lation requires a plural : as,
Vita§ illustrium (Vepos), the lives of illustrious men.
* See also § 152.
f Editions commonly have erroneously and contrary to the Mss. the
singular. See Steinmetz. -
f Ceruic- probably meant a single vertebra.
§ See Servius Aen. I. 372. See also Fischer's Pseudo-Nepos, Pre-
face, near the emd,
A£*
212 SYNTAX.
1030 The singular is preferred with animals and vegetables where
there is an allusion to the table, because they are considered in
the mass, not counted: as,
Villa äbundat porco, haedo, agnó, gallinâ (Cic. de Sen. 16. 56),
the farm-house abownds with pork and kid and lamó* and
fow/.
Lépörem et gallinam et ansërem gustärë fas non pütant (Caes.
IB. G. v. 12), hare and fowl and goose they think it an act of
§mpìety to taste.
Pythâgörïcïs interdictum ërat, né fäbä uescërentür (Cic. de Div.
I. 30. 62), the Pythagoreans vere forôïdden, to eat beans.
1031 So also with other words where the mass does not admit of
numeratiom : as,
Puluinus rösâ fartüs (Cic. II. Verr. v. 11. 27), a pìllow stuffed
with rose-leaves.
In uiöla aut in rösä (Cic. Tusc. v. 26. 73), om. violets or roses
(meaning the gathered flowers).
1032 In military lamguage the singular is used at times for a plural:
aS
9 Quoád inséqui pédesf pötuit (Liv. II. 25), as far as the infantry
cowld pwrswe. -
Equës eós ad castra égit (Liv. II. 25), the cavalry drove them, to
theôr camp. •
Hic miles mägis plácuit (Liv. xxII. 57), a soldiery of this kind
was preferred.
Römänüs ira ödiöqué pugnábat (Liv. III. 2), the Romans fought
wnder a feeling qf indignatío^ and hafred.
DEFECTIVE SUBSTANTIvEs.
1032. l Undeclined substantives (§ 187) cam only be used as nomina-
tives or accusatives. But the names of the letters, and generally
words spoken of as words, may be used as genitives, datives or
ablatives, if an adjective or substantive in apposition fix the case.
* Observe that the omission ofthe indefinite article in English makes
the distinction between the animal for table and the living animal.
f The singular however has its force, drawing attention to the indi-
vidual. Thus, in the last phrase, * each individual soldier has his own
feelings of anger;* so again in the first sentence, * a foot-Soldier' would
have been am equally good translation, signifying * inasmuch as he was a
foot-soldier.* • •
ELILIPSIS OF SUBSTANTIVES. 213
OMISSioN OR ELLIPSIS oF SUBSTANTIVES.
I033 The masculine adjective is often used in speaking of men, the
neuter in speaking of things ; especially where the gender is dis-
tinguished in the termination. See § 1044.
1034 Some adjectives. used as substantives may be seem in § 210 ;
and to these may be added, •
Stätiuâ, hibernä, &c. (casträ understood).
Tertiäna-, quartäna-, &c. (fébri- wnderstood).
Circensés, Saecülärës, &c. (lüdi wnderstood).
Trîrëmi-, actuária-, &c. (näui- wnderstood).
Süburbäno-, Tuscüläno-, &c. (praedio- [n.] understood).
Répètundärum (rérum vnderatood).
Centensümae, &c. (üsürae Vnderstood).
Agönäliâ, Libérâliâ, &c. (säcrä w)wderstood).
Primae, sëcundae (partês Vnderstood).
Tertia-, quarta-, &c. (parti- wnderstood).
In postërum (diem v^derstood).
1035 The genitive of a deity is often used with prepositions, the
proper case of aedi- a temple being understood.
Häbítábat rex ad Iöuis* Stätörïs (aedem understood) (Liv. 1.
41), the king resided mear the temple qf Jupìter Stator.
A Vestae (aedé understood) ductast (Cic. ad Fam. xIv. 2. 2),
she was taken, away from the temple of Vesta.
1036 But the Latin language does not copy the English in the use
of the genitive of a person's mame, meaming his house ; but either
inserts the word for house, or uses a preposition with the name of
the person :f as,
Vénisti in dömum Laecae (Cic. in Cat. I. 4. 8), you came to
Laeca's. -
Dömi Caesăris déprensust (Cic. ad Att. I. 12. 3), he was caught
at Caesar's.
1036. 1 When a sentence containstwo corresponding genitives governed
* This is like our own phrase, * St. Paul's' for * St. Paul's Church.'
f The use of the prepositions is as follows :—to Cicero's house, ad
Ciceronem or domum ad Ciceronem ; at Cicero's house, apud Ciceronem ;
from Cicero's house, a Cicerone or a Cicerone domo; and this even though
Cicero be known to be absent. See these prepositions, §§ 1305. o; 1311. c ;
1303. l.
214 §YNTAX.
by the same substantive, this substantive need for the most part
only be expressed with the first genitive : as,
Flëbat päter dé fili mortë, dé pátris filiüs (Cic. II. Verr. I. 30.
76), the father was weeping for the death of his son, the so^
for that of his father.
Qufs est qui possit, conferré uitam Tréböni cum Döläbellae ?
(Cic. Phil. xI. 4. 9) who is there who cam compare the life Qf
Trebonìus with that of Dolabella ?
Meö iüdíció stärë mälö quam omnium rëliquórum (0%c. ad Att.
XII. 21. 5), Ichoose to abide ôy my own judgment, rather than,
by that of all the rest.
1036. 2 As a wife, son, daughter or slave may be said to belong to a
man, the genitive of the possessor is occasionally used without
the substantives denoting those relations : as,
Hasdrübal Gisgönïs (Lîv. xxv. 37), Hasdrubal, the sor, Qf Gisgo.
Vëräniä Pisónís (Plin. Ep. II. 20), Veranìa, the wífe Qf Piso,
more literally Piso's Verania.
Flaccus Claudi (Ter. And. tit.), Flaccus, Claudiu8's Slave.
ADJECTIVES, &c.
1037 Adjectives and participles are attracted into the same case,
gender and number as the substantive to which they refer.
Thus, from docto- or docta- lea^ned, and hömön- man ; böno-
or böna- good, müliér- womán ; gráui- heavy, önës- load, we have :
SINGULAR.
W. doctüs hömo. bönä, müliër. gräue ömüs.
V. docte hömo. bömä, müliër. gråue önüs.
Ac. doctum höminem. | bönam müliërem. | gräue önüs.
G. docti hömînîs. bönae müliërîs. gräuïs önërîs.
D. docto hömini. bönae müliérI. gráui önëri.
Ab. docto hömînë. bömä müliërë. gräui önërë.
E'LURAL.
IV. docti höminês. bönae müliërës. gräuia önërä.
|V. docti höminês. bönae müliërës. gráuia önérâ.
Ac. doctös hömînës. bönas müliërës. gráuia önérâ.
G. doctórum hömínum. | bönärum müliérum.' gráuium önërum.
I).A.doctis hömíníbüs. | bönis müliéribüs. | gräufbüs önëríbüs.
ADJECTIVES. 215
1038 Sometimes the gender and number ofthe adjective or participle
are determined by the sense* rather than the form of the substan-
tive : as,
Omnis aetas currêre obuii (Liv. xxvII. 51), all ages i. e. persons
Qfevery age kept rumnông to meet húm.
Câpîtâ coniürätiönis uirgis caesi ac sécüri percussi sunt (Liv.
x. 1), the heads Qf the conspiracy vere fogged and beheaded.
Concursus pöpüli mirantium quid rei esset (Liv. I. 41), a run-
^äng together of the cìtìzens, who wondered what was the
7ηαύer.
Eö nümérost qui semper sancti sunt häbYtI (Cic. p. Arch. 12.
31), he ìs one qf a class who have ever been accounted 8acred.
Cétérâ multitüdo décimus quisque ad supplícium lecti (Liv. II.
59), of the great mass remaînîng, every tent/ man was selected
for punishment. -
1039 If a relative or other pronoum be the subject of a sentence
which itself contains a predicative substantive, the gender and
number of the pronoun are commonly determined by the latter :
aS
9 Thébae, quod Boeötiae cápüt est (Lîv. xLII. 44), Thebes, which
is the capital Qf Boeotia.
Iustâ glóriá, qui est fructus uérae uirtütïs (Cic. in Pis. 24. 57),
the genuìne glory, which is the frwit of true merit.
- Eät quäternâ milia érant (Liv. xxI. 17), these (legions) were
each 4000 strong.
Höc öpüs, hic läbör est (Virg. A. VI. 129), this is the task, this
fhe labo^/r.
1040 If an adjective or participle refer to several nouns of different
gender or number, the gender and number are commonly deter-
mined by one of the three rules following :
a. Most commonly the adjective agrees in number and gender
with the noun to which it is mearest ;
b. Or, if the nouns be living beings, the masculine plural may
be used ;
c. Or, if they be things without life, the neuter plural may be
used : as,
* This is called the constructio ad synesim.
f Nay, we find in Livy, xxI. 55, Duodeviginti milia Romana erant,
* the Romans amounted to 18,000 ;' for so all the best Mss.
216 §YNTAX.
a. Mens ét ánímús et consílium et $ententiâ ciuitátis pösítast
in lëgibüs (Cic. p. Clu. 53. 146), the ìntellect, and soul, and
forethought, and feelings of a state reside in the laws.
Cingétörïgi princípätüs atque impérium est trádítum (Caes.
E. G. VI. 8), the chief post and the swpreme command were
handed over to Cíngetoriae. •
Nümídas mägis pëdes quam armâ tütä sunt (Sal. Jug. 74),
the Vumidians owed their Safety rather to their feet tham,
their arms.
b. Páter mi et mäter mortui sunt (Ter. E. III. 3. 12), my father
and mother are dead.
c. Ilàbor uöluptasqué, dissîmillimâ nätürä, söciétâtê quâdam
intér së nätüräli sunt iunctâ (Lîv. v. 3), toù and plea8ure,
vtterly wrlike as they are în nature, are still joined together
in a sort qf natural partnership.
1041 As a plural adjective may be distributed between two substan-
tives, so may a plural substantive between two adjectives. Thus,
Quarta et Martiâ légiönës (Cic. ad Fam. xr. 19), the fowrth and
the Martîam legioms.*
1042 Many words which were originally adjectives or participles are
at times used as substantives, and as such may have adjectives or
gemitives attached to them : as,
Nätälis meüs (Cic. ad Att. VII. 5. 3), my birthday.
Vêtus uicinüs (Cic. p. Mur. 27. 56), an old neighbour.
Iniquissümi mei (Cic. II. Verr. v. 69. 177), my greatest enemies.
Päternüs ínímicüs (Cic. p. Scauro, 2. 45. h.), an hereditary enemy.
Publícum málum (Sal. Cat. 57), public misfortune.
Praeclárum responsum (Cic. de Sen. 5. 13), a glorious answer.
Summâ pectörfs (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9. 15), the highest parts of the
- öreast.
Occultâ templi (Caes. B. C. III. 105), the hiddem recesses of the
temple.
Summum montîs (Sal. Jug. 93), the summit of the mowntain.
Médium diéI (Liv. xxvI. 45), the middle of the day.
1043 The neuter adjective often foundin the predicate of a sentence,
* Not umlike this is the use of two praenomina with the gens in the
plural : a8, C. et L. Caepasii, i. e. Caius et Lucius Caepasii (Cic. Brut.
69. 242), * the two Caepasii, Caius and Lucius.*
ADJEGTIVIE§. 217
when the subject is not of that gender, is to be considered as a
substantive. Thus, -
Tristé lüpus stäbülis (Virg. Buc. III. 80), a sad thing is the wolf
vnto the stall.
Värium et mütäbílé semper Féminâ (Virg. A. IV. 569), a thing
Qf motley hue and ever changeable is woman.
1043. l A neuter of an adjective is often used with prepositions, espe-
cially to form adverbial phrases : as,
Stäre ín occultö (Cic. p. Clu. 28. 78), to stand in some dark
C07*7? 67°.
In postërum próuidërunt (Cic. in Rull. II. 33. 91), they provided
for the future.
So also de impröuisö wmevpected/y, de intégrö afresh, síné dübiö
vithout dowót.
1044 There is greater freedom in using as substantives those parts
of an adjective which show their gender ; as, for instance, the no-
minative and accusative of neuters. Thus the genitives of neuters
of the third declension should be avoided in this construction, un-
less some other genitive less ambiguous accompany them. For
example, we may say,
Nil hümäni (Ter. Haut. I. 1. 25), nothing like the conduct qf a
mam, where hümäni is virtually a substantive ; Or,
Nil hümänum, where hümänum is an adjective.
IBut, if the adjective be of the è declension, as ciuili-, them we
have no choice but nil ciuilé, nothèng like the conduct qf a cìtìzen ;
unless indeed two adjectives are united, as:
SI quidquam in uóbis, non dicö ciuilis séd hümäni esset (Liv.
v. 3), if there had been aught in yow of the feelings, I do not
8ay Qf a citizen, but qf a man.
Pötiör ütïlis quam hönesti cürä (Liv. xLII. 47), it is öetter to
concern oneself about the useful tham the honowraöle.
1045 When the gender is not at once determined by the termination
of the adjective, it is commonly better to use a substantive with
the adjective: as,
Multis hömíníbüs or multis rébüs, rather than multIs alone.
1046 The Romam gentile names, that is, the second names in ìo, are
really adjectives, and hence are at times found with substantives
of various genders attached to them : as,
218 syNTAx.'
Sulpicia horreâ (Hor. Od. Iv. 12. 18), the Sulpician granaries.
Octäuiä portícüs (Velle. I. 11), the Octavìam portico.
Iüliä lex (Cic. p. Balbo, 8. 21), the Julian, lav.
Cornëliä castrâ (Caes. B. C. II. 37), the Cornelian camp.
1047 The Romans use possessive adjectives formed from proper
names instead of the genitive : as,
Extendítür üma,
EHorrídá per lätös âcîes Volcäniä campos (Virg. A. x. 407),
ASpreads wnbroken,
O'er the wìde plain the bristling host of Vulcan.
Hërilis filiüs (Ter. Ph. I. 1. 5), master's son.
Pompêiânîs exercitüs (Caes. B. G. III. 99), Pompey's army.
1048 Possessive adjectives include the notion of a gemitive, and
hence an adjective or participle, with or without a substantive,
in the genitive case, is oftem attached to them ; or it may be a
relative sentence, referring to the noun implied in the adjective :
aS,
Quoi nömen meum absentîs hönöri fuisset, ei meas praesentis
prëces non pütas prófuissé ? (Cic. p. Planc. 10. 26) do you
think the prayers which I addressed în person were qf mo $er-
vice to one to whom my mere ^ame in my absence had been a^,
λοnούr ?
Vt meâ defunctae mollitèr ossâ cübent (Ov. Am. I. 8. 108), that
my bones when, I am dead may 8oftly lîe.
Meam lêgem contemnît, hömínís ínímici (Cic. p. Sest. 64.135),
he treats my law with contempt, but ther, Iam his enemy.
Vestrâ consília accüsantur, qui mihi summum hönörem im-
pösuistfs (Sal. Jug. 85), ät is your wisdom which ìs ìm-
peached, for it was gyow who imposed upon ^ne the highest
office.
Vestrâ, qui cum summa intégrïtätë uixistîs, hoc maxüme in-
térest (Cic. p. Sull. 28. 79), yow who have lived with the
greatest ìntegrity are nost concerned în this.
Véiens* bellum ortumst, quîbus Sàbini armâ coniunxêrant;
(Lîv. II. 53), a war with Veî arose, with which city the
ASabìnes had wnited their arms.
1049 Am adjective in agreement with the nominative often accom-
panies a verb where the English has commonly an adverb : as,
* * Of or belonging to Veii.'
ADJECTIVES. 219
Et tibi Lubéns bene faxim (Ter. Ad. v. 5.5), and I would gladly
8erve 3/ow.
In physicis tötust áliènüs (Cic. de Fin. I. 6. 17), ín natura?
philo8ophy he is altogether out qf his element.
Lüpus grégibus nocturnüs öbambülat ( Vîrg. G. III. 538), the
wolf în presence of the flocks δy night walks to and fro.
Phflötimus nullus uênit (Cic. ad Att. xI. 24. 4), Phìlotimus
has not made his appeara^ce at all.
1050 The adjectives príór-, primo-, postrémo-, princìp-, sólo- &c.
are used in immediate connection with verbs in such a manner
that the English translation often requires the insertion of the
verb ës- öe and the relative, or some other periphrasis: as,
Primâ, Sicîliâ próuinciast adpellätä (Cic. II. Verr. II. 1. 2),
Sîcily was the first that was called a provìnce.
Hispániá postréma omnium próuinciârum perdömîtast (Lîv.
xxvIII. 12), Spain, wa8 the last qf all the provînces to öe
thorowgh/y subdued.
Stoïci sóli ex omníbüs élöquentiam uirtütem essé dixêrunt;
(Cic. de Or. III. 18. 65), the Stoics are the only sect of the
whole mumber who have declared eloquence to be a virtue.
1051 A neuter adjective is oftem used as an adverb. Thus,
Hödie aut summum crás (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 21. 2), to-day or at
farthest to-morrow.
Dulcé* ridentem (Hor. Od. I. 22. 23), sweetly lawgháng.
1052 When substantives signifying agents have one form for the
masculine, amother for the feminime, they so far take the charac-
ter of adjectives, that they must agree in number, gender and
case with the word to which they refer : as,
Lêgîs aeternae uis, quae quäSí dux uitae et mägistra offíciórum
est (Cic. N. D. I. 15. 40), the force qf an eternal law, which
is as it were the gwide of life and the instrúctres8 in duty.
Timor, non diüturnus mägistér offícI (Cic. Phil. II. 36. 90),
fear, no permanent án$tructor in duty.
1053 Other words commonly treated as substantives take a similar
liberty between neuters and masculines : as,
* This is carried to a great extent by the poets, who use even the
plural neuter in this way. The comparative neuter is the only fomm for
a comparative adverb.
220 SYNTAX,
Märe Oceănum (Caes. B. G. III. 7), the 8ea called Oceanus.
Elümen Rhênum (Hor. ad Pis. 18), the rêver Rhenus or /?hine.
Eridănum ostium (Plin. III. 16), the mouth of the Eridanus.
Volturnùs amnis (Liv. xxIII. 19), the rêver Volturnus.
Volturnum oppídum (Plin. H. N. III. 5. 9), the town, Volturnum.
1054 Although a substantive in Latim has commonly but one adjec-
tive attached to it, except where conjunctions are employed, this
restriction does not apply, a. to pronominal adjectives, b. to mu-
merals, c. to adjectives of quantity, d. to those which accompany
verbs as part of the predicate, e. to the possessive adjectives, such
as Plütöniä (see § 1047), f. to three or more adjectives, with pauses
to supply the place of conjunctions (see § 1435 b.): as,
a. Eädem illa indiuídua et sölidä corpörä (Cic. de Fin. I. 6.18),
those same îndîvîsîble and solid bodìes.
δ. Duödécim milia Attîcâ tälentä, dätö (Liv. xxxvIII. 38), he
shall pay 12,000 Attîc talents.
c. Omnes rectae rës atqué laudäbílês eô référuntür (Cic. de Fim.
I. 12. 42), all right and praiseworthy things are referred to
this standard.
d. Princepsquè décimâ légio ei grätiäs égit (Caes. B. G. I. 41),
and the tenth legîon, was the first to thawk him.
e. Et dömüs exilis Plütöniä (Hor. Od. I. 4. 17), and Pluto's
shadowy house.
f. Eä uöluptáriá, dëlïcätä, mollis hàbëtur discîplinâ (Cic. de
Fin. I. 11. 37), this ęs accounted a voluptuous, tender,
effeminate school Qf philosophy.
CoMPARATIvEs.
1055 The second of the objects compared is expressed by the abla-
tive in short and simple phrases (§ 1015), but quam is employed
for this purpose in longer or more complicated phrases, or whem
greater emphasis is desired. Thus,
a. When the comparative adjective (or adverb) does n^t belong
immediately to the two objects compared, quam is required : as,
Filium fréquentiórem cum illis quam sêcum cernébat (Liv. '
xxxIx. 53), he saw that his 807), vas 7nore frequently in, their
company tha^ ίη his own.
δ. But suppose that the adjective does belong to both, still if
COMPARATIVES. 322]
the first object be govermed by a word which does not govern the
second, the secoiidshould bein a distinct proposition of its own
preceded by quam : as,
Meliorem quam egó sum suppon6 tibi (Plaut. Curc. II. 2. 6), I
gîve 3/ow as a substitute a befter tham, myself.
Hömini non grätiösiöri quam Calidius est, Curidio argentum
reddîdisti (Cic. II. Verr. IV. 20. 44), 3yow paid the money to
Curídíus, a ma^ ^ot more îrfluential than, Calidius.
Pompêius dixit së münitiórem förë quam Afrícánus fuisset
(Cic. ad Q. Fr. II. 3. 3), Pompey Said that he should be better
guarded than, Afrìcanus was.*
Obs. Yet even in this case, if the first object be an accusativè,
the second is oftem, though illogically, put in the accusative by
attraction : as,
Pátrem tam plácídum reddo quam öuemf (Ter. Ad. Iv. 1. 18),
I make 3yoùr father as quîet as a lamb.f
c. But even when the two objects are under the same con-
struction, quam should still be used with other cases than the
nominative or accusative.
G. Albänö non plüs änïmi érat quam fídei (Liv. I. 27), the
Albam had ^o more cowrage than, honowr.
D. His ígítur quam physìcis pötius crëdendum existümäs ?
(Cic. de Div. II. 16. 37) do yow think then, that we ought
to trust the$e rather than the matural philosophers ?
Abl. Absoluérunt admirätiönë mägis uirtütis quam iürë caussae
(Liv. I. 26), they acqwitted (hóm) rather from admiration
Qf hìs valovr tham for the goodness of his cause.
d. But V. Eléphantö béluárum nullâ prüdentiör (Cic. N. D. I.
35. 97), mot one qf all the great beasts has more intelligence
than the elephant.
Ex éius linguâ mellé dulcior fluébat örätiö(Cic. de Sen. 10.31),
from hôs tongue flowed words sweeter thar, honey.
* Here the difference of time, the one being future and the other
past, made quam desirable.
+ For quam ouis est. - -
f Examples of both these constructions occur in Tibi, multo maiori
quam Africanus fuit, me non multo minorem quam Laelium, et in repub-
/ica et in amicitia adiunctum esse patere (Cic. ad Fam. v. 7. 3), where
Laelium stands for quam Laelius fuit. 5
222 SYNTAX.
Méliör est certâ pax quam spërätä uictöriâ (Liv. xxx. 20), a
certain peace is better than a hopedfor'vìctory.
Plúris est oculátus testis únus quam auritî decem (Plaut. Truc.
II. 6. 8), one eye-witness is worth more tham ter ear-wit-
7?.€SS€S.
Acc. Säpiens hümäna omnia infériörä uirtütë dücft (Cic. Tusc.
Iv. 26. 57), a wise man, looks wpon, all hwman things as
inferior to virtue.
Quò gráuiórem ínímicum nön hábui (Q. Curt. VI. 43), a greater
enemy than whom I mever had.* -
Itâ sentio, Lätinam linguam löcüplétiörem essë quam Graecam
(Cic. de Fin. I. 3. 10), my feelông îs thès, that the Latin,
language ìs rìcher than, the Greek.
1055. 1 The adjectives of dimension, such as mäiör-, mïnör-, longiör-,
lätiör-, altiór-f, and the adverbs plüs, mînùs, ampliùs, are oftem
used without quam, yet so as mot to affect the construction of the
numerical phrase attached to them : as,
Plus septingenti capti (Lîv. xLI. 12), more thar 700 were takem
prisoners.
Quinctius técum plüs annum uixit (Cic. p. Quinct. 12. 41),
Quìnctìus lived with yow, more than a 3year.
Constäbat non mînus dücentos fuissé (Liv. xxIx. 34), it was
clear that there had been, mot less tham 200.
Néqué longius miliâ passuum octo àbérant (Caes. B. G. v. 53),
^or were they more than eight miles off.
Spätium nön amplius pëdum sescentórum (Caes. B. G. I. 38),
an interval of not more than 600 feet.
Obsîdes uigintI dätö, né mfnörës octönum dénum neu mäiöres
quinum quädrägénum (Lîv. xxxvIII. 38), hostages he shall,
gîve twenty in, number, mot younger tham, eighteen, 3years of
age, ^or older than forty-five.
Plus tertiâ parte interfectâ (Caes. B. G. III. 6), more tham a
third part having been, slain.
A Caecïliö pröpinqui mïnörë centensümis nummum möuërë
non possunt (Cic. ad Att. I. 12. 1), from Caecilíus his own
§mmediate connections cannot get a siaepence at les& than,
* With the relative the use of the ablative is alone admissible.
f Altiör (Lucr. Iv. 415).
COMIPARATIVIES. 223
twelve per cent per annum (literally, one in a hundred per
monfh).*
1055.2 A comparison of two qualities in the same object is expressed
either by two comparatives, or by mägis and two positives: as,
Paulli contiö fuit uérior quam grätior pöpülö (Liv. xxII. 38),
the harangue Qf Paullus was more true than agreeable to the
cìtìzens.
IBellâ fortius quam félicius gérèré (Lov. v. 43), to conduct wars
with more courage than good fortune.
Artem iürís häbébítis mägis magnam quam diffícílem (Cic. de
Or. I. 42. 190), 3yow will them, have a treatìse om, law rather
bul}y than dífficult.
1055. 3 For the sake of brevity an ablative is sometimes used where
the correct expression of the idea would require many words,
especially with spé, öpiniönë, iustó, aequö.
Caesär öpiniönë célérius uéniet (Oic. ad Fam. xrv. 23), Caesar
vill come more quickly than, was ea pected.
Amnis sölïtö cïtätiör (Lîv. xxIII, 19), the rêver rum^ing with
greafer rapìdity than usual.
1056 * Too great in proportion to something' is expressed by a com-
parative and quam prò : aS, .
Puluërem mäiörem quam prò nüméro excitäbant (Lîv. x. 41),
they raised a cloud of dvst greater than, máght have been eæ-
pected from their number.
Proelium ätröcius quam prò númêrô pugnantium (Liv. xxI.
29), a battle more furious than, was to have been expected from
the ^umber qf combatants. •
1056. l * Too great for something' is expressed by a comparative and
quam qui Or quam üt — : as,
Mäius gaudium ërat quam quöd hömínes câpèrent (Liv. xxxIII.
32), the joy was too great for huma^ beings to contaân.
Campâni mäiörä dëliquêrant quam quíbüs ignosci posset (Liv.
xxvI. 12), the people of Capua had beem gavilty qf misconduct
too grave to öe pardoned.
1056. 2 * Too great? generally, without formal reference to a purpose
* Observe that all these constructions would remain correct in La-
tinity, even if the comparatives were struck out.
224 • SYNTAX.
or standard, may be expressed by nîmîs and the positive, or by à
comparative with the ablative aequö or iustó, or thirdly by a sim-
ple comparative : as,
Völuptas quum mäiör atquë longiör est, omne áními lümér:
extinguît (Cic. de Sem. 12. 41), when pleaswre äs too öntense
and continued too long, ît puts out the whole light of the soul.
Libériús SI Dixërö quid (Hor. Sat. I. 4. 103), too freely êf I
aught eaepress.
1056. 3 The simple comparative sometimes denotes only an excess be-
yond the average, and may then be translated by * somewhat' or
* rather,' or by one of our diminutival adjectives im ásh. In this
sense the Latin comparative with a diminutival suffix in cülo is
also used, although it may also be used as a comparative.
Sénectüs est nätürä löquäciör (Cic. de Sen. 16. 55), old age is
^aturally rather falkative.
Virgo grandiuscülä (Ter. And. Iv. 5. 19), a gir? pretty well,
groω^ αρ ; a biggish gór?.
Thäis quam égo sum mäiuscülast (Ter. E. III. 3. 21), Thais is
a little older tham, I am.
1056.4 Atqué and åc in old writers and in poets are at times used in
place of quam after comparatives : as,
Nön Apollinîs magis uerum atque hôc responsumst (Ter. And.
Iv. 2. 14), mot Apollo gêves a truer answer from his oracle
tham, thês.
Haud minùs ac iussi fáciunt (Virg. A. III. 561), not less tham,
ordered do they.
1056. 5 The degree of excess is expressed by the ablative of substan-
tives (see § 1017), and by the ablatives eö or höc amd quö, tantö
and quantó, multò and paulö, äliquantö and mihílö ; also by the
numerical ablatives altërö-tantö or dúplö, as mwch again ; sesqui,*
half as much again, &c. (see § 1018). But the accusatival forms '
* This word is probably an ablative, whose full form may have been
semi-sèqui, the latter part beingthe ablative ofthe obsolete positive sëqui-,
whence the comparative sèquior- (but observe the different quantity), in
the sense of * following, secónd, inferior.' Thus semis-sequis contracted
into sesquis would be like the Germam anderthalb or 1$, just as semis-
tertius contracted into sestertius is equalto the German drittehalb or 2}.
See § 272. It may be added that the assumed meaning of sequi- would
account both for its being superseded by the comparative and also for its
having no superlative.
SUPERILATIVIES. 225
in um are not uncommon : as, multum impröbiör (Plaut. Most.
III. 2. 139), äliquantum ampliör (Liv. I. 7), quantum mägis (Liv.
III. 15).
SUPERLATIVES.
1057 The use of the superlative is chiefly in such constructions as
the following :
a. Consîliâ sua optümö quoiqué pröbant* (Cic. p. Sest. 45. 96),
they 8atisfy all the best men of the excellence of their mea-
3?07"€8. -
Rênuntiárunt lüdos Iöui primöf quóqué dié fáciundös (Liv.
XLII. 20), they reported that games should be celebrated ίη
honour of Jupìter on the ear7iest possible day.
Multi mortáles conuénéré, maxîmè proxîmi quiquét, Caeni-
nenses, Crustümini, Antemnátés (Liv. I. 9), a large núm-
ber of people came to the meetìng, chiefly the inhabitants Qf
the Several mearest states, Caemina and Crustw merìùm, and
Antemma.
b. Optümus quisquë maxümé postërïtäti seruit (Cic. Tusc. I.
15. 35), the best men, always do the most to serve posterity.
c. Vt quisque optümé dîcît, îtâ maxümé dicendi diffîcultätem
pertímescft (Cic. de Or. I. 26. 120), the mearer a man ap-
proaches perfection ên speaking, the more is he alarmed at
the difficulty qf speaking.
Ità, quam quisqué pessümé fécit, tam maxümé tütust (Sal.
Jug. 31), thus, the worse a man acts, the safer ás he.
d. Tam sum mitis quam qui lënissümüs (Cic. p. Sul. 31.87), I
am, as mild as the gentleSt mam o^ earth. .
Tam sum ämicus reipublicae quam qui maxümé (Cic. ad
Fam. v. 2. 6), I am, a8 attached, to the cowntry as any one
lîvîng.
Huic commendätiöni tantum tríbuêrê quantum quoi tríbuisti
plürümum (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 22), to attach as mwch weight
to this recommendatîon, as 3yov, ever did to a^y one.
* Literally * make them to appear good.'
f This phrase should be contrasted with altero quöque die, tertio quó-
que die, &c. which imply the passing over one, two, &c. days every time.
Primo quóque die therefore signifies * the first day of all;' ifthat be im-
possible, then the next, and so on, allowing not a day to pass without am
attempt. -
3: Plural, because each single state furnished a number.
Q.
276
§YNTAX.
Tè sic tuébör ut quem dilìgentissümë (Cic. ad Fam. xIII.
62), I shall watch 3yowr interest8 with as mwch care as I
ever did those of any friend.
I)ömus célébrätür íta ut cum maxümë (Cìc. ad Q. F. II. 6. 6),
my hovse is thronged as much as ever êt was.
Mäter nunc cum* maxümé filium interfectum cüpît (Cic.
p. Clu. 5. 12), she desires the death of her 80^ mow as mwch
QIS €@€7*. -
. Quam pötui maxümis îtînëríbüs äd Amänum exercîtum
duxi (Cic. ad Fam. xv. 4. 7), I led the army to the Ama-
^ùs by the greatest possible marches.
Státue álíquem confectum tantis dölöríbus quanti ín hömi-
nem maxümi câdërë possunt (Cic. de Fin. I. 12. 41), pìc-
ture to 3yowrself any one exhausted by the greatest 8ufferìngs
man's ^ature is capable of.
Quantam maximam pötest uastitátem consüli ostendit (Liv.
XXII. 3), he ea hòîts öefore the consul'8 eye8 the greatest po8-
sible devastation.
Vt pötui accürätissümê tê tütätus sum (Cic. ad Fam. v.
17. 2), I have protected 3yowr interests with the greatest care
δη my power.
. Quam maxümas, quam primum, quam saepissümê grätiäs
âget (Cic. ad Fam. xIII b. 6), he will eaepress his gratitude
in the 8tror gest possible terms, at the first possible opportù-
^ity, a8 Qften, a8 possible.
. Quem ünum nostrae ciuïtätis praestantissümum audeö dicéré
(Cic. de Am. 1. 1), ohom I ventwre to promource qf all ^nen,
δὴ οὐr country the most eœcellent.
. Ex Brìtannis omnîbus longé sunt hümänissîmi (Caes. B. G.
v. 14), qf all the Brìtorìs they are by far the most cîvîlised.
Multö maxümä pars (Cic. p. leg. Man. 18. 54), by far the
greatest part.
In fidibüs aures uel mínümä sentiunt (Cic. de Off. I. 4l.
146), ίη the strings Qf musical önstruments the ear perceives
the very slightest differences Qf ^ote.
ί. The superlatives which denote place or time, together with .
médio-, which in power is a superlative, are used in agreement
* One might have expected nunc ut cum maaume.
APPOSITION AND ATTRAGTION. 227
with a substantive to specify the part of it to which the superHa-
tive applies : as,
Summus mons (Caes. B. G. I. 22), the top of the mountain.
In extrëmö librö tertió (Cic. de Off. III. 2. 9), at the end of the
third book.
Primä lücê (Caes. B. G. I. 22), at dayöreak.
k. A superlative which in English would stand in the antece-
dent clause, in Latin is attached to the relative clause : as,
P. Scipiöni ex multis diébus quós in uitä, laetissümos uidit,
illé dies clärissümus fuit (Cic. de Am. 3. 12), qf the man3y
joyovs days which Publius Scipîo saw ín the cowrse ofhis lífe,
that day was the brághtest. •
APPOSITION AND ATTRACTION.
1058 When one substantive is attached by way of explanation to
amother, it must agree with it always in case, and generally in
number, and when practicable in gender : as,
P. Wärius, uir fortissümüs atque optìmus ciuîs (Cic. p. Mil.
27. 74), Publius Varius, a most gallant gentleman, and ezcel-
íent cìtìzen.
Duae urbes pötentissìmae, Karthâgo atquë Nümantiä (Cic. p.
leg. Man. 20. 60), two most powerful cities, Carthage and
INumantîa.
Dêlîciae meae DÌcaearchüs (Cic. Tusc. I. 31. 77), my darìng
Dicaearchvs.
Höpülus Römänus uictor dömfnusque omnium gentium (Cic.
Phil. VI. 5. 12), the Roman people, the conqueror and lord of
all nation&.
Omitto illäs omnium doctrinärum inuentricis Athënäs (Cic. de
Or. I. 4. 13), I omit that great ìnventress of every science,
Athens. •
Antè mé consülem (Gic. Brut. 15. 60), öefore I was consul.
1059 When the logical connectiom is lost sight of, and the construc-
tiom is affected by the proximity of some connected word or idea,
it is called attraction.*
* Observe that the German is logically correct in giving no termina-
tion to the adjective in the predicate. Still more logical would it have
been to have given the adjective one fixed form under all circumstances.
Cases and number and gender strictly belong to the substantive alone.
228 SYNTAX.
1060 It is thus that the adjective or substantive in the predicate is
made to agree with the substantive in the subject : as,
IV. Völo ét esse ët häbéri grätüs (Cic. de Fin. II. 22. 72), I wish
both to be and to öe thought grateful.
Acc. Crédîtur Pythägörae auditórem fuissê Nümam (Liv. xL,
29), it is believed that Wwma was a pwpil Qf Pythagoras.
G. Captiuörum nümérus fuit septem milium ac dücentórum
(Liv. x. 36), the mumber of prisoners was 7200.
Messi clárum génüs Osci* (Hor. Sat. I. 5. 54), Messîo's glorì-
ovs race vas Oscam.
D. Wöbis nécessest fortîbus uíris essé (Liv. XXI. 44), 3yow have
^o choice övt to öe örave.
Fons äquae dulcis quoi nömëm Arêthüsae'stf (Cic. II. Verr.
Iv. 53. 118), a sprîng offresh water the name of which is
Arethusa.
VtI milîtïbùs exaequätus cum impërätörë läbos uólentïbùs
esset (Sal. Jug. c. 4), in order that the general's taking
an equal share in the labowr might be gratifying to the
Soldiers.1
Abl. Filiö suö mägistro équîtum creätö (Liv. Iv. 46), his son,
having been appointed master qf the horse.
Consülíbus certiörïbus factis (Liv. IV. 46), the consuls hae-
δng been apprised.
V. Rüfë mihi frusträ crédíte ämicê (Catul. 77. 1), Rufus ín
vain believed to be myfriend.
1061 Am attraction of case and gender is seen at times with the
relative : as,
Raptim quîbus quisqué pötérat élâtis, agmën implêuêrat uiäs
(Lîv. I. 29), hasti/y carrying off what each coJd, a Zêne of
people ìn motior, had filled the roads.
Amïmäl hoc quem uöcämüs höminem (Cic. de Leg. I. 7. 22),
this animal which we cal! mam.
But the different examples of attraction are also given in their
several places.
* Some editors would make Osci here a nom. pl.
f For so we should read, and not Arethusa est.
f So again c. 84, Neque plebi militia volenti putabatur ; Tac. Agr.
18, V. quibus bellum uolentibus erat; Macr. Sat. I.7, Si uobis volentibus
erit. The idiom is possibly horrowed from the Greek : as, rg rAm6et ov
ßovXopwevq) mv τωv A6r]vaioov a@ιστασθαι, Thuc. II. 3. This from Cortius.
229
NUMERALS.*
1062 Vno- one is used in the plural when a plural substantive con-
stitutes a new unit.f
Vmi ex transrhénánis lëgätos misérant (Caes. B. G. IV. 16),
they were the only people of those beyond the Rhine who had
sent ambassadors.
Ex ümis geminas míhi conficies núptias (Ter. And. IV. 1. 50),
out of ore marriage 3yow will make me a brace of marriages.
Vnae atque altérae scälae commínütae (Sal. Jug. 60), first one
and then amother ladder was broken to pieces.
1063 Sescento- sîae hundred is often used vaguely for a very large
number.
In quö multâ mölestâ, discessus noster, belli përicülum, mili-
tum impröbïtas, sescentâ praetéreà (0%c. ad Att. VI. 4. 1),
¢r, which there are man3y vevatious matters, our leaving the
country, the danger of war, the violence of the soldiery, avd
a thousand things besîdes.
1064 Mili- a thousand in the singular is commonly an adjective ; in
the plural perhaps always a substantive.
Mille équites Gallia eódem uersa in Pünïcum bellum häbuit
(Liv. xxI. 17), Gallia lying in the same direction had a
thousand hor8e as a protectior, against an attack from the
Carthagìnìarus. &
Quo in fundö fäcflë mille höminum uersäbätür (Cic. p. Mil.
20. 53), on which land full a thousand men were ergaged.
Décem miliä tälentum GábInYö sunt prómissâ (Cic. p. Rab. Post.
8. 21), ten, thousand talents were promised to Gabìnìus.
1065 If a smaller numeral be added to the thousands, them the con-
struction of an adjective is preferred : as,
Philippei nummi duödécim miliä quädringentI uiginti duö
(Lîv. xxxIx. 5), 12422 golden Philips.
* Some remarks upon the constructiom of numerals have been made
in the first part (§§ 253-272).
f Thus, many human beings make up one people ; many letters of
the alphabet go to a single letter or epistle. Sometimes the singular of a
word happens not to be in use, and it may then be difficult to decide
what was its meaning. Thus it is a question what was that meaning of
castro- in the singular which caused its plural to signify * a camp.'
230 SYNTAX.
Βut the genitive is still found at times : as,
Phílippeörum nummörum sëdëcim miliâ trécenti uiginti (Liv.
xxxIx. 7), of golden Philips 16320.
1065.1 Am ordinal number is sometimes used elliptically, so as to im-
ply an addition to the cardinal number immediately preceding: as,
a. Where a nominative of an ordinal forms part of a predicate:
218 w
' Ta quötüs essë uëlis rescribë (Hor. Ep. I. 5. 30), be it 3yours to
8ay how man3y 3you wish to be.
Dic quötüs et quanti cüpias cënärë (Mart. XIV. 217), 8ay what
3yov wish to be the number to dine together, what the charge
per head.*
b. Where the ordinal is attached to one of the fractional divi-
sions of the äs (§§ 270, 272): as, sémis tertiùs, contracted to ses-
tertiüs, half of the third wnitf, meaming altogether 23. Thus,
Trientem tertium pondö cörönam auream dédit Iöui dónum
(T. Quintius ap. Fest. v. trientem), he gave as a géft to
Jupiter a gold crown weighínq 23 lbs.
Lignum bés altérum (Fest. ibid.), a log 20I inches in diameter,
Or more idiomatically, a 20-ánch log.
Quartus quádrans (Fest. ibid.), 34.
c. With tantum as mwch, expressed, or more commonly un-
derstood : as, -
Immo etiamsi álterum Tantúm§ perdundumst, pérdam potius
quám sinam (Plaut. Ep. III. 4. 81), nay though I mvst lose
as mwch again, lose ît I will rather than permit this.
Ex eödem sémine äliübi cum décimô] rédit, äliübi cum quin-
tödécimo üt ín Hétrüriä. In Sybärïtänö dicunt étiam cum
centensímó rédiré sölitum (Varr. R. R. I. 14. 1), from the
* Compare the corresponding Greek phrase : στρατηγοs mv £evokAeu8ns
gT; autos, Thuc. I. 46; or jpe6m Trpeo 8euTms öercatos avTos, Xem. Hist.
r. II. 2. 17.
f See note to § 1056.
f More literally * 13 feet broad.* The fuller phrase would be bessem
alterum latum, or bess* alterum l.
§ Literally * a second as much.'
ll For cum decimo tanto, i. e. literally * with a tenth as much.' The
use of tantum * as much' in the measuré of crops is seen in Plaut. Trin.
II. 4. 129, 7'ribus tántis illi mámus redit quam obséueris.
NUMERALS. 231
8ame 8eed there îs în some lands a tenfold retwrn, ín ofhers
fifteenfold, as in Hetruria. In the district of Sybaris they
8ay that the vsual retwr^ äs even, a hundred for one.
Ager (Leontinüs) ecfîcit cum octäuö, béne üt ägätur, uërum üt
omnes di adiüuent, cum décümö (Cic. II. Verr. III. 47.112),
a retur^ qf eightfold from the land Qf Lentînî îs satisfactory ;
but it needs the united blessîng qf all the gods to örïng about a
retur^ often for one.
Frümentä mäiörë quîdem parti Itáliae quando cum quartö
respondérint, uix mémînissë possümüs (Col. III. 3. 4), we
can. 8carcely remember a time when corn, so far at least as the
greater part qf Italy ís concerned, gave a refurn of fowr for
07@€.
1066 The distributive numerals are often used in pairs: as, -
Singülos singüli pöpüli lictöres dédérunt (Liv. I. 8), each of tae
(twelve) states provided one lictor.
Quinâ dénâ iügëra ägri dáta in singülos pédîtes sunt (Liv.
xxxv. 40), fifteen, jugers Qf land were given, to every foot-
soldier.
1067 The particular distributive bino-, like gémino-*, is oftem used
of but two things when they match one amother : as,
Βinös häbêbat scyphös (Cic. II. Verr. Iv. 14. 32), he had a pajr
Qf cVps.
1068 The distributives bino-, trino-f &c. are used, like the plural
of üno-, with plural substantives that have a singular sense : as,
Quinis castris oppídum circumdédit (Caes. B. C. III. 9), he sur-
του^ded the town, with five camps.
Littëras reddîdit trinäs (Cic. ad Att. xI. 17. l), she delívered
three letters.
Trinis cätënis uinctus trahébätür (Caes. B. G. I. 53), he was
being dragged alomg bound with three Sets qf chaîn8.;
* Duplici- in its original sense is used where the two things lie flat
against each other, as duplices palmae, the joined hands in the act of
prayer, and duplices tabellae * folded tablets.'
* Not termo- nor singulo-.
f Even in speaking of one person the phrases are inicere catenas
glicui, conicere in catenas, esse cum catenis, as indeed the English phrase
is also plural. . Hence in Hor. Od. III. 4. 80 we should probably read
Trecemae Pirithoum cohibent catemae. «
232 SYNTAX.
1069 The poets occasionally use a distributive in place of the simple
number, and that both in the plural and singular : as,
Dispar septënis fistülä cannis (Ov. Met. II. 682), an αηequal
pέpe qf sever. reeds.
Gurgîtë septënö râpîdus märë submöuët amnis (Lucam, vIII.
445), with severfold flood the rapîd rêver bids the sea with-
draw.
1070 The word, sestertio-, which is strictly only a numeral, 23, is
commonly used in reference to money, and in that sense signified
originally 23 asses or lbs. of bronze ; but as the weight of Roman
money decreased to a great extent, and silver coin came into use,
sestertio- (or sestertio- nummo-, or nummo- alone) was eventually*
the name of a small silver coin worth about 24d.t of our money,
and was the ordinary umit of money. It is also used as an insig-
nificant, sum of money.
Prétium constîtütumst in möåios singülös HS£ III (Cic. II.
Verr. III. 70. 163), the príce faced was three sesterces the bushel.
Sestertium sescentä quädrägintä miliâ déferri ad së dömum
iussit (Cic. p. Clu. 25. 69), he ordered 640,000 8esterces to öe
carried down, to his house.
Ecqufs est qui bönä, PostümI nummö sestertiò sìbi addici uëlit ?
(Cic. p. Rab. Post. 17. 45) îs there a^y orae who would be
wí/íng zo have the whole property of Postwmus knocked down,
to hîm for a 8Ìngle groat ?
1071 A milliom sesterces fall short of 10,0007. Hence the numbers
required, when the sesterceis the unit, soon became inconveniently
large, and the only mode the Romans had of expressimg mumbers
above 100,000 was by means of the numeral adverbs : thus,
Accépi uiciens dücentä trigintä quinqué miliä, quädringentos :
septendëcim nummös (Cic. II. Verr. I. 14. 36), I received
2,235,417 sesterces.
Sestertium dëciens centënä miliä (Cic. II. Verr. I. 10. 28), one
millìom. 8esterces.
* Towards the close of the republic.
.f This would make the denarius about 9d., which is slightly above
the usual estimate, But our antiquarians commit the strange error of
taking the average of existing denarii instead of the very largest for the
standard, as though coins could have gaimed weight by time.
f To be read perhaps sestertii termi ; but the Mss. have nearly all
the mere symbols. See § 272.
IN UMIERALS. . 233
1072 By way of brevity centënä miliä, was dropped with the adverbs,
causing mo ambiguity, because the adverbs could only be used with
sestertium in this sense : thus,
Sestertium quädringentiens abstúlit (Cic. II. Verr. I. 10. 27), he
carried off forty millìon sesterces.
Et eum tu accussäs äuärïtiae, quem dicis sestertium uiciens
uöluissë perdërë ? (Cic. p. Flac. 33. 83) and do 3yow accu8e
qf avarice one who you say wished to throw away two million,
sesterces ?
1073 Although sestertium as used with miliâ was in fact a genitive,
it was found convenient to treat it as a neuter-substantive ; so that
sestertiâ* was used as a nom. or acc. pl., and signified so many
thousand sesterces.
Câpît ille ex suis praediis sescénâ sestertia, égo centëna ex meis
(Cic. Parad. VI. 3. 49), 3yonder mam draws, let αs suppo8e,
600,000 sesterces per annum from his estates, I 100,000 from,
mìne.
1074 Similarly with the adverbs it was found convenient to give to
sestertium a genitive and ablative singular. -
Décem pondo auri et argenti ad summam sestertii déciems ín
aerärium rettülit (Liv. XLv. 4), he paìd ìnto the treasury ter,
pound weight of gold, and ofsilver to the amount qf a ^il/ìor,
SeSterceS.
Nëque in sestertiö uiciens pärum së splendfdé gessit, nëque in
sestertió centiens affluentius uixit quam instîtuërat (Wepos
in Attico 14), as his establishment was sùffìcìently handsomne
when his încome was two millior, sesterces, 80 he lived with mo
greater luaeury tham, at first when his óncome was ter, millions.
1075 The construction of pondöf by weight or pownd, and libra-m
poùnd, in denoting weight, is very anomalous, the first having
* The word sestertium (nom.) is sometimes said to have been a coin.
There in fact was no sueh coin and no such word. There is perhaps
something parallel to the anomaly mentioned in the text in the practice
of declining the genitive cuius of the relative as though it had been an
adjective.
f Pondo would appearto have been originally an ablative * by weight;'
libram, libras, seem inexplicable. But in Liv. Iv. 20 all the best Mss.
have libra, which would admit a simple explanation * by the scales,' and
so, like pondo, come in a secondary sense to signify * a lb.'
234 SYNTAX.
always the same form, the second being always an acc. singular
or plural.
Pâtërae aureae fuêrunt dücentae septuägintä sex libras ferme
omnes pondo, argenti décem ét octö milia et trécentã pondö
(Liv. xxvr. 47), there vere 276 golden, öovls al/ about a pound
ên, weight, and of silver bullion 18,300 lös.
FERSONAL PRONOUNS.
1076 The nominatives of the personal pronouns are not commonly
used, because the terminations of the verb already express the
notion ; but ifthere be any emphasis, then they are required.
Quis tu hömo és ? (Ter. And. Iv. 1. 11) who are you ?
Ego istum iüuënem dömi ténemdum censeó (Liv. XXI. 3), I for
7my part think that this Stripling Qf 3yours should be kept at
home.
Nätürä tu illi pätër es, consiliis ëgo (Ter. Ad. I. 2.46), by nature
you are his father, as guardian. I.
1077 Similarly he, she, fit, they, if emphatic, must be expressed by
the proper pronoun, i-, ho-, isto-, or illo- (see below).
1078 These nominatives appear however at times to be required
when there does mot seem to be amy emphasis upon them. Thus,
in repeating a person's words in surprise, it is usual to insert the
Omitted mominative:
M. Quid fécit ? D. Quíd illé fécërit ? (Ter. Ad. I. 2. 4) M. What
has he done ? D. What has he done, ask yow ?
Where the words what and done seem to require the special em-
phasis.
1079 So in confirming am assertion or answering a question, the
nominative of the pronoun is required. .
Ego uéro ütar prörögätiönë diéI (Cic. ad Att. xIII. 43), 3yes, my
friend, yow are right, Ishall avaî myself of the postponement.
Where the word shall is emphatic, not the pronoun.
108C. So again where quídem it is true introduces a word preparatory
to a, sëd but : as,
Deindë tui münïcîpes, sunt illi quìdem splendidissùmi hömines,
set támen pauci (Cic. p. Planc. 8. 21), then as to your fellow-
town8men, they are, 1 grant, men qf the highest statîon, ότιt
Still only few în number.
PERSONAI, PRONOUN§. 235
Orätöriäs exercïtätiönes, non tü quídem réliquisti, sed philösö-
phiam illis antëpösuisti (Cic. de Fato, 2. 3), 3your exercises
in oratory 3/ov have mot abandoned, it ás true, övt 3/ov have
gìvem philosophy the preference over them.
Nos scitó dé uëtêre illâ nostrâ sententiä pröpë iam essë dëpulsos,
non nos quídem ut nostrae dignîtâtis Simüs obliti, sëd üt
häbeámus rätiönem äliquando étiam sälütís (Cic. ad Fam.
I. 7. 7), we, 3yow must wnderstand, have been almost wea^ed at
last from tho8e old opinions of ours, not indeed so far as to
forget owr dignity, but 8o as sometimies to take account Qf our
Safety also,
1081 The singular tü and plural uös* being commonly translated by
the same word you, it is often usefulto insert some plural vocative
or Other phrase with the latter, so as to prevent ambiguity.
Si quîd est quod mea öpéra öpus sit uóbis, ut tü plus uîdes,
Mánébo (Ter. Amd. IV. 3. 23), §f there be any thing in which
3/ov (a^d your 3young master) have occasîon for my assistance,
as 3/ov (Davus) ωnderetand matters öetter tham I do, I will
8ta?/. -
1082 The use of a first person plural for the singular—nös for égo,
nostër for meüs—is occasionally met with in Latin, but more from
a feeling of modesty than pride. See dicämüs (Cic. p. leg. Man.
16. 47), and cohortáti sümüs—pötuìmùs—arbíträrëmür—ostendi-
müs (Cic. de Div. II. 1. 1).
ASê, suo-, &c.
1083 The reflective pronouns of the third person, both substantive
and adjective, are variously translated according to the word they
referto. This word is commonly the nominative of the sentence :
àS
' Ex praedia áliis cöluit, non sîbi (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 17. 49),
these farms he cultivated for others, not for him8elf.
Tum illâ rëiëcit se ín eum (Ter. And. I. l. 108), ther, the other
threw herself back into his arms.
Iustítiâ propter se est cölendä (Cic. de Off. II. 12. 42), justice ìs
to be cultivated for itself.
Non sui conseruandi caussâ pröfügërunt (Cic. in Cat. I. 3. 7),
ôt was ^ot to Save themselves that they ra^ off. -
* The same ambiguity exist$ betweem the possessive adjectives tuo-
and uostero-, and may be removed im the same way.
236 SYNTAX.
Suâ quae narrat fácinora ? (Ter. Haut. II. l. 8) what doings of
his own, does he recount ?
Vtne haec ignoraret su6m patrem ? (Ter. Ph. v. 6. 34) the idea
of this woman, mot knowing her own father /
Aliénâ mélius diiüdícant, quam suâ (Ter. Haut. III. 1. 95), they
judge better qf other people's affairs than their own.
1084 Së &c. and suo-, in a secondary sentence, may of course refer
to the nominative or subject of that secondary sentence. They
sometimes however refer to the agent of the main sentence, parti-
cularly if the secoudary sentence express something in the mind
of that agent : as,
Vir bónus nihil quoiquam quöd in sé transférat détrahet (Cic.
de Off. III. 19. 75), a good man will not force any thing from
any one to transfer it to himself.
Sentit ánímus së ui suä, nön äliénâ möuëri (Cic. Tusc. I. 23. 55),
the mind feels that it is acted wpon by a force Qf ìts own, not
one from without.*
l085 Së &c. and suo- sometimes refer to a noun not in the nomi-
native, if that noum be substantially the subject : as,
A Caesăre inuItorf, sfbi ut sim legätüs (Cic. ad Att. II. 18. 3),
I am învîted by Caesar to be legate to him.
Faustülö spes fuêrat£, rëgiam stirpem äpud se édúcärI (Lîv. I.
5), Faustulus had entertained the hope that the children at
^urse ìn his cottage were of royal stock.
]086 Së &c. and suo- sometimes refer to nouns mot in the nomina-
tive, if placed near them : as,
Furnium per sé uIdi lùbentissìmè (Cic. ad Fam. x. 3. 1), Fur-
^ìus, 80 far as he himself i8 concerned, I saw with the greatest
pleaswre.
Rátio ét örätiö concìliat inter se höminës (Cic. de Off. I. 16.50),
reaso^ and 8peech wnite men to one amother.
* In Caes. B. G. I. 36, ad haec Ariovistus respondit &c., which
chapter is all one sentence, there is much freedom in the use of these
pronouns. Thus, in the last clause, quod sibi Caesar denuntiaret se
Aeduorum iniurias mom neg/ecturum, meminem secum sime sua pernicie
contendisse,—sibi and secum refer to Ariouistus, se to Caesar, sua to
memónem.
f Equivalent to Caesar me imuitat.
3. Equivalent to Faustulus spem habuerat.
IPERSONAI, PRONOUN8. 237
Suas res Sjräcüsänis restîtuit (Liv. xxIx. 1), he restored to the
Syracusans what öelonged to them.
Plácet Stoïcis suö quamquë rem nómíne adpellärë (Cic. ad Fam.
Ix. 22. 1), ît îs a law with the Stoics to call every thông by ìt8
0?J7?, 720/77?6.
Mägönem eum classé sua fn Hispäniam mittunt (Liv. XXIII. 32),
they send Mago with his fleet to Spain.
Rédimendi së captiuis cöpiam fäcérë (Liv. xxII. 58), to góve the
prisoners an, opportunity of ransomìng themselves.
1087 Intér së is used with active verbs for se intér së : as,
Inter se adspiciébant (Cic. in Cat. III. 5. 13), they kept looking
at one amother.
1088 The possessive pronouns often denote what is favourable to the
party, especially in connexion with nouns signifying time or place :
aS,
Rögo ut nëque occäsiöni tuae dësis, néqué suam occásiónem
hosti dés (Liv. xxII. 39), I a8k 3yov ^either to öe wantìng to
an opportunity favourable to 3yourself, ^or to gêve to the enemy
one favourable to hóm.
1089 The possessive pronouns are oftem omitted in Iatin where they
are expressed in English : as,
Non dúbiumst quin uxórem nolit fílius (Ter. And. I. 2. 1),
there ìs mo doubt that my sor, is wmwìllìng to marry.
Et eri semper lénitas, uerébar quorsum euáderet (Ter. And. I.
2. 4), and my master's* constant gentleness, I was afraìd vhat
¢t wowld end în.
Ip80-.
1090 Ipso- is used with the personal pronouns and other nouns to
denote emphasis :
Calpurnius custódiâ milítäri cinctüs extinguîtur ; Priscus se
ipsef interfécit (Tac. Hist. Iv. 11), Calpurnius is svr-
founded by a guard of soldiers and put to death ; Priscus
slew himself.
Frätrem suum, dein se ipsumf interfécit (Tac. Hist. III. 51),
he killed his brother, and then hìmself.
* So in English we say * master, father,' &c. for * my master, my
father.*
+ Observe the difference between these two phrases.
238 SYNTAX.
Triennio ipsö mfnor quam Antóniüs (Cic. Brut. 43. 161), evactly
three 3years 3younger than, Antonius.
Ipsae défluébant cörönae (Cic. Tusc. v. 21. 62), the wreaths kept
slippîng down, qf themselves.
Is, ét ipse Alpinüs amnis, diffîcillímus transftu est (Liv. xxI.
31), thìs, ìt8e(f too an Alpine rêver, îs most difficult to cross.*
IDEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
1091 Ho-, isto-, illo-, are called demonstratives, because the speaker
in using them points to the things he speaks of.
Ho- is the demonstrative of the first person, and points to what
is mear me.
Isto- is the demonstrative of the second person, and points to
what is mear yoυ.
Illo- is the demonstrative of the third person, and points to
what is distant from both of us.
1092 Ho- this has the following uses: First, it points to something
near the speaker : as,
Set quíd hoc ? Puër hercle'st. Múlier, tu äpösuisti hunc ?
(Ter. And. IV. 4. 2) but what is this (at my feet) ? Faith,
£t's a baby. Woman, was it you put this baby down here ?
Hic uersus Plauti nön est, hic est (Serv. ap. Cic. ad Fam. Ix.
16. 4), this verse ìs mot Plautus's, this is.
1093 Hence hic hömo may meam égo, the speaker : as,
Vah, sólus hic homost, quî sciat diuinitus (Plaut. Curc. II. 1, 33),
bah, 3yowr húmble servant has mot his match as a prophet.
1094 Secondly, ho- refers to present time : as,
Ab illis hómínibüs ad hanc hóminum lübidinem ac licentiam
me abdücis ? (Cic. II. Verr. III. 90. 210) do yov propose to
draw me away from the men, qf those days to the self-indul-
gence and ântemperance qf the present race ?
Quid hoc pöpülo obtïnëri pötest ? (Cic. de Leg. III. 16. 37),
vhat measure cam be carried with such citizens as we have
^ow-a-days ?
* Whenever ipso- is used, the student should ask himself to what it
is opposed.
IDEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN8. 239
1095 Ho- may also be used Iogically : First, at the beginning of a
sentence referring to something immediately preceding: as,
Est genus hominum, quî esse primos se ómnium rerúm uolunt,
Néc sunt—Hos conséctor (Ter. E. II. 2. 17), there ìs, you must
know, a class of people who will have it that they are first in
every thing, but are ^ot so—These are the game 1 fiunt down.
1096 Secondly, as a so-called antecedent to a relative, when placed
after that relative : thus,
Quam quísque morit ártem, in hac se exérceat (ap. Cic. Tusc.
I. 18. 41), whatever art each, knows, \n that let him exercise
hêmself.
1097 Thirdly, whem referring to what is coming : as,
Quórum öpërum haec érat rätio (Caes. B. C. I. 25), of the8e
works the fo//owáng was the plam. -
Höc änïmö scito omnis sämös ut mortem seruîtüti antëpömant,
(Cic. ad Fam. x. 27), yov, must know that all men ίη theor
senses have determóned wpon, this, to prefer death to slavery.
1098 Isto- that (connected with 3yov) has the following uses : First,
it points to Something near the persom spoken to : as,
Istam quam hâbës unde häbes uestem ? (Ter. E. IV. 4. 28), that
dress which you have got on, where did yow get út from ?
Tü tîbi istas posthac comprïmïtö mänüs (Ter. Haut. III. 3. 29),
3yow, sir, must keep those hands for the future to 3yourself.
1099 Secondly, isto- refers to the second person, though there is no
pointing: as,
AS. EHöcfne ägts annön ? D. Ego uéro istuc (Ter. And. I. 2. 15),
S. Do yow attend to what 1 am saying or not ? D. Yes, 8ír,
1 do attend to what 3yow, Say.
1100 Isto- signifies in itself neither praise nor blame, neither love
nor hatred. The context may imply one or the other :
IBöno ánímó fac sis Sosträtä ; ét istam quod pötes fac consöléré
(Ter. Ad. III. 5. 1), keep vp 3/ovr spirits, Sostrata ; and do
3your best to comfort your poor daughter there.
Istuc est sápéré (Ter. Ad. III. 3. 32), there 3/ov show true wis-
dom, sir.
Vídeo de istis qui sé pöpüläris hábóri uölunt, äbessé non mémY-
nem (Cic. in Cat. IV. 5.10), I perceive that of your would-be-
thought friends of the peopte, a certain gentlemar, ás absent
24() SYNTAX.
1101 Illo- yonder, distant, former, other, points to something corn-
paratively distant : as,
Tolle hanc pätïnam. Aufér illam offam porcinam (Plaut. Mil.
Gl. III. 1. 164), take away this dish. Remove gyonder rissole
de porc.
Set quis illic est procúl quem uideo ? (Ter. Ad. III. 3. 84) Üut
vho is 3yonder man there, whom, I 8ee ίη the distance ?
1102 Referring to something distant, though not visible : as,
Ille suam semper égit uitam in ótio, in conuíuiis (Ter. Ad. v.
4. 9), m3) brother there has always passed his time ίη ἰdleness,
ô Society.
1103 Illo-, like ho-, may be used logically ; that is, refer to the words
of a sentence. Whem they are used together, ho- refers to the
nearer word, illo- to the farther: as,
Mélius de quîbusdam äcerbi ìnimici mèrentur quam hi ámici
quI dulces uídentür. Illi uërum, saepè dicunt ; hI. nun-
quam (Cic. de Am. 24. 90), öítter enemies deserve öetter Qf
Some persons tham those friends who seem, to öe al/ sweetness.
The former often speak the truth, the latter never.
1104 Sometimes not the nearer word but the mearer* thing is marked
by ho-, the more distant thèng by illo- : as,
Méliör est certâ pax quam spërätä uictóriá. Haec in tua, illa
in Deórum mânu est (Liv. xxx. 30), certain peace is öetter
thar, hoped for victory. The one (peace) is ίη γούr own, hands,
the other (victory) in those of the gods.
ì105 A change of persom is often marked by illo-, in which case the
word other is often the best translation : as,
Vercingetörix obuiam Caesări pröfîciscîtür. Ille oppídum Nö-
uiödünum obpugnäre instîtuêrat (Caes. B. G. VII. 12), Ver-
cingetoriae Sets owt to meet Caesar. The other (viz. Caesar) had
begum to besîege Voviodwnwm.
Aeölus luctantis uentós impériö prémft. Illi circum claustrâ
frëmunt (Virg. A. I. 56), Aeolus the struggling winds with
8overeign sway restraîns. They thus restrained arownd the
barriers roar.
* In this way are to be explained all those passages where illo- is said
to be referred to the nearer word, and ho- to'the farther word: as, for
example, in Liv. xxv. 29, where ille and illius refer to Hiero as long
dead, hic and huius to Hieronymus as only recently dead.
IDEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 24]
1106 Illo- also introduces something about to be mentioned, in op-
position to what has been just mentioned : as,
Hörum ëgö sermönë non möuëbär. Illud, uéré dicam, mê
möuet, äbessé tris cohortis (Cic. ad Fam. III. 6. 5), by what
the$e mem, saìd to one amother I was not an^oyed. 0ne tháng
however (I will be candid with 3yov) does annoy me, and that
is, that three battalions are absent.
Illud tìbi prömittö, quicquîd érít á té factum, id sënätum com-
pröbätürum (Cic. ad Fam. x. 16. 2), one thing I promise 3yov,
whatever 3yow do, that the senate will fully approve.
1107 Illo- expresses distance in time, past or future : first past time :
8S
' Quid ille, übi est Mmestus? (Ter. Ad. rv. 5. 68) vel, and that
genfleman from Miletus 3yow were speaking qf, where ìs he ?
Hei mîhî quälïs ërat ? quantum mütätüs äb illo Hectörë qui
rédît exüuiäs indütüs Achilli (Vîrg. A. II. 274), alas, what
vas he like ? How changed from that Hector qf other days
refurning clad ìn Achilles' spoîls /
Ille ëgö libër, illé férox, täcui (0v. Met. I. 757), I once so free,
so provd, wa8 silent.
1108 Hence illo- is applied to well-known personages of past times:
8S
9 C. Sëquär, üt instîtui, diuinum illum uîrum.
A. Plätönem uídelícet dicîs. C. Istum ipsum, Attîcë (Cic. de
Leg. III. 1. 1),
C. I will follow, as I have begwn, that heaven-inspîred man.
A. Yow, mean, Plato, no doubt. C. The very Same, Atticus.
1109 Also to proverbs: as, •
Verum illud uerbumst, uólgo quod dici solet,
Omnis sibi 'sse mélius malle quam álteri (Ter. And. II. 5. 15),
Too true 's the old saying in every body's mouth,
All men, wish better to themselves tham, to their ^eighbour.
11 10 Ho- and illo-are used together to mark the connection of some-
thing present with something past : as,
Atât hoc illud est ;
Hinc illae lacrumae, haec illast misericórdia (Ter. And. I. l. 98),
Ah, ah / then, thês eaeplains that matter ;
Hence all that weeping, hence that sympathy.
4. R.
242 8YNTAX.
1111 Illo- is also applied to future time : as,
Híc dömüs Aenëae cunctis dömînăbîtür öris,
Et näti nátórum, et qui nascentür áb illis (Virg. A. III. 97),
Here shall, Aeneas' hovse o'er every border rule, *
His children's childrem, and their childrem, too.
1112 LOGICAL PRONOUNS.
a. ì-, eo-, &c.
I-, eo-, &c., this, that, the, he, she, it, a, one, Such, is never a
demonstrative, and consequently it never takes the emclitic ce ;*
it always refers to some word or words in the context.
1113 Commonly i- refers to a word preceding: as,
IEunti mihi Antium, uênit obuiam tuos puér. Is mihi littëräs
abs të reddídit (Cic. ad Att. II. 1. 1), a8 I was goi^g to Am-
tìum, there came across me 3/owr servant. This servant (or
he) gave me a letter from 3yow.
Vnam rem explfcábo eamquë maxümam (Cic. de Fin. I. 8. 28),
one thörg I will eaeplain, and that the most ìmportant.
1114 I- also refers to what follows : as,
Id tîbi affirmö te fn istis mölestiis non diütius fütürum (C%c.
ad Fam. IV. 13. 4), thês / asswre yow of, that 3yow will not be
long ίη γούr present paìnful situatior, there.
lll5 I- is often used as am antecedent to a relative, and then may
often be translated by the words a, one, a mam, &c., especially if
a reasom be implied :
Si ín eos quos spërämus nöbis pröfütüros, non dübítámus con-
ferre offíciä quälës in eös essé débémus qui iam prófuêrunt ?
(Cic. de Off. I. 15. 48) if we do not hesitate to bestow owr good
offices om those by whom we hope to be benefitted, how ovght we
to behave towards those by whom we have already been bene-
fitted ?
Hostís ápud mäiöres noströs is dicëbätur quem nunc pérégrìnum
dicímüs (Cic. de Off. I. 12. 37), he whom we now cal! pere-
grinus (foreigner) was called among our ancestors hostis.
* The passage in Plautus (Merc, Prol. 91) is corrupt. See Bothe's
edition. - e. - -
ILOGICAIL PRONOUIN8. 243
Mfnümé conuênît ex eo ägrö qui Caesăris iussü diufdätür, eum
möuëri qui Caesäris bénífíció sënätor sit (Cic. ad Fam. xIII.
5. 2), ît îs altogether inconsistent that a mar, who ìs a 8erator
by Caesar's favowr show/d öe ejected from land which ös in,
course of distribution under Caesar's order.
Nam qu6 redibo ore ád eam quam contémpserim ? (Ter. Ph. v.
7. 24) for with what face shall I go back to a woman whom /
have thoroughly ínsulted ?
11 17 The relative clause oftem precedes, in which case this second
pronoum is emphatic :
Hoc qui admirätür, is se quid sit uir bónus nesciré fäteätür
(Cic. de Off. III. 19. 75), f any ome wonder at this, let that
'man, confess that he knows not what a good man, îs.
Nön est consentáneum, qui métü non frangätür, eum frangi
cüpiditätë (Cic. de Off. I. 20. 68), ìt ìs an inconsistency for
a man to be proQf again8t fear, and then, not to öe proof
against temptation.
1118 I- is used before a relative in such a manner as to denote the
belonging to a class, and is to be translated by such, the sort of
person, one of those, the man to —, so — as to : thus,
Néqué tu ís es qui quid sis nesciäs (Cic. ad Fam. v. 12. 6), nor
are yow the persor, not to know what yow are.
1119 In this sense i- is often followed by üt : thus,
In eum res rédiit iam löcum, ut sit nécessum (Ter. Haut. II.
3. 118), matter8 are at last come to such a state that ît îs neces-
8αry.
b. quó-, quo-, &c.
1120 The relative quo- or qua- and qui- agrees like other adjectives
with its noun if expressed : as, : .
Intellexit diem instärë quö dië frümentum mêtiri öportêret;
(Caes. B. G, I. 16), he 8aw that the day was clo8e at hand,
on which day it was requîred that he should measure ovg the
C07*^,
Caussam dicît eâ légè quà légè sënätöres sóli ténentür (Cic. p.
Clu. 57. 156), he is making his defence wnder a law by which
law senators alone are δουτια.
244 8YNTAX.
1121 In the Sentences just given the noum is expressed twice over,
This repetition is umnecessary ; and commonly the moum which
should accompany the relative is omitted, so that the relative
agrees with the antecedent noun in number and gender, but has
its case determined by its own clause : as,
Ab rêlîquis princípíbus qui hanc temptandam fortünam non
existïmäbant (Caes. B. G. vII. 4), by the other chiefs who
thought that this risk ought not to öe run.
Intrómissis équítíbus, quös arcessendos cüräuërat (Caes. B. G. .
v. 56), horsemen, having been, let into the place, whom he had
sent for.
Adeunt pêr Aeduos quörum antiquítüs érat in fídé ciuftäs
(Cae8. B. G. VI. 4), they make their approach by means of
the Aedwí w^der whose protection the state had been from, qf
old.
Quid uós hanc míséram sectámini praedam, quîbus lícet iam
essé fortünätissìmIs ? (Caes. B. G. VI. 35) ωhy do you pwrsue
this wretched booty, yov, who have it in your power now to öe
the most fortunate of me^ ?
Aduersários suös à quîbus paulo ante érat éiectüs (Caes. B. G.
VII. 4), his opponents öy whom, he had been a little before
eaepelled.
1122 The relative may have a different noun from the sentence to
which it is attached: as,
Erat lünä plënä, qui dies märïtïmös aestus maxïmös effîcërë
consuéuit (Caes. B. G. IV. 29), it was full moon, which day
vsually makes the Sea-têdes the greatest.
Cümae, quam Graeci tum urbem ténèbant (Liv. IV. 44), Cumae,
which city Greeks them occupîed.
1123 A very common constructiom consists of the relative and its
so-called antecedent divided by the other words of the relative
clause: as,
Hâbëtis quam pëtistis fäcultätem* (Caes. B. G. vI. 8), 3yov have
^ow the opportúnáty 3yow, 800ght. -
* In sentences such as these it is a common habit in modern printing
to place the relative clause between commas, whereas the connection is as
close as between an ordinary adjective and its noun. Indeed it is useful
to translate such sentences in the exact order of the words: thus, * In
the-which-followed winter;* * The-which-you-sought opportunity.'
ILOGICAL PBON OUNS. 245
Eâ quae sécüta est hiémë (Caes. B. G. IV, 1), in the winter
which followed.
Ad eas quas dixîmus münitiönës (Caes. B. G. III. 26), to the
fortificatìons which we have mentîoned.
1124 In the first and last of the phrases just quoted the noun be-
longs equally to both clauses. In the following it belongs to the
relative clause :
Quös in praesentiâ tríbümos milîtum circum se hàbëbat, së
sëqui iübet (Caes. B. G. v. 37), such tribunes of the soldiers
as he had aöovt hîm at the moment, he orders to follow him.
1125 Thus, sometimes the noum of the maim clause, more commomly
that of the relative clause, is omitted. But ifthe noun be sepa-
rated from the main verb by the relative clause, it, sometimes
takes its case from the relative clause, to which it is mearer : as,
Hópulo ut placerent quás fecisset fábulas (Ter. And. prol. 3),
that the plagys he might write should please the people.
Vrbem quam státuò uestrast (Virg. A. I. 577), the city which 1
am 8ettìng wp is 3yovrs.
1126 An antecedent is not always necessary : as,
Néc ërat quod scribërem (Gic. ad Att. xII. 9), nor was there any
thing to write.
Assëquërë quod uis (Cìc. ad Att. XI. 7. 3), 3yow will obtain what
3yow, wìsh.
IIábêbis quoi des littëräs (Cic. ad Att. xI. 13. 5), 3yov vïll have
Some one to semd a letter by.
lnteruênit ënim quoi métuisti crédò nè saluö cäpfté nëgärë
non possés (Cic. Phil. II. 38. 99), for there suddenly stepped
forward one to whom yow were afraid, I suppo8e, 3yow cow/d
not Say no without gettìng govr head broker.
Partö* quód áuëbäs (Hor. Sat. I. 1. 94), having acquired what
3yoω longed for.
Eêne est cui Deüs obtúlit, parcâ quod sätïs est mânu (Hor. Od.
III. 16. 43), 'tis well with him, to whom the Deity has offered
with frugal hand what is enough.
Dies deindé praestîtütä cäpYtälisquè poenâ qui non rémigrasset;
Rómam singülos mëtü suö quemque öbédientfs fëcit (Liv.
* Here quod auebas may be considered as a noun in the ablative.
246 [§YNTAX.
vI. 4), a day was ther, named, and capital punishment he/:?
oott to any one who should not δy that day have retwrned to
Romae there to live, and this decisive measure made them, al!
obedient, each indivìdual being ìnfluenced by fear for himself.
Praemia atque hönöres qui militärë sëcum uöluissent pröpösuit
(Liv. xxIII. 15), he held out rewards and honours to such as
should be willìng to serve under hêm.*
1127 Such omissioms fall for the most part under the four following
heads : a. where the antecedent, if expressed, would be in the
same case as the relative ; b. where the verb immediately precedes
or follows, and thus shows the connection ; c. short relative
phrases, where the antecedent would be a nominative: or accusa-
tive ; d an antecedent dative before qui.f
1128 The relative in short phrases sometimes adapts its case to the
main sentence : as, -
Quem uídébítur praefíciës (Cic. ad Att. vI. 3. 2), you will, place
at the head of the business whom 3yow think proper.
Quö consuêrat interuallo hostis séquitür (Caes. B. G. I. 22), he
follows the enemy at the interval, he was accustomed to.f
Raptim quíbus quisquë pötérat, ëlätis (Liv. I. 29), each hastily
carrying owt what he codd.
1129 When a relative referring to the preceding sentence is sepa-
rated from its verb (or other governing word) by a conjunction or
relative, it is convenient in the translation to substitute for the
relative some proper form of the promoum * he' or * this,' with am
English conjunctiom if need be : as,
Quod postquam barbäri fiéri ánímaduertêrunt (Caes. B. G. III.
15), but when the barbarian8 saw that this opas being done.
Quöd übi auditum est (Caes. B. G. III. 18), and when this was
heard.
1130 When a relative is connected in meaning with two clauses, it
generally adapts its case to the secondary clause, ifthat precedes
the main clause : as,
* See also examples under § 1226, and Liv. III. 19. 6.
* This was probably at first owing to the similarity in sound between
qui and cui or quoi, so that the case d would be virtually included in a ;
and then extended to the plural.
f The English often omit the relative, which however must always be
supplied in translatìng into Latin.
LOGIC AI. PRONOU NS. 247
Is ënim fuêram, quoi* cum lîcêret magnós ex ótiö fructus cä-
péré, non dübítäuérim mê gráuissùmis tempestátíbüs ob-
uium ferré (Cic. R. P. I. 4. 7), for I had been one, who having
it în my power to deríve great advantages from repose, stil!
did ^ot hesitate to face the most fearful storms.
Nam quid dê mê dicam, quoi üt omniâ contingant quae uölo,
lévári nön possum ? (Cic. ad Att. xII. 23. 4) for what should
Isay of myself, when, though every thing shoula 6efall me that
I wish, stil/ I could mot be relieved ?
Is quif albüs äterné fuérit ignöräs (Cic. Phil. II. 16. 41), one qf
vhom gow ca^not say whether he was white or black.
Quem nîsi Säguntinum scélüs ágitäret, respîcêret pröfectö &c.
(Lîv. xxI. 41), and íf Heaven's curse for his crímes at Sagun-
tum had not been purswing him, assuredly he would have looked
back at dêc.
1130. 1 When two relative clauses are combined (as by ét, què, &c.),
and the cases of the two relatives should strictly speaking be dif-
ferent, the second may sometimes be omitted, when it would be a
nominative or accusative: as,
Bocchus cum pédîtîbus quos Völux adduxérat, nëque in priörë
pugna affuêrant, postrémam Römänörum áciem inuädunt
(Sal. Jug. 101), Bocchus, with the infantry which Voluae had
brought up, and who had ^ot been present ίη the preceding
battle, attack the rear of the Roman, army. £
1130. 2 The adjectives täli-, tanto-, and töt, as also the adverbs tam
andtum, are used as antecedents to the respective relatives quäli-,
quanto-, quöt, quam and quum.
1131 The relative§ is often used in parentheses with the sense of
the logical pronoun i- or eo- : as,
* Rather than qui cum mihi liceret, &c. Hence probably we should
read in Phil. II. 7. 17, hoc uero ne P. quidem Clodius dizit unquam, quoi
quia iure fui imimicus, doleo a te omnibus uitiis iam esse superatum.
f Had the igmoras preceded albus, the phrase would have been quem
ignoras, &c. '
f Sometimes the proper case of i- is supplied in the second clause,
as eos in Cic. de Clar. Or. 74. 258.
§ So also the relative adverb ut is used for sic or ita in Ter. Ph. v. 2.
9, Haud scio hercle (ut homost) an mutet animum, * I am only too much
afraid faith (knowing the fellow's character) he may change his mind.'
Compare Hec. III. 5. 10, Sic sum, * it is my way.*
248 SYNTAX.
Quod SI mihi permisisses, qui meüs ämör in te est, confëcissem
(0ic. ad Fam. vII. 2. 1), whereas âfgyov, had left this matter
altogether to me, swch is my affection for 3/ou, I should have
settled ît.
Quod SI fäcit, quâ impüdentiast (Cic. p. Rosc. Com. 15. 45), êf
he does this (and he has impudence enough to do it), déc.
1131. l Logical pronouns,—and we here include, besides i- or eo-, all
the pronouns SO used, as ho- (§ 1095), illo- (§ 1103), and quo-
(§ 1131),—are at times used in immediate agreement with a sub-
stantive, where a genitive of the promoum with rei might have been
expected : as, -
Hoc métü lätius uägäri prohïbëbat (Caes. B. G. v. 19), by the
alarm, which thence arose he prevented (the troops from) wan-
dering about to any great distance.
Haec quídem est perfäcilis défensiö (Cic. de Fin. III. 11. 36),
the defence of this at any rate ìs a very easy matter.
1132 I-dem.
I-dem &ame is employed in many constructions, the chief of
which are the following : .
Impéri nostri terrärumque illärum Ídem est extrémum (Cic.
de Prov. Con. 13. 33), owr empêre and that cowntry have mow
the 8ame boundary. •
Quaerftür ídemné sit pertínácia et persêuêrantiâ (Cic. Top. 23.
87), the que8tion is, whether obstìnacy and perseverance öe the
same tháng.
Acädémîcüs ét idem rhétör (Cic. N. D. II. 1. 1), an academicíam
and at the 8ame time a professed speaker.
Animus te erga est Idem ac fuit (Ter. Haut. II. 3. 24), my feel-
ἀng towards yow is the Same a8 it was.
Idem ábeunt qui uénérant (Cic. de Fin. Iv. 3. 7), they go away
the same that they came.*
Eódem löcö rës est quási eà pécüniä legätä nön esset (Cic. de
Leg. II. 21. 53), the matter stands in the same posîtîon as êf
the said money had never been left.
Idem négas quidquam certi possé répériri, idem të compërissé
dixisti (Cic. Acad. Pr. II. 19. 63), on the one hand yow say
* With their opinions unaltered.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. - 249
that nothing certain can. be found by man, and get on the other
hand 3yow, also said that you had discovered 80 and 8o.
Nëque ego âlîtër accëpi ; intellexi tâmén Idem (Oic. ad Fam.
Ix. 15. 3), mor did I take it otherwise ; I Savo however at the
same time déc.
I 133 The construction with a dative or with cum belongs to the
poets and the later writers: as,
Eódem mëcum pätrë génítüs (Tac. Ann. xv. 2), sprwrgfrom tfie
8ame father a8 myself.
InuItúm qui seruät, ídém fácít occidenti (Hor. ad Pis. 467),
who 8aves a mam against his will does the 8ame as o^e who
λέlls hóm.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
ll34 The use of the interrogative pronouns qui-, ütëro- &c. falls
under thè two heads of direct* and indirect questions; the former
having commonly the indicative,f the latter nearly always the
subjunctive: as,
Direct questions :
Quis tu es ? (Ter. And. Iv. 1. ll) who are you ?
Quíd ígítur sîbi uolt pätër ? (Ter. And. II. 3. 1) what does my
father meam them ?
Indirect questions :
Quid rétîneat per tê mêmfnit, non quîd ämisérit (Cic. p. Deiot.
13. 35), he remembers what he retains through 3yow, not what
he has lost.
Quälis sit ánímüs, ipse änïmus nescit (Cic. Tusc. I. 22. 53),
what sort of thông the soul äs, the soul itself knows not.
* In the direct question the English language puts the nominative
after the verb or its auxiliary, except indeed when the question is about
the nominative itself and begins with * who,' * which,' or * what.' Secondly,
an interrogative pronoun or particle commences the sentence, unless in-
deed the question be about the act itself, in which case the verb or its
auxiliary comes first. Thirdly, the mark of interrogation (?) is placed at
the end of the sentence. On the other hand, the indirect interrogative is
always attached to some word or phrase, generally to a verb. Secondly,
the nominative, asin ordinary sentences, always precedes its verb. Thirdly,
it is not entitled to the mark of interrogation.
f See below.
*9;
250 SYNTAX.
IBoth : v. .
Quid factüri fuistis ? Quamquam quid factüri fuéritis dübftem,
cum uîdeam quid fëcëritîs ? (Cic. p. Lig. 8. 24) what would
3yov have done ? And yet am I to doubt what yow would have
done, when I see what yow actually have done ?
IBoth :
Quid nunc fiet ? Quid fiat rögäs ? (Ter. Ad. III. 1. 1) what will
öecome of us novo ? What will become qf us, ask yow ?
] 135 A question is sometimes asked with a participle dependent
upom the main verb, in which case it is commonly necessary for
the English translator to substitute a verb for that participle, and
at the same time to insert a relative before the original verb : as,
Vndé pétitum höc in më iäcis? (Hor. Sat. I. 4. 79) whence didst
thow get this Stone (which) thow, throwest at me ?
Quîbus mós undë dëductüs Amâzöniä, sécüri dexträs öbarmet,
quaeréré distüli (Hor. Od. Iv. 4. 18), but whence derived the
custom, which with Amazoniam aaee eqwîps their arm, I ask
7207, 72000.
Cögitätë quantis läbörïbus fundätum impérium, quantâ uirtütë
stăbîlitam libertätem ünä nox paenê dêlêrit (Cic. in Cat.
Iv. 9. 19), consîder what labour was employed to fownd that
empêre, what valowr to establish that liberty which a single
^ight has almost annihilated.
1136 Occasionally two questions are included in one sentence, and
require to be separated in the translation : as,
Nihil iam áliud quaerêrê dêbêtis, nîsi ütër ütri insídias fëcërit,
(Cic. p. Mil. 9. 23), 3yow, have now nothing else to înquire into
but this, which of the two plotted against the other's life, which
had his life 80 endangered.
Cëtërörum mïsëräbiliör örätiö fuit commémörantium ex quantis
öpîbus quò reccídissent Karthâgîniensium rés (Lîv. xxx.
42), the language of the rest was still more affectìng, as they
dwelt wpon the powerful station from which, and the loω deptfi
to which the state of Carthage was fallen.
1137 It may be observed, that the Latin language employs the in-
direct interrogation much more frequently than the English, which
oftem prefers a mere relative with an antecedent substantive, or a
substantive alone : as,
INDEFIN ITE PRONOUN 8. 25]
Nunc quíd ägendum sit considérâtë (Cic. p. leg. Mam. 2. 6),
consider now the business which yow have to tran8act.
Non sum praedicätürus quantäs illé res dömi militiaequè ges-
sérit (Cic. p. leg. Man. 16. 48), I am not going to proclaím,
the greatness of his achîevements at home and abroad.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, &c.
1138 The simple qui- any is an enclitic,* and cannot occupy the
first place in a sentence.
Omniâ semper quae mägisträtüs illé dicet, sëcundis aurïbus,
quae ab nostrûm quö dicentür aduersis accîpiëtîs ? (Liv. vI.
40) will 3yov always receive with a favowable ear what those
magistrate8 8ay, and with an, wnfavouraöle ear what is Said,
by any of ws ?
1139 The use of this word is frequent in sentences beginning with
the relative or relative adverbs, and after sI, nisi, nè, num : as,
Iam illis prömissis standum nön est, quae coactús quis métü
prómisit (Cic. de Off. I. 10. 32), lastly, there is another class
of promises which are not bîndîng, viz. those which one makes
vnder the compulsior, offear.
Qu6 quis uersütior est, höc inuisior (Cic. de Off. II. 9. 34), the
more crafty a ^nam ìs, the more is he disliked.
Vbi sémél quis pëiëräuêrît, ei crédi posteä nön öportet (Cic. p.
Rab. Post. 13. 36), when a man has once forsworn himself,
he should not afterwards be believed.
Núm quöd ëlöquentiae uestigium appäret ? (Cic. de Or. I. 9.
37) îs there any trace of eloquence to öe seen ?
Häbent légibus sanctum, si quis quid dê rê publïcä fämä ac-
cëpërït, üti ad mägisträtum déférat, nêuê cum quo âliö
commünïcet (Caes. B. G. VI. 19), they have ít provided for
by law, that åf any one hear any thing ày report on matters
of state, he shall lagy it before the authorities, and not com-
munîcate it to any other persom.
SI qui gráuiörë uolnêre accepto équö dëcïdërat, circumsistêbant
(Caes. B. G. I. 48), whenever any one at all 8everely wounded
fell from his horse, they formed around him.
* This of course does not prevent the compounds siqui-, nequi-, &c.
from being emphatic.
252 SYNTAX.
1140 In the phrases with Si-qui-, the main sentence has no connect-
ing pronoum, the Si-qui- clause itself performing the office of a
noum : as,
SI quíd est päbüli* obruunt mfuês (Liv. xxI. 37), what fodder
there îs, î8 ôùrîed, vnder the snow.
1141 Alíqui- 8ome, any, is always emphatic, and is opposed to such
words as all, mwch, nome: as,
Vnum äliquem nöminätë (Cic. p. Clu. 66. 185), ^ame some one
or other.
Si nös äd äliquam álícüius commódi álíquando récüpêrandi
spem fortümâ réseruäuit, mínüs est errätum ä nöbis (Cic.
ad Fam. XIV. 4. 1), £f fortune has reserved ws for angy chance
(however small) of recoverîng at any time (however distant)
any thing desirable (ir. the slightest degree), then, our error
has been less.
IEst istuc quídem älïquid, sed nëquáquam ín istö sunt omniâ
(Cic. de Sen. 3. 8), what 3yov say is, Igrant, sometháng, övt
êt by ^0 means includes the whole.
Si uis esse âlîquîdf (Juv. I. 74), §f thow, wishest to be somebody
ἀm the world.
ll42 The substantivet qui-quam and adjective ullo- signify any (if
only one, and no matter what that one may be), and are used in
negative, interrogative, conditional and comparative sentences:
aS
' sinè sóciis nemo quidquam tälë cönätür (Cic. de Am. 12. 42),
without companions no one attempts angy such thing.
Idcircö cápíte et süpercfliis est räsis, ne ullum pilum uîri böni
hábéré dicätür (Cic. p. Rosc. Com. 7. 20), he goes with his
head and his eyebrows shaved, that he may not öe said to have
a sîngle haîr of respectability about him.
IEt quisquam Iünönis mümén ádöret Praetéreà? (Virg. A. I. 52)
and is angy one after this to worship the divinity of Juno ?
* Thus, si quid est pabuli may be considered to be the accusative case
after the verb obruunt.
-f So Juvenal, if we may trust the best and the majority of the Mss.
(Madvig.)—Cicero uses both sum aliquis and sum aliquid.
3: Qui-quam however is at times an adjective, and ullo- at times a
substantive, in speaking of persons : as, qui-quam, Ter. Haut. I. 1 29,
Plaut. Ps. III. 2. 62 ; ullo-, Caes. B. G. 1. 8. 3, Liv. v. 40, Cic. ad Fam.
xIII. 26. l.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 253
1143
1 144.
Num censës ullum ánímal, quod sanguínem häbeat, síné corde
essë possé ? (Cic. de Div. I. 52. 119) mow do 3yow thênk that
any animal that has blood car, evist without a heart ?
Si ullâ mea äpúd tê commendätiö uäluit, haec ut uäleat rögö
(Cic. ad Fam. xIII. 40), f any recommendation of máne ever
had weight with 3/ov, I beg that this may.
Quamdiü quisquam érit, qui të dëfendêre audeat, uiuës (Cic.
in Cat. I. 2. 6), as long as there is a síngle lîvîng öeïng who
dares to defend 3yov, 3yow shall live.
Cuiuís potest accídere, quod cuiquàm potest (Syr. ap. Sen. de
Tranq. Am. 11), that may happen, to every one, which muay
happen to angy ore.
Nihfl est exîtiósius ciuftätïbus quam quidquam ági per uim
(Cic. de Leg. III. 18. 42), nothing ãs more pernicious to a state
tha^ that violence should be resorted to in angy thing.
Qui-piam is used like älfqui- :*
Quaeret quispiam (Cic. in Rull. II. 8. 20), some ome will, ask.
Forsitän álíquís álíquando ëiusmödi quidpiam fëcërît (Cic. II.
Verr. II. 32. 78), perhaps some one will some time or other
have done something of this kind.
Pécüniam si quoipiam fortüna ádémit, aut si álícüiüs érípuit
iniüriä, tämen consölätür hönestäs ègestátem (Cic. p.
Quinct. 15. 49), £f money be taken from any one by misfor-
twne, or wrested from him, ôy the violence of some one, stil!
ἀntegrìty is a consolation to poverty.
Qui-uis and qui-lübet any you please are universal affirmatives,
and may often be translated by ewery one :f as,
Abs quiuis hömíné bénífícium accìpéré gaudeäs (Ter. Ad. II.
3. 1), ome would öe glad to receíve a favoVr from a^gy one.
Mihi quiduis sät est (Plaut. Mil. Gl. III. 1. 155), for me any
thông ìs enough.
Non cuiuis hömini contingít ádiré Cörinthum (Hor. Ep. I. 17.
36), it is mot every man's lot to visit Corinth.
* Except that it has never the meaming of * something important,'
which aliqui- often has.
+ A superlative may often be substituted for them ; as for example
in the following sentemces : * the greatest stranger,* * the least quantity,'
* only the most fortunate.'
254 SYNTAX.
Quem séquar ? Quemlübet, mödo álíquem (Cic. Acad. Pr. II.
43. 132), whom am I to take for my guide ? Any body yow
plea8e, provîded it be Somebody.
1144. l Qui-quë (N. quisqué) every, al/ taken each by ìtself, is opposed
to üníuerso- all wnited as a whole. See examples under § 1057, a,
ô, c.* •
1145 Qui-dam some is used both generally, and in reference to par-
ticular objects which we either cannot or do mot choose accurately
to define. Hence it is often employed to softem some strong me-
taphor or epithet :
Sed sunt quidamt ftä uöce absöni üt ín órätörum númërum
uêniré non possint (Cic. de Or. I. 25. 115), but there are in
fact 80me qf so wnmusical a voîce that they ca^ never be ad-
mitted into the nwmber of orators.
Accurrit quidam, nótás míhí nóminé tantum (Hor. Sat. I. 9. 3),
there rums up a certaìn person known to me by name alone.
Néqué pugnas narrat, quod quidamf fäcit (Ter. E. III. 2. 29),
^or does he talk of his öattles, as a certain person does.
Håbet énim quendam äcüleum contüméliâ quem päti uírí böni
diffîcillúmé possunt (Cic. II. Verr. III. 41. 95), for insult has
in fact a sort of sting in ít, which a gentleman can with the
greatest difficulty endure.
Fuit énim mirífícus quidam im Crassö püdör (Cic. de Or. I. 26.
122), for there vas in, fact in Crassus a bashfulness I had
almost called astownding.
1146 Qui-cunqué is commonly an adjective, and is used in three
ways (of which however the first is by far the most commom): a.
as every one who, in the same way as the ordinary relative is used ;
b. without any antecedent, but so as to admit the insertion of such
words as mo matter before the who ; c. in the sense of some one or
other, the best I can.
a. Quöd érit cumqué uisum, âgés (Cic. de Fin. IV 25. 69),
whatever yow think proper, you will do.
b. Quòcunque in löcö quïs est, idem est ei sensüs (Cic. ad Fam.
vI. 1. 1), wherever a persor. îs, his feelings are the same.
* See also § 349.
+ Here Cicero has no particular persons in view.
£ Here there is a particular person in view, viz. the braggart Thraso.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 255
c. Quae sänäri pötérunt, quäcunqué* rätiönë sänäbö (Cic. in
Cat. II. 5. 11), what parts admit of beáng healed, I will heal
ên the best way I can.
1147 Qui-qui-f is commonly a substantive, and is used chiefly in
the sense of mo matter who, &c. ; but at times as a relative in
grammatical commectiom with the main clause:
Ago grátias, quöquo ánímó fácís (Cic. Phil. II. 13. 33), I thank
$yου, no matter with what feeling yow do it.
Quicquîd auctörïtätë possum, íd omné tíbi pollfceör (Cic. p.
leg. Man. 24. 69), whatever power I possess in my name, 1
promise 3/ow the whole Qf έt.
l 148 The chief constructioms of álio-f one, some, Other, are the fol-
lowing :
Aliùd est mälëdicêre, äliüd accussârê (Cic. p. Cael. 3. 6), ît îs
one thông to abu8e, one to accuse.
Quae mînus tüta èrant, âliâ fossis, âliâ uallis, âliâ turrïbus
müniébat (Liv. xxxII. 5), the parts which were less profected,
he was fortifying, 8ome with ditches, some with palisades,
some with tovers.
Ipsi inter se äliis älii prósunt (Cic. de Off. I. 7. 22), they them-
&elves mutually assist one another. .
Mö quötidie äliüd ex älio impédit (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 19), for
myself, one thing after another hênders me every day.
Equitës älii âliâ dilapsi sunt (Liv. XLIV. 43), the cavalry &lípped
off, some by one route, 8ome by amother.
Iussit äliös álibi födéré (Liv. xLIv. 33), he ordered them to dig,
8ome în ome place, 80me în amother.
Quötannis álium atque älium döminum sortiuntür (Liv. xxxI.
29), they take the chance of the lot every gear, first for one
master, then for amother. *
Tímeö ne áliud crédam atque áliud§ nuntiés (Ter. Hec. v. 4.4),
* Potero might have been inserted.
f The use of qui-qui- in the sense of qui- que is very rare, at any rate
in the best writers.
f That alio- did riot originally meam difference is shown by the fact
that aliqui- is connected with it, and that its other derivative altero- in
itself never signifies difference.
§ This shows the way in which atque alone came to be used after alio-.
256 SYNTAX.
Iam afraid that I am gîvîng credit to one tháng, and 3yow
asserting another.
Longe âlià nóbis ac tü scripsêras nuntiantür (Cic. ad Att. xI.
10. 2), the accounts örought to vs differ wìdely from what 3yow
vrite.
Nön äliùs essem atqué nunc sum (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9. 21), I
should mot have been a different person from what I now am.
Lux longe äliast, sölïs et* lychnörum (Cic. p. Cael. 28. 67), there
ês a wide difference in the light of the sun, and of a lamp.
Lütätiö quae âliâ res quam célérítas uictöriam dédit ? (Lîv.
xxII. 14) what else but rapidity gave Lutatíus the victory ?
Quíd ënim áliud quam admönendi essëtîs ut mörem träditum
ä pätrïbus seruârêtïs ? (Liv. xxII. 60) for what else would
there have been to do but to remind 3yow of the duty qf main-
taînîng a custom handed down by 3your fathers ?
Quîd est dicére áliud, Quia indignos uestrâ uöluntáté creätüri
nön estis, nécessïtätem uóbis creandi quos non uoltis im-
pönam ? (Lîv. VI. 40) what is this but to 8a3y : Sánce 3/ow will
^ot villingly elect unworthy persons, 7 will impose o^ 3yow the
necessity of electing those whom 3yow do ^ot like ?
Rögäuit, numquîd äliud ferret praetèr arcam (Cic. de Or. II.
69. 279), he asked whether he was carrying angy thông else be-
sîdes a chest.
1149 Altéro- is used in the following constructions, being always
limited to one of two, or the second of many : -
Quörum altér exercîtum perdîdit, alter uendîdit (Cic. p. Planc.
35. 86), of whom one has lost, the other has sold an army.
Altérîf dimîcant ; altëri uictörem tïment (Cic. ad Fam. vI. 3.
4), the one party stake all wpon war, the other look with terror
to the conqueror.
Miluo est quoddam bellum quäsï nätürälë cum coruo ; ergo
altér altériüs öuâ frangít (Cic. N. D. II. 49. 125), between the
kite and the crow there is, as it were, a sort of natural war ;
consequently each breaks the other's eggs.
Altérit altërös álíquantum attriuêrant (Sal. Jug. 79), each
mation had considerably reduced the power of the other.
* When et or que are used in these phrases, the things compared are
brought together. A pause too should precede. Atque is not so limited.
f See the note to § 324.
YPRONU)Y[IN AI, AI)YERBS. 257
Vterqué númêrus plënüs, altér altérâ dê caussa hàbëtür (Cic.
Somn. Sc. 2), both numbers are accounted full, the one for
one reason, the other for another.
Omnes quórum ín altërius mämü uitä pösitast (Cic. p. Quinct.
2. 6), all those whose lives are in the hands Qf another.
Tü munc ëris altér áb illo (Virg. Buc. v. 49), thow shalt now öe
ne vt after him.
Ad Brütum nostrum hos librös altéros quinqué mittëmüs (Oic.
Tusc. v. 41. 121), we shall send to our frìend Brutus this
8econd 8et qffive books.
Altérum tantum équîtîbus diuisit (Liv. x. 46), he gave to each
horse-soldier as much again.
1149. 1 Nëmön- no man, mo one, though properly a substantive, is
found with appellations of persons, as némo ciuîs mo citizen, nèmo
Römänüs ^o Roman, némo quisquam no ome whatever, where how-
ever ciuîs, Römänüs, quisquam, may be regarded themselves as
adjectives. In place of the genitive and dative nulliüs and nulli
are preferred.
IPRONOMINAI, ADVERBS.
1150 The pronominal adverbs,* especially by the old writers, were
often used as adjectives in connection with nouns : as,
Téque ibidem peruoluam in lütö (Ter. And. Iv. 4. 38), and I
vili gìve 3yow a good rollìng in the same m^/d.
Quîd ëgö nunc ágam nísi in angülum äliquo äbeam ? (Ter. Ad.
v. 2. 9) what am I to do ^ow, but take myself off into some
quîet cormer ?
Veluit meditátus âlicunde ex sol6 loco (Ter. And. II. 4. 3), he is
just come, after conning his lessor, from some solitary place.
Modo quándam uidi uirginem hic uicîniaef (Ter. Ph. I. 2. 45),
1 just now saw a maidem in this meighbourhood.
Quö tendîtîs inquit ; Qui génüs ; undê dömö ? (Virg. A. vIII.
113) whither haste 3ye, says he ; who ôy race ; from what home ?
Indfdem ex Achaia öriundi (Liv. xxv. 15), sprung from the 8ame
Achaïa.
Indídemne ex Ameriâ ? (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 27. 74) what from
the same Ameria ?
* Those forms of course being selected which accord with the relation
of place expressed in the accompanying phrase.
f Hic uiciniae, both datives. See § 952. Nay in Plaut. Mil. II. 3. 2,
Àic proarumae viciniae, for so the Palimpsest and Mss. C. D.
§
258 §YN^AX.
115 [ Tho relative adverbs, like the relative itself, are often used
without an expressed antecedent : as,
J'ergam quö coepi hoc îtër (Ter. Hec. I. 2. 119), I will continue
this journey of mine to the place I started for.
Si rém seruassem, fúit ubi neg6tiosus éssem (Plaut. Truc. I. 2.
38), f I had saved my momey, I should have had sometháng
to employ m3yself vpor. • -
IEst, dis gratia, únde haec fiant (Ter. Ad. I. 2. 41), there is,
thanks to the gods, the wherewithal to do this.
Vägäri quâ uëlit (Cic. de Or. I. 16. 70), to wander along what-
ever road he pleases.
I 151. 1 The adverbs of all pronouns used logically, especially those
connected with the relative, may refer to antecedents of any
gender or number, so that undé, for example, stands for áb or ex
quö, quâ or quíbüs, quó for fn or ad quem &c., übi for in quö
&c. : as,
Omníbüs undé pétítür, hoc consili dédérim (Cic. ad Fam. VII.
11. 1), to all defendants in, a suit I would gîve this advice.
Pötest fiéri, üt ís undé te audissê dicîs, irátus dixérit (Cic. de
'Or. II. 70. 285), it may be that the persom from whom you
8ay yow heard öt said 8o în anger.
Néqué praeter tê quisquam fuit, übi nostrum ius contra illös
obtînërëmüs (Cic. p. Quinct. 9. 34), ^or was there besìdes
3yov angy one öefore whom we could maìntain owr right against
them.
Hömo ápüd eos quö sê contülit grätiösüs (Cic. II. Verr. Iv. 18.
38), a ^a^ of ìnfluence anno^g tho8e to whom he betook hóm-
8elf.
Omniâ quâ uisüs érat consträta armis (Sal. Jug. 101), all the
ground along which the eye could see was bestrewn, with arms.
WERB.
PERSONS, NUMBER, &c.
1152 The verb agrees in number and person with the agent (or no-
minative), and where it contains a participle, in gender also.
1152. 1 Where there are two nominatives to a verb, the verb either, a.
adapts itself to both, taking the plural form ; or, b. to the nearer
nominative.
PERsoNS, NUMBER. 259
a. Haec mëque égo néqué tü fècîmüs* (Ter. Ad. I. 2. 23), true,
meither I^or 3yow ever acted thus.
Castör et Pollux ex ëquis pugnärë uisi sunt (Cic. N. D. II. 2. 6),
Castor and Polluae appeared fighting on horseback.
5. Et tu ét omnës hömines sciunt (Cic. ad Fam. XIII. 8. 1), 3/ooz
and al/ men, know.
Sënätus pöpülusqué Römänüs intellégit (Gic. ad Fam. v. 8. 2),
the senate and people of Rome perceáve.
Emissae eö cohortes quattuör et C. Annius praefectüs (Sal.
Jug. 77), there vere sent out to that place four battalions and
C. Annîùs a$ governor.
l152. 2 But of course when the compound sentence does not admit of
being brokem up into separate parts, a plural verb is required : as,
Iüs ét iniüriä mätürä diiüdïcantür (Cic. de Leg. I. 16. 44), right
and wrong are naturally distìnguìshed from each other.
1152. 3 The second person, as in English, is often used indefinitely,
where we might also say * a mam.* (See § 1224.)
1152. 4 The third person plural, as in English, is often used indefinitely,
especially with the adverb uolgó promiscuously: as, aiunt they say,
férunt they carry the news about, they report.
1152. 5 The compound tenses formed with fu- are rarely used. When
found beside those with ès- they denote more forcibly precedence
in point of time: as,
Léges, quum quae lätae sunt, tum uërö quae prömulgätae fué-
runt (Cic. p. Sest. 25. 55), both those laws which were passed,
and above all tho8e which (though mever passed) vere duly
advertásed.
Armâ quae fixa in päriëtîbus fuêrant, ea hümI sunt inuentä
(Cic. de Div. I. 34. 74), arms, which had previously been fived
wp on the walls, were fo/nd on the ground.
Nëque álíter Carnütës interfíciendi Tasgetii consílium fuissé
captüros, nëque Eburönës ad casträ uentürös essé (Caes. B.
G. v. 29), but for this (he said) meither would the Carnutes
have conspôred (ae they had done) to put Tasgetius to death,
* It need scarcely be noticed that * we* has a twofold meaning, includ-
ing with the first person sometimes the second person—ego et tu, ego et
vos ; sometimes the third, ego et hic. So also * you' may include several
persons addressed together, tu et tu; or may denote 'you' and * he,' * you'
and * they,' &c.
260 SYNTAX.
^or would the Eburones have been marchîng (as they then.
were) to the camp.
1152. 6 Förem &c. is used in compound tenses by many writers* pre-
cisely as essém is. 3.
1152. 7 The compound tenses made up of fu- with the participles in
túro and endo are used omly in hypothetical phrases: see §§ 709
to 721, and 1214.
INDICATIVE Mood.
1152. 8 The indicative is employed in affirming, denying, and asking
questions. The chief uses of this mood and its several tenses have
been already stated.t Moreover, it is evidently sufficient to point
Out the cases where the other moods are required. Hence all fur-
ther remark upom the indicative is mearly superfluous. EHowever,
it may stillbe usefulto draw special attention to those cases where
error is not umcommon.
1153 Conditional sentences may be divided into two general heads :
1. those which put an imaginary case, the non-existence of which
is implied in the very terms, and which are here called hypothe-
tical, such as, * If he were here, he would tell us,' or * If I had
been ill, I should have consulted the physiciam ;' im which cases
it is clearly implied that * the person spoken of is ^ot present,' that
* I was ^ot ill.* 2. Those suppositions which may be the fact or
mot, so far as the speaker professes to know, as, * If I receive the
letter, I will forward it.' This distinction being understood, it
may be stated that conditional sentences of this second class have
nearly always the indicative; in Latim in both clauses, although
the English language may have the subjunctive : thus,
Erras si id crédîs (Ter. Haut. I. 1. 53), 3yow are ^istaken, ìf 3yov,
öelîeve that.
Perficiétur bellum, si urgëmüs obsessós (Liv. v. 4), the war will,
be finished, if we at once press the besieged.
Si quöd ërat, grandë uas, laeti adférébant ; SI mfnùs éiusmödi
quippiam uënäri pötuêrant, illá quídem certè prò lëpuscülis
câpiëbantur, pätellae pätërae türíbülä (Cic. II. Verr. IV.
* As Sallust, Livy, and the poets, but not Cicero.
f See §§ 451-478 and 575-59].
3 But see below.
INIDICATIVE MIOOID, 261 '
21. 47), ìf any great ve88el fell ίη their way, they brought ít
to hóm with joy ; but if they were wnable to rum down, a^y
thing qf that sort, them at any rate they would catch hâm as a
sort of leveret, a plate, a chalice, a censer.
Apud më siquîd érít éiusmödi, me imprüdente érít (Cic. ad
Att. I. 19. 10), în my writings, £f any thing of the kind eæist,
êt will evist without my knowledge.
Si qui aut priuätüs aut pöpülüs eórum décrétö non stétit, sá-
crífíciis interdicunt (Caes. B. G. VI. 13), ìf any party,
whether an ìndividual or a state, abúde mot by their decision,
they foröid them the sacrífices.
Sét si tu negâris ducere, ibi culpam in te tránsferet (Ter. And.
II. 3. 5), but ífyou refu8e to marry, them he'll throw the blame
o^ ?/o?/.
Grätissümum mihi fëcëris, si ád eum ultrö uênêrîs (Cic. ad
Fam. VII. 21), 3yow will great y oblige me ìf yow will make
the first move and call upon hìm.*
1l54 Often the indicative mood is in the clause of conditiom, fol-
lowed by an imperative, or a subjunctive used as an imperative :
3\S
' si me diligis, postridie kalendarum coena $pôd me (Cic. ad
Att. IV. 12), a8 3/ov love me, dine with me o^, the 8ecord.
Si quícquam inuenies mé mentitum, occîdito (Ter. And. v. 2.
22), êf 3yow find that I have told any falsehood, λί'/ me.
Si itâst, facturus út sit officiúm suum, Fáciat ; sin aliter de
hâc re est eius senténtia, Respóndeát mi (Ter. Ad. III. 5. 4),
£f the fact be that he will do his duty, why let him, do ít ; but
ôf his pwrpose ίη this matter be otherwise, ther, let him, gîve
77?.€ Q172 07? S'?/)€7*.
1155 The indicative mood may be used without si as a condition or
supposition : thus,
Négat quis,f négo ; aît, aio (Ter. E. II. 2. 21), a man. 8a3y8 mo,
I say ^o ; he 8a3y8 3yes, Isay ges.
* It will be here seen that the conjunction may be used with every
tense of the indicative ; yet it is a common assertion in Latin grammars
that the subjunctive denotes doubt or contingency, and that si takes the
subjunctive. «•
f A mark of interrogation is oftem inserted, but is umnecessary.
262 SYNTAX.
1156 So also an indicative mood at the beginning of a sentence often
expresses a concession, as introductory to something opposed : as,
Triumphäuit Sullä dë Mithrfdätë, séd ítá triumphäuit, üt illé
pulsus regnáret (Cic. p. leg. Man. 3. 8), true, Sulla did
triumph over Mithrìdates, but his triumph was of such a
nature, that the other, though defeated, still held royal power.i
1157 So also the double Siué siué has the indicative mood : as,
Hömínes nöbïles, $iuè rectê seu perpëram fäcérë coepêrunt, ín
ütröque excellunt (Cic. p. Quinct. 8. 31), men, qf family,
whether they commence a course qf good or bad conduct, in
eitfier career öecome distinguished.
l158 The doubled forms of the relative,* and those which have
cumquè attached to them, take the indicative : as,
Quidquîd érit, scribës (Cic. ad Att. xiv. 1), whatever it be, Wow
αυῖl/ wróte.
Tu quántus-quantu'sf, níl nisi sapiéntia's (Ter. Ad. III. 3. 40),
3yov, every ínch of 3yow, are nothing but philosophy.
Quamquámst scelestus, nön committet hódie unquam iterum
ut uápulet (Ter. Ad. II. l. 5), öe he ever so great a scowmdrel,
he will not rwn the risk of a second thrashing today.
tut erat, mansúm tamen opórtuit (Ter. Haut. I. 2. 26), no
matter hoω άt was, he ought still to have staîd.
Hoc quöquo ibó mécum érít (Plaut. Aul. III. 3. 1), I will have
t/, is with me wherever 1 go.
Quicumque îs est, ei ìmè pröffteör ÌnÌmIcum (Cic. ad Fam. x.
31. 3), whoever that ma^ may be, I declare myself his enemy.
Dëiötäri cópias, quantaecunqué sunt, nosträs essè dücö (Cic.
ad Fam. xv. 1. 6), the forces of Deiotarus, în their full eae-
tent, I look wpon, a8 owrs.
Qui übícunqué terrärum sunt, íbi est omnë reipublícae prae-
sídium (Cic. Phil. II. 44. 113), and wherever in the world they
are, there is every thing that is to guard the cow^try.
1158. 1 In relative propositions which limit something which is stated
in general terms, the old writers, and even Cicero at times, used
the indicative.
* See § 353-358. . 1 See Addenda.
f Printed in the editions so that the verb wholly disappears ; a com-
mon error in the text of Terence.
INIDIGATIVE MOOD. 9263
Cätönem uërö quis nostrórum örätörum, quI quídem nunc sunt,
légit ? (Cic. Brut. 17. 65), but Cato—who of owr orators, at
least tho8e now lîvîng, ever reads ?
Ex örätöribüs Atticis antiquissùmi sunt, quórum quidem scriptâ
constant*, Périclës ët Alcibiădés (Cic. de Or. II. 22. 93), of
Atheniam, orators the oldest, at least among tho8e whose writ-
ings are authenticated, are Perìcles and Alcibiades.
Quae tîbi mandäui, uëlim cüres, quod#síné tuâ mölestiâ fácéré
pötérîs (Cic. ad Att. I. 5. 8), the$e commissions I would thank
3yow to attend to, a8 far as yow shall öe able without imconveni-
ence to 3yourself.
Tü támen uëlim ne intermittas, quödfëius fâcërë pötéris, scri-
bére ad më (Cic. ad Att. XI. 12. 4), 3/ow however will 1 beg Qf
3yow not cea8e, 80 far a8 3yov have it in 3your power, to write to
77?.€.
Erus, quantum audio, uxöre excîdit (Ter. And. II. 5. 12), mas-
ter, from what Ihear, has lost the char.ce Qf a wife.
Nil locist socórdiae, Quantum íntellexi módo senis senténtiam
(Ter. And. I. 3. 1), there is ^0 room for &tupèdity, to judge
from what I saw just mow of the old man's feelings.f
1159 Sentences which express repeated action have the indicative in
the secondary clause in the best authors : as,
Quum uër essé coepërat, däbat sê lãbórI (Cic. II. Verr. v. 10.
27), at the beginning of every sprüng he gave himself vp to
δυsiness.
Hostës übi âlîquos singüläris ex nàui égrédientis conspexêrant,
impëditös ádóriëbantür (Caes. B. G. IV. 26), the enemy, when-
ever they 8aw angy coming out of a ship by themselves, fell wpor.
them before they could get clear.
Si à perséquendo hostis déterrêrë néquiuêrant, disiectös à tergó
circumuéniébant (Sal. Jug. 50), if they could not deter the
enemy from pursuit, as soon as they were 8cattered, they kept
enclosîng them, on, the rear.
* So the Mss., mot constent. t See § 922, last example.
f In such phrases as : non ego te, quod sciam, tanquam ante hwne
diem uidi (Plaut. Men. II 1. 2. 35), sciam is probably am old indicative
corresponding to inquam ; as it must be in haud sciam an ne opus sit
uidem (Cic. de Am. 14. 51), and in haud sciam an iustissumo triumpho
Liv. Ix. ] 5). It seems not umlikely that an erroneous interpretation of
this sciam led to the use of the subjunctive in the parenthetic phrases,
quod meminerim, &c. (See § 1195.) -
9264 SYNTAX.
Vt cüiusquè sors excîdërat, äläcër armâ cäpiébat (Liv.* xxr.
42), every time the lot qf any one fell out qf the wrn, delighted
he took his arms.
EPISToLARY TENSEs.
1160 The use of the tenses in epistolary writing is occasionally very
peculiar. The letters in ancient Italy being sent nearly always by
private hand, and the roads with the facilities for travelling being
very defective, a long time oftem elapSed between the writing and
the receiving a letter. Hence it was not uncommon for the wri-
ter to make allowance for this interval, and to use those tenses
which were suited to the time when the letter should be read : as,
Etsi nil säne hàbébamf nöui, quod post accìdisset quam dédissem,
ad të Phîlögéni littëras, tämen quum Phîlötimum Römam
rémîtërem, scribendum áliquid ad të fuit, &c. (Cic. ad Att.
vI. 3. 1), although I have ìndeed rothing new that has oc-
curred, at least since I put my last în the hands of Philo-
gene8 for yow, 3yet as I am sending Philotìmu8 back to Rome,
I am bound to write sometháng to yow.
Håóébam acta urbäna usque ad Nönas Martiäs, é quíbüs ìntel-
lêgêbam, omniä pötiùs actum Iri quam dé próuinciis (Cic. ad
Att. vI. 2. 6), I have the proceedings in the city down to the
7th of March, from which I am disposed to infer that the
qvestior, of the provinces will öe postponed sine die.
Littérärum exemplum quäs ad Pompêium scripsi, mîsî tîbi (Cic.
ad Att. III. 8. 4), I enclose 3yow, a copy of a letter I have just
•oritten to Pompey.
1161 Such terms as * yesterday,' * today,' * tomorrow,? * here,* are
avoided for the same reasom. Besides, it was far from the ordi-
nary practice to affix a date of time and place, so that the words
might have been umintelligible.
Püteólis magnüs estf rümor Ptölémaeum esse in regnö. . . .
* Livy is not consistent in this construction. Examples of a sub-
junctive in him are : ubi diarisset (I. 32), quum uidissent (II. 27), quem-
cumque prehendisset (III. 11), sicubi conserta nauis esset (xxi. 50), ubi
semel procubuissent (xxII. 2), ubi conuenissent (xxII. 38).
+ Otherwise the tenses should have beem, habeo, acciderit, dederim,
remittam, est.
i The epistolary tense would have been erat.
IMPERATIVE. 265
Pompêiüs in Cümänum Pärilibus uênit. Misit ad më stá-
tim qui sälütem nuntiáret. Ad eum postridiè mànë ûàdé-
bam, quum haec scrîpsî (Cic. ad Att. IV. 10), we have a strong
^eport down, here that Ptolemny has beer, restored to his throne.
. . . . Pompey arrived at his villa gesterday. He forthwit/,
sent one of his people with his compliments to me. Iam going
to pay hìm a visit this morning.
Puteoli, April* 22. -
Trigintà diës ërant ipsi, qvum has däbam littéras, per quos nul-
läs à uóbis accëpëram (Cic. ad Att. III. 21\, ìt is now evactly
thárty days since I heard from 3/ou.
1162 Such change oftenses occurs chiefly at the beginning and end
of letters, where the writer has it more forcibly impressed upon
him that he is not in conversation. It is also confined for the
most part to those matters which are likely to be affected by the
interval of time that must elapse before the letter is read.
IMPERATIvE.
1163 The chief distinction between the two tenses is seem in §§ 592,
593. The future is chiefly used in laws.
Diuis omnibus pontîfîces, singülis flämînes suntö (apud Cic.
de Leg. II. 8. 20), for the gods in general there shal' be a col-
lege qfpontífices, each separate god Shall have his flamen.
1164 It is also used in the language of wills : as,
Títius filius meus mihi hërës estó (Gaius, II. 179), my son
Titíus shall be my heîr.
1165 It is also used generally in reference to future time, more par-
ticularly if that time be fixed by any condition or otherwise : as,
Vbi nós lauérimus, si uoles lauáto (Ter. E. III. 5. 48), when we
have bathed, bathe £f yov, will.
Quoquo híc spectabit, e6 tu spectató semul;
Si quo hîc gradietur, páriter tu progrédimimof (Pl. Ps. III. 2. 69),
* The Festival of Pales was on the 21st.
f So the Mss., not progrediminor ; and indeed the passage requires
the singular. Moreover Madvig has proved, what Kvarup already main-
tained, that the form in miaor does not exist. That in mino does exist,
and belongs to the singular. See Madvig, Opusc. II. 239.
266 §YNTAX.
Where'er he looks, thither mvst yov look with him ;
Vhere'er he marches, march yow too forward by his side.
Cum uälëtüdíni tuae consüluëris, tum consülïtö näuîgätiönf
(Cic. ad Fam. xvI. 4. 3), whem you have taken measwres for
3your health, then, and ^ot till then take mea8wres for 3your
'vo?yage.
l 166 The present is used in a less auth ritative manner, and is ap-
plied both to the immediate occasiom and to general directions.
Iun6 Lucina fér opem (Ter. And. III. 1. 15), Juno Lucina, aid
me, I implore thee.
Mihi crëdë (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 16. 8), take my word for ît.
Iustítiam cöle et piëtätem (Cic. Somn. Sc. 3), cultívate justice
and affection. -
Vidë quam rem ägas (Ter. Ad. III. 2. 45), have a care what 3yow
are after. sá •
Cäué sis (Ter. E. IV. 7. 29), ög on your guard, fgyov please.
1167 The present of the subjunctive mood is often used as an im-
mediate imperative : as,
Ecférant* quae sëcum hüc attülérunt (Ter. Haut. IV. 4. 23),
'et them brîng out what they brought here with them.
Quod böni dätur, fruärëf dum lícet (Ter. Haut. II. 3. 102), all
the good that offers, enjoy while 3yow, may.
1168 The presents cürä and fäc and the subjunctive uëlim are often
prefixed to a subjunctive of a verb, with or without üt, and so
express more forcibly what might have been expressed by a simple
imperative of the latter verb : as,
Quärë SI quod constîtütum cum pödägra häbes, fäc üt ín álium
diem différâs (Cic. ad Fam. vII. 4), €f then. 3/ov have any
ergagement with the goût, mînd 3yow, put ît off to another day.
Fäc äput te ut siés (Ter. And. II. 4), mind 3yow, have 3yowr vit8
about 3/ow.
* This subjunctive is due to an ellipsis of a verb which is occasionally
supplied : as, Treuiros uites censeo (Cic. ad Fam. vII. l3. 2), * I recom-
mend you to fight shy of the Treviri.'
f Madvig would limit this use of the second person to the cases of a
general nature, where * you' means * amy one.' But he admits that there
are some examples where * you' is used in its definite sense, and himself
quotes from Terence, Si certum est facere, facias ; verum me post cul-
pam conferas in me, * If you are resolved to de it, why do it ; but do not
afterwards throw the blame on me.*
IMPERATIVE. - 267
Cüra ut quam primum uéniäs (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 10), take care
and come a8 80on as yow can.
Tü uëlim änïmö säpienti fortiqué sis (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 12), do
3/ov, meanwhile, Iöeg gyov, act with philo8ophy and firm^ess.
1160 An affirmative in the future oftem expresses a direction with a
confidence that it will be followed : as,
Tu intéreà non cessábis ët eâ quae hâbës instítütä perpöliés
(Cic. ad Fam. v. 12. 10), 3yow, meanwhile will lo8e no time în
gìvìng the last polish to what 3/ow have ín hand.
Siquid accïdërit nöui, fáciës ut sciam (Cic. ad Fam. xIv. 8), âf
any tháng mew occúrs, 3yow, will let me know.
1170 The present imperative is used at times to express a conditiom :
aS,
Tolle hanc öpiniónem, luctum sustülérîs (Cic. Tusc. I. 13. 30),
once put an end to this opînîon, and 3yow will have pwt an
end to all mourning for the dead.
1171 A question may be so asked as to amount to an order : as,
Etiam tácës ?* Egö cäuébo (Ter. Ad. IV. 2. 11), hold 3your
tongwe ; Syrus will be on his guard.
Quin conscendímüsf équös ? (Lîv. I. 57) come, come, let us
mownt oùr horses.
Abìn£ hinc in malám rem cum suspicione istâc, scelus ? (Ter.
And. II. 1. 17) go and öe hanged with 3your su8picions, 3yow
rascal.
Non tu hinc ábis ? (Ter. E. IV. 7. 29) öe off, sir.
1172 Hence in some phrases, such as those just quoted, the present
imperative takes the place of the indicative : as, -
Etiam§ tu hoc respónde, quid istic tibí negotist? Mihin ? Ita
(Ter. And. v. 2.8), answer me this at omce, what busìness have
3yow in that cottage (which 3yov have just left) ? What bu8ìness
have I ? Yes, you.
* Literally * Are you yet silent ?' with a hint that he will soon be
made so.
• f Literally * Why do we not mount our horses ?
f Literally * Are you going ? &c. ; if not, I'll help you.' Pronounce
äbäm, ain.
§ Pronounce étyam, qu'istic, ti and min.
268 .* SYNTAX,
Quin* dîc, quid est (Ter. And. II. 6. 18), come, come, sir, tell me
what ît îs.
Quin tu hoc audi (Ter. And. II. 2.9), come, come, 'isten to this.
ll73 Sentences of forbidding, &c. are variously formed. Na with
the future imperative is used in laws, and occasionally elsewhere:
2,S
' Nocturn* mùlierum säcrifici$ ne suntö, praetér ollâ quae prò
pöpülö ritè fient ; nêue fnftiantö, nîsi üt assölet, Céréri,
Graecö sácrö (apud Cic. de Leg. II, 9. 21), sacrífices by women,
at night there shall be none, save those which are duly made
for the state ; ^or &hal/ they celebrate mysterìes, eæcept as ás
wont, to Ceres, according to the Greek rite.
Eöreà flanté, ne ärätö, Sêmen né iäcftö (apud Plin. xvIII. 77),
αυhen, the north wónd blows, plough ^ot, soω not.
1174 Në with the present imperative is found for the most part only
in the old writers and the poets : as,
Ah më saeui tantöpéré (Ter. And. v. 2. 27), oh, be not in such,
a pa88ion.
Quaeso ánímum né despondè (Plaut. Merc. III. 4. 29), Iprithee
despond not.
Nímium nè crëdë cölöri (Virg. Buc. II. 17), frust ^ot too marc},
to the owtsîde.
l 175 The subjunctive mood is used in forbidding, &c., but generally
in the perfect tense. The use of the Second person of the present;
subjunctive is rare, except when that person is used indefinitely.f
Nihîl ignöuêris, nihil grätiae caussâ fëcëris, mîsêrîcordiâ com-
mótus në SIS (Cic. p. Mur. 31. 65), forgóve nothing (they say),
do nothing to oblíge a frìend, öe proQf agaά^st páty.
Në transiêris Ibërum, né quid reI tîbi sit cum Säguntinis (Lîv.
xxI. 44), cross mot the Eöro (he 8a3y8), have nought to do with
the people qf Sagùntum.
Ne me ístoc posthac nómine appellâssis (Ter. Ph. v. 1. 15), do
^ot call me by that ^ame for the future.
* In this way these two particles, etiam and quin, practically acquire
a mew meaning, just as quidni, * why not,' comes to signify * of course.'
Compare too the secondary meaning of ovkovv arising from its use in
questions.
f These qualifications are from Madvig.
SUBJUNGTIYE. 269
Xê quaeräs (Ter. IIaut. Iv. 4. 23), ask no questions.
Istô böno ütärë dum adsit, quum absit né réquirás (Cic. de
Sen. 10.33), enjoy that blessing while 3/ou have it ; when gome,
gríeve ^ot for ìt.
1176 The verbs cäué, nöli, nólim, are frequently used in negative
requests : as, «-
Cauneäs, ì. e. càué ne eäs (ap. Cic. de Div. II. 40. 84), do not go.
Cäué te essé tristem sentiat (Ter. And. II. 3. 29), take care he
does ^ot perceāve 3/ow are out of spírits.
Cäué dixëris (Ter. Ad. III. 4. 12), sagy it not.
Nólite id uellë quod fièri non pötest (Cic. Phil. VII. 8. 25), do
^ot wish for what ìs ìmpossible.
Hoc nölim më iöcäri pütés (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 15. 4), do not, I
pra3y 3/oV, suppo8e that I am jokông έη this.
1177 The poets have many other imperatives used in negative re-
quests, as fugé, mitté, parcè, &c.
Quid sit fütürum cras, fügë quaerérë (Hor. Od. I. 9. 13), what
shall öe tomorrow, shun, to ask.
Mitté sectări (Hor. Od. I. 38. 3), cease to search.
SUBJUNCTIVE.*
1178 A secondary clause or subordinate proposition is attached to
the maim clause or proposition in four ways : a. by a relative, ό.
by an interrogative, c. by an accessary conjunction, or d. by the
construction called accusative and infinitive.
ll78. l With this subordinate relation must mot be confounded the
relatiom between two coördinate clauses, united by such words as
èt or quë and, or else placed beside each other without any con-
junction. Coördinate propositions are either both maim propo-
sitioms, or both subordinate clauses attached to the Same main
proposition. -
1178. 2 When a secondary clause beginning with a conjunction pre-
cedes the main clause, the Secondary clause is called the prótásís
(putting forward), and the following main clause the öpödösìs
(payment of a debt).
* The chief uses of the subjunctive have already been briefly pointed
out in §§ 487-505 and 594-624.
27() SYNTAX.
1178. 3 The subjunctive is used where a propositiom is put forward,
not as a fact, but as a conception to be spoken of. Hence it is
used in secondary clauses attached to the main clause of a sentence
by a conjunction, or relative, or interrogative : lst, where am ob-
ject is expressed ; 2d, where the assertioms or thoughts of another
than the speaker are stated ; 3d, where that which does not exist
is imagined, &c. But it will be practically more useful to deal
with the separate cases,
] 179 The object* or purpose of an actiom may be expressed by am
imperfect of the subjunctive and the conjunctions üt, quö, qui,
and the relative ; or if the object be prevention, by ut nè, nè,
quómínüs, and quin : as,
Aliis nöcent, üt ím álios libérâles sint (Cic. de Off. I. 14. 42),
they ìnjure some, that they may be generous to others.
Mägis mihi üt incommödet quam üt obséquätur gnätö (Ter.
And. I. l. 135), more to annoy me than to oblige m3y 8on.
Sibi quisqué tendëbat ut përicülö primüsf éuädêret (Liv. xxI.
33), every one for himself was strîvîng to öe the first to get out
of the danger.
Obdücuntur cortîcê truncI quö sint à frigörïbus tütiörës (Cic.
N. D. II. 47. 120), the trunk of a tree is sheathed with bark,
that it magy be safer from the cold.
Verbâ répertâ sunt quae indïcärent uöluntátem (Cic. p. Caec.
18. 53), words were invented to îndicate the wi77.
Gallinae pullos pennis föuent né frigörë laedantür (Cic. N. D.
II. 52. 129), hens warm their chickens with their wings, that
they may not be hwrt by the cold.
Vix mè contineo quIn inuölem in Cäpillum (Ter. E. v. 2. 20), I
with difficuliy restraîn myself from flying at his haîr.
Elëfantös in primam áciem indüci iussit, si quem ïnïcëre eâ res
túmultum posset (Liv. xxvII. 14), he ordered the elephants
to be led änto the first line, in hopes that this manœuvre might
cau8e 8ome confusion.
1180 Hence also verbs of commanding, advising, begging, wishing,
compelling, preventing, permitting, are followed by an imperfect
of the subjunctive, and üt, or the negatives, ut nè, nè, quóminüs,
quin : -
* See §§ 599, 607.
* Prius in the Mss., altered by some to prior.
SUBJUNCTIVE. 271
Allöbrögtbüs impëräuit üt his frümenti cópiam fácêrent (Caes.
B. G. 1. 28), he commanded the Allobroges to 8upply tJiem
with corm.
Mönet üt in rélicum tempüs omnis suspiciönës uitet (Caes.
E. G. I. 20), he advises him for the future to avoid all sus-
pìcìom.
Per te égo deös öro ut me adiüuës (Ter. And. III. 3. 6), by the
gods 1 beg 3yow to a88ist me.
Sinite 6ratór ut sim* (Ter. Hec. prol. II. 2), allow me to be a^
intercessor.
1181 Not unfrequently the üt is omitted before the subjunctive im
short phrases: as,
Sfnë me expurgem (Ter. And. v. 3. 29), allow me to clear myself.
Quö dië Römä te exîtürum pütes uëlim ad më scribäs (Cic. ad
Att. II. 5. 3), I would wish 3yow to write me word what day
3yow think yow shall leave Rome.
l181. l But verbs of wishing, and also prohíbe-, impéra-, sfn-, iübe-,
páti- (r.), and uëta-, are also found with the accusative and infimi-
tive, especially the passive infinitive ; and indeed the last three of
these six verbs are but rarely found with üt.
l182 The resultf is expressed by the subjunctive. This construction
is common after verbs, &c. of accomplishing and happening: as,
Tempérantia ecficit üt appétitiónes rectae rätiönI páreant (Cic.
Tusc. Iv. 9. 22), Self-restraînt effect& this, that the passions
vait wpon, right reasom.
Accídit ut prImus nuntiáret (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 34. 96), it hap-
pened that he was the first to örïng word.
Nunquam accédo quin abs te äbeam doctior (Ter. E. IV. 7. 21),
I never go near 3yow without leavìng gyow the wiser.
Non possunt multi rem ämittére ut nonf plüres sëcum in ean-
dem cälämïtätem trahant (Cic. p. leg. Man. 7. 19), it is
êmpossible for many person8 to lose their property without
draggîng a 8till larger nwmber änto the 8ame calamvity.
* This has been altered to eaeorator sim by those who did not know
that the last syllable of orator might be long in Terence.
f The form fazo is used only parenthetically, and does nv.t affect the
mood of the verb which accompanies it, which is always the future of the
indicative. Faaeo scies, * you shall know, trust me for that.' Tlis imas
been shown by Madvig in the second volume of his Opuscula.
t Non is required where the result is expressed ; ne wouid be wrong.
272 SYNTAX.
Illud tîbi affirmö, si rem istam ex sententiâ gessêris, före üt
absens à multis, cum rédiëris ab omnibus collaudërë (Cc.
ad Fam. I. 7. 5), of one tháng I a8sure 3yow, and that is thìs,
that åf yow carry the matter out satisfactorily, the consequence
will be that even in your absence you will be praised by many,
and when 3yow return, 3you will be lauded to the skies by all.
Tantum öpes crêuêrant, ut möuêre armä, nec Mezentius, néque
ulli álii accölae ausi sint (Liv. I. 3), 80 greatly had their
power increased, that ^either Mezentius mor angy other of their
Wweighbours dared to draw the sword.
l183 With phrases which denote hindrance, opposition, avoiding,
omission, doubt, the subjunctive is preceded by në, quómínüs or
quin, but by the last, only in case there be with the main verb a
negative to express the non-existence of $he hindrance : as, -
Impëdior dölöre änïmi mé plürä dicam (Cic. p. Sulla, 33. 92), I
am prevented by indignation from sayòng more.
Per mé stetit* quo mínus hae fíerent núptiae (Ter. And. IV.
2. 16), it was my fault that this marriage did not take place.
Nëque äbest suspiciö quin ipsë sibi mortem consciuërit (Caes.
E. G. I. 4), ^or is there wanting a suspîcîon, that he was the
αύthor qf hìs owm death. -
IProrsus mihíl ábest quin sim mîserrümüs (Cic. ad Att. XI. 15.3),
absolutely nothèng is now wanting to complete my misery.
Numquidf uis quin äbeam ? (Ter. Ad. II. 2. 39) îs there any
thing else I can do for you before Igo ?
Fàcérë non possum quin ad të mittam (Cic. ad Att. xII. 27. 3),
I canr.ot but send to yov.
Non dübíto quin mirêrê (Cic. ad Att. xvI. 21), I do mot doubt
that 3yow are surpręsed.
Quîd est caussae quin cölöniam in Iänïcülum possint dédücéré ?
(Cic. in Rull. II. 27.74) what reason is there to prevent tìem
from fownding a colony on the Janiculum átself?
1184 Impersonal phrases that signify an addition, &c. are generally
followed by ut and the subjunctive : as,
* Forcellini is inaccurate in making per me stat equivalent to sum in
caussa. The phrase can only be used of himdrances.
f A question is oftem equivalent to a negative. This, or a shorter
£) numquid uis ? was a civil mode of saying * Good bye' (Plaut. Cap, I.
2. 88).
SUBJUNCTIVE. 273
Rêlîcumst ut dé félicftätë paucâ dicämüs (Cic. p. leg. Man. 16.
47), it remains for ws to say a few words o^ good fortune.
Accessit* eo ut milîtës ëius conclämärint päcem sé uellë (Cic.
ad Fam. x. 21.4), there was added to al/ this that his 8oldiery
cried out they wished for peace.
ll85 In the same way üt and the subjunctive often follow the verb
est with or without a substantive or neuter adjective : as,
Sëd est mös hóminum ut nölint eundem plüribus rébüs excel-
lêrê (Cic. Brut. 21.84), but ît îs în fact a habit vith the world
not to allow that the same per8on, ezcels ίη 8everal things.
Wërisîmîlë nön est, ut mönümentis mäiörum pëcümiam antëpò-
néret (Cic. II. Verr. Iv. 6. 11), it is not 7ikely that he valued.
money above the monuments of his ancestors.
Atque ei ne intégrumt quîdem ërat ut ciuibus iürä reddéret
(Cic. Tusc. v. 21. 62), but he had út not even în his power
then, to restore to his countrymen, their rights. f.
1186 Verbs &c. of fearing have the subjunctive, with nè if the ob-
ject be not desired, with üt if it be desired :§ as,
Wëreor me hoc serpat longiùs (Cic. ad Att. I. 13. 3), Ifear tfiat
this will creep further.
Ornamenta métuo ut possim, récipere (Plaut. Curc. IV. 1. 3),
the ornaments I am afraid I shall not be able to recover.
Haud || sànè péricülumst në non mortem aut optandam aut
certê non tîmendam pütet (Cic. Tusc. v. 40. 118), there ís
assured/y ^o risk qf his escapíng from the beliefthat death ás
an object to öe desăred, or at least not to öe feared.
* Accedit is often followed by quod and the indicative, particularly
where the past or present is spoken of. So also adde quod.
f Mihi non est integrum, * the thingis no longer entire ; I have taken
a step in it by which I am committed to a continuance in the same direc-
tion.*
f In such phrases as the preceding a motion of futurity is commonly
implied, and hence it will generally, perhaps in good Writers always, be
found that am imperfect of the subjunctive is alone admissible. Even
in the second sentence the idea is, * It is not likely we shall find that
&c.* It should be observed too, that the subjunctive phrase always fol-
lows.
§ Observe that the Latin inserts a negative where the English has
none, and vice versa.
II , This is an example of a practice common in Cicero, the crowding
negatives in a sentemce.
-* T.
274 8YNTAX.
1187 The quality or quantity is often expressed by the subjunctive
with üt, or the relative, precedea by Some word signifying so or
8uch.
Non tam impéritust rërum ut non sciret (Caes. B. G. I. 44), he
is not 80 ineæperienced, în the world a8 not to know.
Rës ëiusmödi cüiüs exítus pröuídëri possit (Cic. ad Fam. vI. 4),
a matter of such a kind that the óssue qf öt can. be foreseen.
Nëque ënim tu Is es qui quid sis nesciäs (Cic. ad Fam. v. 12. 6),
^or ìndeed are yow the sort of person ^ot to know what ås due
to 3/o?/.
Tantâ pütäbätür ütílítas percîpi ex böbüs, üt eórum uiscéríbus
uesci scélüs hâbërëtür (Cic. N. D. II. 64. 159), 80 highly
valued were the advantages derived from the oae, that to eat
his flesh was deemed an, împîety.
1188 Sometimes the pronominal noun or adverb is omitted in the
Latin, but the subjunctive still retained : as,
Pinäriüs érat uîr äcër et qui nihil in fídé Sícülörum rëpönëret
(Lîv. XXIV. 37), Pinarius was a mar. qf energy, and ^ot one
to rely at all o^ the homowr qf the Sicilians. -
1189 In indefinite expressions the relative preceded by a verb sig-
nifying existence is followed by a subjunctive* : as, &
- Sunt qui censeant (0%c. Tusc. I. 9. 18), there are persons who
think. v.
Inuenti autem multi sunt qui étiam uitam pröfundéré prò
pátriä päräti essent (Cic. de Off. I. 24. 84), and there have
been fownd many who were ready to pour out their very life-
blood for their fatherland. . •
Quîs est quin cernat ? (0%c. Acad. Pr. II. 7. 20) who is there
αυho does not see ?
Euit anteà tempus quum Germänos Galii uirtüté süpërärent
(Caes. B. G. VI. 24), there was formerly a time when, the Ger-
7nans were surpassed in valovr by the Galli.
Est quätënüs ämicítiae däri uéniâ possit (Cic. de Am. 17. 61),
there is a line wp to which friendship magy be îndulged.
Est übi id uäleat (Cic. Tusc. v. 8. 23), there are cases where this
prínciple avails.
* In these sentences the English language cam always employ the
word * there.* -
*
SUBJUNCTIVE. 275
Nullâ dömiis in Sicîliâ löcüples fuit, übi istê non textrinum
instYtuërit (Cic. II. Verr. rv. 26. 58), there was not a wealthy
house in Sicily, but wphat that man 8et vp in it a cloth manu-
factory.
Inuentüs est, scribâ, quidam qui cornicum öcülos confixérit
(Cic. p. Mur. II. 25), there turned wp a certain clerk, who
caught the weasels ^apping.*
1190 There are many phrases apparently similar to these where the
indicative is found, but in most of these it will be seem that the
relative clause is the subject, and what precedes it the predicate :
2\S
9 Quîs illic est qui cóntra me astat ? (Plaut. Pers. I. 1. 13) who
¢s the man 3/onder who stands facing me ?
Here the person alluded to is altogether definite.
Sunt autem multi qui êrîpiunt äliis quód áliis largiantür (Cic.
de Off. I. 14, 43), and indeed those who roö one set of men to
lavish what they thus rob on, another set, are a númerous class.
1191 Sometimes est-qui, sunt-quif are to be looked upon as nouns,
equivalent to nonnêmo, nonnulli, and are then followed by the
indicative : as,
Set ést-quod suscensét tibi (Ter. And. II. 6. 17), but he is an-
^oyed with 3yov, about a certain, matter. -
Sunt-quos currícülö puluërem Olympîco
Collègissé iúvat (Hor. Od. I. 1. 3),
To 8ome on Olympic course to have swept αρ du8t is maddening
70?/.
Sunt-qui Ytâ dicunt impériâ Pisónis súperbâ barbáros nëqui-
uissé páti (Sal. Cat. 19), some do say that the barbarians could
not bear the tyrannical commands of Piso.
Est-übí peccat (Hor. Ep. II. 1. 63), sometimes (the world) goes
wrong.
l 192 After digno-, ídóneo-, apto-, üno-, sólo-, primo-, &c., what is
necessary to complete the predicate is expressed by the relative or
üt with the subjunctive :i: as,
* Literally * pierced the eyes of the crows.'
f Nay Propertius (III. 7. 17) has est-quibus for a dative. Compare
too the Greek eorruvot.
£ But an infinitive also in later writers, as legi dignus (Quint. x. 1. 96).
See also § 1255.
276 SYNTAX.
Ijiuiänae fäbülae non sätis dignae sunt quae îtërum légantür
(Cic. Brut. 18. 71), the plays of Lîvîus do not deserve a second
reading.
Idóneus nön est qui impétret (Cic. p. leg. Man. 19. 57), he is
mot a fit persor, to obtain his request.
Sölüs es, Caesar, cüiüs in uictöriä cécïdërit nëmö nîsi armätüs
(Cic. p. Deiot. 12. 34), yow are the only conqueror, Caesar, ár,
whose victory ^o one fell wnless armed.
1193 After comparatives, quam qui- or quam üt is followed by the
subjunctive : as,
Mäiörës arböres caedébant quam quas ferré cum armis miles
posset (Liv. xxxIII. 5), they were cutting down trees too heavy
for a soldier to carry in, addition to his arms.
Fëröciör örätiö uisa est quam quae häbenda äpud rêgem esset
(Lîv. xxxI. 18), the speech was looked wpo^ as în too hágh a
tome to öe addressed to a king.
Nfmis laetâ rês est uisä, mäiorquë quam üt eam stätim câpère
änïmö posset (Liv. xxII. 51), the 8uggestîor, seemed too de-
lightful and too grand for him, to grasp immediately.
Sénior iam ét infirmior quam ut contentiönem dicendi sustì-
nêret, obmütuit et concîdit (Liv. xxxIII. 2), öeïng ^0^0
advanced in, 3years and too weak to support angy violent effort
in speaking, he suddenly lost his voîce and fel/ to the ground.
1194 A predicate is limited and explained by qui- and the subjunc-
tive :* as,
Peccassé mihi uîdeor qui ä tö discessérim (Cic. ad Fam. xvI.
1. 1), I did wrong, I think, in leaving 3yow.
Satim sánu's, mé qui id r6gites ? (Ter. And. IV. 4. 10) are $yοω
qαῖte ίη your senses to ask me that ?
1195 So also a relative clause with a subjunctive (but not to the
exclusiom ofthe indicative)f is used at times parenthetically : as,
* Quippe qui-, utpote qui-, ut qui-, are also used in this way, but
with greater emphasis. The indicative is found in some writers in these
phrases.
f See § 1158. 1. Many passages are unduly put forward as examples
under this head by both Madvig (§ 364, Amm. 2) and Zumpt (§ 559): a§;
quod sine molestia tua fiat (Cic. ad Fam. xIII. 23), qui modo tolerabili
;gt; sit (Cic. in Cat. Iv. 8. 16), quod suum dici uellet (Cic. II. Verr.
Iv. 16. 36).
SUBJUNCTIVE. 277
Réfertae sunt örätiönes centum quinquägintä, quas quídem
ádhüc inuénérim et légérim, et uerbIs et rébüs illustríbüs
(Cic. Brut. 17. 65), the humdred and fify orations are replete,
at least such of them, as I have hitherto come acro88 and read,
with brilliant langwage and brilliant matter.
Nëque ërat fn exercítü, qui quídem pédestriâ stipendiä fëcisset,
uir factis nöbïliör (Liv. vII. 13), mor vas there a soldier ίη
the arm®, at least of those who had served om, foot, more dis-
tìnguìshed for his deeds.
1196 In indirect questions, î. e. where an interrogative pronoun or
conjunction and verb are attached to some verb or phrase, the
verb following the interrogative* is in the subjunctive : as,
Nätürä dëclärat quid uëlit (Cic. de Am. 24. 88), Vature pro-
claims what &he wishe$.
Tëneo quîd erret, et quîd ágam hábeo (Ter. And. III. 2. 18), I
tvpig what his mistake is, and know what to do.
Ex captiuis cognöuit quo in löco hostium cöpiae consédissent
(Caes. B. G. v. 9), he learnz from the prisoners aohere the
enemy's forces were posted.
Ignöräbat rex ütër eórum esset Orestês (Cic. de Am. 7. 24), the
king knew not which of the two was Orestes.
Ex hoc quantum böni sit fn ämicîtiâ, iüdïcäri pötest (Cic. de
Am. 7. 23), from thês a judgment may be formed, how much
happóness there ἐs în frìendship.
Existit quaestió mum quando ämici nöui uétéribus sint anté-
pönendi (Cic. de Am. 19. 67), there rises the questάor, ®hether
at any time new friends are to be preferred to old friends.
Cum incertüs essem, übi essés (Cic. ad Att. I. 9), öeïng wncer-
tain, where 3/ow were. «
Discent quemadmödum haec fiant (Cic. de Am. 12. 41), they
will learn, how these things are done.
Dübíto am Vénüsiam tendam (Cic. ad Att. xvI. 5. 3), I am at a
loss whether to make for Venusia. -
Cöpias suas, iüdícióné non conduxêrit, än équftum aduentü
prohíbítus, dübiumst (Caes. B. G. VI. 31), whether it was
* Care must be taken not to confound the relative and interrogative.
Scio quid quaeras means, * I know the question you wish to put ;' but
scio quod quaeris, * I know the answer to it.' Compare Ter. And. 11I. 3. 4,
ét quid te ego uelim, ét quod tu quaeris scies.
278 §YNTAX.
from design, that he omitted to collect his forces, or because he
vas prevented by the arríval of owr cavalry, ög dovbtful.
Döleam necné döleam nihil intérest (Cic. Tusc. II. 12. 29),
Φhether Iam hwrt or not hwrt, makes ^o difference.
Id uisö, tüm än illi insániant (Ter. And. III. 3. 3), the object of
my visit is to see whether it öe yow or they that are mad.
Dé puëris quíd ágam, nön häbeö (Cic. ad Att. vII. 19), what to
do with tfie öoys, I know not.
Hanc (pälüdem) SI nostri transirent, hostës expectäbant (Caes.
E. G. II. 9), this (moras8) the enemy were vaìtìng to see whe-
ther owr mem, would cross.*
1197 In the older Writers, and occasionally in Horace and Virgil, an
indicative is found in indirect questions : as,
Si nunc mëmörärë uëlim, quam fidëli änïmo in illam fui, uéré
possum (Ter. Hec. III. 5. 21), ìf af this very moment 7 wished
to mentiom how faithful I have been towards her, I could do
so with truth.
WÎde ut discídit lábrum (Ter. Ad. Iv. 2. 20), see how he has cut
^gy láp open.
Adspîce út antrum
Siluestris räris sparsit làbruscâ räcëmis (Virg. Buc. v. 6),
Aee how the wild labruscaf
Has sprínkled the cave with Scattered grapes.
1198 An interrogative clause sometimes accompanies the phrase quîd
ais, or the imperatives dic, cédö, or the indicative quaesó, bu
without being dependent om them : as, -
Quíd ais£, ubi intelléxeras I'd consilium câpere, cur non díxti
extemplo Pámphilo ? (Ter. And. III. 2. 37) just tell me this :
VVher. 3yow saw that they were going to play that game, why did
3yow, mot immediately tell Pamphilus ?
I)ic§ mihi, pläcetnë tibi édére iniussü meö ? (Cic. ad Att. xIII.
* It has been already noticed (§ 495) that in these indirect questions
there is often an ambiguity whether the existing time or future time be
meant. Compare §§ 594 and 600.
f * A wild vine.'
f The phrase quid ais is also used in expressing surprise at something
heard: as, * What do you say ? surely I misunderstand you,' or * You
don't say so.*
§ This dic mihi, like the conjunction eho, is merely a mode ofimviting
a person's special attention to some coming question. ' The French in the
Bame way use dis-moi.
SUI3JUNCTIVE, 279
21. 4) be so good as to answer me this: Do yov approve of
3your publishing the book without my authority ?
Cédö, quid iurgábit tëcum ? (Ter. And. II. 3. l5) pray, what*
quarrel will he have with gow ? •
Quaesó, quótiens dicendumst tîbi ? (Plaut. Most. IV. 2. 32) hovo
ofter, must Itell yow, prêthee ?
1199 ' The phrase nesciö-qui- is to be looked upon as a trisyllabic
word partaking of the nature of an adjective. Hence there is no
irregularity in the construction with am indicative : as,
Alii nesció-quó pacto obdüruêrunt (Cic. ad Fam. v. 15. 2), others
&o^ehow or other have become hardened.
1200 A similar union accounts for the indicative in such phrases as,
Sálís in dicendó nìmium-quantum* uälent (0%c. Or. 26. 87),
jokes tel7 immenseºy în oratory.
Id mirum-quantum* prófuit ad concordiam ciuïtätïs (Lîv. II.
1), this comduced wonderfully to harmony among the cìtìzens.
Immáné-quantum áními exarséré (Sal. ap. Non.), the mer, fired
αρ beyond all measure.
Reported Speech or Thoughts (OBLIQUA ORATIO).
1201 When the words or thoughts of another are reported and
not in the first person, it is called the obliqua oratio, and all se-
condary clauses, that is, clauses dependent, upon the relative or
upon conjunctions, are in the subjunctive mood. Compare the
following passages :
Sënätü reIqué publícae ègò non dérö, si audacter sententias
dicérë vultis ; sin Caesărem respìcìtìs atque ëius grátiam
8èquômânî, ut süpërióríbus fêcistis tempöribüs, égó mihi
consílium căpiam, méqué sënätüs auctörïtäti obtempérâööf,
I will ^ot be wanting to the senate and the country, fyow are
wìllìng to eaepress your opinions boldly ; but áfyow look to
Caesar, and make his favour yovr objett, as yov have done om.
recent occasions, then. I will take my measures for mg8etf, and
will no* be gwided by the authority qf the senate.
* Still the original phrases must have been, mimium est quamtum
valeant, mirum est quantum profuerit, &c. Compare the Greek phrase
6avpua^rrov öarov.
f See Caesar, B. C. I. 1.
280 SYNTAX.
Sënätü reique publfcae sé non défütürum pollícítur, si audacter
sententias dicérë vêlênt ; sin Caesărem respíciant atque èius
grätiam 8èquantùr, ut süpërióríbus fëcërint tempöribus, sà
8δί consílium captúrum néqué sënätüs auctörïtäti obtempó-
rätürum, he promise8 that he will not be wanting déc.
l202 Or the tenses might be thrown into past time (which is more
commonly used) by writing pollïcëbätür or pollícítüs est, uellent,
respícérent, séquérentür, fëcissent.
1202, 1 In the obliqua oratio, as compared with the directa oratîo, the
changes are as'follows :
The main tenses, which are indicatives im the original speech,
are changed to the accusative amd infinitive.
Imperatives are changed to imperfects of the subjunctive.
Subjunctives remain subjunctives. v*
I)irect interrogatives in the indicative are changed to the ac-
cusative and infinitive, provided the person was either the first or
third ; but if it was the second person, them the subjunctive is
required.*
With regard to the tenses, imperfects remaim imperfects, and
perfects remaim perfects ; but which of the imperfects or perfects
is to be preferred, depends upon the tense of the indicative verb
to which the whole is subjoined.
The pronouns ho- (in its original sense) and isto- have no place
in the obliqua oratio, any more tham égö, tü, nös, uós, &c. Illo-
commonly supplies the place of the second person. See Sal. Jug.
cc. 61, 62, 64, 65, 77.
All this however does not prevent the use of the indicative
mood in the midst of the obliqua oratio, where the writer chooses
to say something of his oWm.
1203 Sometimes the obliqua oratio is introduced by a verb of recom-
mending &c. with the subjunctive mood, and this is followed by
an infinitive ; before which in the English some word signifying to
8@@ must be inserted : as,
Censébant ut noctu fter fácèrent, possé priüs äd angustias
uêniri quam sentirentür (Caes. B. C. I. 67), they recom-
■mended that they 8hould march. δy might, observing that they
7máght make their way to the pass before they were perceived.
* See Madvig's Opuscula, vol. ii. p. 208.
SUBJUNCTIVE. 281
1204 At other times the obliqua oratio is introduced by a verb of
saying, &c. with the infinitive mood, and this is followed by a
subjunctive ; before which in the English some word signifying to
recommend &c. must be inserted: as,
Döcent sui iüdici rem nön essé; proinde häbeat rätiönem pos-
têritâtîs (Caes. B. C. I. 13), they point out that åt is mot a
matter for them to decide upor, and they recommend him
therefore at once to consîder the consequences.
1205 Without a formal use of the obliqua oratio, a verb in a depend-
ent clause may be in the subjunctive mood, when it expresses the
thoughts or words or alleged reasons of another.
Aristides, nonne öb eam caussam expulsust pátriá, quod praeter
mödum iustüs esset?* (Cic. Tusc. v. 36. 105) Arìstìdes again,
was he not driven from his country on the very grownd that
he was ju8t beyond measύre ?
Fäbiö dictâ diés est, quod lëgätüs in Gallos pugnasset (Liv. VI.
1), notice qf trial was gêver. to Fabius, for having fot'ght
against the Galli vhen, amba88ador.
Aedem deö Iöui uöuit, si eö dië hostes füdisset (Liv. xxxI. 21),
he vowed a temple to the god Jupiter, éf he rowted the enemy
that day. •
1206 In these cases the power of the subjunctive may be expressed
by inserting such words as they Said or they thought: for example,
in the last sentence but one the English might have been, * be-
cause he was just they Said beyond measure.”
1207 Sometimes the verb to say orthink is expressed in these phrases,
and umnecessarily put into the subjunctive mood: as,
Illé pétérë contendit ut rélinquérétur, partim quod märë tímé-
ret, partim quod religiönibüs impëdiri sësë dicëret (Caes.
IB. G. v. 6), the other zealously entreated to be left behênd,
partly because he was afraid qf the sea, partly because he was
prevented, he 8aid, by religiows 8cruples.
* The subjunctive mood may be thus used, when the writer speaks of
a feeling which moved himself at a former time: as, Mihi Academiae
consuetudo mom ob eam caussam solum placuit, quod . . . ., sed etiam quod
esset ea maaruma dicendi eæercitatio (Cic. Tusc. II. 3. 9), * For myself the
practice of the Academy pleased me, not merely becau8e . . . ., but also
because it afforded the best exercise in speaking.' (Madvig).—Occurrebant
(mihi) colles campique et Tiberis et hoc caelum, sub quo natus educatusque
essem (Liv. v. 54).
282 |SYNTAX.
Here ámpediretur would have expressed the same, though less
forcibly ; on the other hand, timeret might have been translated;
* he was afraid, he said.?
Cum Hannibălis permissu exisset dê castris, rédiit paulö post,
quod se oblitum nesciö-quid dicêret (Cic. de Off. I. 13. 40),
after leaving the camp with Hannibal's permission, he returned
&hortly after, because he had forgotten something or other, he
saîd. -
Lëgätos suos multi dé próuinciâ décèdéré iussêrunt, quöd illó-
rum culpâ sé mínus commöde audire arbíträrentür (Cic. II.
Verr. III. 58. 134), many (governors) have directed their lieu-
tenant8 to leave a provìnce, because through the misconduct of
these lieutenants they themselves, they thought, had got a bad
72Q777?6.
Quem qui réprendít, ín eô réprendit, quod grätum praeter
mödum dicat essé (Cic. p. Planc. 33. 82), and he who cen-
sùres hóm, censures him for beìng, he says, grateful beyond
77®€(£S?/7*e,
1208 It has been Said above that the subjunctive is used in speaking
of that which does not exist. Thus, what is denied is in the sub-
junctive after a conjunction : as,
Istos tantum äbest üt ornem*, üt ecfìci non possit quin eös
ödérim (0%c. Phil. xI. 14. 36), so far from complimenting
tho8e persons 3yow speak of, I cannot be prevented from hating
them.
Tantum àbërat ut binos scribêrent, uix singùlos confécérunt
(0%c. ad Att. XIII. 21. 5), 80 far from copyimg two sets (of the
work), they with difficulty completed ome.
Pügílés in iactandis caestíbüs ingémiscunt, non quod döleant,
sed quiä pröfundendâ uöce omnë corpüs intendítür (Cic.
Tusc. II. 23. 56), the bozer în throwing out the caestus vtters
a groan, not becau§e he is in pain, but because άγ sending out
the voîce every muscle in the body is straîned.
Nön eó dicö quö mihi uéniat in dübium tuâ fîdés (Cic. p.
Quinct. 2. 5), I do not say this because 3your word ìs doubted,
by me.
Mäiöres nostri in döminum de seruö quaeri nöluérunt, non
* The rule applies of course to ormem, not to the other subjunctives
in this sentence. •
SUBJUNCTIVE, 283
quiâ non posset uërum inuéniri, sed quiá uídëbätür indig-
num essé (Cic. p. Mil. 22. 59), our ancestors were unwilling
that evidence should be drawn by torture from a slave against
his master, mot because the truth could ^ot öe got at, övt be-
cause (ín this case) there seemed to öe sometháng degrading.
Non quin confidërem dilígentiae tuae (Cic. ad Fam. xvI. 24. 1),
^ot that I in any way distrusted 3your carefulne88.
1209 Another example of the subjunctive employed in speaking of
what does not exist, is seem in hypothetical* sentences, both in the
clause of condition and the clause of consequence. These sen-
tences are conveniently divided into present and past.
a. Hoc nec sciö, nec SI sciam, dicëre ausim (Liv. praef.), this
ôn the first place I do not know, and 8econdly, f I did know,
I should ^ot venture to say.
Tü si hic sis, álíter sentiäs (Ter. And. II. 1. 10), 3yow, 3yourself,
£f3yow were în my situation, would feel differently.
b. Quid fáciam, $i furtum fëcërit ? (Hor. Sat. I. 3. 94) what
should I do, were he to commit a theft ?
c. Nonné säpiens, si fäme ipsë confîciätür, abstülérit cibum
altëri ? Mìnùmê uërö (Cic. de Off. III. 6. 29), would mot a
wise man, $f he were himself on the point of being starved,
rob some other Qffood ? Assured/y not.
d. Id si accîdërit, Simüs armäti (Cic. Tusc. I. 32. 78), £f that
were to happen, we should be ready armed.
e. Si frätër esset, qui mägis mörem gérèret ? (Ter. Ad. Iv. 5.
74) if he had been a brother, how could he have been more
oblìgì^g ? *
f. Si quis hoc gnató tuo Tuös séruös faxetf, quálem habére
* See above, § ll53 and §§ 496, 497, 498.
f That faaeit is inadmissible here, even Madvig would allow, although
he denies the existence of the word faaeem. Moreover the explanation
of the form faaeo given in § 566 is confirmed by a line in the same scene,
Pol si ístuc faaeis, haú sine poena féceris ; for the law of the Latin lan-
guage requires that the two verbs should here be in the same tense (see
Madvig's own Gr. § 340, obs. 2), and the difference of form is agreeable
to a peculiarity of the iambic senarius, which, while it admits contracted
forms in the middle, prefers the uncontracted at the close of the line, as
periclum and periculo, Plaut. Cap. III. 5. 82 ; morit and nouerit, Ter.
And. Prol. 10; sit and sies or siet, And. II. 5. 13, Haut. III. 1. 47; fac
generally, but face at the end, And. Iv. 1. 56, v. 1. 2 ; besides a large
number of words which are commonly monosyllabic in pronunciation ex-
cept in the last place, as mihi, And. IV. 4. 4, Haut. III. l. 101. Madvig's
284 [SYNTAX.
grátiam ? (Plaut. Cap. III. 5. 54) £f any slave of yours had
done the same for 3/owr 8on, what would 3yowr gratitude have
beem, like ?
Si hás infmicytias cäuéré pötuisset, uiuëret (Cic. p. Rosc. Am.
6. 17), éf he had been able to guard against the enmity of
this parfy, he would have been now alive.
g. Absque eö esset, recte égo mihi uidissem (Ter. Ph. I. 4. 11), £f
út had not been for him, 1 should have taken, good care qf
my8elf.
Régnumne hîc tu p6ssides ? Si p6ssiderem, ornátus esses éx
tuis uirtútibus (Ter. Ad. II. 1. 21), are you lord paramount
here ? If I had been, yow should have had a dressîng such
a8 3/o^/r special merits deserve.*
h. Nécassem tê uerbéríbus, mîsi—irätüs essem (Cic. R. P. I.
38. 59), I should have flogged gyow to death, f I had ^0t—
put my8elf in a passior.
IOélétùs exercîtus föret, nI fügientIs siluae texissent (Lîv. III.
22), the army would have been arwnìhìlated, had not the woods
covered them ín their fight.
1210 It will be seen that in hypothetical sentences with the present
tenses (whether imperfect or perfect), the condition, though not
fulfilled at the present moment, is not an impossibility, for it may
yet perhaps be fulfilled.
121l The past tenses in hypothetical sentences (both imperfect and
perfect) allude to past time, or at any rate to an obstacle in past
time affecting the present state of things. In either case it is
now too late to alter matters ; and therefore these tenses oftem
imply not only the non-existence of a state of things, but also
impossibility.
1212 The tenses in hypothetical sentences are determined in the
usual way. If the imperfect be used in the conditional clause,
the notion of the verb is not completed before that in the clause
view is, that faaeo and such forms are the equivalents of the Greek tvyov,
τραέω, and consequently simple, not perfect futures. See his Opuscula,
vol. ii. p. 60, &c. This is clearly wrong.
* It should be remembered that in the obliqua oratio the subjunctive
will be found after si, even when the construction is not that which we
have called hypothetical, but the ordinary sentence of condition, which
in the directa oratio would be in the indicative.
SUBJUNCTIVID.. 285,
of the consequence. On the other hand, a perfect tense in tho
conditional clause generally* denotes an action completed before
what is expressed in the clause of the consequence. As regards
the past tenses of hypothetical sentences, in the clause of the con-
sequence the past-imperfect is used to denote a continued state of
things, or Something not yet completed, whereas a single occur-
rence is expressed by the past-perfect.
1213 Thus the general construction of sentences containing the word
£f, is, that the hypothetical, î. e. those which put a case, the non-
existence of which is implied, have the subjunctive in both clauses,
while in other cases the indicative is required in both clauses.
1214 The apparent exceptions to this rule are for the most part to
be explained by the sentences being elliptical. Thus in hypothe-
tical sentences the participles in túro and endo are oftem found in
the clause of consequence ; and, if SO, always attended by an in-
dicative : as,
Si mé triumphärë prohibèrent, testis cïtätürusf fui rërum à
më gestärum (Liv. xxxVIII. 47), £f they had attempted to
prevent my triumphing, I should have called up witnesses of
my achievements.
Illi ipsi qui rémansérant rélictüri ägrös érant, nîsî littëras mi-
sisset (Cic. II. Verr. III. 52. 121), even, those who had remained
öehênd vovld have abando^ed the lands, íf he had not 8ent
tfie letter.£
Quid quod si Andränödörö consîliâ pröcessissent, Hêracléae
cum cëtêris fuit seruiendum§, may, £f the plans of Andra-
^odorus had succeeded, Heraclea mu8t have become a slave with,
the rest of the people.
SI priuätüs esset, tâmén ad tantum bellum ïs ërat dêlîgendüs
* This word is inserted with a view to such a sentence as, Id si fecisses,
per mihi gratum fecisses, where howeverthe real consequence is expressed
in pergratum, * I should have been greatly your debtor.*
f Literally * I intended to call them,* for which our translation sub-
stitutes, by no very violent inference, * I should have done so.' The lat-
ter literally translated would have been citauissem.
£ That is, * They were preparing to leave, amd' (though, the author
omits expressly to say so) * mo doubt would have done so.'
§ This passage occurs in Liv. xxiv. 26, with the alterations required
by the obliqua oratio, viz. sibi and fuerit in place of Heracleae anę fuit.
Compare a similar change in the same chapter of the phrase, Si affugium
patuisset im publicum, impleturae urbem tumultu fuerunt. .
286 SYNTAX,
(Cic. p. leg. Man. 17. 50), ôf he had been in a private statior,
8till for 80 8erìo?28 a war he was the man, who ought to have
been, 8elected.
1215 A similar explanation accounts for the following phrases :—
Ni métuam pätrem, hábeo quod möneam pröbè (Ter. And. v.
4. 15), f I were ^ot afraid of my father, 1 could gîve hîm an,
earcellent* hîmt.
Id ëgö, si tü nêgês, certò sciof (Ter. Haut. IV. 1. 19), even êf
3yow were to den3y this, I know it for certaìn (and consequently
3yowr deníal of it would be fruitless).
Admönëbat mê rês üt intermissiónem ëlöquentiae déplórärem,
mi uërërer në dë me ipsö uïdërer quéri (Cic. de Off. II. 19.
67), I was rem inded by the matter öefore ws that I ought to
lament the disappearance of eloquence from among us ; a^d
Showld have yielded to the suggestior, had I^ot feared that I
might be thought to be wrgîng a merely personal complaόnt.
SI per Métellum lîcîtum esset, mätrës illórum, uxöres, söröres
uéniébant (Cic. II. Verr. v. 49. 129), their mothers, víves,
sisters were cománg (and would actually have come), §f Me-
tellus had permitted.
Multâ mê dehortantür à uöbis, nI stüdium reipublícae sùpéret
(Sal. Jug. 31), many consîderation8 di88uade me from trow-
ölìng gov, (and they would probably prevail), €f my love for
my country did ^ot outweigh them.
Pons íter paene hostíbus dédit, ni ünus uir fuisset (Liv. II.
10), the bridge all but offered a passage to the enemy, (a^d
vould have done 80 completely,) had ìt ^ot been for one brave
77 0077?.
Quod ni pröpéré pernötuisset, haud multum áb exftiö lëgäti
àbérant (Tac.f Ann. I. 23), and åf this had not 8peedily be-
come generally known, (they would have put an end to the
?ieutenant-general, for even, as it was), they were not far from
&o doìng.
* Literally * I have am excellent hint to give, and but for the reason
assigned I would give it.'
f Of course * my knowledge' is in no way conditional upon * your
speaking the truth or not.'
£ Tacitus abounds in this construction: see in the very same chapter,
.ferrum parabant, ni . . . . interiecisset.
|§UBJUNCTIVE. 287
1216 Such sentences as the following are mere instances of ordinary
exaggeration forthwith corrected*:—
Më truncüs illapsus cërëbrö Sustülérat, nîsî Faunüs ictum
Dexträ, léuasset (Hor. Od. II. 17. 27), Horace a trunk down,
glîdîng on his skull had carried off, (or at least would have
done so), had not Faunus with his hand lightened the blow.
1217 The verbs of duty and power, already expressing in themselves
what is less forcibly implied in the subjunctive mood, generally
retain the terminations of the indicative in hypothetical sentences:
8S
' IIunc pätris löcö, si ulla in tê piëtäs esset, cölêrê dêbêbâs (Cic.
Phil. II. 38.99), this man 3/ov, ought to have respected as a
father, áfgyov, had had angy affectìon ìn, yov.
Consül essë qui pötui, nísi hunc uitae cursum ténuissem ä
puêrîtiâ ? (Cic. R. P. I. 6. 10) how could I have been consul,
£f I had not kept strictly to this course of life from my öoy-
hood ?
1218 In the same way the verb * to be? in the indicative is accom-
panied by adjectivesf, and occasionally substantives, when the
hypothetical form of the sentence might have suggested the sub-
junctive : as,
Longumst SI tîbi narrem quamóbrem id fáciam (Ter. Haut. II.
3. 94), it would be tedious £f I were to tell 3yow why I do so.
Aequiüs érat id uöluntätë fiëri (Cic. de Off. I. 9. 28), it would
have been, öetter íf it had been, done willingly.
Nonné fuit sätius tristis Amáryllídís iras Atqué süperbä päti
fastidiá? (Virg. Buc. II. 14) had it not öetter been Amaryllis'
bitter wrath and haughty whìms to brook ?
Quantö mélius fuératf in höc prömissum pátris nön essé seruä-
tum ? (Cic. de Off. III. 25. 94) how much better would êt have
been, £f in his case his father's promise had not been kept ?
1219 The conjunctionim hypotheticalsentencesis sometimes omitted,
as in English ; but in this case the verb is commonly placed first :
a8,
* It should be observed, that in sentences of this character the nisi
or si commonly follows.
f Particularly adjectives of propriety.
£ The past-perfect tense in place of a simple perfect is common in
Buch phrases, and also with the verbs of duty and pówer.
288 SYNTAX,
Röges mé, nihil fortassé respondeam (Cic. N. D. I. 21. 57), opere
3yow to ask me, I &hould perhaps make no answer.
Därës hanc uim Crasso, in förö saltäret (Cic. de Off. III. 19.75),
had yow offered this power to Crassus, he would have danced
in the forum.
1220 Very frequently the conditional clause is omitted : as,
Stärë pütës, ädeó pröcëdunt tempörä tarde (Ov. Trist. v. 10. 5),
3yoυ σουld think (ìf 3yow were here) that time was standing
still, 80 slowly does it advance.
Reos dicérës (Liv. II. 35), 3yov, would have said they were or.
their trial (had 3yow, been there).
Hoc confirmäuérim, ëlöquentiam rem ünam esse omnium dif-
fîcillümam (Cic. Brut. 6. 25), this I would maìntain (if there
vere occasio^), that eloquence is the one thing of all most dif-
*îcult to attaón. .s
1221 Thus, màlim I should prefer, nölim I should be wnwìllìng, uëlim
1 should wish, are modest expressions, not partaking of the rude-
ness of málo I prefer, nölo I apon't, uölo I însîst ; while mallem,
nollem, uellem, signify I should have preferred déc., and refer either
to past time, or to what is now impossible. Hence,
Nollem* factum (Ter. Ad. II. I. 11), I wish it had mever been
done, i. e. Iöeg yowr pardor.
1222 The consequence also is at times omitted : as,
O si Sub raströ crépét argeuti mihí sériá (Pers. II. 10), oh, £f
^eath the harrow a jar of silver were to crack for me.
1223 The consequencet again is generally omitted im sentences con-
taining quásí as ìf, or equivalent words: as,
Quäsî uërö consíli sit rës (Caes. B. G. vII. 38), as £f forsooth
zt were. matter for deliberation. •
Më iüuat, uëlut si ipse in partê lãbóris fuérim, ad finem belli
peruênissë (Lîv. XXXI. 1), I am delighted, a8 though, I had,
m3yself shared the toìl, to have arrived at the close of the war.
* Literally * I should have wished it not done.' The suppressed con-
dition may have been, Si optando potuissem quae facta sunt infecta red-
dere. Nolim factum would signify, * I should be sorry to have it done.'
* Thus im the second sentence the fuller form would have beem, * I
am us much delighted as I should have been if &c.'
SUBJUNCTIVE. 289
Iius cr(ìdélitátem, uélut si cöram ädesset, horrébant (Caes. B.
G. I. 32), they kept shudderîng at this man's bloodthirstìness,
as though he had been present.
Sic quaestör est factus, quam si esset summö löcö nätüs (Cic.
p. Planc. 25. 60), he was made quaestor with the same facility,
a8 f he had been born, in the highest station.*
1224 When the second personf is used to denote generally one, a
man, the subjunctive commonly enters into secondary clauses,
whether preceded by a relative or conjunction : as,
In excîtandö plürümum uälet, si laudés eum quem cohortörë
(Cic. ad Fam. xv. 21. 5), în rousìng to action, the greatest
effect ìs produced, f one praïses the per8on, whom one is en-
cowragírg.
Pömus segnior fit, übi neglëgäs (Sal. Jug. 31), the good ^^a^
becomes less actìve, when yow neglect hóm.
Tantum rémänet, quod rectè factis consécütus Sis (Cic. de Sen.
19. 69), that only is left behind, which a man has obtained by
good deeds.
1225 Secondary clauses which are attached to clauses in the sub-
junctive or infinitive mood and form am essential part of the idea
therein expressed, are themselves in the subjunctive mood : as,
SI lücé quóqué cänes lätrent, quom Deos sälütätum âlîqui
uênêrint, his crürä suffringantur, quöd äcres sint quom
suspició nullâ sit (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 20. 56), ìf eve^ în the
light dog8 avere to öark, when, angy person& come to a temple to
offer their prayers, they would have their leg8 broken for being
so watchful when there is ^o ground for suspìcìon.
1226 Hence verbs of promisîng and threatening, inasmuch as they
express in ome word * the saying that something will be done', take
a subjunctive of the condition : as,
Praemium pröpösuit, qui£ inuênisset nöuam uöluptátem (Cic.
*. See § 499. In the four examples here given the tenses in the in-
dicative mood with a negative would have beem respectively, consili res
Tom est, in parte laboris non fui, non aderat, non erat summo loco natus.
Thus it is only the mood that is here altered by the hypothetical form of
the sentence.
f This remark is from Madvig.
3. For the omission of the antecedent ei see § 1126.
lU
2{}() SYNTAX.
Tusc. v. 7. 20), he promised a reward to the man, who should
find a new pleasure.*
1227 By the omission of the governing verb the subjunctive appears
to carry with it a meaming which really belongs to that verb.
a. Possibility, pötest esse üt understood. This construction
however is very rare umless some such word as forsitäm, forsän,t
accompany the subjunctive: as,
Vëlim dës ëpëram, quod commödö tuö fiat (Cic. ad Fam. XIII.
27. 3), I would beg yow to gîve 3your assistamce, 80 far as magy
be done without ìnconvenience to you.
Me míseram, forsan hîc mihi paruam habeãt fidem (Ter. E. I.
2. 117), alas, maybe my fríend here may have little faótfi ίη
???.€.
Nímium forsitäm haec illi mirentür (Cic. II. Verr. IV. 56. 124),
those people may perhaps admire the8e thángs overmwch.
Nëque id fácio, ut forsîtan quibusdam ufdear, sfmülätiönë (Cic.
ad Fam. I. 8. 2), nor do I do this, as some perhaps may think,
ôy way of make-believe.
b. Permission and concessiom, such a verb as sín- permit, or
cêd- grant, being umderstood: as,
Fruäturj: Sáne hoc söläció (Cic. de Prov. Con. 7. 16), let him
enjoy forsooth this consolation.
Vt§ désint uires, tämén est laudandä uöluntas (0v. Pont. III.
4.79), thowgh strength be Jantìng, praiseworthy still the will.
Fuêrit cüpfdus, fuérit, irátus, fuérit pertînax, scéléris uërö cri-
míné líceat mortuö cärërë (Cic. p. Lig. 6. 18), he may have
been ambitious, he magy have been revengeful, he may have
been obstinate ; but the charge qf impìety at angy rate allow
him, now that he is dead, to öe clear qf.
Vt ënim, cétèrä päriâ TubërönI cum Wärö fuissent, hoc certê
* See § 503.
* The an at the close of these words is no doubt identical with the
Greek av ; but as this takes the form kev in Homer, we probably have
in it only a variety of our verb can. Compare our mag-be and the
French peut-étre. Moreover the root can was not a stranger to the Latin
language, for it virtually occurs in the old form ne-quin-ont for nequeunt.
f Observe that the concessive tenses nearly always commemce a clause,
unless modo or dum accompamy them.
§ * Even granting that.'
SUBJUNCTIVE. 291
praecîpuom Tubërönis fuit (Cic. p. Lig. 9. 27), for even.
allowing that every thing else had been shared by Tubero with
Varus, this at least wa8 the peculiar qualificatior, Qf Tubero.
Sit clärus Scipio, ornëtür exîmià laude Afrïcämüs, häbeätur uir
êgrégius Paullus, sit aeternâ glóriä Märiüs, antëpönätür
omníbus Pompêiùs, ërit pröfecto intér hörum laudës älj-
quid löcI nostrae glöriae (Cic. in Cat. Iv. 10. 21), let Scipio
öe renowned, let Africanus öe covered with especial glory, et
Paullus be accounted a great man, let Marius enjoy eternal
fame, let Pompey take precedence of all, 8till there will assur-
edly be amód the glories qf these men, some room for our fame
also.
Ne sit summum mälum dölor, mälum certe est (Cic. Tusc. II.
5. 14), grantìng that pain, i8 not the greate8t evil, am, evil, ìt
certaînly ìs. •
Mänent ingéniâ séníbus, mödö permáneat stúdium (Cic. de
Sen. 7. 22), the ántellect remains with the aged, provided only
there stùl remain, energy. ę •
Seruös est nëmö, qui mödö tölérâbîli condícióné sit seruîtütis,
qui nön audäciam ciuium përhorrescat (Cic. in Cat. Iv. 8.
16), there is not a sîngle slave even, %f his posîtîor, as a slave
be but tolerable, that does mot shudder at the audacity of men,
vho call themselves cìtìzens.
Id quoque possum férre, módo si reddat (Ter. Ad. II. 1. 51),
that also I can put up with, provided only he pay.
Tá fors quid me fiat parui péndis, dum illi cónsulas (Ter. Haut.
IV. 3. 37), you perhaps care little what becomes of me, provîded
only yow secure yowr master there.
Hömfnes, quamuís* in turbídis rébus sint, tâmén interdum
änïmis rélaxantür (Cic. Phil. II. 16. 39), men, allowing that
they are in circumstances as troubled a8 3yow plea8e, still at
times wnbend.
c. Indirect interrogative, rögäs understood: as,
A. Quid fécit ? B. Quíd illé fécérit ? (Ter. Ad. I. 2. 4) A. What
has he dome ? B. What has he done, ask yow ?
d. Wishing, uis, précör, &c. umderstood : as,
* The poets, together with Livy and later writers, use quamuis with
an indicative, and vice versa quanquam with a subjunctive: as, quamuis
est rustica (Virg. Buc. III. 84), quanquam moueretur (Liv. xxxvi. 34).
292 SYNTAX.
Quid fáciam ? (Ter. E. I. I. 1) what would yow, have me do ?
Quid fâcërem ? (Ter. E. v. 1. 15) what owght I to have done ?
Valeant qui intér nos discidiúm uolunt (Ter. And. IV. 2. 13),
farewell to those who ônsist wpom tearîng ι8 aswnder.
Në uiuam si id tîbi concèdö (Cìc. ad Fam. vII. 23. 4), may I
die if I grant yow that. -
Dispéream ni Submossés omnis (Hor. Sat. I. 9. 47), may I be
αtterly destroyed, ìfthow, wouldst not have made the whole of
them move off.
Atque ità me dí ament út ego nunc non tám meapte caúsa
Laetór quam illius (Ter. Haut. IV. 3. 8), and so may heaven,
Zove me, as Iam delighted now not so much on my own account
as on hìs.
e. Demanding, postülant ? &c. understood: as,
Tu üt unquam tê corrigäs! (0%c. in Cat. I. 9. 22), you ever cor-
rect yowr8elf/
Hícine ut tibi respóndeat! (Ter. Ph. v. 8. 3), this man, answper
3yow /* -
f. Duty, öportet &c. understood : as,
Wilícüs iniussü dömini crédat némini (Cato. R. R. 5.3), a baííff
should lend to mo ome without his master's authority.
Pötius dicëret nön esse aecum (Cic. de Off. III. 22.88), he should
irather have Said, it was mof fair.
Súmeret Alicúnde (Ter. Ph. II. 1. 69), he should have borrowed
ôt from some one.
Erümentum me émissës (Gic. II. Verr. III. 84, 195), 3yow should
^mot have öovght the corn.
g. The object is often expressed elliptically, more particularly
in a parenthesis, which ought always to be brief: as,
Vêre ut dicamf (Cic. II. Verr. v. 69. 177), to speak candid/y.
Sénectüs est nätürä löquäcior£, ne áb omníbüs eam uîtiis
uídear uindïcärë (Cic. de Sen. 16. 55), old age is naturally
somewhat talkative, so 3you will not charge me with defending
¢t from every fault.
* See § 1247 and note.
f Perhaps in this example * permission* is the notion understood, dabis
veniam.
f Hoc dico understood, * I say this that I may not appear &c.'
8UBJUNCTIVE. 293
Vix incedo inánis, ne ire p6sse cum onere exîstumes (Plaut.
Am. I. 1. 174), I can. 8carcely walk with ^othing about me, so
do not 8uppose that I can get on with a load.
1228 For the sake of brevity, such a verb as existümés or dicam is
oftem omitted in sentences like that just given. Thus Plautus
might have Said in the last example, Vix incêdo ïnänis, ne iré
possim cum önërë : as,
Nöuam eam pötestátem ëripuéré pätrïbus nostris, né nunc dul-
cédíné sémel capti férant désidérium (Liv. III. 52), this power,
when yet wnknown to them, they wrested from owr fathers ;
^mwch le88 ^ow, having once tasted the sweets of it, will they
tolerate the loss.
Mortâliâ factâ péribunt, Nédum sermónum stét hönös (Hor.
Ep. II. 3. 68), deeds wù perisfi, much less wú the glory of
words survíve.
Vix fm ipsis tectis frigus uitätur, nödum in märi sit fäcile àbesse
áb iniüriä tempörís (Oic. ad Fam. xvI. 8), even, în a roofed
δαῖlding ét ís dífficult to avoid the cold, much less is it easy
at sea to escape beáng hwrt by the weather.
Erat ënim multö dömîcîlium hüiüs urbis aptiùs hümänïtäti
tuae quam tôtà Pélöponnésus, nëdum Pätrae (Cic. ad Fam.
vII. 28. 1), for ίη tho8e days this city was better swited as a
residence to one Qf 3yowr refined habits, than any part of the
Peloponnesus, let alone Patrae.
1229 Quum or cum in clauses signifying a reasom for or against any
thing is followed by a subjunctive: as,
Quum uitâ sine ämicis métüs plënä sit, rätio ipsä mönet ämi-
cîtias compärärë (Cic. de Fin. I. 20. 66), seeìng that lífe
without friends is ful/ qf danger, reason itself warns ws to
form friendships.
Quae quum omniâ factâ sint, tämën ümä söla ërat ciuítas Mä-
mertinâ, quae lëgätos qui istum laudárent misérint (Cic.
II. Verr. II. 5. 13), ίη spite of all these doings, Messana wus
the one sole city that 8ent an embassy to speak ín favour qf
the accu8ed.
Séd eä quum contemplári cüpërem, uix adspìciendi pötestas
fuit (Cic. de Or. I. 36. 161), öut although, I was eager to have
a good 8tare at these things, I could 8carcely get a look at
them.
294 SYNTAX.
Quae quum ïtä sint (Cic. in Cat. I. 5. 10), thvs bevng the case.
1230 Quum as an adverb of time in the past tenses has the subjunc-
tive mood, being translated with the imperfect by while or as,
with the past-perfect by after: as,
Quum äcerrîmè pugnärëtur, sübító sunt Aedui uisi ab lätërë
nostris äpertö (Caes. B. G. VII. 50), as the battle was pro-
ceeding with the greatest spîrît, there suddenly appeared a
body of Aedwi om the ea posed* flank of owr mem.
Quum dies complüres transissent, sübító për explörätöres cer-
tior factüs est (Caes. B. G. III. 2), after man3y days had al-
^eady pas8ed by, he was suddenly informed by his $couts.
1231 Quum followed by tum, in the sense of mot only, but also, has
generally the indicative, occasionally the subjunctive : as,
Quum multae rës in philösöphiâ nëquáquam sätïs explicátae
sintf, tum perdiffícílis quaestio est dë nätürä deörum (Cic.
N. D. I. 1. 1), while there are many things ίη philosophy
which have been by ^o means fully eaeplained, one qf the ^nost
dífficult is the inqwiry about the mature of the gods.
1231. l After antë-quam and prius-quam, a. a subjunctive is used, where
the speaker would imply the non-occurrence of the act ; b. am in-
dicative, where he would imply the occurrence of the act, and
therefore particularly where a negative precedes, and above all in
past sentences. In other cases there seems to be some indifference
as to the mood.
a. Subj. Nümidae, priusquam ex castris subuênirëtür, in prox-
ümos collis discëdunt (Sal. Jug. 54), the Wumidians went
off to the mearest hills, before assistance came from the camp.
Antëquam hömînes nëfàrii dé meo aduentu audiré pötuissent,
in Mäcédóniam perrexI (Cic. p. Planc. 41. 98), before the
villaìns could hear qf my approach, Iwent straáght on ίnto
IMacedonia.
Antè léues pascentür în aethêrê cerui, Quam nostro illius läbä-
turí pectörë uoltus (Virg. Buc. I. 60), sooner alqft in air
* i. e. the right, which had no shields to protect them.
+ The examples ofthis construction are not numerous, and what there
are seem open to doubt. In some perhaps, instead of tum we should
read tamen, and translate the quum by * although.'
£ Yet in a similar passage (A. IV. 27) Virgil has uiolo and resoluo.
INFINITIVE. 295
1232
1233
shall graze the hart, than from this breast his features pass
a^pay.
b. Ind. Néqué prius fügërë destîtërunt, quam ad flümen per-
uênêrunt (Caes. B. G. I. 53), mor did they Stop fying, before
they reached the rêver.
Néque antë dimisit eum, quam fídem dédit (Liv. xxxIx. 10),
^or did he let húm, go, til] he gave his word.
Non défätigäbör, antëquam illörum uias percëpërö (Cic. de Or.
III. 36. 145), I will not gêve in, öefore Ifully understand their
^pay8.
Ante âlîquantó quam tü nätüs és (Cic. ad Fam. x. 3. 2), a con-
8iderable time öefore 3yow were öorn.
INFINITIVE.
The infinitive* is am undeclined neuter substantive, which de-
notes in the most general way the action or state expressed by the
verb. The use of it, as of other undeclined substantives (§ 149),
is in strictness limited to the nominative and accusative, indeed
almost exclusively to the latter. (Yet See § 1255.)
a. It seems to occupy the place of a nominative in such sen-
tences as,
Docto hómínI uiuêre est cögitärë (Cic. Tusc. v. 38. 111), with
the educated mam, to lève is to thêmk.
Non cădit autem inuîdêre in sápíentem (Cic. Tusc. III. 10. 21),
but envy ìs ìncompatible with the character qf the wise man,
or the wise ma^ îs not susceptible qf envy.
b. It occupies the place of an accusative in such sentence8 as,
Stoïci irasci nesciunt (Cic. de Or. III. 18. 65), the Stoïc knows
^ot anger.
Emöri cúpio (Ter. Haut. v. 2. 18), I long for death (that 7 may
get out of my miser?).
Hence the infinitive is occasionally, though very rarely, found
after prepositions which gowerm the accusative : as,
Intér optümê uälëre et gráuissüme aegrötärë nihil dicébant
intéressé (Cic. de Fin. II. 13. 43), between the best health and
the 8everest sickness there is no difference they Said.
* In the Greek language this is so completely the fact, that the article
may be prefixed to it in all its cases. The English also treat their infini-
tive as a substantive, when they place before it the preposition * to.'
296 SYNTAX.
Quod crimen dicis praetër ämassé meum ? (0v. Her. vII. 164)
vhat charge dost allege against me, eaecept the having loved ?
1234 Hence also a neuter adjective occasionally accompanies the
infinitive : as,
Viuêre ipsum turpe est nöbis (Cic. ad Att. XIII. 28), lífe átself
is disgraceful to vs.
Tötum hoc displícet philösöphäri (Cic. de Fin. I, 1. 1), all this
actìng the philosopher offends me. -
1235 The most common use of the infinitive is as the object of active
verbs, particularly those which signify wish, power, duty, habit,
knowledge, intentîon, commencement, continuance, cessation : as,
Artêriae mfcärë non dësïnunt (Cic. N. D. II. 9. 24), the arteries
^ever leave off throbbìng.
Intuéri sólem aduorsum néquitîs (Cic. Somn. Sc. 5), 3yow can-
not gaze directly upon the sun.
Et nesci6-quid tibi sum oblitus hódie, ut uolui, dícere (Ter.
And. v. 1. 22), and 8omehow or other I forgot to tell, 3yow to-
day, a8 1 intended. -
Vincéré scis, uictöria üti nescis (Liv. xxII. 51), 3yow know how
to gaìn a victory, you know mot howo to u8e a victory.
l236 Some verbs besides an accusative of the person* take a second
accusative of the tháng expressed by am infinitive : as, döce-f teach,
iübe- bid, uëta-forbid, sín- pernit, cög- compel, möne- warn, horta-
(r.) encourage, impëdi- hinder, prohibe- prevent, &c. Thus,
Döcëbo eum posthac tácêrê (Cic. in Rull. III. 2. 4), I will teach
him, to öe silent for the future.
Hërus më iussit Pamphilum obseruârê (Ter. And. II. 5. 1), mas-
ter has ordered me to keep a^ eye wpon Pamphilus.
Ab öpéré légätos discëdërë uétuérat (Caes. B. G. II. 20), he had
foröådden the lieutenants to leave the work.
Me énim impëdit püdör áb hömíné gráuissümo haec exquiréré
(Cic. de Or. I. 35. 163), for I cannot for shame urge this re-
quest om one qf hìs dìgnity.
1237 After the passive too of many of the verbs given in the preced-
* See Madvig, Gr. 390.
* All these verbs, except the first two or three, are also found with a
subjunctive following. See §§ 1180, 1181
INFINITIVE. 297
ing section the infinitive is used, the accusative of the preceding
construction, which expressed the person, becoming now the nomi-
native : as,
An sum ëtiamnunc Graecè löqui döcendüs? (Cic. de Fin. II. 5.
15) or am I at this time of life to öe taught to speak Greek ?
Consüles iúbentur scribëre exercítum (Lîv. III. 30), the consuls
are directed to enrol an army.
Mürös ädiré uétíti sunt (Liv. xxIII. 46), they were forbidden to
approach the walls.
Prohíbíti estîs in próuinciâ pëdem pönërë (Cic. p. Iiig. 8. 24),
3yow were prevented settìng foot în the province.
1238 Verbs of saying*, hearing, feeling, thinking, knowing, are fol-
Iowed by an accusative and infinitivef : as,
Thälës äquam dixit esse ínítium rërum (Cic. N. D. I. 10. 25),
Thales said that water was the begînnîng of things.
Perlübentèr audiui te essé Caesări fämiliärem (Cic. ad Fam.
VII. 14. 2), I heard with very great pleasure that $yου vere or.
vritimate terms with Caesar.
Té multum pröfécissë sentiö (Cic. ad Fam. v. 13. 2), Ifeel that
3yov have advanced matter8 greatly.
Spéro nostram ämicítiam nön ëgéré testïbùs (Cic. ad Fam. II.
2), I hope that our frìendship needs not witnesses.
Tibi eos scio obtempërätüros mägis (Ter. Ad. IV. 5. 70), I know
that they will more readily comply with your wishes.
1239 An abstract substantive or a neuter pronoun which conveys
the same meaning as the verbs of the last section, may be followed
by the construction of the accusative and infinitive: as,
Illa öpiniö tollétur, Crassum non doctissümum fuissë (Cic. de
Or. II. 2. 7), that opìniom shall be pwt an, end to, that Crassus
wa8 mot a most learned man.
De hóc ipsô, nihil essë bönum nîsî quôd hönestum esset, dis-
pütäuit (Cic. Tusc. II. 25. 61), he held am, argument on this
very point, that there äs notháng good eæcept what ås right.
1240 An impersonal passive of Saying, thinking, &c. is sometimes
* See §§ 911, 912. l, also § 1202 with note, and § 1203.
f The same applies to phrases such as fama est, auctor sum, certiorem
te facio, &c.
298 SYNTAX.
used with an accusative and infinitive, particularly with the per-
fect tense or the participle in endo : as,
Nuntiátum est, ädessé Seipiónem cum légiönë (Caes. B. C. III.
36), word was brought that Scipio was close at hand with a
legîor.
Ibi dicendumst nullam essë rempublícam (Cic. R. P. III. 31. 43),
there we canmot δύt acknowledge there is ^0 constìtutìo^.
1241 Sometimes the Same idea is expressed by the personal passive
together with the nominative and infinitive : as,
Caesär à Gergöuiä discessisse audiëbätür (Caes. B. G. vII. 59),
reports reached them from time to time that Caesar had left
Gergovia.
Wöluntáriá mortë intérissé crédîtîs est (Tac. Hist. IV. 67), he
was believed to have perished by his own, hand.
Glädiörum multítüdo déprehendi posse indicäbätür (Oic. p.
Mil. 24, 64), secret information was gêven by more than ore
person, that a large númber of swords might be seized.*
Iperspectust â më dë të cögitärë (Cic. ad Fam. I. 7. 3), I saw
clearly that he was thênking of 3yov.
1242 Verbs of wishing, permáttóng, δέdding, hêndering, &c. are fol-
lowed by the accusative and infinitivef : as,
Corpörä iüuénum firmäri läbörë uöluérunt (Cic. Tusc. II. 15.
36), they wished the muscles qf 3young men to öe strengthened
ôy laboùr.
Délectum hàbëri prohïbébo (Liv. Iv. 2), I will prevent the levy
of troops from öeïng field.
Rem äd armä dëdücI stüdëbat (Caes. B. C. I. 4), he was eager
that matters should öe örought to a contest qf arms.
1243 The werbs, iübe- öid, uéta- forbìd, prohîbe- prevent, impéra-
command, may be used passively with a passive infinitivet : as,
* See § 911 and note.
f The construction with the subjunctive with many of these verbs is
more commom. See § 1180.
f This construction is widely different from that noticed in § 1237.
The tu, which is the nominative to iussu's would be the accusative after
?renuntiare in the active construction ; whereas in comsules iubentur scrib-
£i greritum, the word consules would be the accusative after iubent
itself.
INFINITIVE. 299
Iussu's rénuntiäri consül (Cic. Phil. II. 32. 79), directions were
given that you should be returned as consul.
In lautümias dëdüci impérantür (Cic. II. Verr. v. 27. 68), ar.
order is given, that they should öe conducted down, into the
Stone-quarries.
1244 The perfect passives, coeptüs est, dêsîtüs est*, are preferable
to the active when a passive infinitive is used: as,
Mätëriâ coepta érat comportări (Caes. B. G. Iv. 18), they had
öegum carrying timúer.
Päpisiüs est uöcäri dêsîtüs (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 21. 2), he ceased
to be called Papîsîus.
1245 The verbs which express the emotions of the mindf are fol-
lowed by an accusative and infinitive to express the cause of the
emotioní : as,
Haec perfecta essé gaudeo (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 47. 136), I am
delighted that the$e matters are settled.
Tantum se ëiüs öpiniónis déperdidissê dölébant (Caes. B. G. v.
54), they were hwrt that they had lost 80 mwch of their reputa-
tío^ în thês re$pect.
1246 A predicate consisting of a neuter adjective, or a substantive,
or an impersonal verb, is accompanied by the accusative and in-
finitive to express the subject : as,
Nön est rectum mïnöri pärërë mäiörem (Cic. Univ. 6), it is not
fittìng that the superior should obey the άnferior.
Fácinüs est uinciri ciuem Römänum (Cic. II. Verr. v. 66. 170),
it ìs a serious matter for a Romam citizen, to öe bound.
Omnibus bönis expédit saluam essë rempublicam (Cic. Phil.
XIII. 8. 16), ít ís for the interest qf all good men that the coun-
try should be free from danger.
* So in the old Writers there occur such phrases as nequitur comprimi
(Plaut. Rud. IV. 4. 20), retrahi nequitur (Plaut. ap. Fest.), id fanum
nequitum eæaugurari (Cato ap. Fest.), suppleri queatur (Lucr. 1. 1045),
and perhaps ulcisci nequitur (Sal. Jug. 31).
§§ „£,£uction is similar to horret tenebras, id gaudeo, &c. See
, 893, 909.
.3 The construction with quod is more common, and in some cases that
with cum is admissible. See § 1455 i.
300 SYNTAX.
Hos trìcidäri öportébat* (C%c. in Cat. I. 4. 9), these men ought
to have been, butchered.
Corpus mortále äliquö tempöre intériré nécessest* (Cic. de Inv.
II. 57.170), mortal flesh must some time or other perish.
1247 Brokem sentences consisting of an accusativet and infinitive
are often used interrogatively to express any strong feeling, as
indignation about the present or past, rarely about the future : as,
Ex-illam fämiliä tam inlibérälë fácímüs esse ortum ?£ (Ter. Ad.
III. 4. 2) to think that 8o urgentlemanly a proceeding should
have orìgìnated with that famály /
Te istä uirtüte in tantäs aerumnäs incîdissê ? (Cic. ad Fam.
xIV. 1. 1) that you with 3yowr merit showld have faller, ânto
swch troubles /
Méne inceptö dësistérë uictam ? (Virg. A. I. 41) Juno ìndeed de-
sîst from what she ha8 begwn, defeated /
1248 The accusative that precedes the infinitive performs the same
office as the nominative in the other moods, and it is for this
reason often called the subject-accusative. There is this differ-
ence however between the infinitive and the other moods, that
the latter have suffixes to denote the different persons, so that
the nominative need not be expressed by a separate pronoum.
With the infinitive the subject-accusative pronoum is nearly al-
Ways expressed: as,
Scribìs, yow, write ; but, dico tê scribéré, Isay that yow, write.
1249 But even with the infinitive the subject-accusative pronoun is
occasionally omitted if both the infinitive and the main verb have
the same subject§ : as,
Confîtêre hüc eâ spé uênissë (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 22. 61), confess
that 3yow came here with this hope.
Id nesciré Mägö dixit (Liv. xxIII. 13), Mago said that he did
not know this.
* Oportet and necesse est are also at times used with the subjunctive,
but rarely with ut. Necesse est prefers a dative to an accusative ifit be
a person, as, homini necesse est mori (Cic. de Fat. 9. 17).
f The construction of wt with the subjunctive refers to the future.
See § 1227 e.
£ This infinitive is dependent upon some such phrase as credendum
e8t.
§ See also § 879.
INFINITIVE. 3()]
Rêfractüros carcërem mínábantür (Liv. VI. 17), they kept threat-
ening that they would break open, the prison.
1250 On the other hand, the reflective pronouns are sometime*used
umnecessarily with verbs of Wishing: as,
Grätum së uídëri stüdet (Cic. de Off. II. 20. 70), he is anacious
to be thought grateful.
Attîcum së dici örätörem uölébat (Cic. Brut. 82. 284), he φι-
8isted on being called an Attic orator.
1251 Whem to the construction of the accusative and infinitive a
short clause is attached by means of a relative or the conjunction
quam, the same construction, by a species of attraction, is at times
introduced into this clause also : as,
Affirmäui, quiduis më pötius perpessürum, quam ex Itália exí-
türum* (0%c. ad Fam. II. I 6. 3), I solemnly declared that I
Jovld suffer angy thing rather than leave Italy.
Antóniüs aiébat sé tantidem frümentum aestümassé, quanti
Säcerdötemf (Cic. II. Verr. III. 92. 215), Antony kept de-
claring that he had valued the corr, at the 8ame príce a8 Sa-
cerdos.
Suspîcor te hisdem rébus quíbus me ipsumí commöuêrî (Cic.
de Sen. 1. 1), I suspect that yow are moved by the same cìr-
cum8ta^ces as my8elf.
1252 There are constructions where the infinitive seems to supply
the place of a gemitive : as,
NÍSÍ quem fortê lübido ténet pötentiae paucörum libertätem
suam grätïfïcäri (Sal. Jug. 31), wnless perchance a fancy
possesses ary one for sacrìficing his liberty to gratífy the power
of a few, ¢
Tempüs est hinc ábiré mé (Cic. Tusc. I. 41. 99), ît is time for
me to go away.
Summa éludendi occásiost mi núnc senes, Et Phaédriae curam
fidimere§ argentáriam (Ter. Ph. v. 6. 2), I have a glorious
opportunity now of dodging the old people, and relievêng
Phædria qf his anacìety about mo^ey.
* For quam eae Italia eairem. f For quanti Sacerdos uestumasset.
f For quibus ipse commoueor. § For adimendi.
302 SYNTAX.
' 1253 In narrative the infinitive is at times used as the main verb*
with the power of the past-imperfect of the indicative; and when
80 u§ed, is called the historic infinitive : as,
Consülem anceps cüra ágitáré ; nollë dësërërë söcios, nollë
mînuêre exercîtum (Liv. xxxrv. 12), a twofold anaeiety
troubled the consul ; he was wmwìllìng to de$ert the allies, he
vas unwillông to díminish the army.
Ego instáre ut mihi respondêret, quîs esset (Cic. II. Verr. II.
77.188), I meanwhile kept pressîng him, to tell me who he was.
Iste ünumquodqué uäs in mänüs süméré, laudáré, mirărif (Cic.
II. Verr. Iv. 27. 63), 3your worthy praetor kept taking into his
hands and praîsîng and admirùmg every $eparate vase.
1254 After the words päräto- ready, prepared, and insuéto- wnaccus-
tomed, an infinitive is at times used by good writers,£ and in the
poets and later Writers after contento- contented, suéto- and assuéto-
accústomed : as,
Omniä perpétI päräti, maxíme à ré frümentäriâ läböräbant
(Caes. B. C. III. 9), prepared to endwre the worst, they suffered
most in the article of grain.
Id quod pärätI sunt fácérë (Cic. p. Quinct. 2. 8), the which they
are prepared to do.
Insuëtus uéra audiré (Liv. xxxr. 18), V^accustomed to hear the
truth.
1255 Some writers, especially the poets, use the infinitive in many
constructions where good prose writers employ a different form of
words: as,
Früges consümérë näti§ (Hor. Ep. I. 2. 27), bor^ to consúme
graón.
* In such a phrase'as iamque dies consumptus erat, quum tamen bar-
bari nihil remittere, &c. (Sal. Jug. 98), the verb remittere is still the
main verb.
f For a copious use of the historic infinitive see Caes. B. G. III. 4,
where there occur in succession, decurrere, conicere, repugnare, mittere,
occurrere, ferre, superari.
£ Cicero more commonly however uses ad with the gerund.
§ In this and the following sentences more legitimate phrases would
have been : ad fruges consumendas, ad pellendos ìmimicos, committendae
pugnae, eaeeundi, qui cantaretur, ut adiret, the supine uisum, habenda or
quae habeat, ad sequendum, persequendi. The use of the adjective with
an infinitive is very common in the lyric poetry of Horace.
INFINITIVE. 303
Non mihî sunt uirés ínímicos pellërë (Ov. Her. I. 109), I have
not strength to drive away my foes.
Auídus committërë pugnam (Ov. Met. v. 75), eager to joîn
öattle.
Nulla hinc exirè pötestas (Virg. A. Ix. 739), no power Qfgoing
ovt from hence.
Puër ipsë fuit cantäri dignüs (Virg. Buc. v. 54), the boy himself
was worthy to be sung of.
WÌrum töt ádiré läböres Impülit (Virg. A. I. 14), she wrged the
hero to encowmter so man3y toîls. -
Pécüs égit altos Wiséré montis (Hor. Od. I. 2. 7), he drowe his
cattle to vìsìt the lofy mowntains.
Illé suö möriens dat hàbéré népóti (Virg. A. Ix. 362), he again
dying gêves them, to his grandchild, to keep.
Célérem séqui Aiäcem (Hor. Od. I. 15. 18), Ajaae 8wíft to follow.
Nécessítüdo perséqui (Sal. Jug. 92), the necessity for pwrswîrg.
1256 The Latim language often admits the perfect infinitive where
the English language uses the simple infinitive; but it will be seen
in such cases that the completion or consequences of the action
are regarded more than the action itself. This distinction applies
especially to phrases of regret or satisfaction in the future tenses,
also to phrases of wishing and prohibition, &c.: as, •
Contenti simüs íd ünum dixissé (Vell. II. 103), let vs be satisfied
vith this one observatìom.
Quiesse érit méliüs (Liv. III. 48), 3yow, had better be qviet.
Eacchas nè quis ädissê uëlit, (Inscr. S. C. de Bacc.), let no one
wish to approach the prîestes8e8 of Bacchus.
Magnúm si pectörë possit Excussissë deum (Vîrg. A. VI. 78),
ên hopes &he magy have power to shake from her breast the
mághty god.
Söciis maxümé lex consultum essë uolt (Cic. in Caecil. 6. 21),
the law wishes to provide for the interests qfthe allies above all.
l257 On the other hand, while the English express past time by the
perfect infinitive after the auxiliary verbs could, máght, ought, the
Latin writers generally consider it sufficient to express the past
time in the main verb, and to use with it the simple infinitive: as,
IÄcuit ín Hispäniam Irë (Lîv. xxI. 41), 1 might have gone to
Spaìn.
304 SYNTAX.
Hoc égö cürärë non dëbuI (Cic. ad Fam. v. 2. 9), this I ought
^ot to have cared.for.
1258 Still not unfreqnently both the main verb of duty and the in-
finitive are in the perfect tense : as,
Tunc décuit flessé (Liv. xxx. 44), then was the tine for weepîrg.
Quod iampridem factum esse öportuit (Cic. in Cat. I. 2. 5), what
ought to have been, done long ago.
Adulescenti mórem gestum opórtuit (Ter. Ad. II. 2. 6), 3yow
ought to have humoured the 3youngster.
l259 In the compound tenses of the infinitive, both active and pas-
sive, the verb essé is oftem omitted : as,
Dënëgärat sé commissürum mihi gnätam suam uxörem (Ter.
And. I. 5. 6), he had declared that he would mot frust his
daughter ίη marriage to me.
Omnis uös örätos uölo (Ter. Haut. prol. 26), I must entreat yov,
αζ/.
Néque tu hoc dices, tibi non praedictúm. Caue (Ter. And. I.
2. 34), nor Shall yow, Say that mo previovs notice was given
3yow. So öe on 3/owr guard.
1260 The future infinitive, both active and passive, is oftem expressed
by the circumlocution of förë with üt and an imperfect subjunc-
tive* (called the periphrastic future) : as,
Spéro före ut contingat id nöbis (Cic. Tusc. I. 34. 82), 7 trust
that we are destined to have thás happêness.
Pompêius dixêrat före üti exercítus Caesäris pellërëtür (Caes.
E. C. III. 86), Pompey had foretold that Caesar's army would
öe rovted.
1261 The participle in túro with fuissé is exclusively used as a hypo-
thetical tense : as, -
An Pompêium censes tríbus suis consülätïbus laetätürum fuissé,
si sciret se in sölftüdine Aegyptiörum trücidätum iri ? (Cic.
de Div. II. 9. 22) or do 3/ow think that Pompey would have
gloried în his three consulships, èf he had known that he wa8
to öe öwtchered in a desert qf Egypt ?
* This construction is the only one where the verb has no participle
in turo. Observe however that the periphrastic future differs from the
simple future by being unlimited in point of time.
PARTICIPLES AND VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES. 305
Nísí nuntii dë uictöriâ pér équîtës essent alläti existìmàbant,
fütürum fuisse üti oppídum ämittërëtür (Caes. B. C. III.
101), they were of opinion, that åf the news of the victory had
^ot been brought by men on horseback, the town, would have
been, lost.
1262 A future passive may be expressed by the impersonal passive
infinitive of i- go and the accusative supine : as,
Arbítrantur së bénífícos uisum iri (Cic. de Off. I. 14. 43), they
think they shall be considered kind.*
1263 A future-perfect passive is at times expressed by the infinitive
förë and the perfect passive participle : as,
Débellätum mox förë rébantür (Liv. xxIII. 13), they thought
that the war would be shortly brought to a close.f
PARTICIPLES AND VERBAL SUBSTANTIVES.
1264 Participles are partly like adjectives, partly like verbs. Ijike
adjectives they agree with Some noun in case, gender and number.
On the other hand they are derived from verbs, denote an act, and
govern the same case as the verb from which they are derived.
The tense Or time of a participle depends upon the verb which it
accompanies.
1265 The participle in enti is an imperfect, and corresponds to the
English participle in áng : as,
Gübernätor cläuom ténens sédet in puppi (Cic. de Sen. 6. 17),
the pilot holding the tiller sit8 om. the stern ;—ì. e. the pilot
holds the tiller and sits at, the stern. Here ténens refers
to present time, because sédet is present.
Aranti Cincinnätö nuntiátumst eum dictätörem éssé factum
(Cic. de Sen. 16. 56), word was brought to Cìncìnnatus plough-
£ng, that he had been made dictator ;—ì. e. a8 Cincinnatus
was ploughing, word was brought to him that he had been
made dictator. Here äranti refers to past time, because
nuntiätumst is past.
* More literally, * that people are going to look upom them as kind.
The beginner should take care not to confound this supine with the per-
fect passive participle.
* For the significations of the tenses see also §§ 509, 511, 512, 513.
X.
306 SYNTAX.
Üroesiis Hälyn pénétrans magnám peruortét ópám uim (quoted
by Cic. de Div. II. 56. 115), Croesus penetratìng to the Halys
vill overtwrn a mighty power ;—â. e. when Croesus shall
penetrate to the Halys, he will overturn a mighty power.
Here pénétrans refers to future time, because peruortet is
future. , r-
The participle in enti is often best translated by the conjunc-
tions as, whilet, &c., with the proper tense of the indicative mood.
1266 The participle in enti is sometimes used where the actis com-
pleted, but only just completed : as, »
Römam uéniens cömitia édixit (Liv. xxrv. 7), immediately wpon
Àìs arrival, at Rome he proclaimed the day for the election.
1267 Similarly the participle in enti is sometimes used when the act
has not yet begum, but will commence forthwith : as,
Discédens fn Itáliam lëgätis impërat üti náuis réfîciendas cürä-
rent (Caes. B. G. v. 1), άmmediately before 8ettìng out for
Italy he gives orders to the lieutenants to have the ships re-
paíred.
1268 The participle in túro* is used by the best writers rarely except
in commection with the verbs ës- öe and fu- be ; with the former
to denote întention, or destiny, with the latter to denote what wowld
have happened wnder a certain, hypothesis. '
1269 In Livy and the later Writers it is oftem used at the end of the
main clause of a sentence with the same significations : as,
Diläbuntür ín oppîdâ, moenibus së dëfensüri (Liv. VIII. 29),
they slip away into different towns, intending to defend them-
8elve8 by means offortìfications. -
Dédit mihi quantum pötuit, dätürüs amplius SI pötuisset (Plin.
Ep. III. 21), he gave me as much as he wa8 able ; and would
have gêver, me more, îf he had been able.
1270 The perfect participle in to had probably at first only an active
signification. It still retains this power in those verbs which are
called reflectives or deponents, and traces of it also appear in the
poetical construction : Membrâ süb arbìto Strätüs (§ 892).
1271 Still in the ordinary language the participle in to is nearly al-
* See §§ 517 and 702-711.
JPARTICIPIES AND VERBAL SUIBSTANTIVES. 307
ways used as a passive, unless the verb whence it is formed be
employed exclusively as a reflective or a deponent.* Thus, with
scrib-éré to write, we have scripto- written, öeïng written, having
been written ; but with séqu-I to follow, sécüto- having followed.
1272 At the same time there are not a few perfect participles from
reflective or deponent verbs which are at times used passively: as,
Sénectütem üt ádipiscantür omnés optant, eandem accussant
ádeptam (Oic. de Sen. 2. 4), old age all pray that they may
attain to, yet abu8e when ät is attaìned.
Virtüs experta atqué perspectâ (Cic. p. Corm. 6. 16), merit that
has been tried and proved. *
Partitof exercítü (Caes. B. G. vI. 33), having divided his army.
Euersio exsécrätae cölumnae (Cic. Phil. I. 2. 5), the overthrow of
the accursed pìllar. f
1272. 1 Although, whem the simple verb is not transitive, the passive
is commonly used only as an impersonal, still the poets take liber-
ties in this respect, especially in the perfect participle : as,
Triumphätae§ gentés (Virg. G. III. 33), ^atìons that have been,
triumphed over.
1273 A few participles in to from deponents appear at times to be
used as imperfects : as, öpëräto-, fèriäto-, üso-, sécüto-, uecto-,
sölfto-, &c. Thus,
Vidit se öpërätum (Tac. Ann. II. 14), he saw himself sacrificing
(ìr, a dream).
Conclämant söcii laetum paeänä sécüti (Virg. A. x. 738), his
comrades following povr forth the happy paean.
1274 The participle in to is at times used with the verb hábe- have,
by which circumlocution a sort of perfect indicative of the active
voice is produced : as,
Häbes iam státütum quid tîbi ägendum pütës (Cic. ad Fam. Iv.
* Still there are exceptions. Cemato- is equivalent to quum cemauis-
8et, and has nothing of the passive signification. Other exceptions are
pranso-, poto-, nupta-, eaeoso-, iurato-, coniurato-, adulto-, &c. See also
§§ 392, 393.
f Literally * his army havimg been divided.'
£ Others are comitato-, confesso-, emenso-, emerito-, pacto-, perfumcto-,
populato-, &c.
§ But for the simple verb, triumphare de gentibus.
30S SYNTAX.
2. 4), yov have at last determined what course 3/ow deem ät
right to pvrsue.
Römäni in Asià pécünias magnas collöcätäs häbent (Cic. p. leg.
Man. 7. 18), Romans have invested large so/ms of ^noney ίη
Asîa.*
1275 The participle in to is used with the futures of the verbs da-
gìve and redd- gìve back, so as to form a future perfect ; but the
phrase further denotes that the act is done for another person : as,
Sic strätas légiónes Lätinörum däbö, quemadmödum lëgätum
iäcentem uidëtis (Liv. vIII. 6), I will lay the legions of the
Latìns low for yow, just as yow see their ambassador lyírg o^
the grownd.
Hoc égo tíbi ecfectum reddam (Ter. And. IV. 2. 20), this 1 will
effect for you.
1276 The participle in to in agreement with a substantive is largely
used, where the English language commonly prefers an abstract
noum. Thus,
Barbärüs eum öb iram interfectI dömYni obtruncâuit (Liv. xxI.
2), a barbarìan, cut him, down, out of reverge for the m^/rder
of his master.
Mäiör ex ciuibüs ämissis dölor quam laetítiá füSIS hostîbus fuit
(Liv. Iv. 17), there was more sorºrow for the Yoss qf their fellow-
cowmtrymen, thar, delight at the rout qf the enemy.
Ab condîta urbe ad libérâtam (Liv. I. 60), from the foundation,
qf the city to öts líberation.
Post mätös hómínés (Cic. Brut. 62. 224), sînce the creation Qf
77207?,,
1277 The neuter nominative of the participle in to is occasionally
used (by Livy for example) as the subject of a verb. Thus,
Auditum omnem exercítum pröfîcisci laetîtiam ingentem fécit
(Lîv. xxvIII. 26), the hearíng that the whole army was setting
out cauSed wnbownded joy.
Dégénérâtum ín áliis artibüs huic quöquë dëcöri offécit (Liv.
I. 53), his degeneracy in, other qualities stood in the way Qf
his credit in this re$pect also.
* More literally * they have large sums invested.' From this con-
struction arose the formation of the perfect in the languages derived from
the Latin.
PARTICIPI.ES AND VERBAL SUBSTANTIVE§. 309
Diü non perlftätum ténuérat dictätörem ne antè méridiem sig-
num därë posset (Liv. vII. 8), a long delay in obtainîng a
succe88ful issue to the sacrifices fiad prevented the dictator fro^
gìvìng the sìgna, before noom.
1278 The ablative of the participle in to is used at times as an abla-
tive absolute with a whole sentence for its substantive : as,
Expösftö quïd fniquîtas löci posset (Caes. B. G. vII. 52), havi^g
ezplained to them what consequences wnfavowraöle grow^d
could produce.
Edicto ut quicunque ad uallum tendêret pro hoste hâbërëtür
(Liv. x. 36), having proclaimed that whoever made for the
entrenchment would be dealt with a8 an enemy.
Permissö seu dicérë prius seu audiré mallet, îtâ coepit (Lîv.
XXXIV. 31), permìssìon having been given hìm to speak first
or to listen, a8 he preferred, fie öegam, thu8.
Auditö Marcium in Cflîciam tendéré (Sal. Fragm. v.), havi^g
heard that Marcìus was hastenêng έnto Cilìcìa.
1279 The ablative of the participle in to* is occasionally used abso-
lutely even without a noum : as,
Nön est peccätö mi ignosci aecum (Ter. Hec. v. 1. 10), I am,
^ot entitled, to öe forgóverò ìf I offend (more literally, an of-
fence havêng beer commótted).
1280 Am ablative of the participle in to, with or without a moum in
agreement, is used with öpüs estf : as,
Nihil érat cur pröpëräto öpüs esset (Cic. p. Mil. 19. 49), there
was no reason, why they meed make haste.
Prius quam incîpias, consulto; ét übi consüluëris, mätürë facto
öpüs est (Sal. Cat. 1), before 3yow commence, 3/ou must delibe-
rate; and when you have deliberated, 3yow must act vitfi due
haste.
1281 As the Latin language is for the most part without a participle
for the perfect active, the following circumlocutions are in use.
a. The ablative absolute : as,
* Some ablatives of this kind have virtually become adverbs: as, au-
spicato, litato, &c.
f Vsus est is found with the ablative ofthe participle in to in the older
writers. The construction is consistent with the use of the same phrases
in connection with other ablatives. See § 999.
310 SYNTAX.
Hac partë cöpiärum aucta îtërum cum SäbInis confligitür (Liv.
I. 37), having ìnoreased thês part qf his forces, he engages
again, with the Sabìne8.
6. Quum with the past-perfect subjunctive, or übi with the
simple perfect indicative : as, -
Quum ab 8édè suâ prósíluisset ämöuêrique áb altärïbus iüuënem
iussisset (Liv. II. 12), having leapt down from his 8eat and
ordered the young mam to öe moved away from the altars.
Vbi eò uênit, própè tríbünal constîtit (Lîv. II. 12), having
arrived there, he at omce posted himself near the tribunal.
c. An accusative of the perfect passive participle dependent
upon the main verb : as,
Gallum caesum* torqué spöliäuit (Liv. VI. 42), having slain the
Gaul, he strìpped hîm of his collar.
1282 The participle in to is a perfect, and its tense or time depends
upon the verb which it accompanies. Thus,
a. Omniâ quae dico dé Planció, dico expertùs in nóbis (Cic. p.
Planc. 9. 22), al/ that I 8ay about Plancìus, I 8ay havìng
made trìal of hîm în my own person. Here expertüs is a
present-perfect, because dico is a present — I have had
experience of his great, worth, and therefore speak with
certainty.
b. Consëcütüs id quöd änïmö pröpösuêrat, réceptui cäni iussit
(Caes. B. G. VII. 47), havîrg obtained what he had propo8ed
to hîmself, he ordered the sìgnal for retreat to öe 80 unded.
Here consécütüs is a past-perfect, because iussit is a past
—He had obtained what he wished, and so he sounded a
retreat.
c. Nön admissi, Karthägfnem prótínüs ibunt (Liv. xxI, 9), êf
^ot admitted, they will proceed straightway to Carthage. Here
admissI is a future-perfect, because ibunt is a future; and
indeed ifthe comjunction SI be used, the phrase will at once
become : si admisSi nön êrunt. Thus the perfect participle
which accompanies a future tense is far from expressing a
fact.
1283 The gerund is a neuter substantive in endo which denotes the
* Often a better translation is effected by two verbs: äs, * he slew him
and stripped him &c.'
IPARTICIPLES AND VERBAL 8UBSTANTIVES. 311
actiom or state expressed by the verb. It differs from the infini-
tive, in that it is declinable, and that through all the cases (in-
cluding, what is commonly omitted, the nominative). Also like
am ordinary substantive it may be govermed by Some few preposi-
tions (ìm, äb, dè, ex, rarely prò, with the ablative ; and with the
accusative by äd, öb, intér, rarely in, circà, antè).
ÂVom. Iiìuéni pärandum, sëni ütendumst (Sen. Ep. 36), earnáng
belonge to the 3yow^g, usìng to the old man.
Acc. Hömo ád intellégendum nätust (Cic. de Fin. II. 13. 40), man
ês borm to wnderstand.
Gen. Dicendi diffîcultätem pertìmescît (Cic. de Or. I. 26. 120), he
dreads the dìffìculty Qf speaking.
Deus böuem ärandi caussâ fëcit (Cic. N. D. II. 14. 37), God.
made the oae for the purpo8e Qf plougháng.
Dat. Tálum födiendo äcümínátum (Plin. XI. 2), a weapo^ pointed
for díggìng.
Abl. Virtütes cernuntür In âgendö (Cic. Part. Or. 23. 78), the manly
vìrtues are seem, în action.
1284 The simple ablâtive of the gerund is used at times in such a
manner that the nominative of the ordinary imperfect partigiple
might be substituted for it : as,
Miscendö* consílium prëcesquê, nunc öräbant nè se exülärë
pätërëtur, nunc mönëbant né mörem pellendi régés ínultum
Sînëret (Lîv. II. 9), mávírg advice and entreatie8 together,
they one moment begged hîm mot to suffer them, to remaî^ ì^
exile, another war^ed him ^ot to leave the practice qf ea pelling
λί^gs wnpunished.
1285 The gerund is followed by the same case as the verb to which
it belongs : as,
Viam quam nöbis quöque ingrëdiundumst (Cic. de Sen. 2. 6),
the road which we also have to travel.
Suö quoiqué iüdíciost ütendum (Cic. N. D. III. 1. 1), each matst
αSe his own judgment. .
Diälectïcast ars uéra ac falsâ diiüdïcandi (Cic. de Or. II. 38.
157), logio ìs the art qf judging between truth and falsehood.
* Equivalent to miscentes. It is probably to this use of the gerund
that the Italiam and Spanish languages are indebted for their imperfect
participle in ndo. So also reportando (Liv. xxv. 8. 10), omnia temptando
(Sal. Jug. 70).
312 SYNTAX.
Tríbuendó suom quoiquë (Oic. de Off. I. 5. 14), άγ allottìng to
every man what öelongs to hîm.
Mörï mäluit falsum fátendö (Cic. Part. Or. 14. 50), he preferred
to die through confessîng a falsehood.
1286 The gerund being a substantive may also have a genitive after
it (but this usage seems limited to the genitive of the gerund): as,
Rêiciundi trium iüdïcum leges Cornëliae fäciunt pötestátem
(Cic. II. Verr. II. 31. 77), the Cornelian, laws gîve the power
of challengìng* three jurymen.
Ego ëius uidendi cüpidüs (Ter. Hec. 3. 3. 12), 7 desirous Qf
seeing* her.
Sui purgandif causâ (Caes. B. G. rv. 13), for the sake of clear-
ing* themselves.
1287 Gerùm dîve.—When a noum in the accusativef. would accom-
pany the gerund, the construction is commonly altered so that
this noum takes the case of the gerund, and the gerund, now called
a gerundive, takes the number and gender of the noun : as,
Dilígentîa cölendast nöbis (Cic. Or. II. 35. 148), we must cultì-
vate a habit of precision.
Coniungo mé cum hömînë mägfs ad uastandam § Itäliam quam
ad uincendum pärätö (Cic. ad Att. vIII. 16), I am Vnìtìng
myself with a man, who is better prepared for devastatìng
Italy than for concluding the war victoriovsly.
Néqué rés ullâ quae ad pläcandos§ deo8 pertînêret praetermis-
sast (Cic. in Cat. III. 8. 20), mor vas any thing omitted which
was thought likely to appea8e the gods.
* The insertion of the preposition * of* after these participles would
make the phrases vulgar ; but a vulgar phrase is generally an old one. In
fact the formatiom of the Latim participle in endo from an abstract sub-
stantive called the gerund is exactly parallel to the origim of our own
participle in ing from a substantive in img. With us the substantive
was the older form ; and the use of the participle originated in such a
phrase as, * the house was a-building" (i. e. * in building'), * I was a-hunt-
ing of a hare.*
+ The pronominal genitives in i, even when they refer to a plural
noum, require that the gerund should be a genitive singular.
£ The same construction is also admissible with the four reflective
verbs, ut- * use,' fru- * enjoy,' fung- * discharge,' and poti- * make omeself
master.'
§ All the best Mss. have uastandam and placandos, as Madvig has
pointed out ; not, as our editions, vastandum, placandum.
IPARTIGIPIES ANI) VERBAIL SUBSTANTIVES. 313
Inftâ sunt consília urbis délendae, ciuium trücidandörum, mö-
mînis Rómáni extinguendi (Cic. p. Mur. 37. 80), plan8 opere
formed for destroyi^g the city, butcherìng the cìtìzens, extin-
gwîshèng the Romam mation.
1288 The two constructions of the neuter gerund with a moun de-
pendent upon it, and the gerundive in agreement with the noun,
are notto be used indifferently. The construction with the gerund
was the earlier one, and so belonged to the older writers*, but still
maintained its ground in certain phrasesf. In those which are
commonly considered the best Writers, the construction with the
gerundive was for the most part preferredf. Indeed, whem the
phrase is attached to a preposition governing the accusative, the
gerundive construction is adopted almost, without exception.
1289 The use of the gerundive with the accusative is very common
after the verbs löca-, condüc-, cüra-, rédîm-, da-, suscíp-, &c. : as,
Mönümentum ei marmóreum fáciundum löcärunt (Cic. ad Fam.
IV. 12. 3), they placed the making a maröle monument in his
hands, i. e. they contracted with him that he should Vuighe
77?07??/7??e??t.
Cölumnam conduxérat fäciundam (Cic. de Div. II. 21. 47), he
had undertaken, the erectior, of a pìllar, or he had contraged
70 erect. *
Pontem în Arári fäciendum cürat (Caes. B. G. I. 13), he has a
örídge διάlt over the Arar.
1290 The gerundive is often omitted in these phrases for the sake of
brevity : as,
SI Rhödiis turpë nön est portórium löcärë§, me Hermacreonti
quídem turpest condücéré (ì. e. exîgendum understood)
(Cic. de Inv. I. 30. 47), f it is mot disgraceful in the Rho-
* Mihi hac móctu agitandumst uigilias (Plaut. Trin. Iv. 2. 27), * I have
to keep watch to-night ;' aeternas poenas in morte timendumst (Lucr. I.
112), “ they have to dread eternal punishment when dead.*
+ See §§ 1285, 1286.
f Madvig has carefully examined this question in his Opuscula, i.
380, &c. He there points out that in the phrase ad occupandum Veson-
tionem (Caes. B. G. 1. 38) there is no violâtion of the rule, Vesontionem
being masculine, like Narbo Martius in the same country.
§ Hence the connection between the two significations of locare, to
place' and * to let,' the latter alone surviving in the French louer.
314 SYNTAX.
dians to let the port dues, ^either ìs it disgraceful in Herma-
creon to farm them.
Ansërïbus cibáriá löcantür (i. e. praebendä understood) (Cic.
p. Ro8c. Am. 20. 56), the providing food for the (sacred)
gee8e is farmed out. -
129] This construction is used with impéra- ìmpose*, the gerundive
being always omitted : as, •
Equîtës impërat ciuftätïbùs (i. e. cögendös understood) (Caes. .
IB. G. VI. 4), he imposes wpon, the states the provîdîng hor8e-
soldiers, or he commands them, to provide him with cavalry.
1292. The genitive of the gerundive is usedf to denote a tendency,
fitness or purpose, more particularly in connection with the verb
ès- be : as,
Quae diütïnae obsfdiónis tólérandae sunt (Liv. xxx. 9), what-
ever is of use for supportîng a long blockade.
Quae témére ágftäuêrant, eá pródendi impéri Römäni, trä-
dendae Hannibăli uictöriae érant (Liv. xxvII. 9), the hasty
measures they had taken, tended to 8acrìfice the Roman, empêre,
to betray the victory έnto the hands of Hannibal.
Cëtëra, in duödécim täbülis mínuendi sunt sumptüs (Cic. de
Leg. II. 23. 59), the other regulations in the twelve tables have
for their object a dóminution of eapense.
Armâ cëpit, non prò sua iniüriä, sed lègum ac libertätis sub-
uertendaef (Sal. Fragm. Or. Philippi c. Lep.), he has taken,
vp arms, ^ot to averge angy wrong done to himself, but to vp-
set owr laws and owr liberties.
1293 The dative§ also of the gerundive is used to denote fitness or
purpose : as,
Quäsf firmandae uälëtüdfni in Campäniam concessit (Tac. Anm.
III. 31), he retired into Campania as £f to împrove his health.
* That this is the literal translation of impera- is consistent with the
translation of separa-, dispara-, compara-, appara-, * put apart, in dif-
ferent places, together, before a person.'
f Particularly by Livy.
£ This construction is commonly explained, but whether rightly is
doubtful, by an ellipsis of caussa. It often occurs in Tacitus.
§ Tacitus has even the ablative in this sense: eæplenda simulatione,
Ann. xiv. 4.
PARTICIPI,E8 AND VERBAIL SUIBSTANTIVE§. 315
Qui önëri férendo érant (Liv. II. 9), such as were capable of
bearing the burden.
Nec soluendo aeri äliénó respublíca érat (Liv. xxxI. 13), nor
vas the 8tate án, a condition to pay its debts.
Décemuírös ägrö Samniti métiendö diuídemdóqué creat (Liv.
xxxI. 4), he appoints ten commîssîoners for the púrpo8e Qf
^measurîng and divíding the Samnnite territory.*
1295 The construction of the gerundive with the verb ës- be, in the
sense of duty, is only a particular case of what has been already
noticed in § 966, and the dative of the person in fact belongs to
the verb ës rather than to the gerumdive. f Thus,
Vt tîbi ambülandum, ungendum, sic mihi dormiendum (est f)
(Cìc. ad Att. Ix. 7. 7), as yow must walk, must amoìnt ?your-
self, 80 I must sleep ;—which would be more literally trans-
lated, as walking, as anoîntîng öelongs to 3yow, 80 does sleepìng
ê0 7ne.
1296 The frequent use of the gerund and gerundive with ës- be, in
the sense of duty or fitness, § led the mind at last to attach the
motion of duty to the gerundive itself, so that the latter is at times
u8ed as an equivalent of an adjective in bììì. Thus,
Nec té, iüuënis mëmörandé, sílébo (Vîrg. A. x. 793), mor thee,
ever- memorable 3youth, will I pass by in, silence.
* The last three phrases are common. See § 984.
f So in such a phrase as legionem in Morinos ducemdam Fabio dedit
(Caes. B. G. v. 24), the dative Fabio is dependent not upon ducendam,
but upon dedit ; and again, the accusative after dedit is not legionem, but
legionem ducendam, * the duty of conducting the legion.* But although
the dative case commonly accompanies the gerund and gerundiwe, yet
there are occasional examples even in Cicero where ab and the ablative
occur, especially when the verb takes a dative of its own, and a second
dative in the sense of the agent would cause ambiguity. Thus, quibus
est a uobis consulendum (Cic. p. leg. Man. 2. 6), * whose interests you
must consult.'
3: Est mihi admits the translation, * I have;' and preeisely in the same
way, est mihi ambulandum may be well translated by * I have to walk.'
Thus the origin of the dative in this phrase is without difficulty.
§ The notiom of possibility is 8ometimes expressed by the participle
in endo, but it occurs in the best writers only with a negative or viae : as,
malum via, ferendum (Cic. de Fin. IV. 19. 53), * an evil scarcely to be
endured.* For the use of this participle with fu- * be* in hypothetical
sentences, see §§ 715-72l.
316 * SYNTAX.
1297
1298
1299
The phrases denoting duty at the same time refer commonly
to the future time for the performance of the act ; and indeed
generally, as the gerund or gerundive is strictly am imperfect, the
completion of the act must belong to future time. Hence the
idea of futurity gradually attached itself to this form, and gram-
marians have given it, though inaccurately, the name of a future
participle. That it is truly an imperfect* is well seen in such
phrases as :
Intér ägendum (Virg. Buc. Ix. 24), while drìvìrg.
In pátriá delenda occüpáti et sunt et fuérunt (Cic. de Off. I.
17. 57), they both are and have been for Some time occupíed ír.
blottìng out theôr fatherland from the face qf the world.
The so-called verbal adjective in bundo is really a participle,
and so sometimes found with an accusative : as,
Vitäbundus castra hostium (Lîv. xxv. 13), carefully avoîdîng
the ememy's camp.
The verbal substantive in tw is used in the accusativet after
verbs of motion to denote the object : as,
Ad Caesărem grätülätum conuênêrunt (Caes. B. G. I. 30), they
came from dìfferent quarter8 to Caesar to congratulate höm.
Quinqué cohortis frümentätum misit (Caes. B. G. VI. 36), he
sent five cohorts to get corr.
Id rescitum iri crédît (Ter. Ad. I. l. 45), he believes that people
are going to find it out, or he believes that it will be found out.
It governs the same case as the verb from which it is derived:
aS,
Päcem pétitum örätöres mittunt (Liv. I. 15), they semd ambas-
8adors to 8eek petace. -
Lëgätos mittunt rögätum auxílium (Caes. B. G. I. 11), they send
ambassadors to ask aîd.
I300
130]
The verbal substantive in tu, is used in the ablative with cer-
tain adjectives: as,
* Something like an imperfect participle is seen in the so-called ad-
jective secundo- (i. e. sequendo-) * following, second.'
f This accusative of the verbal in tu is often called the supine active,
and the ablative of the same the supine passive ; but there is nothing
passive in the latter, and therefore the distinction is inappropriate. A
similar error exists in our own language in the foolish practice now be-
ginning to prevail of saying, * a house to be let,' instead of*a house to let.'
PREPOSITIONS-AB. 317
Diffeflë dictu est (Cic. de Off. II. 14. 48), it is difficult to say
(literally, in the saying).
Optümum factu est (Cic. ad Fam. vII. 3. 1), ät is the best thing
to do.
1302 The verbal in tíon sometimes governs the same case as the verb
from which it is derived : as,
Iustítia est obtempërätiö scriptis légibüs (Cic. de Leg. I. 15. 42),
justáce ìs obedience to written, law8.
Dömum rédîtiónis spê sublätä (Caes. B. G. I. 5), the hope of
returning home havêng been taken, away.
1303 IPREPOSITIONS.
Ab (or à before Some consonants) seems to have signified ori-
ginally provìmìty ; and hence it was well suited to denote the
quarter from which an action commenced, and therefore the source
and origin of things. Thus it signifies :
a. The quarter at or mear which, expressed by at, îr, or, &c. : as,
A fronte ét ab sînisträ parté nüdätis castris (Caes. B. G. II. 23),
the camp being laid bare in front and on the left.
Gallia ab Séquänis et Heluétiis adtingit Rhênum (Caes. B. G.
I. l), Gallia reaches to the Rhêne at the parts occupâed by the
Sequanì and Helvetî.
Isthmus duö märia äb occäsu ét ortü sölis finîtîmâ dîrîmît
(Lîv. xLv. 28), the isthmus dîvîdes two adjoining 8eas on the
ve$t and the east.
A mätrë Pompêium arctissïmö contingébat grädü (Suet. Aug.
4), he was very nearly related to Pompey on the mother's side.
Apud söcrum tuam pröpe â meis aedibus sëdëbäs (Cic. in Pis.
11. 26), 3yow were síttíng at gyour mother-in-law's near my
hovse.
b. With the verb sta- stand, &c., by, on, the side qf, în favour
of: as, .
Nêmo à sënätu et bönörum caussâ stétit constantiüs (Cic. Brut.
79. 273), no ore stood more firmly by the 8enate and the cause
of good me^.
Höc nihilö mägis áb aduorsäriis quam ä nöbis fìcìt (Cic. de
Inv. I. 48. 90), this tells no more for ovr opponents tham for
?/8.
318 SYNTAX,
VÎde ne hoc tótum sit à mé (Cic. de Or. I. 13. 55), have a care
lest the whole qf this argument öe ör, my favour.
c. I^, ίη re$pect Qf, în point of, a8 regards : as,
Sümüs énim impäräti, cum ä milítíbus tum à pécüniâ (0$e, ad
Att. VII. 15. 3), for ave are ìndeed wnprepared, not mere%y ör.
poînt oftroops, bwt even, qf money.
Antöniüs äb ëquïtätü firmüs essé dicëbätür (Cic. ad Fam. x.
15. 2), Antony was Said to öe strong in, cavalry.
d. The department in which the services of an officer or servant
are called for, and thus arises a name for the office : as,
Hömînës håbet, quös äb épistölis et lîbellis et rätiönibüs appel-
lat (Tac. Ann. xv. 35), he has persons whom he calls 8ecre-
taries, registrars, accowntants.
Phîlëmönem, ä mänü seruum, simplíci mortë püniit (Suet.
Jul. 74), his amanwensis Philemon, he pwnished by simply
ραttìng to death.
Antiöchus Ti. Claudi Caesärïs à bibliöthêcä (Inscr. ap. Grut.
584. 6), Antiochus, librarían, to Tiberìus Clavdivs Caesar.
e. At, in referemce to time : as,
Summissüs ä primò, post exsultäuit audäciüs (Cic. Or. 8. 26),
subdwed at first, he afterwards öwrst out án, a öolder Style.
f. From, the point of departure : as,
Mätürat åb urbë pröfîcisci (Caes. B. G. 1. 7), he hastens to 8et
out from the city.
Ab Römä lëgäti uênêrunt (Liv. xxI. 9), ambassadors came from
Rome.
9. Wóth, after verbs signifying commencement : as,
Caedis Ínftium fëcisset ä më (Cic. Phil. v. 7. 20), he would have
7nade a begin^örg of the massacre with me.
Ab his sermo örtur, respondet Laeliüs (Cic. de Am. I. 5), with
the8e the conversation commences, Laelius replies.
h. From, the commencement of time : as,
Ab hörä septima ad uespërum pugnätum est (Caes. B. G. I. 26),
the battle continued from one o'clock untii evening.
Tuäs épistöläs à primò lêgo (Cic. ad Att. Ix.6.5), I am reading
your letters from the begînning.
AB. 319
Quíbüs ä puëris dédîti fuîmüs (Cic. de Or. I. 1 2), to which we
have been devoted from our boyhood.*
£. From, the commencement of a series : as,
Carneädës est quartüs äb Arcësïlà (Cic. Acad. II. 6. 16), Car-
^eades is fourth in the line from Arcesilas.
j. Immediate succession of time, translated by with, after: as,
Ab his praeceptis contiönem dimisit (Liv. xLIv. 34), with the8e
ênjunctions he dismissed the assembly.
Ab hoc sermönë pröfectüs est (Liv. xxII. 40), ìmmediately after
this conversatîor, he set ovt.
K. With verbs signifying to pay, the source whence the money
proceeds: as,
Tibi quod débet, äb Egnätiö soluet (Cic. ad Att. VII. 18. 4),
what he owes you, he will pay by a draft om Egr^atius.
Réliquam pëcüniam à Fâbërió répraesentäbfmüs (Cic. ad Att.
XII. 25), the rest of the money we will pay at orce by drawing
om, Faberîus.
l. With personal pronouns and the mames of persons, from theôr
hov8e : as, s .
A. Unde est ? B. A nöbis (Ter. And. Iv. 4. 15), A. Where dîd ît
come from ? B. From our house.
Ab Andriast ancilla haec (Ter. And. III. 1. 3), this maîd-servant
ês from the Andrian, woman's hovse.
Háec cistella, númnam hinc ab nobis domost ? (Plaut. Cist.
IV. 1. 6) this casket, pray did it come from our house here ?
m. A motive, from, out of, in consequence of: as,
Tanto ardörë milîtum est üsüs äb Ira inter condíciónes päcîs
interfectae stätiönfs (Liv. xxIv. 30), he was so warmly sup-
ported by his 8oldiers, from their anger at the troops on guard
havîrg been, kîlled during a negociation.
Nön á cúpídítätë sölum ulciscendi ägrum nostrum inuädent
(Liv. v. 5), not merely from the desíre of revenge will they
invade owr territory.
?. The agent with passive verbs, expressed by the preposition
by: as,
* Literally * from boys,' an idiom which agrees with our own.
320 SYNTAX.
Ab söciis ünïcë diligëbätür (Cic. p. Planc. 9. 24), he was most
hîghly esteemed by his colleagues.
A më tü coactüs es confîtëri (Cic. II. Verr. v. 30. 76), 3yo^, were
compelled by me to confess.
0. What is considered as an agent, with intransitive verbs: as,
Máre á sólé collücet (Cic. Acad. Pr. II. 33. 105), the 8ea ìs ìnade
a mass of Wight by the sur.
Nihìl est uälentiùs, à quo intéreat (Cic. Acad. Post. I. 7. 29),
there ìs nothing stronger (than, îtself) by which êt may be de-
8troyed.
p. Removal, separation, distance, expressed commonly by from :
AS
' Ab delectatióne omni négótiis impëdimür (Cic. p. Mur. 19. 39),
we are prevented from taking any amu$ement by business.
IProxîmùs à tectIs ignis défendítür aegre (Ov. Rem. Am. 625),
am adjoining fire is oparded off from buildings with difficulty.
Ab ìnìmicórum audäciä tëlisquë uitam dëfendërë (Cic. p. Mil.
2.6), to defend our lives against the audacity and weapons Qf
ovr ememóes.
Ipse áb hörum turpítüdine àbhorrébat (Cic. p. Sest. 52. 112),
he himself turned away in horror from the baseness of these
77?67®, -
Miliâ passuum tria áb eörum castris casträ pönït (Caes. B. G.
I. 22), he pitches his camp three miles from theír camp.
Obs. In many of these constructions a mere ablative is suffi-
cient (See § 1023), but before persons the preposition áb is required.
q. Ab is sometimes placed before the measure of the distance,
instead of the place measured from : as,
Ab milíbus passuum octö uentö ténèbantür (Caes. B. G. IV.
22), they were detained by the wind eight miles off.
Pósitis castris à milíbus passuum quindécim auxîlia expectärë
constituunt (Caes. B. G. VI. 7), having encamped at a dis-
tance Qffifteen miles, they resolve to wait for the alJied troops.*
1304 In composition with verbs áb denotes, a. removal, absence: as,
aufér- carry away, âbës-be absent ; hence äbüt- (r.) vtse wp. b. down, :
* See Matthiae's Greek Grammar, Transl. II. 878, atro σταδιων τ€τ-
“rapakovra tms 8αλαττηs.
.AB. AD 321
1305
as, äbfc- or äbfci- (abiíci-) throw down, absorbe- suck doων, abs-
trüd-* thrust down, afflig-* dash. down, appös- or äpös-* 8et down.f
In composition with adjectives äb denotes ab8ence, difference :
as, ämenti- or àment- without mând, mad, absöno- oo/t qf tu^e or
time.
Ad signifies—a. Motion to (i. e. wp to, not ìnto): as,
Exercîtum ad Cäsilinum dücït (Liv. XXIII. 17), he leads his
army to (the walls Qf) Casilinwm.
Münitiónem ad flümen perduxérat (Caes. B. C. III. 66), he had
carried the fortífication to the (δank of the) rêver.
ö. To what time : as,
Ad id dúbios seruârant änïmös (Lîv. xxI. 52), wp to that time
they had kept their mánds in, a state qf doubt.
c. To what eactent : as,
Omnës äd ünum Ídem sentiunt (Cic. de Am. 23. 86), they have
all to a man the 8ame feeling.
Serui ad quattuor milia hömînum Cäpftölium occüpáuërë (Lîv.
III. 15), the 8laves to the number of 4000 men seized the Ca-
pitol.
Incautös ad sätiétâtem trücidäbítís (Liv. xxIv. 38), wnpre-
pared as they will be, 3yow will butcher them tú/3yow are tired.
Adf uiginti mätrönis per uiätörem accitis (Liv. VIII. 18), as
many as twenty ladìes having been summoned by the mes-
Senger.
d. Directîon, to, towards : as,
Via ad Cäsilinum obsessâ, (Lîv. xxII. 16), the road to Casílírae;
beì^g occupîed by the enemy.
Vergit ad septemtriönës (Cae8. B. G. I. 1), át árclínes to the
north.
e. Purpose, for: as,
Multâ sunt ánímaduorsa herbärum généra ad morsüs bestiärum
(Cic. de Div. I. 7. 13), many kinds of herbs have öeem dis-
covered for the bites of beasts.
* See § 451. 1.
f Compare the German ab-gehen * go down,' and Sansk. ava * down.'
f In this usage the numeral alone depends upon the preposition, the
substantive adapting its case to the rest of the sentence. S&e § 1055. l.
y.
322 SYNTAX.,
Ad lüdos pëcüniae décernuntür (0%c. ad Q. F. I. 1.9.26), ^none?
t& voted for the games.
Ad ägrum instruendum uires nön ërant (Liv. VI. 5), they were
too weak (ín pwrse) to 8tock a farm.
Pälus Römänös äd inséquendum tardábat (Caes. B. G. VII. 26),
the marsh made the Romans slow to púrsue.
f. To, in reply: as, -
Ad illâ quae mé mägis möuërunt respondébó (Cic. p. Cael. ll.
27), I will reply to those other points which moved me more.
g. In respect Qf, lookông to : as,
Vir äd üsum përitüs, ad fortünam félix (Cic. p. Font. 15. 43),
a mam of eæperience as regards the world, and favoured in
respect to fortune.
h. In, addition to : as,
Si ad cëtérâ uolnéra hanc quöqué plägam infixissës (Cic. in
Vat. 8. 20), if in addition to the other wow^ds yow had án-
ficted this blow also.
Ad hoc prömissâ barba et cäpilli efférâuêrant spéciem órís (Lìv.
II. 23), in addition to this a lo^g beard and long haîr had
gêven, a Savage character to his face.
v. By, offuture tìme : as,
Nös hic te ad mensem Iänuárium expectämüs (Cic. ad Att. I.
3. 2), we ea pect to See 3/ow here by the month qf January.
Nescio quîd intersit ütrum nunc uéniam, än ad décem annös
(Cic. ad Att. xII. 46), I know ^of what it matters, whether I
come ^ow or te^ 3years hence.
j. Vear, before, qff, to, over (all in the sense of mearness): as,
Ad Geronium constîtërat bellum (Liv. xxII. 32), before Gero-
^ium the war had come to a standstill. -
Classis quae ad Sicîliam ërat (Liv. xxvII. 22), the fleet which
was lying qff Sici/y.
Cänunt ad tibiam clärörum uîrörum laudës (Cic. Tusc. Iv. 2. 3),
they sìng the praïses ofgreat men, to the ftute.
Nonnunquam ad uinum diserti sunt (Cic. p. Cael. 28. 67), they
aere 8ometimes eloquent over their wine.
H. J^ comparison to, by the side Qf: as,
AD. 323
Nihîl ad nostram hamc (Ter. E. II. 3. 69), nothông to this one of
0?/7*$.
Terra äd ünïuorsi caeli complexum quäsí puncti instär obtímet
(Cic. Tusc. I. 17. 40), the earth, compared to what the whole
heavens embrace, ìs as êt were δῶt a poînt.
?. In accordance with, after: as,
Cätö uitam ad certam rätiönis normam dirîgît (Cic. p. Mur. 2.
3), Cato shapes his 7ífe ágy the strict square of reasor.
Vixit, äd áliörum arbítrium, möm ad suum (Cic. p. Mur. 9. 19),
he has lived according to the pleasure of others, not his ow^.
Q^. Amorg, öefore (in the same sense as äpüd): as,
Mínus clädis, cëtërum non plüs änïmörum ád hostis ërat (Lîv.
x. 35), there was less loss, övt not more confidence amo^g the
enemy.
Sënätörum süperbiam ad plébem crímínantür (Liv. III. 9), they
attack the tyranny of the 8enators before the commo^alty.
^. Immediately wpon, ίη consequence of, at : as,
Ad fämam obsídiónis dëlectùs häbêri coeptüs est (Lîv. IX. 7),
at the report qf a siege, a levy of troops vas commerced.
Néc ad dücis cásum perculsâ mägis quam irritäta est multítüdo
(Lîv. Ix. 22), and the great mass of the men were ^ot so mœch
panic-struck as rouSed to fury at the acciden* to their chief.
o. Before a Word denoting a persom, to the house Qfthat person :
3S -
2 Magni dömum concursüs äd Afrämium* fiébant (Caes. B. C. I.
53), great crowds kept flocking to the hovse qf Afranius.
Néqué dömum unquam ad mé littëras mittam quim adjungam
eas quas tîbi reddi uëlim (Cic. ad Fam. III. 8. 10), ^or Shall
1 ever send letters to my own, hov8e, without adding to the
packet a letter for 3/ou.
Déuertit Clödiùs ad së (Cic. p. Mil. 19. 51), Clodìus turnedout Qf
the road to hás oω^, hoω$e.
p. With a noun demoting the department in which a servant's
offices are looked for, whence arises a name for the office (see äb, ;
§ 1303 d.) : as,
* And this phrase is used although Afranius himself was in Spaim at
the time. See § 1303 l.
324 SYNTAX.
Lícínum seruom síbi häbuit ad mänum (Cic. de Or. III. 60.
225), he had a slave Licìnùs for his amarwensis.
Puér quîs ex aulâ cäpillis Ad cyäthúm státuëtür unctis? (Hor.
Od. I. 29. 7) shal' some page from the palace with perfumed
locks öe stationed besîde the wine-ladle ?*
1306 Ad in composition with verbs denotes—a. motion to : as, äd-i-
go to, approach, acced- step wp to. b. addition : as, acced- be added,
ascrib-f emroll with. c. mearness : as, assíde- sît mear, adiäce- lie
^ear, assurg- (alicui) rìse to (a perso^). d. a88ent, favour : as, annu-
^od assent, arride- smile on, accläma- eaepress asse^t òy acclamation,
oheer. But see § 1308. 1, &c.
1307 Aduersüs or -um (old form aduorsùs or -um) is literally trans-
lated by our to-wards. It denotes :
a. Motio^ towards : as,
Quis haéc est, quae me aduórsum incedit ? (Plaut. Per. II. 2.
18) who is this woman, that ìs comìng towards me ?
Impëtum aduersus montem in cohortis fäciunt (Caes. B. C. I.
46), they make a charge upf. the mowntain upor, the cohorts.
b. 0pp08ite, facing, öefore (without motion): as,
Iléro et Lërina aduersùs Antìpölim (Plin. III. 11), Lero and
Lerina opposite Antipolìs.
Egóne ut te aduórsum méntiar, matér mea ! (Plaut. Aul. Iv.
7. 9), Itel, a falsehood before yov, mother /
c. Conduct towards (good or bad, friendly or unfriendly) : as,
Quónammödo më géram aduorsus Caesărem ? (Cic. ad Fam. xI.
27. 5) hoω ín the world am I to bear myself towards Caesar ?
Id grátum fuisse aduórsum te, habeo grátiam (Ter. And. I. 1.
15), that this was pleasíng to yov, 1 feel grateful.
d. 7'o cownteract, against : as,
Sunt tämen quaedam rémédiâ pröpria aduersus quaedam ué-
* In very late writers, as Vegetius, ad was used to denote the means:
as, ad spongiam detergere (III. 4. 2), ad acutam cannam eaesecare (III. 3.
12), ad siphonem paulatim infundes (1. 10. 2), ad acum pars auriculae
signatur (III. 2. 27), perforare ad acum (ibid. 28).
f See § 451. 1.
i He who goes up a mountain goes facing it. Compare the use of
the ablative absolute, aduerso monte ire, and § 1320 δ.
AD. ADVORSVM. AM. ANA. 325
nënä (Cels. v. 27. 12), there are however certain specifio reme-
dies again8t certain poisons.
e. At variance with, in opposition to : as,
Pécüniae conciliátae aduorsum lêgês, aduorsum rempublicam
(Cic. II. Verr. III. 84. 194), money quietly obtained în oppo-
sition to the law, in opposition to the ίntere8ts of the country.
f. Aduorsum is used adverbially with i- go &c. and a dative of
the person : as,
Cesso héró meo ire aduorsum ? (Plaut. Cas. III. 6. 5) w/.y do I
^ot ( t once go to meet my master ?
1308 Am, rarely ifever used except in composition, when it signifies,
a. with verbs, rownd : as, anquIr- look round for, amplect- (r.)
embrace, ám-fc- or ám-íci- throw round. ö. in adjectives, om. δο/h.
sides : as, ancíp- or ancîpît- two-headed.
1308. 1 Ana (=ava), used in its full form only as an adverb, and only
in medical* prescriptions, signifies distribution, or each : as,
Saccäri, erui pollînîs, äna unciam ünam (Veg. Art. Vet. III.
65. 6), sugar, and the flovr of black vetches, one ounce of each.
Fölii cappáris, fölii mirti siluestris, fölii cüpressi äna uncias
tres diligentissîmë dëtërës (δέd. III. 2.6), take of caper-leaves,
wild-myrtle-leaves, cypres8-leaves, three ounces each, and pound
them, as fine a8 possible.
1308. 2 Anf up (= ava) is found only in composition. The form in which
it appears greatly varies. a. In än-hêla- it retains its correct form.
δ. Frequently it has the consonant assimilated to that which fol-
lows, as in accümüla-, addormisc-, alléua-, ammöne-, apprehend-,
acquiesc-, arrìg-, assicca-, attér-. c. Sometimes the consonant, is
altogether lost, as in a-gnosc-, a-scend-. d. More commonly it is
attracted into the form of the familiar prepositiom ád, thus chang-
ing the dental liquid for a dental mute, as in ädäresc-, ádéd-, ädfm-,
ádölesc-, ädür-. e. Not less frequently it is attracted into the
form of the familiar preposition in, by an easy change of the
vowelf, as in incìp- or incipi-, ínhorre-, intümesc-, imbu-, ignosc-.§
* As the medical art at Rome was in the hands of Greeks, Greek
words obtained admission into this part of the language.
•f See § 834 b. and note.
3: So in, the negative prefix, corresponds to the privative av.
§ Even êm-ìt- (ömitt-) represents the c. F. of av-impu.
326 SYNTAX.
1308. 3 An up, like its equivalent ava, has the following meanings : a.
1308.
1309
vp, as anhéla- &end atp (a blasf Qf air), make a violent eaepäration ;
ascend- climö wp, accümüla- heap αρ, adiüua- lift up and so aid,
alléua- raîse vp, apprehend- take up, arrìg- erect, adaequa- raise to
a level with, inhorre- bristle wp, intümesc- swell up, instítu- 8et vp.
δ. back, as Inhibe- hold up or back, inclima- bend back, inflect- bend
back, infring- refract. c. again, as agnosc- recognise, ammöne- or
admöne- remind, adsurg-* rìse vp agaèr, instaura- (=restaura^)
celebrate anew, ingémîna- redouble. d. rever8al of a preceding act, as
ignosc- forget, acquiesc- repose after labour. e. loosening, operúng,
as adäpéri- opem αρ, ïnära- plough wp, infind- cleave oper, plovgh
vp. f. commencement, as ädäma- fall în love, addormisc- fall
asleep, aduespëräsc- begêr to be dusk, ambür- begìn to öwrn, sínge,
imbu- wet for the first time, informa- give a first shape to, immfnu-
impair (what wa8 entêre), incîp- or incîpi- take up, begìn. g. 8epa-
ratîon, removal, disappeara^ce, as ádfm-t toke wp and so take away,
ampüta- cut off, assicca- dry up, ädäresc- dry wp (intr.), infring-
break off, incid- cut off, intäbesc- meli away. h. through, as ädig-
drive through, tran8fiae, admisce- mi» wp or thoroughly. â. ìnten8ity,
as accid- cut deep into, ádéd- eat deep into, attonde- cut (the haîr)
close, ädür- burn a deep hole án, attér- rò a deep hole in, afffc- or
affíci- produce a deep êmpressîon, om, 8eriously affect.
4 An signifies up in the adjective accliui- wphîll.
Antë. a. Before in place : as,
Immöläbat antë praetórium (Cic. de Div. I. 33. 72), he was sa-
crîficîng before his tent.
Antè tríbümal tuum M. Fanni, antë pëdes uostros iüdíces, cae-
dës ërunt (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 5. 12), before 3/ovr tribunal,
Marcus Fannius, before your feet, gentlemen of the jury,
^vîll m^trders öe committed.
b. The same without a case : as,
Flüuiüs ab tergo, antë circàqué uëlut ripâ praeceps, öram tii-
müli omnem cingëbat (Lîv. xxvII. 18), a rêver èn, the rear,
in front and on the sìdes somethèng like a precipitous bank
8hvt an the whole circuit of the emìnence.
* See Liv. xxI. 36. 7, XXII. 2. 6, and ad-insurg- xxII. 4. 2.
f Compare av-αιpe-.
-AN. ANTE. 327
c. Before a person (rare): as,
l)icérë caussam antë iüdícem (Cic. I. Verr. 3. 9), to make a
defence before a judge.
d. Motion forward (without a noum): as,
Vt si aut mänïbùs ingrédiâtúr quîs, aut nön antë sed rétrö
(Cic. de Fim. v. 12. 35), as fa per8on, were to walk upon his
hands, or to walk, ^ot forwards, 6ut backwards.
e. Before in order: as,
Quem antê mê dilígo (Balb. ap. Cic. ad Att. vIII. 15 A.), whom,
I esteem, above myself.
f. Before in time (which is the ordinary meaning of the word):
aS
'Multo ante noctem cópias réduxit (Liv. XXVII. 42), long òefore
?might fie led the forces back.
g. Before in time Without a noum : as,
IEt féci ante et fácio nunc (Cic. ad Fam. xv. 14. 3), 1 have done
so before, and I do 8o ^ow.
Paucis antë diébüs oppîdum obpugnârant (Liv. xLI. II), a fev
days before (this) they had assauited the town.
Anno antë quam mortuost (Oic. de Am. 3. 11), the gear before
he died. •
h. This preposition, as weil as post, oftem causes this ablative
to be changed for am accusative by attraction, as if it depended
upon the preposition. Thus,
Chalcidem diës antë paucos prödidërat (Liv. xxxI. 24), he had
betrayed Chalcis a few days before.
Sulci ante annum fiunt, quam uinëtâ conséruntür (Col. v. 5),
the furrovs are made a 3year before the vineyards are planted.
Lätinae fëriae fuêre antë diem tertium nönas Maiäs (Liv. xLI.
16), the Latin festival was two days before the nones of May,
i. e. the 5th qf May.
ê. Hence another preposition may be placed before antë : as,
Caedem contülisti fn antë diem quintum kálendas Növembris
(Cic. in Cat. 1. 3. 7), the massacre gyov fiaeed for the fourth
day before the kalends of November, i. e. October the 28th.
Supplicätio indicta est ex antë diem quintum Idüs Octóbris
cum eò die in quinqué diés (Lîv. XLV. 2), a thanksgiving
328 SYNTAX.
2oas proclaimed to continue from the fourth day before the ides
Qf October inclusive for five days, i. e. from the 11th to the
l5th of October.
1310 Antë in composition with verbs signifies before in place, time
and eæcellence : as, ante-i- walk before, ûve before, surpass ; anté-
céd-* precede in place, in time, în quality.
1311 Apùd (àpüt) is for the most part limited to persons. It de-
notes :
a. Vear, with places (rarely) : as,
Apùd oppídum Cybistrâ castrâ fëci (Cic. ad Fam. xv. 4. 4), I
encamped mear the town, Cybistra.
Apud forum modo e Dáuo audiui (Ter. And. II. 1. 2), 1 heard
άt just now from Davus mear the forum.
Ciufcam cörönam äpud Brîtanniam méritùs ërat (Tac. f Ann.
xvI. 15), he had earned a cîvîc crown, among the Britons.
6. Vear, with persons : as,
In lectö Crassüs érat, ét äpüd eum Sulpîcius sëdëbat (Cic. de
Or. II. 3. 12), Crassus was on the cowch, and ^ear hóm, Sul-
pîcîus was sittîng. -
Apùd exercítum est (Cic. II. Verr. Iv. 22. 49), he is with the
army.
Auet änïmüs äpùd illud consílium dicérë (Cic. Phil. v. 5. 13),
my soul longs to speak before that bench of judges.
c. At the house of a personi, even though he be away : as,
Βrütum äpúd më fuissê gaudeo (Oic. ad Att. xv. 3. 2), I rejoice
(to hear) that Brutus has been at my hovse.
Dömi esse äpud sése archìpirätas dixit duös (Cic. II. Verr. v.
29. 73), there vere at his house, he saîd, two qfthe chìefpìrates.
d. Metaphorically în one's 8enses: as,
Non sum apát me (Ter. Haut. v. 1. 48), I am all abroad, am
lost, am, out qf my 8en8e8. -
Proin tu fâc apud té ut sies (Ter. And. II. 4. 5), do 3yow ther, at
omce take care 3/ov have all your wits about 3/ow.
* See § 451. l.
f This use of apud with the names of countries is almost peculiar to
Tacitus.
f See §§ 1303 l, 1305 o.
ANTE. APVD. AR. CIRCA. 329
e. In the time Qf: as,
Apud pätres noströs (Cic. p. Mur. 36. 75), amorg our fathers,
i. e. in the times of our father8.
Apud saeclum priüs (Ter. E. II. 2. 15), în the precedìng genera-
tîom.
f. Im the mind : as,
Praemia ápúd mé mfnümum uälent (Cic. ad Fam. I. 9. 11),
rewards with me have very little weight.
Apud uíros bönos grätiam consécüti sümüs (Cic. ad Att. Iv.
l. 3), we have obtained ìnfluence with good men.
9. In aùthors: as,
Vt ille ápud Térentium (Cic. de Fin. v. 10. 28), like that old
^mar. în Terence.
Dé sépulcris nihil est ápud Sölönem amplius quam . . . . (Cic.
de Leg. II. 26. 64), or, the subject of sepulchres there äs motháng
*^ the laws qf Solon more than . . .
1312 Ar (of the same meaning as äd), rarely if ever used except in
composition*, and then it signifies—a. to : as, arcess- and arci-
call to (3yov), 8end for ; aruöca- call to (3yov), aruóla- fly to, aruêna-
one lately arrived, a stramger. b. presence : as, arbîtëro- a per8on.
present, a witness, wmpêre, judge ; arfu- be present (whence arfuit).
1313 Circà. a. About, ro^/md, in reference to place : as,
Custódes circa omnis portas missi më quis urbe égrédérétùr
(Lîv. xxvIII. 26), gwards were sent ro/nd to all the gates to
prevent a^y one from leavìng the city.
Cänes circà $e hàbëbat (Cic. II. Verr. I. 48. 126), he had dogs
about hóm.
ö. The same without a noun: as,
Lüpâ sítiens ex montïbus qui circà sunt ad puérilem uägitum
cursum flexit (Liv. I. 4), a thörsty wolf out of the mountains
which lie around, wpon, hearìng the crying Qf a child, twrned
it8 cowrse thither.
c. About, as to time : as,
Postéro diè circa eandem höram cöpiäs admöuit (Liv. XLII. 57),
the next day about the 8ame howr he moved wp his troops.
* But see Plaut. Truc. II. 2. 17.
330 SYNTAX.
d. About, as to number : as.
Deindé périnséquentis dies circà singüläs héminâs émittendum
(Cels. VII. 15), then, durìng the following days about an he-
m%na is to öe drawn off each day.
e. About, wpon, concermóng, ίη reference to (chiefly in the later
writers) : as,
IHI circà consílium éligendi successörïs in duas factiónes scin-
débantür (Tac. FIist. I. 13), these were dîvîdîng them8elves
<înto two parties upon, the questior, of electing a successor.
1314 Circîtër. a. Aöovt, as regards place (rare): as,
Vt öpinor, löca haec circitër excîdit mihi (Plaut. Cist. Iv. 2. 7),
Ifancy êt was hereaöovts I dropt it.
6. About, as to time : as,
Circîtër idüs Sextilis püto me äd Icónium förë (Cic. ad Fam.
III. 5. 4), about the ides of Seztilis, i. e. Avgvst 13th, I cal-
culate I shall be in the ^eighbourhood of Iconium.
c. About, as to number (the chief use of the word): as,
Dies circîter quindécim íter fëcërunt (Caes. B. G. I. 15), they
^narched for about fifteen, days.
1315 Circum, round, whether in rest, or circular or other similar
motion : as,
Terrâ circum axem së comuortYt (Cic. Acad. Pr. II. 39. 123), the
earth turns round its avis.
IEx eâ turri quae circum essent öpérâ tuéri së possé confisi sunt
(Caes. B. C. II. 10), from this tower they felt confident that
they should be able to defend the works which Way aroωnd.
Ρuéros circum ämicos dimittît (Cic. p. Quinct. 6. 25), he sends
the servants round to his frìends.
Paucae, quae circum illam essent, mänent (Ter. E. III. 5. 33),
a few women remain to wait wpon, that lady.
1316 Cfs. a. On this sìde of, within, as regards place : as,
Saepe áb his cis Pädum ultràqué légiónes füsae érant (Liv. v.
35), the legìons had been often routed by them on this side Qf
the Padus and öeyond it.
b. Withôn, in regard to time (only in Plautus): as,
Nülla, faxim, cîs dies paucós siet (Plaut. Truc. II. 3. 27), I
wowld make êt wholly disappear withán, a few days.
CIRCA. GIBGVM. CIS. CITBA. GLAM. CONTRA. 331
1317 CÌs in the composition of adjectives signifies on this side of:
as, cfsalpino-, cisrhénäno-, cispädäno-, o^ this side the AVy8, the
Rhêne, the Po.
1318 Cfträ. a. On this side of, within, as regards place : as,
Erat ënim cum suis náuíbus citrà Véliam miliâ passuum triã
(Cic. ad Att. xvI. 7. 5), for he was in fact with his fleet three
^miles on this side Velia.
ö. The same without a noun : as,
Téla hostium cítrá cádébant (Tac. Hist. III. 23), the missiles Qf
the enemy kept fallîng short.
c. Withên, as to time : as, -
Löcis üligïnösis cîträ kälendäs Octöbris sémînärë conuênît (Col.
II. 8), on wet lands ìt ìs rìght to sow before the 1st of 0ctober.
d. Short Qf, in degree : as,
Peccäui citrâ scélüs (Ov. Tr. v. 8. 23), my gwît îs 8hort of óm-
piety.
1319 Clam and the diminutive clancülum are used only before per-
sons, in the sense of without their knowledge :
a. As prepositions: as,
Sibi núnc uterque cóntra legionés parat
Patérque filiúsque clam alter âlterum (Plaut. Cas. pr. 50),
Against each other now are they preparîng armies,
Both sîre and 80^, each unknown to each.
Emptast clam úxörem et clam fílium* (Plaut. Merc. III. 2. 2),
8he has beer, purchased wnknown to my wífe and wnknown to
^m?/ 807).
Alii clancülum pätres quae fáciunt (Ter. Ad. I. 1. 27), what
others do without their fathers' knowledge.
ö. They are often used adverbially without a substantive.
1320 Contrà. a. Overagainst, facing : as,
Quinctius trans Tíbérim contra eum löcum übi nunc näuäliâ
sunt, quattuor iügërum cölébat ågrum (Lîv. III. 26), Quinc-
tíus was cultìvatìng a farm of but four jugers on the other
side of the Tiber, opposite where the dockyard mow is.
* So Ritschl from the palimpsest ; but otherwise the best Mss. have
væore and filio.
332 - SYNTAX,
1321
Aspícé-dum contrà mé (Plaut. Most. v. 1. 56), just look me in
the face. -
b. Up*: as,
Dücënäriâ duö conträ scälas fërëbat (Plin. v. 20), he would
carry two two-hundred weights wp stairs.
c. Metaphorically, oppositior, against : as,
Res Römänä conträ spem uötäque ëius résurgébat (Liv. XXIV.
45), the power of Rome was risîng again, contrary to his hope
and his prayers. -
d. Towards, of the feelings or behaviour : as,
Eléphanti tantâ narrätur clémentiâ conträ mïnus uälïdös üt
&c. (Plin. VIII. 7), the kindness of the elephant towards the
veak ás Said to öe 8o great that déc.
e. The reverse (with or without a case): as,
In stultîtiâ contrast (Cic. p. Clu. 31. 84), in fol/y ät is just the
7*€?)€7*S€. -
Quod conträ fit à plérisquë (Cic. de Off. I. 15. 49), whereas the
contrary of this is done by most people.
f. Weighed against (and with a dative case apparently): as,
Non cărust auro c6ntra (Plaut. Ep. III. 3. 30), he is not dear at
his weight în gold.
Cöram. a. In the presence of, only before persons: as,
Mihi ipsi, cöram génèrö meö, quae dicëre ausu's ? (Cic. in Pis.
6. 12) even to me, in the presence qf ?ny so^-in-law, what lan-
guage did 3yow dare to vse ?
Prëcës ad uos conuerto, disque et pátriá córam obtestör (Tac.
Ann. IV. 8), I twr^ my prayers to yow, and before the gods
a^d my coωntry ámplore yow.
b. Frequently without a substantive : as,
Quäsi tëcum cöram löquérer (Cic. ad Fam. II. 9. 2), as £f I had
been talking with 3yow face to face.
Cum. a. With, chiefly in the case of persons : as,
Vägämür égentes cum coniügíbüs et libêris (Cic. ad Att. vIII.
2. 3), we wander about în poverty with our wìves and children.
1322
* Because he who moves facing the stairs ascends them. See aduor-
sum, § 1307 a.
CONTRA. CORAM. CVM. 333
Tëcum essë uehémenter uëlim (Cic. ad Fam. v. 21. 1), I should
be înfinitely delighted to öe with 3yow.
b. A relation between two parties is expressed by the dative of
the chief party, and cum with the other: as,
Tëcum mihi rês est (Cìc. p. Rosc. Am. 30. 84), my dealings are
with you.
Intercëdunt mihi ínímicítiae cum istius müliéris ufrö (Cic. p.
Cael. 13. 32), there is a disagreement eæistìng between, me and
the hvsöand of that woman.
c. With or in, in the sense of wearìng: as,
Nolo me ín uia Cum hac uéste uideat (Ter. E. v. 2. 67), I must
^ot have hûm see me în the street in this dress.
Cënäuit cum tögä pullâ (Cic. in Vat. 13. 31), he dined ín a black
toga.
Ipse essé cum tölö (Sal. Cat. 27), he himself went about armed.
d. Two nouns are at times united by cum, so as to have a
common predicate or adjective or genitive attached to them : as,
Ipsë dux cum äliquot princípíbus cápiuntür (Lîv. xxI. 60), the
general himself with a consîderable number qf the leading men,
are taken.
A'bin hinc in malám rem cum suspîcione istàc scelus ? (Ter.
And. II. 1. 17) go and öe hanged, 3yow and 3your suspîcîo^s,
3yo?, scow^dreę.
Pédem cum uöcë répressit (Virg. A. II. 378), he checked his foot,
and checked his voîce.
Induft albos cum uittâ crimis (Vîrg. A. VII. 4l7), she puts om.
locks and fillet avhite alike.
Címini cum monté läcum (Virg. A. VII. 697), the lake and
mowntain, of Cóminus.
e. With, denoting coincidence of time : as,
Summi puérórum ämöres saepe ünä cum praetextä pönuntür
(Cic. de Am. 10. 33), the strongest attachments qf öoy8 are
qfter, laid asîde together with (at the 8ame time a8) the præ-
te£ta.
Pärïter cum ortü sölis castrà métäbätür (Sal. Jug. 106), pre-
cisely as the swn, was risîng he was measurírg ovt a camp.
f. With, in, &c., to express accompanying feelings, circum-
stances: as,
334 SYNTAX.
Athénienses cum silentio auditi sunt (Liv. xxxvIII. 10), the
Athenîans were heard în silence. ¢
Flämini corpus magnâ cum cüra inquisitum nön inuênit (Liv.
xxII. 7), the body of Flamìnùs he made Search after with the
greatest care, but did not find ἀt.
g, The immediate consequences, expressed by to : as,
Vénit Lampsêcum cum magnâ cálámítáte et própè pernicié
ciuïtätïs (Cic. II. Verr. I. 24. 63), he came to Lampsacum*
to the great damage and all but vtter ruin, qf the citizens.
h. With, in comparisons : as,
Conferte hanc päcem cum illó bellö (Cic. II. Verr. Iv. 52. 115),
compare this peace with that war.
Cum meum factum cum tuö compäro (Cic. ad Fam. III. 6. 1),
when, I compare my conduct with 3yowrs.
δ. With, in the sense of against, with verbs denoting contest :
Cum omníbus sälütis meae dëfensóríbus bellâ gérunt (Cic. p.
Sest. 2. 4), they wage war with all who defend my lífe and
fortumes.
Hanníbal de impëriö cum pöpülö Römänö certäuit (Cic. de Or.
II. 18. 76), Hannibal contended for empêre with the Roman.
people.
j. Cum eö, followed by üt and a subjunctive, is employed to
express an addition or qualification: as,
Länüuinis säcrä suä reddîtâ, cum eo üt aedes Iünömis com-
münis Länüuinis cum pöpülö Römämo esset (Lîv. VIII. 14),
to the people of Lanuvium their Sacred property was re8tored,
om the condition that the temple qf Juno should be în commo^
between the burgesses of JLanuvium and the people of Rome.
Vnum gaudium affulsêrat, cum eo üt appârêret haud pröcül
exítió fuissé classem (Lîv. xxx. 10), one joy had &hone φροη,
them, together with the certainty that the fleet had been at one
time on the verge qf destruction.f
1323 Cum or cön in composition with verbs signifies—a. Vnìo^ : as,
concür-f rum, together, co-i- meet, consül- [sit together], deliberate.
* Lampsacum, not Lampsacus, is the nominative in Cicero. See II.
Verr. I. 24. 63.
+ See also § 1065. 1, examples 2, 3, 4.
3. See § 451. l.
CVM. (JON. DE. 335
1324
1325
I326
δ. completeress (in the way of destruction): as, comëå- eat αρ,
com-bür-* burn, up, contüd-* hammer to pìeces, confîc- or confíci-
dispatch, concid- cut to pìeces. c. completeness (in the way of suc-
cess): as, confîc- or confíci- make up, consëqu- (r.) overtake, obtain,
consecta- (r.) hwnt down. d. with a great effort : as, cönfc- or cönfci-
hurl, concläma- cry ovt loud/y, collóca- place with care, place for a
permanence, concüt- or concüti- shake violently, comprehend- 8eize
firmly. e. în harmony : as, concîn- and consöna- accord, harmorììse,
consenti- agree (in feeling). f. the same as be in English, at once
changing the construction of the verb and adding complete^e88 :
as, constér-* bestrew or pave, collîn- besmear. (See § 905.)
Cum or cön in adjectives denotes αηάon : as, conscio- sharìng
knowledge, commüni- shared ίη com^non, commödo- havìng the same
measure, fitting, coniüg- 3yoked together, gyokemate.
Cum or cön with substantives denotes fellow : as, conseruo-
fellow-s!ave, commilítón-fellow-8oldier, consöcëro- one of two father&-
in-law.
Dé. a. Dowm, down from : as,
. Ruunt dé montibüs amnës (Vîrg. A. IV. 164), adown the moun-
taìns rozsh the rêvers.
Clipeä dë cölumnis dempsit (Liv. xL. 51), he took the shields
down from the pillars.
Atque haec âgébantür in conuentü pälam de selläf (Cic. II.
Verr. IV. 40. 85), and what is more, these remarks were made
in court openly from the chaîr.
ö. The Source from which : as,
Hoc audiui dé pâtrë meö (Cic. de Or. III. 33. 133), this 1 heard
from my father. -
Millé iügërum dé Pilio émit (Cic. ad Att. xIII. 31. 4), he bought
a thousand jugers (of land) of Pilius.
Pécüniam mümëräuit dê suö (Cic. ad Att. xvI. 16 A. 3), he paid
the money down, out of his own pocket.
Virtüs, quam tü nè dé fácié quídem nosti (Cic. in Pis. 32. 81),
Vìrtue, whom you know ^ot even by sight.
c. Part Qf, one or more of: as,
*' See § 451. l.
f Which was on elevated ground.
336 SYNTAX.
Dê tuis innümöräbílíbüs in me offìciis, érít hoc grätissümum
(Cic. ad Fam. xvI. 1. 2), of 3yowr innúmerable kindnesses to
^me, this will indeed be the most welcome.
Hâbeätur säme örätor sed dê mïnöribüs (Cic. Opt. gen. Or. 4. 9),
let húm, öe accounfed îndeed an, orator, öwt one qf an ìnferior
class.
d. The material of which any thing is made : as,
Primum sîbi fécit pöcülä dë lütö (Tibul. I. 1. 31), he first made
hím cups of dirt.
Dê frätrë quid fiet* ? (Ter. Ad. v. 9. 39) what will become of ^my
δrofher ?
e. Motives, causes, suggestions, variously translated, as by
vnder, for, or, &c. : as,
Iustîs dê caussis rätiönes déferré pröpëräuI (Cic. ad Fam. v.
20. 2), for good reasons I made haste to give in my accounts.
Quörúm dé sententiä tötä res gestast (Cic. p. Sull. 19. 55), wnder
whose advice the whole matter was conducted.
f. Down, wpon, on : as,
Dê grädü cönärI (Liv. xxxIv. 39), to fight their best on foot.
Etiamsi cécïdërit, dé génü pugnat (Sen. de Prov. 2), even £f he
fall, he fights o^ his knee.
Non possum, inquit, tîbi dicérë, nescio énim quid dë grädü
fäciat—tanquam de essëdärio interrögärëtür (Sen. Ep. 29),
I cannot tell 3you, says he, for I know not what he could do
fighting on foot—as though the questior, had been about a
chariot-soldier.
g. Om (a topic), over, about, qf, concerning : as,
Nihil dico dé meo ingénió (Cic. in Caecil. 11. 36), I say nothing
Qf my own, abìlitìes.
Régülus dé captiuis commütandis Römam missüs est (Cic. de
Off. I. 13. 39), Regulus was sent to Rome about am eaechange
qf prisoners.
Dë me autem suscîpè paulisper meas partis (Cic. ad Fam. III.
12. 2), on the other hand, as regards myself, put 3yourself in
m3y positìom for a moment.
Africämus dé Nümantinis triumphäuërat (Cic. Phil. xI. 8. 18),
Africanus had triumphed over the people of Vumantia.
* Literally * will be made.' See § 1003.
DE, DI. 337
h. With words of time the meaning is somewhat doubtful. It
would seem however that here also the notion of a part (see sub-
divisiom c.) prevails, and that the determination as to what part
is only to be inferred from the context. Thus the best translation
perhaps is our preposition by or in the course of: as,
Vt iügülent höminem, surgunt dé noctê lãtrónes (Hor. Ep. I.
2. 32), to murder mam, rises by night the robber.
Coepêrunt épüläri dé dié (Liv. XXIII. 8), they begam banquetìng
by daylight.
Dé tertiä uigilia exercîtum rëdücit (Caes. B. C. II. 35), in the
course of the thárd watch he leads back the army.
i. At times dé is used with a noun to denote immediate suc-
cessiom of time, directly after : as,
Non bönus sompnüs est dê prandió (Plaut. Most. III. 2. 8),
sleep directly after breakfast is not good.
Iamque ädérit multö Priămi dé sanguînë Pyrrhus (Virg. A. II.
662), and Soor will Pyrrhus ôe here, fresh from the streaming
blood of Priam.
1327 Dë in composition with verbs denotes—a. down : as, dém- (for
de-Ím-) take doωn, démît-* let down. ö. removal : as, détonde-
shear, décortîca- Strip off the bark. c. absence : as, deës- or rather
dès- be wanting, débe- (for dehíbe-) owe, défîc- or défici- fail. d.
prevention : as, dehorta- (r.) dissuade, dépréca- (r.) pra3y a thing
?may not be. e. wrfrìendìy feeling: as, déspîc- or déspîci- despise,
déride- laugh at. f. partially : as, déperd- lose ár, part, dépéri-
perish în part, dëröga- take part away (y a rogation). g. ìnten-
sity (?): as, dépöpüla- (r.) lay thoroughly waste, deâma- love to dis-
tractionvf.
1328 Dë with adjectives denotes—a. down : as, décliui- slopîng down-
wards. b. absence : as, démenti- or dément- without mând, idiotic.
1329 DI or dîs (dîr) is used only in compositiom. With verbs it de-
notes—a. divisior : as, diuîd- dîvîde, did- distribute, discrib-* dis-
tríbute by writíng, diläb-* slip avpay in, different directions. ö. dif-
ference : as, discrépa- sound a different mote, dissenti-feel differently.
c. the reverse of the sìmple notion : as, displîce- displea8e, diffîd-*
* See § 451. 1.
+ In this last sense the prefix was perhaps originally the preposition
di or dis. See § 1329 d.
Z
338 SYNTAX.
distrust, discing- wngird. d. intensity: as, dilauda- bepraîse, dis-
cüp- or discüpi- desìre to distraction.
1330 DÌs in the composition of adjectives denotes—a. difference: as,
discölör- of different colowr or colours, discordi- or discord- (from
corda- a musical strìng) sounding a different note. ö. negation : as,
dissîmîli- wnlike, dispäri- or dispár- wnequal.
1331 [Ec], è, ex may be looked upon as the opposite to in, just as áb
in its ordinary senses is to äd ; amd am attention to this distinctiom
is oftem a useful guide in the translation of the English preposition
from. It denotes—a. out of (with motion): as,
Tëlum ê corpöre extraxit (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 7. 19), he drew the
veapon, out qf the fle8h.
Eum éxturbasti ex aédibus (Plaut. Trin. I. 2. 100), this man.
3yow, bundled out of the house.
b. Qff, i. e. from on (and it may be observed that ín signified
on as well as in): as,
Ex ëquis déSfliunt et pédibus proeliantür (Caes. B. G. 1. 2),
they leap off their horses and fight on foot.
Nisi è campo in cäuam hanc uiam dêmittîmüs équös (Lîv.
xxIII. 47), wnless we ride down from the plaêr, ìnto this
hollow road.
c. Om, from, when a person is ίη or on, a place and directs his
efforts thence : as,
Castör et Pollux ex ëquis pugnärë uisI sunt (Cic. N. D. II.
2. 6), Castor and Polluæ vere seen fightîng on horseback.
Contiönäri ex turri altâ sölébat (Cic. Tusc. v. 20. 59), he was
vont to harangue the people from a high tower.
d. The material of which any thing is made, of: as,
Expönit multum argentum, non paucâ pöcüla ex aurö (Cic. II.
Verr. IV. 27. 62), he displays mwch sìlver, and mot a few cups
of gold.
Státua ex aerë factast (Cic. II. Verr. II. 21. 50), a statue was
made of bronze. s -
Qui érat tötüs ex fraude et mendáció factüs (Cic. p. Clu.
26. 72), who was made vp entirely Qf roguery and lyöng.
e. A change from one character to amother, from : as,
Quaero ex tê sisne ex pauperrümö diues factüs (Cic. in Vat.
EC, E, EX. 339
12. 29), I a8k 3yow whether or no from beîng very poor 3yow
have become rich.
SIc hömfnes saepe ex fücösis firmi suffrägätörës ëuädunt (Q.
Cic. de Pet. 27), in this way men, qften turn out firm from
having been deceitful supporters.
f. The preceding construction is also used to denote an inter-
mediate condition : as,
Pallídum é uírídi et mollë fólium häbet (Plin. xxI. 90), ít has
a palish green and soft leaf.
g. Qf, signifying part of, preceding the whole : as,
Nëmö é décem sänä mente est (Cic. de Leg. III. 10. 24), not a
man, of the ter, is Qf 80únd mind.
Füfiüs, ünüs ex meis intümis (Cic. ad Fam. xIII. 3), Fufius,
one qf my most ìntìmate frìends.
h. The commencing point of time whence measurement pro-
ceeds, expressed by from : as,
Ex kálendis Iámuäriis äd hanc höram inuîgîläui reipublícae
(Cic. Phil. xIv. 7. 19), from the first of January to the pre-
sent hour I have kept a clo8e watch wpo^ the ίnterests of the
coωntry.
Ex eâ dié septentriönes uenti fuêrê (Cic. ad Att. Ix. 6. 3), from,
that day the wind contìnwed ίη the ^orth.
ά. Immediate succession of time, after: as,
Ex consülätu est pröfectùs in Galliam (Cic. Brut. 92. 318), ìm-
mediately after his consulship he 8et out for Gallia.
Oppfdum ex Itînêre expugnärë (Caes. B. G. II. 12), to 8torm the
town, immediately om, his arrival.
Diem ex die expectábam (Cic. ad Att. VII. 26. 3), I was waîtîng
day after da3y.
j. Source of information with verbs of asking, hearing, &c.: as,
Sëd äliquîd ex Pompêiö sciam (Cic. ad Att. v. 2. 3), but I shal!
learn, sometháng from, Pompey.
Hoc te ex äliis audiré málo (Cic. ad Att. v. 17. 2), this Iprefer
3your hearîng from others.
Quaesiui ex Phaniä, quam in partem próuinciae pütäret tô
uelle ut uénirem (Cic. ad Fam. III. 6. 1), 1 a8ked Phania
�nto what part qf the provìnce he suppo8ed yow to wish one to-
C07724, +
340 SYNTAX.
K. Cavse : as,
Gráuiter claudïcäbat ex uolnêre ob rempublícam acceptó (Cic.
de Or. II. 61. 249), he wa8 very lame from a wound received
in his country's service.
Arctiùs ex lassítüdinë dormiébant (Cic. de Inv. II. 4. 14), they
were sleepìng somewhat sowrwdly from fatigwe.
£. That on which any thing depends physically or morally : âs,
Vidétis pendére áliös ex* arbörë, pulsäri autem áliös et uerbé-
räri (Cic. II. Verr. III. 26. 66), 3yov, see some hangîng from a
tree, others again beaten, amd flogged.
Ex quö uerbö töta illâ caussâ pendëbat (Cic. de Or. II. 25. 107),
or which word the whole of that cause depended.
^n. The authority upon which a person acts : as,
Ex sënätus consultö Manlius uincülis libërätür (Lîv. vI. 17),
wnder a decree of the senate Marulîus îs released from prison.
Rés ex foedéré répétunt (Lîv. xxI. 10), they demand redres8
α^der the treaty. •
^. The standard by which any thing is measured : as,
Nöm est ex fortünä fîdes pondérandâ (Cic. Part. Or. 34. 117), ît
δs not by success that fidelity ìs to be measured.t
Ex êuentu hómìnes dë tuö consílio existümäbunt (Cic. ad Fam.
I. 7. 5), the world will judge of your prudence δy the result.
o. As suggested by, ín accordance with : as, . •
Stätuês üt ex fídé fämä réqué meá uídébítür (Cic. ad Att. v.
8. 3), jow will decide as Shall appear to öe in accordance with
^my honour, character and interest.
Te ex sententiâ mâuîgassë gaudeö (Cic. ad Att. v. 21. 1), I am
delighted that 3yowr voyage has been satisfactory.£
Piscis ex senténtia Nactús sum (Ter. Ad. III. 3. 66), I have fallem
ên, with a dish of fish to my heart's content.§
* Very frequently ab is used with this verb.
f Literally * weighed.* -
f Literally * that you have sailed according to your wishes or feeling.'
§ The phrase eae mei animi sententia is ambiguous, meaning either
* to my heart's content,' or * om my word of honour' (literally * according
to the feeling of my heart'). Hence the pum in Cicero (de Or. II. 64.
260), Nasica censori, quum ille—Eae tui animi sententia tu uæorem habes?
—Non hercule, inquit, eae mei animi sententia.
τγ
EC, F, Ex. 34l
p. In proportion : as,
Fäcft haerédem ex deuncë Caecinam (Cic. p. Caec. 6. 17), he
makes Caecina heir to eleven-twelfths of his property.
Ex partë magnâ tîbi assentiör (Cic. ad Att. VII. 3. 3), I agree
with 3yow, in a great measure.
q. The quarter or, or at which : as, .-• -
Vna ex partë Rhënö contìnentür (Caes. B. G. I. 2), on one sode
they are shvt in by the Rhine.
r. The liquid in which any thing more solidis dissolved, is pre-
ceded by ex: as,
Resínam ex melle Aegiptiam* uoráto, saluom féceris (Plaut.
Merc. I. 2. 28), take a bolus of Egyptiar, gum, mázed ίη honey,
and 3you will make it right.
Cücümëris silvestris pars intériör ex lacté . . diluîtür (Cels. v.
21. 1), the inner part of a wild cucumber is dissolved in milk.
1332 [Ec], é, ex in composition with verbs denotes—a. owt : as, exím-
take out, exi- go owt, égréd- or ègrédi- (r.) march ovt, ecfér- or effér-
carry out, expös-f 8et forth. b. removal by the act expressed in the
simple verb : as, excanta- remove by charms, édormi- sleep off, ex-
terre- frìghten away. c. e8capîng by means of the act expressed in
the simple verb : as, éuita- e8cape by movîng on one side, élucta- (r.)
get away by wrestling, ecfüg- or ecfügi- e8cape byflight. d. obtainîng
an, end by the act of the simple verb : as, extúd-f hammer ovt,
êuestiga- trace out, ëläböra- work out, exséqu- follow owt, attaìn. e.
publicity: as, édíc-t proclaim, ënuntia- divulge. f. a8cent : as,
êmerg- emerge, éueh- carry wp or raise, exsist- stand wp. g. com-
pleteness : as, édisc- learn by heart, exür- bwrn up, êmêre- (r.) com-
plete one's service. h. change of character with verbs formed from
adjectives and substantives : as, expia- make clear, atone for, ec-
féra- make 8avage, ecfèmìna- convert into a woman. i. removal of
what is expressed by the noun whence the verb is formed : as,
exossa-f öone (as a fish), ënöda-f make smooth by removal of knots.
j. the reverse : as, explíca- wrfold, exaugüra- deprîve of a religîovs
character, exauctöra- discharge (£. e. relieve a soldier of the obliga-
* So Ms. B, not Aegyptiam.
f See § 451. 1.
f Perhaps immediately from the adjectives earossi- * boneless,' enodi-
* without knots.”
342 SYNTAX.
tion expressed by the Latin auctörämento-). k. distance : as, ex-
audi- hear in the distance or on, the outside.
1333 In adjectives formed from substantives this preposition denotes
absence : as, énerui- without muscle, exsompni- sleepless, extorri-
(for exterri-) banished.
1334 Ergä with an accusative. a. Facing (very rare): as,
Tonstricém Suram Nouísti nostram, quae hás nunc erga aedis
habet* (Plaut. Truc. II. 4. 51), yov, know owr coëffev8e Svra,
who lives now facing this house.
6. Towards (of friendly feeling): as,
Eódem mödo erga ämicös affecti sümus quo ergä nosmét ipsös
(Cìc. de Am. 16. 56), we are disposed in the same way towards
frìends a8 towards ovrselves.
c. Against (of unfriendly feeling, rare) : as,
Quasi quid filius Meus déliquisset mé erga (Plaut. Ep. III. 3. 8),
as íf my so^ had committed angy offence against me.
1335 Extrâ.f a. Without (no motion): as,
Hi sunt exträ próuinciam trans Rhödänum primI (Caes. B. G.
I. 10), the$e are the first people without the provìnce om the
other side of the Rhone.
ö. The same without a noun : as,
Extra ét intùs hostem häbêbant (Caes. B. C. III. 69), they had
an enemy withowt and within.
c. Metaphorically : as,
Exträ caussam id est (Cic. p. Caec. 32. 94), that ìs foreign to the
questior, before vs.
Dico , omnis exträ culpam fuissé (Cic. II. Verr. v. 51. 134), I
affirm that all were blameless.
Sed mehercülés extrâ iöcum hömo bellüs est (Cic. ad Fam. vII.
16. 2), but really without joking he is a pleasamt fellow.
d. Except : as,
Exträ dücem paucosquë praetéreà, rélíqui in bellö räpäcës, ín
örätiönë crüdëlës (Cic. ad Fam. vII. 3. 2), eæcept the chier
* This reading is partly conjectural.
t For the preposition eae, e, see § 1331.
IN. 343
1336
and a few öesides, the rest were rapacious in the field, blood-
thirsty in lanquage.
Néué náuígätö citrâ Calicadnum exträ quam si quâ náuis lëgä-
tos portäbit (Liv. xxxvIII. 38), neither shall he navigate the
sea on this side Qf Calicadnus, always eaecepting the case of a
ship carrying ambassadors.
In is used with the ablative and accusative ; with the former
whem there is no motion,* with the accusative when there is
tmotiom.
In with the ablative denotes—a. I), in reference to place : as,
In eó concläui ei cübandum fuit (Cic. de Div. II. 8. 20), in that
char^ber he would have had to sleep.
Attülit in cäueä pullös (Cic. de Div. II. 34.72), he brought the
chîckems ín a cage.
In hortis cum uicinó suo ambüläbat (Cic. Acad. Pr. II. 16. 51),
he was walking in, the park with his neighbour.
6. On, or over: as,
Nèmo eum unquam Ìm équö sëdentem uidit (Cic. II. Verr. v.
10. 27), mo one ever 8aw him on horseback.
Equitâre ín ärundiné longa (Hor. Sat. II. 3. 248), to rìde om a
long reed. va
Pons in Ibërö pröpe effectüs érat (Caes. B. C. I. 62), the bridge
over the Ebro was nearly finished.
c. Amorg : as,
Caesärïs in barbärïs ërat, nömén obscüriùs (Caes. B. C. I. 61),
Cæsar's mame was not well knowm amnong the barbarians.
Exercîtum fn Aulercis collöcäuit (Caes. B. G. III. 29), he quar-
tered the army in, the country of the Aulerc.
d. Included in, part qf: as,
Nihil praeter uirtütem in bönis dücêrê (Cic. de Fin. III. 3. 10),
* to look μpor nothông όut manlìnes8 a8 entitled to a place among
ölessings. -
Cäpito im décem lëgätïs ërat (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 9. 26), Capito
was ore qf the tem deputie8.
e. Iv, in the sense of with in the range of, but only in certain
phrases: as,
* That is, no motiom in relation to the moun ; or rather, no motion
from the eaeterior of it to its interior.
344 SYNTAX.
Cum in söle ambülo, cölörör (Cic. de Or. II. 14. 60), when, I
Qoalk în the swn, Iget browned.
Istâ mödörätio änïmi in öcülis clärissümae próuinciae atque ín
auríbüs omnium gentium est pösftâ (Oic. ad Q. F. I. 1. 2.9),
that power of Self-confrol yow po88es8 lies under the eyes Qf a
most distinguished province, and with in the hearìng of al^
^atîoms.
f. In, denoting the position in, which a persom is, as regards
the feelings of others: as,
Diffícíle est dictü, quanto in ödiö simüs äpüd extëras nätiönës
(Cic. p. Leg. Man. 22. 65), ìt ìs dìffìcult to say in, what de-
testatîon, we are held among foreign nations.
Eâ ciuïtas tîbi üna fn ämörë fuit (Cic. II. Verr. Iv. l. 3), that
state was the special object of 3your affection.
Apùd eum sunt in hömöre ét in prétiö (Cic. p. Rosc. Am.
28. 77), they are respected and valued by hêm.
g. I^, before persons, signifying in the case of, in what concern8
them : as,
Respondit se id quöd in Neruiis fêcisset factürum (Caes. B. G.
II. 32), he replied that he wowld do the same as he had done
ên the case of the Wervii. ge
Idem in bönö seruö dici sölet (Cic. de Or. II. 61. 248), the sane
ês commonly 8aíd qf a good slave.
h. Dressed in, wearìng, armed with : as,
JPätïbùlo adfixüs, ín isdem ämülis quos gestäbat (Tac. Hist. Iv.
3), fiared to the gallows with the same rings on, which he wore
(when, alive).
Trífídà Neptünüs fn hastâ (Val. Fl. I. 641), Weptune armed
with a three-far.ged spear.
ι. Ιη respect of, ίη reference to : as, &,
Vexätür áb omníbüs ín eö librö quem scripsit, dë uitä beätä,
(Cac. Tusc. v. 9. 24), he is attacked by all in reference to the
book which he wrote or, a happy life.
j. A period of time ìr, the cowrse of which a thing happens is
oftem preceded by în : as,
Vix tér ín anno audiré nuntium possunt (Cic. p. Rosc. Am.
46. 132), they cam receive news scarcely three times ôn the year.
IN. 345
Hae res contrà nos fáciunt in höc tempörë(Cic. p. Quinct. I. 1),
these things make against ws under present circumstances.
Fere in diebus paúcis quibus haec ácta sunt Chrysis uicina
haec móritur (Ter. And. I. l. 77), avithin, a fev days or so
after t/iis occurred, m3y ^eighbour here Chrysis dies.
£. The simple verbs of placing, such as pös- put, löca- place,
stătu- 8et vp (even though motion be implied in them), take in
with an ablative in the best writers, and that whether used in
their simple sense or metaphorically : as,
Täbülae testämenti Römam érant adlätae, üt ín aeräriö pönë-
rentür (Caes. B. C. III. 108), his will had been carried to
IÈome, that it might be deposited ira the treasury.
Omnem cüram im Sidérum cognitiönë pösuërunt (Cic. de Div.
I. 42. 93), they employed all their thoughts în the study of the
StarS.
Apud Pätrönem te in maxümä grätiä pösui (Cic. ad Att. v.
11. 6), I have cau$ed $yow to be vn, very high favour with Patro.
1337 In with an accusative denotes—a. Into: as,
Gládium hosti in pectüs infixit (Cic. Tusc. Iv. 22. 50), he drove
the sword înto the enemy's breast.
Paene in föueam décîdi (Plaut. Per. Iv. 4. 46), I all but fell into
a ditch.
Inde ërat bréuissîmüs in Brìtanniam träiectüs (Caes. B. G. Iv.
21), from thence was the shortest passage to Brìtaìn.
6. On to : as,
Filium ín hüméros suös extülit (Cic. de Or. I. 53. 228), he lifted
his sor, o^ to his shoulders.
Dëiötärum In ëcum sustülérunt (Cic. p. Deiot. 10. 28), they
lìfted (the aged) Deiotarus on to his horse.
c. Amorg (with motion): as,
Cohortis quinque fn Ebürönes misit (Caes. B. G. v. 24), he sent
five cohorts înto the cowntry of the Eburones.
d. The new form or character into which any thing is changed
has în before it : as,
Ex höminé sé conuortît in béluam (Cic. de Off. III. 20. 82), he
changes himself from a mar. înto a beast.
Aquâ märina in dimídiam partem décöquenda est (Col. xII. 24),
the sea-water must öe öoö'ed down, to one-half.
346 SYNTAX,
e. The object on which any thing is spent or employed : as,
Nullus têrunciüs insümítür* in quemquam (Cic. ad Att. v.
17. 2), not a farthông is spent or, any one.
Mäiörem sumptum in prandium fëcërunt (Cic. II. Verr. Iv.
10. 22), they spemt a larger sum on, a breakfast.
f. Direction of sight or thoughts on or to am object : as,
In quöius fortünas nön öcülos défigft ? (Cic. Phil. XI. 5. 10)
on whose property does he not fiae his eye ?
In te ünum së tötä conuortet ciuïtäs (Cic. Somn. Sc. 2), the
whole body qf cìtìzens will turn their thoughts to yow alone.
g. Direction of power towards or over an object : as,
WÌri in uxóres uitae nëcisque häbent pötestátem (Caes. B. G.
vI. 19), the husband has power of life and death over the wìfe.
Në tamdiü quîdem dömîmüs érít in suös ? (Cic. p. Rosc. Am.
28. 78) 8hal! he mot even for this little time be master over his
own people ?
h, Feeling towards, whether friendly or hostile (though more
frequently the latter): as,
Ad impiétâtem in deös, ín hömînës adiunxit iniüriam (Cic.
N. D. III. 34. 84), to impiety towards the gods he added out-
rage to mam.
Si férae partüs suos dilígunt, quä nös in libéros noströs indul-
gentia essê dêbêmüs? (Cic. de Or. II. 40. 168) if wild beasts
love their off&prîng, what ought to öe our kindness towards
ovr childrem ?
ά. Purposef (even though not attained), for, to : as,
Nullâ pëcùniâ nîsi in rem milítäremst dätä (Cic. p. Rab. Post.
12. 34), no money was gêver, eæcept for mìlitary purposes.
In hanc rem testem Sicìliam cïtäbo (Cic. II. Verr. II. 59. 146),
I will call Sócály ìtself as a witness to prove this fact.
j. Tendency, sense of words, &c., for, to, as: as,
* Yet with pos- and consum- the best writers prefer in with the abla-
tive.
f This usage was carried to a great extent by the later writers, but is
more limited in Cicero, who instead of such a phrase as in honorem ali-
£; would have said honoris alicuius caussa. (See Madvig, Opusc.
I, p. 167.) w
IN. 347
Ego quaé in rem tuam sint, eá uelim faciás (Ter. Ph. II. 4. 9),
as for me, whatever course may be for 3your interest, that 1
should wish yow to adopt.
Im eam sententiam multâ dixit (Cic. ad Att. II. 22. 2), he said
much to this effect.
IHaec in suam contüméliam uertit (Caes. B. C. I. 8), all this he
interpreted as an insult to himself.
k. Resemblance (resulting from an act), manner, form, after : as,
Pédítum agmën in mödum fügientium ägëbätür (Liv. xxI. 41),
t/ie infantry was hurrying along so a8 to look like a body qf
'r/^away8.
l. In distributions the unit is expressed by ín and an accusative
plural with or without the adjective singülo-, while the English is
expressed by ewery, each, the, &c. : as,
£\
Iam ad dënärios quinquäginta in singülos mödiös annönä per-
uémérat (Caes. B. C. I. 52), the prëce of corn had now reached
to fifty denaries the bushel.
Quingénos dënärios prétium in câpîtâ státuêrant (Liv. xxxIv.
50), they had fiared 500 denaries as the prìce per /lead.
Tempöra ín höras commütäri uídës (Cic. ad Att. XIV. 20. 4),
t/e state of things changes yow 8ee every hour.
Vitium in dies.crescit (Cic. Top. 16. 62), vice inoreases every
day.
m. The future in phrases of time expressed by for, wntil, &c. :
Ad cënam hömínem inuitäuit in postërum diem (Cic. de Off.
III. 14. 58), he asked the man to dinner for the next day.
Sermónem in multam noctem pröduxîmüs (Cic. Somn. Sc. l),
we kept up the conver8ation until late at night.
n. In some phrases denoting the position of a party, the verb
ès- be is used with In and an accusative, although mo motion or
change is expressed* : as,
Pulcerrìmum dücêbant áb extëris nätiönibus quae in ämici-
tiam pöpüli Römäni díciónemque essent, iniürias própul-
särë (Cic. in Caecil. 20. 66), they deemed í a most glorious
* This originated, says Madvig (Lat. Gr. § 230, obs. 2, note), in an
inaccuracy of the pronunciation, where the distinction between the accu-
sative and ablative rested on the single letter m.
348 SYNTAX.
duty to ward off outrage from foreign nations who stood in
the relation offriends and vassals to the Roman people.
Quum uostros portüs in praedönum fuissé pötestátem sciâtîs
(Cic. p. leg. Mam. 12. 33), when, 3yowr own harbowrs have been,
3yow are avare, în the po88es8ion, qfpìrates.
1338 In when compounded with verbs* denotes—a. into : as, fni-
enter, indüc-f lead în. b. wpon : as, iniüg-f place (as a yoke) wpon,
indu- put on, indüc-f draù on, impëra- impose. c. against : as,
infér- carry against, illid- dash against, inuîde- look with envy at.
d. at, over: as, ingém- groam at, illäcrüma- weep over. e. privacy :
as, fnaudi- or indaudi- hear as a secret. But see §§ 1308. 2, 1308, 3.
1339 Infrà denotes below. a. In regard to place, with or without a
noum : as, -
Argentum ad märe infra oppídum exspectábat (Cic. II. Verr.
Iv. 23. 51), he was waiting for the sìlver by the sea-side below
the town.
Infrä nihîl est, nîsî mortálé ; süprä lümam sunt aeterna omniâ
(Cic. Somm. Sc. 4), below there is mothing bùt what is mortal ;
above the moon every thing ìs eternal.
δ. Of time: as,
Hömêrus nön infrä süpériörem Lycurgum fuit (Cic. Brut. 10.
40), Homer was mot of a later date than the elder Lycurgus.
c. Of mumber: as,
Hiêmê paucióra öuâ sübícítö, non tâmén infrä nöuënä (Plin.
xvIII. 26), în vînter 3you must place fewer egg8 under them,
not a smaller m^/mber however than, nóne at a tìme.
d. Of magnitude : as,
VrI sunt magnítüdïnë paulo infra ëlëfantös (Caes. B. G. vI. 28),
the wrus ín size is a little below the elephant.
e. Of worth : as,
* In in the composition of adjectives signifies mot, but has no con-
nection with the preposition. On the other hand, verbs are never com-
pounded with the negative in. Ignora- * be ignorant' seems to be an
exception, but only seems, for it is formed from the adjective ignaro-,
which as an adjective was entitled to the negative prefix before the sim-
ple adjective gnaro-. Substantives compounded with im * not' are at times
found, but only in the ablative, as iniussu * without permission.'
f See § 451. l.
INFRA. INTER. 349
Infrà se omnia hümänä dücet (Cic. de Fin. III. 8. 29), he will
deem every thing hwman, öelov hêm, i. e. v^^oorthy hôs atten-
tîon.
1340 Intér denotes between, or among. a. Of place : as,
Mons Iura est inter Sequänös ét Heluétiös (Caes. B. G. I. 2),
Mowmt Jura lies between, the Sequanì and the Helvetí.
Inter sóbrios bacchäri uídëtür (Cic. Or. 28. 99), he seem 8 to öe
actìng Bacchu8 amorg 8ober people.
b. Of time, between, dwróng : as,
Dies quádrägintä quinque inter binos lüdos tollentür (Cic. II.
Verr. II. 52. 130), forty-five days between, the two festîvals
shall be struck out.
Hoc inter cënam dictäui (Cic. ad Q. F. III. 1. 6. 19), I have
dictated this durìng di^ner.
c. Mutuality: as,
Inter se aspíciébant (Cic. in Cat. III. 5. 13), they kept looking at
one amother.
Cícérónes puéri ámant inter së (Cic. ad Att. VI. 1. 12), the yowmg
Ciceros are great frìends.
1341 Intér in composition with verbs denotes between : as, interpös-
place between. But see § 1342. l.
1342 Intér is compoumded with nouns forming both substantives and
adjectives—a. with the sense between : as, interuallo- (n.) the space
between two stakes in a palisade, an interval, intertignio- (n) the
space between two beams, internuntio- a messenger who goes backwards
and forwards between two people. b. within : as, inter-cüti- or -cüt-
vêthôn the skór. c. between, as regards time : as, interlünio- the
τιterval, when, no moor, îs vîsîòîe.
1342. 1 Inter—from în or än vp = ava (see § 834, and compare § 308. 1)
—denotes a. vp : as, intellég- pick or gather wp (information), per-
ceive, interturba- stir αρ, intermisce- zmáæ αρ. b. again ; as, inter-
pöla- full (cloth) again, vamp up anew. c. reversa, of a preceding
act : as, interiüg- wnyoke, interquiesc- repo8e after labo^/r. d. sepa-
ratîon, removal, disappearance : as, imterrüp- break Qff, intermit-
leave off or let out (the fire), interclüd- shut qff, intercîd- fall away,
escape, interfrfg- break off, intëräresc- dry αρ, interbíb- drink up,
interdíc-forbid, intermína- (r.) warm off with threats. e. especially of
350 SYNTAX.
disappearance by death, as inter-fic- or -fici- make away with, Ell,
intérfm- take off, kill, intéri- pa88 away, die, inter-mör- or -möri-
die off, internëca- kill off, interfrigesc- die of cold (hence be neglected
and so become obsolete). f. through : as, inter-föd- or -födi- dig
through, interspira- breathe through, inter-füg- or -fügi- fy through,
interlüce- and interfulge- shène through.*
1343 Inträ denotes within. a. Of place without motion : as,
Inträ päriétes meos dê meâ pernícié consília íneuntür (Cic. ad
Att. III. 10. 2), plans are entered înto within, the walls Qf my
hovse for my own destructìom.
Antiöchum inträ montem Taurum regnärë iussêrunt (Cic. p.
Sest. 27. 58), they decreed that Antíochus should rule within
JMowmt Taurus.
b. Of place with motion : as,
Inträ portas compelluntür (Liv. vII. 11), they are driven, withim
the gates.
c. Metaphorically : as,
Epülämür ünä non mödö non conträ lêgem sëd étiam inträ
lêgem (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 26. 4), ave feast together ^ot only
mot against the law, buf even, withôn êt.
Quidam phrënëtîci inträ uerbâ dêsîpiunt (Cels. III. 18), some
lu^atics show the disease only în words.
d. Of mumber (particularly in regard to time), within, durìng :
8.8
'Intra annos quattuordëcim tectum non sübiêrant (Caes. B. G.
I. 34), for fourteer, 3years they had not pa88ed under a roof.
Inträ paucos diés oppídum câpîtür (Liv. II. 25), withôn a few
days the town, îs taken.
1344 Intrö in is used in composition with verbs of motion or direc-
tion : as, introi- enter, intrödüc- lead in, intro-spíc- or -spíci- look
§n.
1345 Iuxtät (root iúg- 3yoke, joîn) denotes—a. Proximity of place,
close by: as,
* This inter became soon in a great measure obsolete, so that many
of the words belong exclusively to the older writers, Cato, Plautus, Lu-
cretius. It may be useful to compare the meanings of this inter with
those of am and its representatives, § 1308. 2.
f This word is scarcely to be met with in Cicero. In Tacitus it is
very common.
INTRA. IVXTA, OB. 351
1346
Iuxtà mürum casträ pösuit (Caes. B. C. I. 16), he pitched his
camp near a wall.
6. The same with motion, mearly to : as,
Iuxtâ sédîtiónem uentum (Tac. Ann. vr. 13), matters came
nearly to a 8edition.
c. Proximity of time, immediately after : as,
Nëque ënim conuênit iuxta înëdiam prótínus sátiëtätem essé
(Cels. II. 16), nor ìndeed is ôt reasonable that immedíately
after fasting there should be a ful/ meal.
d. Nearness in quality, akin to : as,
Vêlöcftas iuxtà formidínem est (Tac. Ger. 30), speed is akên to
fear.
Eörum ëgö uitam mortemqué iuxta aestümo (Sal. Cat. 2), the
life and death of 8wch men, Ilook wpon, as mwch the same.
e. Equality without a noum, equally : as,
Sölö caelóqué iuxtä* gráui (Tac. Hist. v. 7), the soìì and at-
^mosphere being equally wnhealthy.
Ob denotes—a. Towards, with motiom (but only im very old
writers) : as,
Ob Römam noctü légiónes dücérë coepit (Enn. ap. Fest.), he
begam to lead the legîoms by ^ight towards Rome.
δ. Against, öefore, with or without motiom : as,
Follem sibi obstringít ob gülam (Plaut. Aul. II. 4. 23), he binds
a b!adder before his mouth.
Lânam ob oculum habébat (Plaut. Mil. Gl. v. l. 37), he had a
páece of wool over his eye.
Mors ei öb öcülos saepé uersätast (Cic. p. Rab. Post. 14. 39),
death often passed to and fro before his eyes.
c. Against, for, in accounts, where money is set against the
thing purchased, pledged, &c., or the thing purchased, &c. against
the money : as,
A'ger obpositust pigneri Ob décem mnas (Ter. Ph. IV. 3. 56),
my land has been put as a pledge against ten mánæ, i. e. has
been anortgaged for that sum.
* In this sense a dative is found: as, res parua ac iuaeta magnis dif-
ficilis (Liv. xxiv. 19), * a little matter, but equally difficult with great
matters.'
352 SYNTAX. s®
ùuin árrabonefm a me áccepisti ob múlierem (Plaut. Rud. III.
6. 23), nay3yow received from me earnest-money for the woman.
A'it se ob asimos férre argentum (Plaut. As. II. 2. 80), he 8ay8
that he has brought the money to pay for the asses.
Est flägitiösum ob rem iüdícandam pëcüniam accîpërë (Cic. II.
Verr. II. 32. 78), it is ìndeed a scandalows thông to take money
for gîvîng a verdíct
d. A purpose or reason, for, or, account of: as,
IHaec égo ad te ób eam caussam scribo ut iam dé tuä quöqué
rätiönë médîtërë (C%c. ad Fam. I. 8. 3), all this I write to
gyov with this object, that yov may consider the course of pro-
ceeding 3yow, also 8hovld now adopt.
Vërum id frustra ån ob rem fáciam, in uesträ mänü sîtum
(Sal. Jug. 31), but whether I am doìng this în vain or to
some pwrpo8e, is in, 3yowr hands, my friends.
1347 Ob in composition with verbs signifies—a. to, towards : as, öbi-
go to, ostend- hold out to, occúr-* run to meet. b. before : as, obam-
büla- walk before, obuölfta- keep fying before, obuersa- (r.) pass to
and fro before, obtíne- hold in the presence of (am enemy). c. shvt-
tíng, obstructíng: as, obd- pwt to, obstru- bwild up, obsîde- blockade.
d. against (physically): as, oblucta- (r.) struggle against, offend-
strike against. e. against (morally) : as, obnuntia- brîng an αη-
favourable report, obtrecta- depreciate, öbès- be injurious. f. upon :
as, occulca- tread wpom, opprím- crush, obtër- trample wpo^. g.
coverìng, affecting the surface : as, obdüc-* draw over, offüd-* powr
over, occalle- grow hard om the surface. […
1348 Pälam openly, public!y, án the presence of ^^angy. a. With an
ablative (or perhaps dative): as,
Indé rem crëdïtöri pälam pöpülö soluit (Liv. VI. 14), wpo^ this
he paid the money to the creditor in the presence of the people.
b. The same without a case : as,
Arma in templumf lüce et pälam comportäbantür (Cic. in Pis.
10. 23), people were carrying arm8 ìnto the temple în dagláght
and openly.
1349 Pénés denotes—a. In the hands Qf, in the possessior, of: as,
• See § 451. 1. t Al. templo.
OB, PAIAMI. PENES. PER. 353
I350
aS,
Pénés eum est pötestäs (Cic. ad Fam. IV. 7. 3), the power is ôn,
his hands.
Istaec pênes uos psaltriast ? (Ter. Ad. III. 3. 34) is that sìngìng-
gêr? at $yούr master'8 hovse ?
Serui centum dies pénés accussätörem fuéré (Cic. p. Mil. 22. 60),
the slaves for a hundred, days were in, the custody qf the ac-
C?/S€7*.
Culpa té'st penes (Ter. Hec. Iv. l. 20), thefault lîes with you.
Pênes te és ?* (Hor. Sat. 2. 3. 273) are 3yow in your senses ?
Pér denotes—a. Through, with motion: as,
It hastâ Tägö per tempüs ütrumque (Virg. A. Ix. 418), passes
the spear through Tago's either temple.
Heluétii pér angustias suas cöpias transduxérant (Caes. B. G.
I. 11), the Helvetii had led their forces through the defile.
b. Through, as seen through : thus,
Nätürä membränäs öcülörum perlücîdas fécit ut për eas cerni
posset (Cic. N. D. II. 57. 142), nature made the membranes of
the eye transparent, that they might be seen through.
Quod uídébam équîdem, sed quäsî per cäligînem (Gic. Phil.
xII. 2. 3), which I 8aw all the time ét is true, but only through
a clowd. a8 it were.
c. When a similar thing occurs at consecutive points of a lime :
Inuitáti libérâlîter per dömös (Liv. I. 9), generously invited to
all the hovses, i. e. 80 me to one, some to another.
Quid h6c negotist quod ómnes homines fábulantur pér uias ?
(Plaut. Cist. v. 1. 1) what is this ôùsìmess whâc], all the world
¢s talking about in every street of the town ?
d. Of time, durìng, through, for: as,
TénuistI próuinciam per décem annös (C%c. ad Att. VII. 9. 4),
3yov have clung to the province duri^g ter, 3years.
Rögö të nô tê uiae pêr hiémem committås (Cic. ad Fam. xvI.
8), I öeg yow not to eaepo8e 3yovrself to the danger oftravellíng
durìng the wìnter.
e. The means by which a thing is done, through, by, by means
of: as,
* Compare this with a similar use ^f apud above.
A A.
354 |SYNTAX.
Quôd ädeptiis est per scélüs, id per luxúriam ecfundít (Cic. p.
Rosc. Am. 2. 6), what he has obtained through ìmpiety, he is
sqùanderîng έn luvury.
Quómínus discessió fiéret pér aduorsärios tuös est factum (Cic.
ad Fam. I. 4. 2), it was owing to yowr opponents that a divi-
sior, did ^ot take place.
f. When the means employed are deceitful, për may be trans-
lated by Vnder. In this case the nouns employed are such as
spécie- appearance, nómën- ^ame, caussa- cau8e, &c. : thus,
Per spéciem áliénae fungendae uîcis suäs öpes firmäuit (Liv. I.
41), wnder pretence of acting for another, he strengthened his
own, power.
Aemülätiönis suspectos per nömén obsídum ämöuébat (Tac.
Ann. XIII. 9), tho8e suspected of rivalry he wa8 endeavouring
to get rid of wnder the ^ame of hostages.
g. When the agent does not act through any intermediate
means, he is said (though incorrectly) to act through himself: as,
Quoscunquë nöuis rébüs Ídóneos crëdëbat, aut per se aut për
álios sollícítábat (Sal. Cat. 39. 6), all those abhom, he thought
vell fitted for taking part án, a revolution, he was working
αρο^, either hómself or by means of others. -
Nihfl audactèr ipsi per sësë síné P. Sullä fäcéré pötuérunt (Cic.
p. Sul. 24. 67), they could do nothing darîng of themselves
without the aid forsooth of Publius Sulla.
h. With phrases denoting hindrance, &c., the point where the
hindrance exists is expressed by për through : as,
Vtrisque adpäruit nihil pér altéros stärë quö minùs inceptâ
perséquérentür (Lîv. VI. 33), to each mation êt was evident
that there was no obstacle om the part of the other to prevent
them from carrying out their intentions.
Her düces, non per milites stétérat, në uincêrent (Liv. III. 61),
£t had been the fawlt of the generals, mot the soldiers, that they
had not conquered.
£. With verbs denoting permissior, or power, the person who
might have stood in the way is expressed by për: as,
Digládientür illi per mé lícet (Cic. Tusc. Iv. 21. 47), they may
Jîght ít out for me, i. e. as far as Iam concerned.
Quum et per uälëtüdinem et pér anni tempus nàuìgärë pötérîs,
ΡER. 355
ad nos uéni (Cic. ad Fam. xvI. 7), when both 3your healtfi
and the season of the year permit govr saìling, cone to vs.
j. By, in entreaties, to express the person or object in consi-
deration of which the favour is asked*: as,
Pérf égö té deös óro (Ter. And. v. 1. 15), I entreat 3/ou by the
gods.
Pér ëgö té fili quaecunquë iürä libéros iungunt párentîbus pré-
cor quaesóqué (Liv. xxIII. 9), ôy all the ties, my son, which
bind a child to a parent, Ipray and entreat thee.
M. Hence in oaths, by: as,
Iürärem per Iöuem Deosquë Pënätis me eâ sentiré quae dicé-
rem (Cic. Acad. Pr. II. 20. 65), I would have sworn by Ju-
pìter and the Household Gods that I really felt what 1 8aîd.
1351 Péri in composition with verbs denotes—a. through : as, per-
düc-§ lead through, perflu-flow through. δ. completion : as, perfíc-
or -fîci- complete, permît-§ let go altogether, abardon (to others),
përörä- conclude a speech. c. destruction : as, péri- perish, perd-
[fordo], destroy, pérfm- kill].
1352 Pér in composition with adjectives denotes— a. through : as,
pernoct- lasting al', night, peruîgfl- awake all máght, pérenni- last-
ing through endless 3years. b. very* : as, perlëui- very light, per-
magno- very great. c. destruction : as, periüro- vìolatìng an, oath,
perfido- breaking faith.
g*
* This in fact is only amother example of the means noticed in § e.
A weak party approaches an offended superior through some third party;
as for instance in Caesar, B. G. VI. 4, the Senones, in applying for his
merey, adeunt per Aeduos. -
f Observe how the preposition is separated from its noun in these
examples.
3. In ea pergisc- (r.) * wake up,° the prepositiom is por, the old form
being eæporgisc- i. e. ea porrigisc-. Again in perhibe- the old form was
probably porhibe-. Compare perinde, a corruption of proinde or rather
porinde.
§ See § 451. l.
|| The per signifying destructiom is perhaps of a different origim. At
any rate it is the same as the German prefix ver, seen in verthum * de-
stroy ;' and as our English for, seen in the obsolete.fordo i. e. * destroy,*
forswear, forget, &c.
•[ The prefix per * very* is often separated from the simple adjective:
as, per mihi mirum uisumst (Cic. de Or. I. 49. 2l4), * it seemed very won-
derful to me.'
356 SYNTAX.
`Í353
1354
Pönë (closely conmected with post) signifies behänd. a. With
a noum : as,
Póne mos recéde (Plaut. Poen. III. 2. 34), step back behênd vs.
Vinctae pönë tergum mänüs (Tac. Hist. III. 85), his ha^ds ^pere
δουmd behind his back.
ö. Without a noun : as,
Et ante et póne, ét ad laeuam ét ad dextram, et sursum et
deorsum [möuëbätür] (Cic. de Um. 13 ad fin.), [it moved]
forward and backward, to the left and to the right, wpward
and downward.
Pömè séquens (Virg. A. x. 226), following behind.
J^ost denotes behind, after. a. Of place : as,
Flümên êrat post castrâ (Caes. B. G. II. 9), there was a rêver ίη
the rear of the camp.
Sed magnum mëtuens së post crätërá tégébat (Vîrg. A. Ix.
346), but behind a vast bowl în his fear he hid him.
6. The same without a moum : as,
Caedëre incipiunt seruos qui post érant (0%c. p. Mil. 10. 29),
they begin to cut down ihe slaves who were in the rear.
c. Oftime, after, sînce : as,
Post tuum discessum binâs à Balbö ; nihil nöui (Cic. ad Att. xv.
8), sînce 3your departure two (Zetters) from Balbus ; no news.
Hoc sexenniô post Vêios captos factumst (Cic. de Div. I. 44. 100),
this occurred siae 3years after the capture of Veii. •
Post diem quintum quam barbäri ïtërum mälë pugnäuêrant,
lëgäti à Bocchö uéniunt (Sal. Jug. 102), or, the fifth day
after the Second defeat qf the barbarìans, a^ embassy from
Bocchvs arrives.
d. The Same without a noum : as,
Inítiö meâ sponte eum, post inuitätü tuö mittendum duxi
(Cic. ad Fam. vII. 5. 2), at first of my own motíor, after-
wards at gowr învîtatîon, 7 thought it right to 8end him.
Post paucis diébüs* älios décem lëgätös adduxérunt (Liv. XL.
47), a few days after they brought other ter, ambassador8.
Sënätus post paulö* de his rébüs häbítüs est (Liv. v. 55), a
8enate was held 8oon after om this subject.
• Or these may possibly be datives dependent upom post, as in postibi.
Compare §§ 957, 958, and the use of contra with auro.
P0NE. POST. PRAE. 357
e. Metaphorically : as,
Vbi përicülum aduênit, inuídia et süperbiâ post fuéré (Sal.
Cat. 23), when danger approached, envy and príde fel7 into
the rear.
1355 Post in compositiom with verbs signifies—a. after, of place : as,
postscríb-* (Tac.), write after. b. after, of time : as, postfacto-
done afterwards, postgénito- öor^ afterwards. c. after, in import-
ance : as, postpös-* and posthäbe- deem, of 8econdary ìmportance.
1356 Prae denotes before. a. Of place : as,
Tibérim, prae se armentum ágens, nandö trâiëcit (Liv. I. 7),
he swam across the Tiber, drivìng the herd before hìm.
Stillantem prae së pügiönem túlit (Cic. Phil. II. 12. 30), he
carríed íhe drippîng dagger before hìm.
Also as an adverb : thus,
I prae (Ter. And. I. 1. 144), go first.
δ. The same metaphorically : as,
Cétéri tectiörës ; ëgö semper mé dÌdÌcissë prae mé tüli (Cic.
Or. 42. 146), the others are more reserved ; I ever avowed the
fact that Ionce studíed the 8ubject.
c. The cause (but chiefly in negative sentences), for: as,
Sólem prae iäcülörum multîtüdïnë non uídëbîtîs (Cic. Tusc. I.
42. 101), 3yow, wí// ^ot see the su^ for the ^umber of darts.
Nec löqui prae maerörë pötuit (0%c. p. Planc. 41. 99), and he
cowld ^ot speak for gráef.
Prae lassitúdine opus est út lauem (Plaut. Truc. II, 3.7), I am
80 fatigared 7 mwst take a bafh.
Crédo prae ämöre exclusti hunc föräs (Ter. E. I. 2. 18), I sup-
pose it was for love yow shùt hôm, out.
d. In comparison, witfi, 63y the side qf: as,
Römam prae suâ Câpua inridébunt (Cic. in Rull. II. 35. 96),
they will lawgh at Rome compared with their own Capua.
1357 Prae in composition with verbs denotes—a. before : as, prae-
mft-* &end in advance, praebe- (ì. e. praehibe-) hold before, presént,
praesta- place or stand before. b. before, in the sense of passîng by:
as, praeflu- fow by, praenäufga- &ai? by. c. at the head qf, ör. com-
* See § 451. 1.
358 SYNTAX.
-- 1358
1359
mand : as, praeës- be în command, prae-fîc- or -fíci- place án, com-
^nand. d. at the ea fremity: as, praeröd-* gnaw at the e^d, praeclüd-*
close at the end. e. superiority: as, praesta- and praecéd-* surpass.
f. öefore, in time: as, praecerp- gather too 800^, praedfc-* 8ay be-
forehand, praesägi- feel beforehand. g. the doîng a tháng first for
others to do after: as, praeI-rê uerbä to tell a perso^ Jhat fie îs to
Say, prae-cîp- or -cipi- teach, praescrib-* enjoin, by writúrg.
Prae in the composition of adjectives denotes—a. before, of
place : as, praecip- or praecîpît- head-first. b. before, of time : as,
praescio- knowing beforehand. c. at the extremity : as, praéusto-
burnt at the end, praëäcüto- sharp at the end. d. very : as, prae-
alto- very deep, praecláro- most gloriowst.
Praetër denotes—a. Passîng ày: as,
Praeter castrâ Caesäris suas cöpias transduxit (Caes. B. G. I.
48), he led his own, troops past Caesar's camp.
Serui praetër öcülos Lolli haec omniá férëbant (Cic. II. Verr.
III. 25. 62), the slaves kept carrying all these thángs alo^g öe-
fore the eyes of Lollíus.
6. Beyond, in amount or degree : as,
Läcus praeter mödum crêuêrat (Cic. de Div. I. 44. 100), the lake
had risen, aöove its wswal level.
Hoc mihi praecîpuom fuit praetër äliös (Oic. p. Sul. 3, 9), this
belonged, especially to me above others.
c. Besides, i. e. in, additior, to : as,
Praeter së dënös ad conlöquium addücunt (Caes. B. G. I. 43),
they brêrìg to the conference ter, men each besìdes themselves.
Praetèr auctörïtätem, uirës quöque ad coercendum häbébat
(Caes. B. C. III. 57), besides the authority qf a ^ame, he had
the physical means also for compulsion.
d. Exceptf, ezcludîng : as,
* See § 45]. 1.
f This formation is scarcely if at all found in Cicero; for praecelso-
(11. Verr. IV. 48. 107) has been altered into perexcelso- by Zumpt on the
authority of Mss.
f This signification and the last are not so opposite as may at first
seem. Thus in neque uestitus praeter pellis habent quicquam (Caes. B.
G. IV. 1), either translation is admissible without any difference of meam-
ing. See also § 1233. l.
PBAE. PRAETER. PR.O. 359
Omnibus sententiis praetër ünam condempnätust (Cic. p. Clu.
20. 55), he was found gwùty by al/ the votes save one.
Frümentum omnë praeter quod séculm portätüri ërant com-
bürunt (Caes. B. G. I. 5), they bwrn, wp all the graìn except
what they púrposed to carry with them.
Primó clämöre oppîdum praetër arcem captum est (Liv. VI.
33), at the first shout all the town, but the citadel, vas taken.
In the sense evcept praetër may be used like a conjunction, so
as t0 be followed by a noun in the same case as some preceding
I) OllI) :
Cëtërae multîtüdïnI diem státuit praeter rërum cäpïtälium
dampnätis (Sal. Cat. 36), he fives a day for the rest of the
^multitude, evcept those convicted of capital offence8.
e. Contrary to : as,
Nihil ei praetër ipsius uöluntátem accîdit (Cic. in Cat. II.7.16),
^othông happened to hóm contrary to his own, wish.
Multa impendéré uídentur praeter nätüram (Oic. Phil. I. 4, 10),
man3y things 8eem, likely to happen, out qf the usual cowrse of
72Q %/7'e.
1360 Praetër in composition with verbs signifies passîng by : as,
praetëri- go ôy, praetermît- let go öy.
1361 Pró denotes—a. Before, of place : as,
Praesîdiâ prò templis omníbus cernîtîs (Cic. p. Mil. 1. 2), yow
&ee troops before all the temples.
Laudáti prò contióne omnes sunt (Liv. xxxvIII. 23), they were
al/ commended in front of the assembled ar^y.
6. Before, with the notion of defending, ίη defence of: as,
Pró nüdätä moenìbus pátriá corpöra oppönunt (Liv. XXI. 8),
όn defence qf their native city, mow strìpped qf öts walls, they
present their bodies to the enemy.
Egó prò södäli et prò mea omni fämä dëcernö (Cic. de Or. II.
49. 200), I am fightìng the last battle for ^gy frìend and for
my owm character altogether.
Haec contrà légem próqué légé dictâ sunt (Lîv. xxxIv. 8), swch,
vere the arguments wrged against and in favoωr qf the law.
c. In place of: as,
360 'SYNTAX.
Lübenter uerbä iungébant, ut sodes* prò sì audes, sis prò sì vis
(Cic. Or. 45. 154), they were fond ofjoìnìrg words, as sodes
for si audes, sis for si uis.
Quoi lëgätüs et prò quaestörë fuérat (Cic. I. Verr. 4. ll), wnder
vohom, he had been lieutenant and proquæstor, i. e. deputy-
qα(estor.
d. Equivalent to, as good as, as, for : as,
Pro occisô rélictust (Cic. p. Sest. 38. 81), he was left for dead.
Confessiónem cëdentîs hostis prò uictöria hábeo (Lîv. xxI. 40),
the confessior, of a refreating enemy Ilook upom as a vìctory.
Id sümunt prò certö (Cic. de Div. II. 50. 104), thi8 they assume
as certaim.
e. In payment for, ίη refurn for, for: as,
Misimus qui prò uectürä solvêret (Cic. ad Att. I. 3), we have
8ent a person to pay for the freight.
f. In consideratio^ qf, for : as,
Hunc ämärë pro ëius suäuïtätë dëbämüs (Cic. de Or. I. 55. 234),
this man, we ought to love for his own sweetness of character.
Té pro istis factis ulciscär (Ter. E. v. 4. 19), I'll pwnish you for
tho8e doings.
g. J^ proportion to, considering, ín accordance with : as,
Iproelium ätröcius quam prö nümërö pugnantium édîtür (Liv.
xxI. 29), a fiercer battle is fought tham could have been ea:-
pected from the number qf the combatants.
Prö multîtüdine höminum et prò glóriá belli angustós häbent
finis (Caes. B. G. I. 2), consìderìng the ^umber qf inhabitants
and their military reputation, their territorìes are confined.
I)ëcet, quidquid ágás, âgéré prò uiríbüs (Cic. de Sem. 9. 27), it
i8 right that whatever yov do,3yow should do to the best qf 3yowr
power.
His raptim prò tempöre instructis (Liv. xxx. 10), these men
beîng hastily drawn, wp as well as the circumstances admitted.
h. For, in favour qf : as,
Hoc non mödö non prö mê, sed conträ me est pötiüs (Cic. de
* An error no doubt of Cicero's. Sodes must be for si uoles, l and d
being interchanged, as in so many words ; odor and oleo, lacruma and
dacruma, Vliares and Oδυσσevs.
PRAETER. PoR, PRO. PROPE. 36]
1362
1363
1364
l365
Or. III. 20. 75), this, 80 far from beáng for me, is rather
against me.
Pör and prö in composition with verbs signify—a. forward :
as, prögréd- or prögrédi- (r.) advance, porrìg- stretch out, pröcür-*
rum forward. b. out: as, prödi- come forth, prósíli- leap out. c. to a
distance : as, pröfüg- or pröfügi- fy to a distance, pröterre- frìghter,
off, próséqu- (r.) follow for Some distance, prohfbe- keep off. d. down-
wards: as, pröfliga- knock down, prötér- trample down. e. eaetensìom :
as, prómit-* allow to grow long. f. publicity: as, pröfite- (r.) de-
clare public!y, prömulga- advertise (a law), proscríb-* offer a reward
for the life qf, prónuntia- announce publicly. g. progress, prqfit :
as, pröffc- or prófíci- make progress, advance, prödés- öe of 8ervice.
h. in place of: as, pröcüra- take care qf in place of another. i. be-
fore, in time : as, prölud- rehearse beforehand. j. postponement or
continuation : as, pródíc-* ^ame a future day, pröfér- postpone, prò-
röga- continue for a longer perìod (öy enactment).
Prö in the composition of adjectives denotes—a. do^onward :
as, pröcliui- downhill. b. negation : as, pröfundo- bottomless, prö-
fäno- mot sacred, profane.
Prö in composition with nouns of relationship denotes greater
distance, expressed in English by great : as, prönëpöt- great-grand-
som, proäuo- great-grandfather, prösöcëro- wife's grandfather.
Pröpëf denotes near. a. Of place : as,
Ipsius cöpiae pröpe hostium castrã uisae sunt (Caes. B. G. I.
22), his own forces were 8een ^ear the enemies' camp.
b. The same without a case, or with äb and a noun : as,
Qufs hic löquîtur pröpë ? (Plaut. Rud. I. 4. 11) who is talking
close by here ?
Eellum tam pröpe â Siciliâ, tâmén in Siciliâ non fuit (Cic. II.
Verr. v. 2. 6), the war though so near Sicily, 3yet was not άη.
c. The same metaphorically : as,
Pröpê sëcessiónem plébis res uênit (Liv. vI. 42), mattere came
almost to a 8ece8sio^ qf the commonalty.
* See § 451. 1. •f See also § 908.
362 SYNTAX.
1366
1367
d. Near, of time : as,
Prope adést quum alieno móre uiuendúmst mihi (Ter. And. I.
l. 125), the time is at hand when, I 8hall have to lîve in ac-
cordance with another's îdeas,
Proptér (from pröpö) denotes—a. Wear, with or without a
case : as,
Propter Plätönis stătuam consëdïmüs (Cic. Brut. 6. 24), we took
owr 8eats mear a statue of Plato.
Duö filii propter cübantes nè sensêrunt quídem (Cic. p. Rosc.
Am. 23. 64), his two sons sleeping close by were not even aware
of it.
6. On account of, for, through : as,
Tirönem proptér hümänïtätem et mödestiam mälö saluom,
quam proptér üsum meum (Cic. ad Att. VII. 5. 2), I wìsh
Tiro to recover more out of regard to the delicacy and modesty
of his character than for any benefit to myself.
Nam nön est aecum mé proptér uos décipi (Ter. Ph. v. 7. 34),
for ìt ìs mot reasonable that I should be a loser through 3yow.
Re (or réd) in composition with verbs signifies—a. backward :
as, rétrâh- drag back, rénuntia- carry word back, répét- go back,
réformida- draw back in fear. b. hence reflection oflight or sound:
as, résöna- re-echo, réfulge- shène brûllîantly. c. în refurn : as, ré-
pend- repay, référi- strike in, retùrn, red-d- repay. d. opposîng ar.
effort in the other direction: as, rétine- hold back, réuinci- bând bach,
rëtîce- keep back (a secret). e. refusal : as, rénu- refuse by a shake
qfthe head, récussa- make some eaecuse amd so decline. f. reversìng
some former act : as, rescíd-* cut down again, (that which has been
erected), rémît-* let go again (that which has been stretched), ré-
quiesc- repo8e (after labour), rescisc- di&cover (that which it has
been attempted to conceal), récälesc- grow warm again. g. rever8-
ông the act expressed in the simple verbt : as, réfîg-* wrfiae, ré-
signa- vnseal, réclüd- open, rétég- wncover, réséra- wnbolt. h. pwt-
ting away from sight, concealing, &helterîng : as, réléga- (leave be-
hind), banish far away, récond- put away into some secret place,
* See § 451. 1.
. f Hence the adjective recidiuo- * rising again* shows that recid- once
signified * rising again after falling or being felled,' as the new shoots from
the stump of a chestnut- or oak-tree.
IPROPTER. RE. RETRO. SE. SECVNDVM. 363
ré-cíp- or -cípi- receive and shelter. i. remaînîng behind when the
greater part is gone : as, rémäne- remaîm, behimd, rêsîde- remain,
still at the bottom. j. change of state: as, red-d- render, make, rédig-
7'educe to some state.* k. repetition : as, réflöresc- blosson, a second
tême.
1368 Rétrö by the later writers is compounded with verbs of mo-
tion, and signifies backwards : as, rétrógrádi- (r.) march. δackwards
(Plin.).
1369 Sé in the old writers is used as a preposition with the ablative,
and signifies $eparation, or without : as,
Si plus mínus sëcuérunt, së fraude estö (XII. Taöles, ap. Gell.
xx. 1), èf they cut more or less, it 8hall öe without detriment
(to them).
1370 Sé (or sëd) in composition signifies—a. with verbs, separatio^ :
as, sëced- withdraw, sépös-f put asìde. ö. in adjectives, absence :
as, sécüro- free from care, sëcord- or Sócord- 8en8eless, spîrîtle88.
137l Sécundum (î. e. séquendum, from séqu- (r.) follow) denotes--
a. Followáng : as,
I tü sëcundum (Plavt. Am. II. l. 1), do ?yow come after me.
b. Alorg : as,
Légiönës íter sëcundum máré süpërum fáciunt (Cic. ad Att.
xvI. 8. 2), the legìorìs are marching along the wpper 8ea.
c. Behánd, without motion : as,
Volnüs accêpit in cápíté sécundum aurem (Sulpìc. ad Cic. Fam.
Iv. 12. 2), he received a wound in the head behind the ear.
d. After, of time : as,
Spem ostendis sëcundum cömîtiâ (Cic. ad Att. III. 12. 1), 3yo?,
hold oatt a hope of ìmprovement after the elections.
Sécundum uindémiam (Cato, R. R. 114), after the víntage.
e. Second in order, meat to: as,
Sécundum të nihil est mihi ämicius sölïtüdïnë (Cic. ad Att.
XII. 15), meaet to you I have ^o better frìend than 8olitude.
* To this head belongs the use of redi- in such phrases as, iam res
in eám rediit locum (Ter. Haut. II. 3. 118), * matters are at last come to
this state ;' ad eum summa imperi redibit (Caes. B. C. I. 4), *the chief
command will devolve on him.*
•f See § 451. l.
364 SYNTAX.
f. In accordance with : as,
Omniä quae sëcundum nätüram fiunt sunt häbenda in bönis
(Cic. de Sen. 19. 71), every thing that happens in, accordance
with nature îs to be reckoned amorg ölessings.
g. I^ favour qf: as,
Pontîfîces sëcundum eum décréuérunt (Cic. ad Att. IV. 2. 3),
the pontíficat college decreed in his favowr.
1372 Sînë denotes without : as,
Hömo sinê rê, sînë fïdë, síné spë (Cic. p. Cael. 32. 78), a mar.
ováthout money, without credit, without hope.
Infërö märi nöbis náuígandumst, âgé iam cum frätre an síné ?
(0%c. ad Att. VIII. 3. 5) we must 8ai' along the lower sea.
Z'rue ; but just telę me, with my örother or without him ?
1373 Süb has for its original meaning vp, as is seen in its deriva-
tives the adjectives süpéro- above, summo- highest, the prepositions
süpër ®^po^, süprä aöove ; and above all in the use of süb itself in
the composition of verbs*. It is found with both accusative and
ablative.
1374 Súb with the accusative denotes—a. Up tof : as,
Sub primam nostram äciem successêrunt (Caes. B. G. I. 24),
they came wp to owrfirst line.
b. Under, with motion : as,
Exercitus sub iügum missüs est (Caes. B. G. I, 7), the army
was sent under the yoke.
Tótamqué süb armâ coactam Hespériam (Vìrg. A. VII. 43), and
a77 Hesperia to arms compelledt.
c. Wêthôn reach of things from above (with motion): as,
Vt süb ictum uênêrunt, tölörum uis ingens effüsa est in eös
(Lîv. xxVII. 18), the momen* they came with in throw, an
enorm0u8 quantity qf missìles was showered wpo^ them.
Quod süb öcülos uênit (Sen. de Bem. I. 5), what comes withir,
the range qf the eye.
* See § 1376. Indeed our own word up is the very same word as
sub ; and the Greek δτατο- * highest,* the title usually given to the Ro-
man consul, is a superlative from the same root.
f The sense of to belongs to the accusative termination, and not to
the preposition.
£ Compare the common phrase without motion, sub armis esse.
SINE. SVB. 365
Eâ quae sub sensus subiectâ sunt (Cic. Acad. Pr. II. 23. 74),
those things which are brought with in reach of the 8en8e8.
d. Subjection to dominiom, under (with action): as, -
Sub pöpüli Römäni impérium cécidérunt (0%c. p. Font. l. 12),
they fel/ vnder the domón íon of the Roman people.
e. In phrases of time, immediately after ; and sometimes,
though rarely, just before :
Süb eas littëras stätim récïtätae sunt tuae (Cic. ad Fam. x.
16. 1), immediately after the$e dispatches, yours were read out.
Afrícum bellum sub récentem Römänam päcem fuit (Lîv. XXI.
2), the war with the Afri followed close wpo^ the peace with
Eome.
Süb haec dicta omnes mänüs ad consüles tendentes pröcübué-
runt (Liv. VII. 31), immediately after these words they all
prostrated themselves, stretching out their hands to the consuls.
Quid lätët ut märinae Filium dicunt, Thétîdis sub lácrïmösâ
Tróiae Fünérâ ? (Hor. Od. I. 8. 13) why skulks he, as did
sea-öorn, Thetis* 8on, they say on the eve of Troy's mournful
carnage ?
I375 Süb with the ablative signifies—a. Under (without motion)*:
AS
' Sub terra sempêr häbftäuêrant (Cic. N. D. II. 37. 95), they had
always lived underground.
Hostes sub monté consédérant (Caes. B. G. I. 21), the enemy
vere encamped, vnder a mowntain.
b. Within, reach of things above (without motion): as,
Adpröpinquärë nön ausae näues, né süb ictü süperstantium in
rüpfbus pirätärum essent (Liv. xxxvII. 27), the ships did
^ot dare to approach, lest they should be within, shot of the
pirates stationed above om the cliffs.
Iam lücescêbat, omniáqué süb öcülis ërant (Liv. Iv. 28), it was
now getting light, and all that was passîng below was visible.
c. Inferiority, subjection (without action), Vnder: as,
* Umder with motion is at times expressed by the ablative; for in-
stance, when the mind dwells upon the state that follows rather than the
act, or when other prepositions are added to signify the precise motion.
Thus, sub terra uiui demissi sunt in locum saaeo conseptum (Liv. xxii.
57), * they were let down alive into a stone chamber underground.*
366 SYNTAX.
Μätris süb impëriost (Ter. Haut. II. 2.4), she is wnder her mo-
ther's rule.
Vfr impîgër et süb Hannibälö mägistro omnis belli artis ëdoc-
tüs (Liv. xxv. 40), a man of ?nergy, and who had been tho-
roughly instructed in the art of war wnder Hannibal.
d. In conditions, vnder : as,
Iussit ei praemium tribui süb eâ condícióné né quid posteà
scribêret (Cic. p. Arch. 10. 25), he ordered a reward to öe
gêven, hám, under the condîtîor, that he show/d rever write
agaìn.
e. In phrases of time—durìng, έn, just at : as,
Né süb ipsâ pröfectiönë milités oppídum irrumpèrent, portás
obstruit (Caes. B. C. I. 27), that the soldiers might not bvrst
into the town dwring the very embarkation, he δωδlds up the
gates*.
1376 Süb in composition with verbs denotes—a. vp : as, subuéh-
carry αρ (as a river), süm- (î. e. súbím-) take up, surg- (î. e. sur-.
ríg-) rise, subdúc-* draw vp, sustíne- hold up. b. w^der : as,
sübës- be wmder, subiäce- lie wnder, submerg- sìnk. c. a88istance :
as, subuêni- come to assíst, succúr-f rwn to assîst. d. successîon, :
as, succîn- 8îng after, succläma- cry ovt after. e. in, place Qf: as,
suffîc- or suffíci- appoint în place Qf, suppös-t put ór place qf, sub-
stitu- 8et αρ έn place of. f. near : as, sübës- be at hand, subséqu-
follow close after. g. underha^d, secretly: as, surrìp- or surrípi-
s^atch away secretly, súborna- eqvip secretly, subdüc-t vithdraw
quietly. h. ίη, a slight degree : as, subride- Smile, sübaccusSa- accuse
in a ma^^er. i. abundancet: as, suffîc- or Suffîci- amd suppét- öe
abundant.
1377 Süb in the composition of adjectives denotes—ín a slight de-
gree: as, sübobscüro- rather dark, subfusco- dusky.
1378 Subtër is used generally with an accusative, rarely with an
ablative, often without a noun. It signifies—a. Under: as,
Iram in pectörë, cüpîdîtâtem subter praecordiâ löcäuit (Cic.
* Compare the use of sub with an accusative in phrases of time.
f See § 451. 1.
£ This sense is connected with that of sub * up.' Compare the op-
posite, defic- or defici- * be low, wanting.'
SV B. SVBTER. SVPEB. 367
Tusc. I. 10. 20), anger he placed în the breast, desire under
the midriff.
Ferrê iüuat subter densâ testüdïnë cäsus (Virg. A. Ix. 514),
they glory beneath the close array of shields to bear each
chamce.
Omnia haec, quae süpra et subtër, ünum essé dixérunt (0%c.
de Or. III. 5. 20), all the8e bodies, which are above and below,
form one whole they Said.
b. Metaphorically, în subjection, wnder: as,
Virtüs omniâ subter se häbet (Cic. Tusc. v. 1. 4), virtue holds
every thing in, subjectior, to her.
I379 Subtër in composition with verbs signifies—a. Vnder: as, sub-
terläb-* glide wndermeath. ö. Secretly: as, subterdüc-* withdraw
8ecretly.
1380 Süpër is followed both by an ablative and an accusative. With
an ablative it signifies—a. Over (without motion): as,
Destrictüs ensis cui süpér impia Ceruicé pendet (Hor. Od. III.
1. 17), o'er whose wnholy ^eck a drawn sword hangs.
b. Upo^ (without motion): as,
Pötéras réquiescérê mêcum Frondé süper uírídi (Virg. Buc. I.
80), thow, m îghtest have repoSed with me upor, green, leaves.
c. Concerning: as,
Quid núncias Súper amu ? (Plaut. Cist. Iv. 1. 7) what news do
3yov, öring about the old womam ?
Vëlim cógites quîd âgendum nöbis sit süper lëgätiönë (Cic. ad
Att. XIV. 22. 2), I wish 3yow, wowld consider what we mwst do
concernìng the embas8y.
1381 Súpér with an accusative denotes—a. Upon (with motion): as,
Imprüdens süpër aspîdem aSSIdît (Cic. de Fin. II. 18. 59), um-
wütíngly he sits down, wpon, an asp.
Alii süper uallum praecîpîtantür (Sal. Jug. 58), other8 are
thrown, headforemost wpo^ the stakes.
δ. Above in order (as at table): thus,
Nömentänüs érat süpér ipsum (Hor. Sat. II. 8. 23), Vomentanus
lay above him.
* See § 45], l.
368 SYNTAX,
c. Beyond (but with a notion of greater height*): as,
Proxfme Hispäniam Mauri sunt, süper Númídiam Gaetüli (Sal.
Jug. 19), ne vt to Spain are the Moors, beyond Vumidia the
Gaetuę.
d. More, in amount : as,
Sätis süperqué dictumst (Cic. N. D. II. I. 2), emough and more
than enough has been 8aid.
e. Besides: as,
Pünícum exercîtum süper morbum ëtiam fämös affécit (Liv.
xxvII. 46), the Punic army, öesides sickness, suffered severely
also from famine.
1382 Süpër in composition with verbs signifies—a. over : as, süper-
uêni- pass over, süpërémîne- prqject above, süperfüd-f powr over.
b. abundance : as, süpërës- abound. c. remuaìning ower, 8wrvival :
as, süpérés- remain over, survive. d. in addition : as, süpëraddüc-f
öröng άm, addition.
1383 Süprà denotes—a. Upon, with motion : as,
Sub terra häbítábant néque exiêrant unquam süprä terram
(Cic. N. D. II. 37. 95), they lived wnderground, and had never
come ovt above the ground.
Et saltü suprà uënäbülä fertur (Virg. A. Ix. 553), and with a
boumd he fties upom the spears.
b. Upo^, in contact with : as,
Néreides sùprà delphinos sédentês (Plin. H. N. xxxvI. 5.
med.), Wereids seated wpon, dolphins.
c. Over, at some distance above : as,
Eccè süprä cöpütí hömo léuís ac sordìdus, sed tâmén êquestri
censü, Cätiönüs ; étiam is làniétür (Cic. ad Q. F. I. 2. 2. 6),
8ee, there is ready to pownce down, wpon, my head a fellow de-
void of prìncìple and honour, but yet qfequestriam statîon, I
?nean Catienùs. Even, he shall be appeased.
* For example, in the instance quoted Sallust used the word because
they were farther from the sea, and therefore probably higher.
f See § 451. 1.
£ Dr. Butler (Latin Prepositions, p. 121) has given this passage to
prove that supra caput means * exceedingly.' He connects it with leuis,
though the words are separated by homo.
SVPEB. SVPBA. TIENV8. 369
d. Above, in order (as at table): thus,
Acciibuêram äpüd eum et quîdem süprà me Atticüs, infrà
Verriìis (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 26. 1), I had just 8at down to din-
ner at his house, and by the way Atticus sat neat above me,
Verríus below.
e. Above, in amount: as,
Caesa eö dië sùprà miliä uigintI (Liv. xxx. 35), there were 8'ain,
on, that day above twenty thousand.
Etsi haec commémörätiö uéreor né süpra höminis fortünam
essé uídeätür (Cic. de Leg. II. 16. 41), and 37et what I am
goìng to mention will öe thought, Ifear, to ezceed the lot of
77?/(%??.
f. 1n addition to, over and above, besîdes: as,
Süprä belli Sàbini métum id quöque accessêrat (Liv. II. 18),
öesides the fear qf a Saône war, there was this further trouble.
g. In reference to former times, before: as,
Paulö süpra hanc mëmöriam serui ünä crëmábantür (Cae8. B.
G. vr. 19), a little before the time8 which those mow îîvîng cam
recollect, the slaves (of the deceased) vSed to öe öwrnt with him.
h. In referringto a preceding part ofa book or letter, above: as,
Vt süprä dëmonsträufmüs (Caes. B. G. VI. 34), as we have show^
above.
1384 Ténüs (from tén- or tend- stretch), which always follows its
noum, signifies reaching to, and is used—a. With an accusative
(very rarely) : as,
Régiö quae uirgînîs aequör ád Helles
Et Tänaín ténüs immens6 descendít áb Euro (Val. Fl. I. 537),
The region which to the maiden Helle's sea
A^d far as the Don from the va8t East descende.
ö. With an ablative of the singular, particularly with words in
a or o*: as, ę
Antiöchus Taurô tênus regnärë iussust (Cic. p. Deiot. 13. 36),
it was ordained that Antiochus &hould rule only as far as the
Tavrvs.
c. With an ablative of the plural (very rarely) : as.
* This form was probably at first an accusative, Taurom.
IB B
37() - SYNTAX.
JPectörïbusqué ténus mollés êrectüs ín auras
Närïbùs et pätülö partém märïs öuömít óre (0v. Met. xv. 512),
Cfiest-high wpraised înto the movîng aîr
JFrom vide-spread mouth and nostrils vomits owt
One half the sea.
d. With a genitive of the plural, particularly in the consoriant
declension : as,
Et crüräm ténùs à mentó páleäriâ pendent (Virg. G. III. 53),
And leg-deep from the chin, the dewlap hangs*.
1385 Trans signifies—a. On the other síde of: as,
Cögíto interdum trans Tibérim hortös äliquos pärärë (Cic. ad
Att. xII. 19. l), Ithink at times of pwrchasing some park om,
the other side of the Tiber.
δ. To the other sìde of: as,
Trans Alpis transfertür (Cic. p. Quinct. 3. 12), he is carried to
the other side of the Alps.
1386 Trans in composition signifies acrosa : as, transmít-f or trämft-
8end across, transi- go across.
1387 Vorsüs (uorsum, uersüs, uersum) signifies directior : as,
Brundüsium uorsùs ibäs (Cic. ad Fam. xI. 27.3), 3yow were going
in the directior, Qf(or towards) Brundusium;.
1388 Vorsùs is also used in conjunction with the prepositions äd
and ín : as,
Ad öceänum uersus pröfícisci iübet (Caes. B. G. VI. 33), he
orders hóm, to 8et out in the directior, of the oceam.
In Itáliam uorsus näugätürüs érat (Sulpic. ad Cic. ad Fam.
Iv. 12. 1), he wa8 about to 8ail towards Italy.
1389 Vls om the other side of, with an accusative (but rarely used): as,
Sácra ët uls et cis Tibérim fiunt (Varr. L. L. Iv. 15), sacrìfices
are offered öoth on yonder and or- this side of the Tiber.
1390 Vltrà denotes—a. On the other side of, beyond : as,
Vltrà Siliänam uillam est uillülâ sordída et ualdé püsillâ (Cic.
ad Att. xII. 27. 1), on the other side of Silius' country-ho?u8e
is a cottage qf meam appearance and very &malt.
* See also § 803. + See § 451. l.
: See also § 798.
TRANS. VORSVS. VILS. VI,TRA. 37I
b. To the other side qf, beyond : as,
Paulo ultra eum löcum casträ transtülit (Caes. B. C. III. 66),
he moved the camp to a spot a little beyond that place.
c. Metaphorically : as,
Sunt certi dëmfqué fines
Quös ulträ citràqué néquit consistéré rectum (Hor. Sat. I. l. 106),
There are in fine faced limits
Beyond and short of which truth cannot halt.
Nön ultra hêminam äquae assümít (Cels. Iv. 2. 4), he takes nc:
more than a pênt-and-a-half of water.
d. The same without a noun : as,
Estne álíquíd ultrâ, quó prógrëdi crüdëlítas possit? (Cic. II. .
Verr. v. 45. 119) ìs there angy thing beyond thês to which
bloodthirstìness ca^ go ?
1391 In the examples already givem, it has beem seem that preposi-
tions are at times placed after their nouns, although their name
implies the contrary*. In the old language this appears to have
been the case with perhaps every prepositiom, and the practice
prevailed to the last in some legal phrases. It may further be
observed that—a. The preposition cum is always placed after the
ablatives of the personal pronouns : as, mëcum, técum, sëcum,
nöbiscum, uóbiscum, and for the most part after the ablatives of
the simple relative: as, quöcum, quâcum, quicum, quîbuscum.
ö. The prepositions ténüs and uorsùs always follow their case. c.
The disyllabic prepositions generally are more apt to occupy the
second place than those which are monosyllabic. d. The relativef,
and the pronoun ho- this, when it occurs at the beginning of a
sentence, have a tendency to throw the preposition behind them.
* It may be useful to compare the meaning of the term case with
that of the term preposition. They both denote primarily the relations
of place. They are both so intimately connected with the noun as to be
pronounced with it, and even written with it, although printers have as
regards prepositions abandoned the authority of the best inscriptions and
manuscripts. Thirdly, as the case-ending is always added as a suffix, so
also in the old language was the preposition. Hence there is no original
distinction, either in essence or form, between a case-ending and a prepo-
sition. These considerations may perhaps tend to create in the mind a
clearer notion of what a case is.
+ This explains the form quoad, as compared with adeo, aIid also
quamobrem, quemadmodum, quocirca.
372 syNTAx.
e. When an emphatic adjective or genitive accompanies a noun,
this emphatic word commonly comes first, and is immediately
followed by the preposition, which must then be considered as an
enclitic attached to it, and should be pronounced accordingly.
1392 The prepositiom is occasionally separated from its noun. The
Words which may come between are included for the most part
under the following heads : a. an adjective belonging to the noum ;
b. a genitive belonging to it; c. an adverb or case attached to that
noun when it is a gerund or participle ; d. the enclitics më, quë,
uè, although in the case of the monosyllabic pronouns the noun
as well as the preposition commonly precede these enclitics* ; e.
the conjunctions which commonly occupy the second place in a
sentence, as autem, ënim, quîdem, tâmén, uërö.
1393 The preposition may attach itself to the adjective in place of
the substantive, or even to a genitive which depends upom the
substantive, amd the substantive itself be removed to a distamce ;
or, lastly, the preposition occasionally is found before the verbt.
1394 Whether a preposition is to be repeated or not before each of
two nouns, is to be decided by the intimacy of the comnection
between them. When that intimacy is close, the nouns may be
considered as one, and a single preposition willbe sufficient. Thus,
the Aulerci and Lexovii being close neighbours in the map of Gallia,
one preposition is enough im—
Exercîtum în Aulercis Lexöuiisquë conlöcäuit (Caes. B. G. III.
29), he posted the army in, the country of the Aulerci and
Levovî.
1395 On the other hand, ifthe nouns bg looked upon as very distinct,
two prepositions are requisite : as,
Sätïs ët ad laudem ët äd ütïlïtätem pröfectum arbíträtür (Caes.
E. G. IV. 19), he thánks that sufficient progre88 has been made
öoth for glory and for vtilityf.
* See §§ 836, 837.
t As, dum longus inter saeuiat Ilion Romamque pontus (Hor. Od.
III. 3. 37).
f Hence the preposition inter is often repeated : as, interest inter
eaussas fortuito antegressas et inter caussas maturalis (Cic. de Fat. 9. 19).
So also Cic. de Fin. i. 9. 30, Parad. I. 3. 14.
ADVERBS. 373
1396 When the antecedent, and relative are dependent, upon the
same preposition, the preposition may for brevity's sake be omitted
in the relative clause, if the verb be not expressed : as,
Më tuae littérae nunquam in tantam spem adduxêrunt, quan-
tam äliörum (Cic. ad Att. III. 19. 2), as for myself, 3your let-
ters have never led me to entertain 80 Strong a hope a8 tho8e Qf
other frìends.
1397 If two prepositions have a common noum, that nonn must be
repeated in Latin (except in the case of those disyllabic preposi-
tions which are used adverbially): as,
Hoc non mödö non prö më, sed contrà me est pótiùs (Cic. de
Or. III. 20. 75), this, 80 far fro^ being for, ís rather against
7726,
ADVERBS.
1398 An adverb, as its name implies, is commonly attached to a
verb, and usually precedes it ; but if the adverb is emphatic, it
may commence or end the whole sentence ; or if unemphatic, it
may occupy the non-emphatic, that is, the Second place* in a
clause.
1399 An adverb may of course be used with participles, and this
usage is sometimes retained by them even when they have be-
come virtually substantives : as, facto- (n.), dicto- (n.), responso-
(n.), &c. Thus, *
In ödium addücentür aduorsärii, SI quöd eörum süperbé, crü-
dëlíter, mälïtiósé factum pröférétùrf (Cic. de Inv. I. 16. 22),
the opposite partìes will be brought ínto discredit, fangy tyra^-
^ical, cruel, or spiteful act of theirs be brought forward.
Sui négöti bénè gërens (Cic. p. Quinct. 19. 62), a good manager
of his own affairs.
Pol méi patris bene párta indiligenter Tutátur (Ter. Ph. v. 3. 5),
faith, he takes poor care qf what my father earned 80 creditably.
1400 An adverb oftem accompanies adjectives and adverbs, but is
rarely found with substantives, and perhaps only under one of the
* See § 1473.
* Observe that if.factum had not been a substantive, the pronoun
must have been quid, not quod. See § 306.
374 • SYNTAX.
two conditions: a. that the substantive shall be in apposition ; b.
that it shall be interposed between a substantive and its adjective
or dependent genitive: as,
a. Märius septümum consul dömi suae est mortuös (Cic. N. D.
III. 32. 81), Maríus ón his seventh consulate díed at his own
hovse.
Pöpülus, lätë rex (Virg. A. I. 21), a city that rwleth far and
vîde,
b. E't heri semper lénitas uerébar quorsum euáderet (Ter. And.
I. 2. 4), and master's constant gentle^ess, I was afraód vhat
¢t would emd ìm*.
Omnes circà pöpüli (Liv. xxIv. 3), all the states aro^/nd.
1401 Adverbs are used in some phrases with the verb ës- be, when
an adjective or participle might have been expected : as,
Vti néqué uos cápiämfni ét illi frusträ sint (Sal. Jug. 85), that
3yow, may not be deceived, and that the other party may be dis-
appointed. - -
Aput uëtêres dicta impüne ërant (Tac. Anm. I. 72), amorg 0?/r
amcestors mere words were wnpwmished.
Vêliae fuî sânê lübentêr äpud Talmam nostrum (Cic. ad Att.
xvI. 6. l), at Velia Iwas ìndeed most comfortable at our friend
Talma's.
NEGATIVE PARTICLES.
1402 The simplest form of the Latim negative is nêf. On the other
hand, nön has Some other element added to the simple negative,
and is therefore more emphatic. Hence nöni is used with the
* Even here it is far from certain that semper does not belong to
auerebar.
f The same is the form of the English negative as it appears in our
old writers. It also enters into the formation of mever from ever. The
particle enters into the formation of many Latin words: as, mëqui- * be
unable,' mëfas, méfasto-, méfario-, méfando-, nêuis * thou wilt not,' in
which it is short; and the following with a long à, nêue, mêdum, mêmon-,
^êquam, nèquitia-, néquaquam, méquiquam. Other words into which me
enters are nunquam, mùtiquam, meuter (old form me-cuter), as also the
phrase me minus. See alsò § 761.
f Non may possibly be formed from me and unum, just as our English
fmo is a corruption of mone, i. e. me ome. Compare the German nein from
*ne ein. Indeed the old Latin writers use the form memu, which seems
more clearly to be a contraction of ne unum.
NE. NON. HAUD. 375
indicative, and with the subjunctive when a result is expressed,
in which case the subjunctive evidently assumes the meaming of
the indicative*.
1403 When nön affects a single word in a sentence, it precedes it ;
when it affects a whole sentence, it commonly precedes the verb.
Occasionally, in order that it may have great emphasis, nön is
placed at the beginning of a sentence, or at the beginning of the
predicative part of a sentence, and in these cases it often becomes
difficult to give a translation which shall not greatly alter the
order of wordsf : as,
Nön hos pălus, non siluae mörantür (Caes. B. G. VI. 35), no
marsh, no woods restraêm them.
1404 In sentences containing a main verb of thinking or saying, the
negative, which really belongs to the infinitive mood, is at times
for emphasis placed before these maim verbs : as,
Nön existümäuit suis símílíbus pröbäri possé se esse hostem
pátriae, mîsî mihi esset ínímicüs (Cic. Phil. II. 1. 2), he
thought that the men, qf his own stamp could mever öe $atisfied
he was a public enemy to hîs cowntry, wnles8 he was a prìvate
enem3y of mimef.
1404. 1 Né, haud (hau), nón, are all proclitics§. Hence the form of
the verbs nesci-, hausci- (so in Ritschl's Plautus); and hence such
am order of words as :
Vt iam líceat ünä comprehensióne omniä complecti, mon-dübi-
tantemqué dicëre, omnem nätüram essé seruätricem sui
(0ic. de Fin. v. 9. 26, ed. Madvig), 80 that we may now ìn-
* In the same way the French use the strengthened negatives, ne.. pas,
ne.. point, ne.. riem, in such phrases as je n'irai pas, je m'irai point, je ne
vois riem, &c., where the particles pas, point, riem, severally represent the
Latin nouns passum, punctum, rem. On the other hand their subjunctive
mood commonly takes a simple ne.
f In the commencement of Horace's Satire (1.6), Non quia Maecenas
&c. naso suspendis adunco Ignotos, the negative is separated from the verb
to which it belongs by nearly five lines.
t In the same way the Greeks use the order ovk €φm, although the
negätive belongs to thé following infinitive. In Latin alsq nega- probably
owes its formation to the same principle, the negative in this word too
belonging always to the accompanying infinitive.
§ So also ovic (ov) is commonly a proclitic ; and similarly our mot
(cánnot, knów-not) is an enclitic.
376 SYNTAX.
clude all in ore general assertion, and without hesitation &ag
that nature is always self preservírg.
1405 Between né* and quîdem the word (or words, if intimately
connected) on which the emphasis lies is always interposed : as,
Egö ne ütflem quídem arbitrör essë nöbis fütürärum rërum
scientiam (Cic. de Div. II. 9. 22), for my part I do not think
vt even eæpedient for Js to know the future.
Nè SI cüpiam quídem (Cic. in Pis. 28.68), moz even êf Idesired it.
1405. 1 Besides not—even, the ordinary meaning of né—quîdem, it is
sometimes to be translated meîtherf : as,
Në Wärius quídem dübítat cópias prödücérë (Caes. B. G. II. 33),
^either does Varius hesitate to lead out his forces.
Huic ut scélus, sic né rätiö quïdem défuit (Cic. N. D. III. 26. 68),
as thês vomuan, (Medea) was mot deficient în vîllany, 80 meither
was She ίη ωόt.
Si illüd, hoc ; nön autem hoc ; ígítur ne illud quîdem (Cic. de
Fin. Iv. 19. 55), §f that be trwe, then this must be 80 ; but thás
δs not true ; consequently meîtherf is that.
1406 Where in English the conjunction and is followed by a nega-
tive pronoun or adverb, the Latin language commonly prefers mé-
quë accompanied by an affirmative pronoum or adverb: as,
Nëque ex castris quisquam discessêrat (Sal. Cat. 36), a^d ^0t a
mar, had left the camp.
Nëque ullam söciétâtem confirmäri possé crédidi (Cic. Phil. II.
35. 89), and I thought that no alliance could be ratified.
Nëque est usquam consïliö löcüs (Cic. de Off. II. 1. 2), and there
δs nowhere room for deliberatiom.
1406. 1 In writers after the Augustam period néc oftem has the power
of ^ot ever. : as,
Pätris iussâ nec pötuissé filiumm détrectärë (Tac. Ann. III. 17),
the orders Qf a father it was mot even in the power Qf a 80^ to
' declîne (let alone the will).
* As quidem is itself a word of strong affirmation, it was enough to use
the simple negative me.
f In German auch nicht. See Madvig ad Cic. de Fin. p. 816.
f This distinction has been thoroughly established by Madvig (ibid.),
who has dealt with all the apparent exceptions im Cicero, Sallust, &c.
INE, NON. 377
.... Nec puéri crédunt, nisi qui nondum aerê lãuantur (Juv.
II. 152), (all this) mot e'en our baîrms believe, Save tho8e, Who
for the penny-bath are get too yowng.
Sed nec Tibériö parcit (Suet. Oct. 86), but ^ot even Tìberìus does
he spare.
1407 Similarly an intention to prevent any thing is expressed in
Latin by në and an affirmative pronoun or adverb, although the
English often uses the conjunction that, followed by a negative
pronoum or adverb : as,
Vt däret öpëram né quöd his collóquium inter se esset (Lîv.
XXIII. 34), that he should take care tfiat they showld have ^0
conference with each other.
Dispósitis explörätöribus nécübi Römänï cöpias transdücêrent
(Caes. B. G. VII. 35), scowts beîng placed at different points,
that the Romans might ^ot lead their forces over at a^y
poînt.
Tü tâmén eäs épistölas concerpïtö nëquandö quïd émânet (Oic.
ad Att. x. 12. 3), 3yow however will tear \p those letters, that
^0thông may ever 002e owt.
1408 On the other hand, where a result is denoted, the conjunction
üt is employed with the negative pronouns, &c. : as,
Tantis impëdiör occüpätiönïbùs ut scribendi fäcultas nullâ
dëtür (Cic. ad Fam. XII. 30. l), I am hindered by 80 mary
engagements, that I have ^o opportunity Qf writirg.
Obuiam mihi SIc est prödîtum, ut nihil posset fièri ornätiüs
(Cic. ad Fam. XVI. 11. 2), they came out to meet me in swch
a manner, that nothing could be more complimentary*.
1409 But when the negative affects a single word, and not is ex-
pressed by et nön : as,
Wëtüs et nön ignöbïlis dicendi mägistër (Cic. Brut. 91. 315),
an, old and mot wnknown professor qf oratory.
* Thus in the following tables the words in the first column belong to
clauses of purpose, those in the second to clauses of result:
e è ę ę ę 0 ę
: quis vt mom, £. £. ut nunquam.
t* ^/í memo. e*
ne quasquam ??e me-cubi . . vt nusquam.
uid e * a de me ullus . ut mullus.
me qua ut mihil.
ne quidquam
378 SYNTAX.
Incrédíbílís ánímüs et nön ünius ufri uirës (Cic. p. Mil. 25.67),
a spirit past belief, and a power ofwork such as no single 7nan
ever had.
1409. l Again, when and ^ot introduces an idea directly opposed to
what precedes, et nön or ac nön are required: as,
Illi iüdíces, si iüdïcës, et non parrìcidae pátriae nömînandi sunt
(Cic. p. Planc. 29. 70), those jurymen, £f indeed they are to
be called, jurymen, and not rather parrìcìdes of their father-
lamd.
Quäsf uërö mê tuo arbiträtu, et non meó grätum esse öporteat
(Cic. p. Planc. 29. 71), as £f forsooth your opînîon, and not
my own ought to decide the measure of my gratitude.
Quid tü fëcisses, SI tê Tärentum et non Sämäröbriuam misis-
sem ? (Cic. ad Fam. VII. 12) what would yov have done, áf
I had sent gyow to Tarentum, instead of Samarobrìva ?
Nullâ res rectè pötest admînisträri, si ünusquisquë uëlit uerbâ
spectäre, et nön ad uöluntätem ëius qui eâ uerba håbuérit
accédéré (Cic. de Inv. II. 47. 140), nothing can. be executed
properly, f every 8eparate person, is to look to the words only,
*n8tead of complying with the intention of him who wsed tho8e
vorde.
Non dicërem, si puéri esse illam culpam, ac non pátrfs existü-
märem (Cic. II. Verr. III. 68. l59), I should mot have Said 80,
èf 1 had thought that was the boy's and not the father's fault.
Plüríbus uerbis ad tê scribërem, si res uerbâ dêsîdëräret, ac
non prò se ipsâ löquërëtür (Cic. ad Fam. III. 2. 2), 1 should
have written, to 3yow, at greater length, €f the subject had needed
words, and mot itself spoken in its own behalf.
Qui pötes répérire ex eö génère höminum qui te äment ex
änïmo ac non sui commödi caussâ símülent ? (Cic. ad Q. F.
I. 1. 5. 15) how are 3/ow to find men of that class who love yow
8íncerely, ìnstead of pretending to do 80 for their own, advan-
tage ?
1410 The adjective nullo- and the indeclinable noun nihil are occa-
sionally used emphatically for nön and më : as, »'
Nihil nécessest (Cic. ad Att. vII. 2. 8), there is mo mecessity.
Sextüs äb armis nullus discëdit (Cic. ad Att. xv. 22), Sextus
has not a thought qf laying down the sword.
NE, NON. 379
1411 An accumulation of negatives is common in Latim, so as to
produce a strong emphasis (but attention must be paid to the
position of nön in such phrases*): as,
a. Non nihîl üt in tantis mälis est pröfectum (Cic. ad Fam.
XII. 2. 2), Some progress has been made, consìderìng the very
vnhappy posîtîon, we are án.
Pöpülus sölet non nunquam dignos praetériré (Cic. p. Planc.
3. 8), the citizens are wont at times to pass by the worthy.
Së non nollé dixit (Cic. de Or. II. 18.75), he 8aid he was no way
wnwilling.
b. Tuum consílium nëmö pötest non laudärë (Cic. ad Fam. Iv.
7. 2), tfie course you are pwrswing no one can, avoid praîsîng.
Aperte ádülantem nëmö non uídet (Cic. de Am. 26. 99), a ma^
φho openly flatters, every one 8ee8 through.
Nihil nön aggrédientür hömînës (Liv. Iv. 35), men will attack
an3y tháng.
1412 After a general negative, a second negative may be introduced
under either of the following circumstances— a. when some word
or phrase is made emphatic by being placed between në and quí-
dem ; and b. whem the main clause is divided into two or more,
of which each has its own negativef : as,
a. Aduentus noster mémîni né mínümö quïdem fuit sumptui
(Cic. ad Att. v. 14. 2), owr arrival was mot even, the least eae-
pense to any one.
Nön ënim praetéreundumst ne id quîdem (Cic. II. Verr. I. 60.
155), for we must ^ot pass over even this.
ö. Sic hábeas nihil tê mihi nec cáriüs essë nec suäuiüs (Cic. ad
Att. v. 1. 5), öe assured that there is nothimg either dearer or
sweeter to me tham gy0wrself.
* Thus,
non nihil=aliquid. -* nihil mom = omnia.
7307], 71€ΤΩ0 w : » 73e)mO 7207} = 0ΓΓΑΤΑΘS.
= aliouis. •
mom nullus } q. mullus mom = omnis.
non numquam = aliquando. ^m unquam nom= semper.
non nusquam=alicubi. musquam nom= ubique.
Similarly non modo—, non tantum —, mean * so much and more besides;'
whereas modo non —, tantum non —, meam * something just short of —.*
+ Occasionally a double negative with the power of a single negative
occurs through carelessness: as, quos non miseret neminis, * who don*t pity
no one.* (Cato an. Fest. v. memini.)
380 SYNTAX.
1413 After clauses containing words compounded with né, a second
clause is sometimes introduced which requires that the affirmative
notion*, instead of the negative, should be supplied : as,
Négant Caesărem in condícióné mansürum, postülätäque haec
áb eo interpösita essé, quómínüs ä nöbis pärärëtür (Cic. ad
Att. VII. 15. 3), they say that Cæsar will not abúde by the
terms, and that these demands have beer, put forward by hám,
to prevent owr makông preparations.
Nêmo extülit eum uerbis qui ftá dixisset ut qui ädessent in-
tellégèrent quid dicëret, sed contempsit eum qui minüs id
fácéré pötuisset (Cic. de Or. III. 14. 52), no one ever eaetolled
a man for speaking so as to make hìmself intelligible to those
present, but all despìse one who ìs Vrable to do 8of.
1414 A negative will oftem extend its influence over a second clause
attached to the first by aut or uë: as,
Néqué consistendi aut ex essëdis dêsîliendi fäcultätem dédè-
runt (Caes. B. G. v. 17), nor did they give (them) an oppor-
zαηέγ of halting or leapíng down from their war-chariots.
Nöm übíuis cöramué quíbuslïbét (Hor. Sat. I. 4. 74), not any
where or before any people.
1414. 1 A negative prefixed to two clauses may be used to deny not
each separate clause, but the combination. Thus in the following
example each of the three negatives affects what has been included
for the nonce in brackets.
Nön ënim (dixi quídem sed non scripsi), nec (scripSi quîdem sed
nöm öbii lëgätiönem), nëc (öbii quídem sed non persuäsiThé-
bänis) (@ιέnt.f Ix. 38. 55), for you mwst not suppose that /
spoke, and then, abstaïned from writirg ; or that Iwrote îndeed,
övt took no part in the embassy ; or that Idid take part in the
embassy, yet faîled to persuade the Thebans.
* i. e. for mega- * deny,' dic- * say ;* for mol- * be unwilling,” uol- * wish ;'
for memo * no one,' omnes * all.* As regards nega- see § 1404. Compare
too Hor. Sat. I. 1-3, nemo ... uiuat, laudet (i. e. omnes laudent); Liv.
Ę; 2, nemo memor esset, praesidio sociis essent; Plaut. Trin. III. 2. 62,
?0l0 • • •, set . . .
* Observe that nemo eaetulit has caused contempsit to be an aorist as
well as a singular, though a plural present is required by the sense.
3. Translating Demosthenes p. Cor. c. 55.
INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES. 381
1415 The negative in në — quîdem, when followed by a common
predicate, often extends its influence over a preceding clause be-
ginning with non mödö or non sölum : as,
Assentätiö non mödo ämIgó sed nè libërö quïdem dignast (Gic.
de Am. 24. 89), flattery is wnworthy ^ot merely Qf a fríend,
δύt even of a freeman.
Sënätui non sölum iüuärë rempublícam, sed nè lügërë quîdem
lîcuit (Cic. in Pis. 10. 23), the senate were forbiddem mot merely
to assîst, but even to moùrn over their cow^try*.
1416 In imperative sentences, and in subjunctive clauses dependent,
upon üt or në, nêuê is used rather tham néqué or et në : as,
Suis praedixérat ut Caesärïs impëtum excîpèrent, nêuê sê löcö
möuèrent (Caes. B. C. III. 92), he had told his men before-
hand to wait for Cæsar's attack, and not move from their
ground.
Höminem mortuom ín urbë nêuê sëpëlitö mêue ürftö (apud Cic.
de Leg. II. 23. 58), neither bury ^or bwrn, a corp8e in the city.
l416. l Haud not (in old Writers often hau) is used chiefly before ad-
jectives and adverbs, but also in the phrase haud scio or hau scio
I know ^ot.
INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES.
1417 The simplest interrogative particle is the enclitic në, which is
affixed to that particular word on which the question turms, whe-
ther verb, substantive, adjective or particle : as,
Pötestné uirtus, Crassé, seruiré ? (Cic. de Or. I. 52. 226) îs ît
possible, or ìs ìt ^ot possible, Crassus, that virtue should be a
8lave ?
Apollînemné tü Délium spöliäre ausùs és ? Illiné tü templö tam
sanctö mänüs impiäs afferrë cönätüs és ? (Cic. II. Verr. I.
18. 47) was Apollo of Delos the god whom yow, dared to de-
spoîl ? Was that the temple with all its 8anctity on which yov,
attempted to lay 3your wnholy hand ?
* It is in such passages as these that non modo is said to be used for
mon modo mon. The distinction is well seen in Cic. p. leg. Man. 13. 39:
Quoius legiones sic in Asiam peruenerunt, ut non modo manus tanti eaeer-
citus, sed ne uestigium quidem quoiquam pacato nocuisse dicatur.... Non
modo vt sumptum faciat in militem nemini uis adfertur, sed me cupienti
quidem quoiquam permittitur.
382 SYNTAX.
Núllon egó Chremétis pacto adfinitatem ecfúgere potero ? (Ter.
And. I. 5. 12) is there no way in, which Ishal, be able to escape
a marriage into Chremes' family ?
A. Quid coeptâs Thraso ? B. Eg6ne ? (Ter. E. v. 7. 1) A. What
are yow after, Thraso ? B. What am I after ?
Sicíne ágís? (Ter. Ad. I. 2. 48) i8 this the way 3yow, act ?
I'licone crédere ea quae dixi oportuit te ? (Ter. E. v. 6. ll) êf
3yow must ^eeds believe what Isaid, ought 3yow to have done 80
at once ?
1418 A question is often asked without any interrogative particle :
àS
'R6gitas? N6n uides? (Ter. E. rv. 4. 8) do you ask ? Don't you
see ?
Néqueo te exoráre ut maneas tríduom hoc ? (Ter. Ph. III. 2.4)
can. I^ot prevai' wpon yow to wait the ^evt three days ?
Clödiïs insídias fécit Milöni ? (Cic. p. Mil. 22. 60) did Clodius
waylay Milo ?*
1419 In directf questions the particle num commonly implies the
expectatiom of am answer in the negative, and nonné one in the
affirmative: as,
Num factí piget ? Num eiús color pudóris signum usquam ìm-
dicat ? (Ter. And. v. 3. 6) is he sorry for his conduct ? No.
Does his cheek show angy sign of shame ? Vo.
Quid cänis, nonnè sìmìlis lüpò ? (Cic. N. D. I. 35. 97) well and
the dog, äs he mot like the wolf ? Qf course he is.
1420 In simple indirect questions (not commencing with an interro-
gative pronoun£) né is commonly employed, sometimes num : as,
VÎdeámus primum, deörumné próuídentiâ mundus rëgätur ;
deindè, consülantnë rébüs hümänis (Cic. N. D. III. 25. 65),
let us consider first whether the universe is governed by the
foresight of the gods ; second/y, whether they provide for the
•velfare of man.
Spécüläri iussi sunt, num sollfcftäti áními söciörum à rége
* In many of these cases it would be perhaps better to consider the
words as an assertion either put ironically or im the name of the other
party. Thus, * Clodius waylaid Milo, you say.'
+ See § 1134 and note.
3. Such as qui-s, ubi, unde, quo, quando, &c.
NE, NUM. AN. 383
essent (Liv. xLII. 19), they were directed to öe om the look-out
to find whether the king had been tampering with the allies.
1421 The particle án is not used in the simple direct question ; and
in the simple indirect the best Writers seldom use it except in the
phrases nescio âm, haud scio âm, dübfto án, incertum án : as,
Est id quîdem magnum atque haud scio am maxümum, sed tîbi
commüné cum multis (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 15. 1), true, that is
an ìmportant matter, and I would almost venture to 8ay the
most important ofall, but still it is common to yov, with many.
Hoc diiüdïcäri nescio an numquam*, sëd hoc sermóné certê
non pötest (Cic. de Leg. I. 21. 56), the decision, of this point
Iam strongly inclined to think cam, never take place, but cer-
tainly not through the preserut conversation.
Möriendum certe est, ét íd incertum än höc ipsö dië (Cic. de
Sen. 20. 74), die we must, 8ome time or other, and possibly
this very day.
1422 The use of SI (and si fortè) in indirect questions is very rare,
except in phrases where hope or expectatìo^ is expressed or implied
(§f perchance): as,
Expectábam SI quid de eö consïliö ad më scribërës (Cic. ad Att.
xvI. 2. 4), I was waiting to &ee whether 3yow would write any
thông to me abovt thês plan.
Circumfunduntür ex réliquis partîbus, Si quem ädftum répé-
riré possint (Caes. B. G. VI. 37), they pour round or, the other
sîdes, án hopes they may find some place to enter at.
1423 The term disjunctìve question is used to denote those cases
where one or more alternatives are added (which in English are
preceded by the word or). The forms used, alike for direct and
indirect questions, are the four which follow: a. ütrumf —,
* In many of the ordinary editions the negative in these phrases has
been deprived of its first letter. Thus Ramshorn, p. 710, quotes nescio
an ulli from Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 9. 2, though the best Mss. have nulli. See
Orelli's edition. So also Cic. ad Att. Iv. 3. 2.
f Num is limited in its use to the simple question. Yet at times it
appears to be used in disjunctive questions, because at the close of that
simple question which alone was intended at starting, it suddenly occurs
to the Writer (see § 1426) to draw attentiom to the absurdity of some al-
ternative, which he attaches as usual by the particle an. See Madvig's
Opusc. II. 230.
384 SYNTAx.
än*—; b. — né, án —; c. —, án — ; d. —, — né:
8 §
' a. Vtrum nescis quam alte escendêris, an prò nihflo id pütäs?
(Cic. ad Fam. x. 26. 3) which is the right ea planatìor, of 3yovr
conduct ; that yov do mot know to what a high station 3/ou,
have rêsen, or that 3yow set mo value vpor, ät ? •
Id âgîtür, ütrum hac pétitiöne an proxümä praetor fiäs (C%c.
ad Fam. x. 26. 2), the questìon ìs this, whether 3yow are to be
prætor this electîon, or meaet.
b. Eà férârumne ám höminum caussâ gignéré uídëtür ? (Cic.
N. D. II. 62. 156) is ôt for the wild-beasts think 3yow or for
man that åt (the earth) produces these things ?
Quaero eum, Brütiné símílem mälis, äm Antóni (Cic. Phil. x.
2. 5), I ask whether 3yow, would wish him, to öe like Brutus or
Antony.
c. Sortiétür, an nön ? (Cic. Prov. Cons. 15. 37) shall he cast lots
or mOt ?
Eostrëmö, fügëre an mänörö tütius föret, ín incerto érat (Sal.
Jug. 38), lastly, whether to fly or Stay were the 8afer, was a
anatter of doubt.
d. Sunt haec tuâ uerbä, necné ?f (Cic. Tusc. III. 18. 41) are
the$e $your words or are they not ?
Nihfl intéressé nostrâ pütämus, uäleämüs aegrînë Simüs (Cic.
de Fin. Iv. 25. 69), it makes mo difference to ws we thánk,
αυhether we are well, or îll.
1424 The forms, — né, — në; äm —, án —, are found in
the poets (and but rarely elsewhere): as,
Qui téneant öräs, höminesné féraene,
Quaerérë constîtuit (Virg. A. I. 312),
Who occupy the borders, men, or beasts,
He resolves to ask.
* Care must be taken notto confound with disjunctive questions those
in which, although the English language uses the same particle, there is
really no opposition between the parts, but all may be equally denied or
affirmed, so that aut and not am must be interposed : as, quid ergo, solem
dicam aut lunam aut caelum deum ? (Cic. N. D. I. 30. 84) * what then,
shall I apply the mame of god to the sun, or to the moon, or to the sky ?'
f Ne in the second part of a direct question is rare, and perhaps
limited in the best writers to the form necne. So utrum —, necne
occurs in an indirect question. The Pseudo-Nepos has utrum —,
fmatrem me, &c. -
AN. SI. VTRVM. NE. 385
Saepé mánüs öpërï tentantês admöuët, an sit Corpüs än illüd
ëbur (0v. Met. 10. 254), oft his hands he moveth to the work,
trying whether that before hìm be flesh or èvory.
1425 The old construction with ütrum has after it — né, án — :
aS,
Vtrùm, studione id sibi habet, an laudi putat Fore, si perdiderit
gnátum ? (Ter. Ad. III. 3. 28) does he look upon this as an
amº/sement, or does he think it will öe a credit to hám, ìf he
ruin, his som, ? •
Vtrum ërat ütilius, suisné seruire an pöpülö Römäno obtempé-
rärë ? (Cic. II. Verr. Iv. 33. 73) which was the more eaepedient
course, to öe Slaves to coωτιtrymen of their own, or to meet the
wáshes of the Roman people ?*
1426 It has been seen that ån is the particle ordinarily used before
the second part of a question. Hence án (or an uërö) is well
adapted for those cases where a statement is immediately followed
by the alternative put in the form of a question : as,
Nécessest quicquid prönuntiés, îd aut esse aut nön essé. An
tü diälecticis me imbútus quídem és ? (Cic. Tusc. I. 7. 14)
vhat you put forward must meeds either be or mot be. Or are
3yow not acquaìnted with even the A B C of logîc ?f
Ad mortem tê Cátílimá düci iampridem öportébat—an uërö
Scipiö Graccum priuätüs interfëcit, Cätilinam nos consüles
perférêmüs? (Cic. in Cat. I. 1. 3) death, Catiline, owght long
ago to have been 3/owr fate—or doe8 angy one really pretend,
that when Scîpîo, though a prìvate man, slew Gracchvs, the
consuls of Rome are to tolerate Catiline ?
Nös hic te exspectämüs ex quödam rümöre, án ex littêris tuis
âd álios missis (Cic. ad Att. I. 3. 2), we meanwhile are ea-
* The particle me is at times added to the interrogative promouns and
also to the particles num and an : as, quine, quone, quantane, uterne,
utrumme, numne, anme. But care must be taken to distinguish those
elliptical phrases where the relative and not the interrogative pronoun
precedes me. Thus, Ter. Ph. v. 7. 29: De. Argéntum iube rescrìbi. Ph.
Quodne egó discripsi pórro illis quibus debui? De. * Order the money to
be repaid. Ph. What, the money which I paid away forthwith to those
creditors I spoke of?' And again, Ter. And. Iv. 4. 29: Quemne egó heri
vidi ad uós adferri vésperi ? * What, the child which I myself saw being
carried to your house yesterday evening?* . .
+ Which must be the case if you deny my proposition.
C; C;
386 SYNTAX.
pecting 3/ow here on the authority of Some rumour, or (am 1
fright ?) letters ofgyovrs to some other people.*
1427 An answer in the affirmative may be expressed by étiam, itä
Or ita est, sic or Sic est, uërum, uërö, factum, sáné, maxümé,
quidni ?, admödum, oppídö, plànè, &c., by a personal pronoum
with uërö, or lastly by the verb of the preceding sentence re-
peated :f as,
Háecim tua domúst ? Ita (Plaut. Am. I. 1. 206), is this 3yovr
hovse ? Yes.
Nöui tîbi quidnam scribam ?—quid ?—ëtiam (Cic. ad Att. I.
13. 5), have 7 any news to write to you ?—ary new8 ?—yes.
P. Itáne patris áis conspectum uéritum hinc abiisse ? G. âd-
modum. P. Phánium relictam solam ? G. Sic£. P. Et
iratúm senem ? G. Oppido (Ter. Ph. 2. 2. 1), P. Do 3yow
really meam that, afraid to face his father, he is gone off?
G. Precisely. P. That Phanium has been left ôy herself?
G. Just so. P. And that the old mar. îs în a pas8ion ? G.
Eaeactly.
A. Dasne hoc ? B. Dö sänë (Cic. de Leg. I. 7. 21), A. Do yow
admit this ? B. Yes, I do admît ît.
1428 An answer in the negative may be expressed by nön, mínümè;
nihil minùs, &c. : as,
Cognïtörem adscribit Sthëniö. Quem ? Cognätum álíquem ?
Nön. Thermïtänum älïquem ? Ne id quîdem. At Sicü-
lum ? Mínümë (Cic. II. Verr. II. 43. 106), he appoints a per-
son to act as attorney for Sthenius. Whom, think you ? Some
relative ? Wo. Some inhabitant of Thermæ ? Vot even that.
Síîïò a Sìcilian, of course ? By no means.
1429 Imö seems to have signified properly an assent with an im-
portant qualificatiom (but from carelessness it is used at times
where the correction amounts to a total denial): as,
Viuft ? Imo étiam in sënätum uënît (Cic. in Cat. I. 1. 2), is
* Hence in Tac. am is used almost with the sense of uel : as, Ann. II.
42, finem uitae sponte an fato impleuit, ' he ended his life by an act of
his own, or was it by a natural though sudden death.'
f At times the affirmation is understood without a formal expression ;
as when a reply begins with at * true but,' at enim * true but beyond a
doubt,' et quidem * true and no less truly.' *
f Just as si * so,' * yes.' is used in French &c.
ET. QVE. ATQVE. 387
1430
1431
1432
íe alîve ? Ye8 ^deed he is, and more thar. that, comes into
the senate.
Caussa îgîtur non böna est ? Imo optümä, sëd âgétur foedis-
sümè (0&c. ad Att. Ix. 7. 4), the cattse ther, i8 not a good one ?
AVag, the best of causes, δαέ έt ἀσύύ όe supported most disgrace-
fully.
A. Sic hunc décipîs ? D. Imo énimuero A'ntipho, hîc me
décipit (Ter. Ph. 3. 2. 43), A. Is this the way 3yow cheat thès
poor fellow ? D. Not exactly 80 ; it is this poor fellow, An-
têpho, who is cheatîng me*.
COPULATIVE CONJUNCTIONS.
Of the three copulative conjunctions, ét, quë, atquë (äc), the
enclitic quô is more particularly employed to attach something
subordinate to what precedes and unites two things more closely
together into one : as,
Sölïs et lünae réliquórumquê Sïdërum ortüs (Cic. de Div. I. 56.
128), the rising of the swn, and moon, and the other stare.
Sënätus pöpülusquö Römänüs (Cic. Phil. III. 15. 38), the senate
Jò and people Qf Rome.
Long phrases are connected commonly by êt, sometimes by
qué, rarely by atquë ; whereas all three are employed to connect
words or short phrases, except that qué is never attached to those
demonstrative pronouns or adverbs which end in c.
When two words or phrases are to be united, a still stronger
uniom is effected by employing a pair of conjunctions. Thus, a.
ët — ét — is employed either with single words or long
phrases. ö. — quë, qué is used in the connection of re-
lative clauses, and sometimes with a pair of words the first of
which is a pronoum ; and also generally in the poets. c. qué,
ët —f is limited to single words, of which again the first is often
a pronoum. d. even êt —, quë occurs, but again rarely
except with single words: as,
* A friend and former colleague suggested that imo is merely a con-
traction of in modo * in a manner,' and referred to the arguments I had
put forward elsewhere (* Alphabet,' p. 141), to show that modo when used
as an adverb had a monosyllabic pronunciation.
f This form occurs in Sallust, not in Cicero.
3S8 8YNTAX.
a. Nihil est ënim símül ét inuentum et perfectum (Cic. Brut.
18. 70), for nothông was ever both invented and perfected at
O72C0.
b. Quiqué Römae, quique fn exercítu érant (Liv. xxII. 26), both
those at Rome and those in the army.
Méqué regnumqué meum (Sal. Jug. 10), öoth myself and ^y
8ceptre.
Alii fontemque ignemqué férébant (Virg. A. xII. 119), others
the lìmpìd stream, and fire were bearing.
c. Séque et cohortem (Liv. xxv. 14), both himself and the cohort.
d. Id et singülis üniuersisquë sempêr hönöri fuit (Liv. Iv. 2),
this was ever am, honour alike to îndividual leaders arvd to the
φhole mass of those who followed.
1433 When more tham two things are to be united, of which no one
is to be more closely united to one tham to ànother, the following
forms are admissible :
a. ét —, ët —, ét —.
b. —, ët —, ët —-.
c. —, —, — quë.
d. -, — quë, — quë* : as,
a. Is, ét in custódiam ciuis dédit, et supplicätiönem mihi dé-
créuit, ét indíces praemiis affécit (Cic. in Cat. Iv. 5. 10),
this persor, has ordered cìtìzens ìnto custody, has voted a ρυό-
lîc thanksgivìng in my mame, has rewarded the ίnformers.
b. Admirári sóleö gráuítätem et iustítiam et säpientiam Caesă-
rfs (Cic. ad Fam. vI. 6. 10), I always admire the high prin-
côple, and justice and wisdom of Cæsar.
c. Vrbem pulcerrìmam flörentissümam pötentissümamque essé
uöluêrunt (Cic. in Cat. II. 13. 29), they wished Rome to stand
foremost ἐr, splendour, prosperity, and power.
d. A cultü próuinciae longissîme absunt, minimêque äd eos
mercätöres saepé commeant, proxîmîquè sunt Germänis
(Caes. B. G. I. 1), they are farthest from the civilisation Qf
the provìnce, are vìsited very rarely by merchants, and lîe
^earest to Germanyf.
* Very rarely —, atque (ac) , atque (ac) es
f The poets often attach a que to the first, as well as all the following
members of a series: as, oblitus regisque ducumque meique (Ov. Met. xiii.
276), * forgetful of prince, of chiefs, 6f me.'
ET. QVE. ATQVE. 389
1434 When of the words or phrases to be united, the uniom is to be
closer between some than others, more tham one of the conjunc-
tions ét, quë, atquë must be used ; and thus the Latin language
has great power in grouping together the different parts of a sen-
tence according to their importance*: as,
Caedës atque incendia, et lêgum intérîtum, et bellum ciuile ac
dömestîcum, et tótiùs urbîs atque impëri occásum apprö-
pinquärë dixérunt (Cic. in Cat. III. 8. 19), massacre8 and
conflagrations, the annihìlatìon qf law, civil and domestic
war, the downfall of the city and the empêre, all these were
approachông they 8aîd.
Illud signum sölïs ortum, et förum cüriamqué conspîcît (Cic.
in Cat. III. 8. 20), yonder statue looks wpon, the risîng 8wn,
and the forum, and senate-housef.
Näuigantës indè pugnätum ad Lilybaeum füsasque etí captâs
hostium näuIs accëpërë (Lîv. xxr. 50), as they were sailing
thence they received the news that a battle had been fought off
Lilybaeum, and that the enemies' ships had been all put to
flight orí taken.
Itàqué próductis cöpiis ante oppîdum considunt ; et proxìmam
fossam crätïbùs intègunt atquef aggére explent, sëque äd
éruptiónem atque omnis cäsus compärant (Caes. B. G. VII.
79), accordingly having led out their forces they take a posi-
tion before the town ; and the first ditch aphich presented itself
they bridge over with hwrdles, orf fil/ vp with earth, at the
same time that they prepare against a Sally and every other
^m%8chance§.
1435 There are three modes by which an enumeration is made so as
* Cicero at times in his orations purposely uses et alone throughout a
long period to connect all the single words and phrases and clauses, whe-
ther longor short; his object being rather to deluge his hearer's mind with
a torrent of ideas, than to place them in due subordination before him.
f The omission of the word the before senate-house has the same effect
of bringing the latter pair of nouns nearer together, as the change of con-
junction has in Latin.
1 This disjunctive use of et and atque is not uncommon.
§ If every one of the three conjunctions be translated by amd, the
repetition at once offends the ear and confuses the mind. The variety
of stops in our modern printing enables us to make that distinction visible
to the eye, which the Romans made sensible to the ear also by a variety
of conjunctions. See * Journal of Education,' Iv. 135.
390 SYNTAX.
to be highly impressive :—a. that already mentioned (in § 1433)
“with the prefixed and repeated ét (called Polysyndetor); b. a sim-
ple enumeration without conjunctions (called Asyndetor); c. a re-
petition of some word at the beginning of each clause (called Ana-
phora): thus,
b. Sempër audax, pëtülans, lübidinösüs (Cic. p. Sull. 25. 71),
always darìng, máschievovs, 8en8ual.
Quid uöluërit, cögitärit, admisérit, nön ex crimîne est pondér-
andum (Cic. p. Sull. 25. 69), his crìmìnal wishes, intentions,
actions, are not to be measured by the charges of hìs accu8er.
c. Erepti estis síné caedé, síné sanguînê, sfne exercítü, sinè
dimïcätiönë (Cic. in Cat. III. 10. 23), 3yov have been rescued
vithout a massacre, without bloodshed, without an, a)'m3y, with-
out a Struggle.
1436 An omission of a conjunction is—a. common in the old lan-
guage and public formulae between two words ; ö. the' regular
construction with words or phrases opposed to one another ; and
c. occasionally used in a light and lively style for the sake of bre-
vity : as,
a. Rögätiönem prömulgäuit, uellent iübërentnê* Phílippö régi
bellum indici (Liv. xxxI. 6), he put αρ α publîc notice Qf
hìs ìntention to take the pleasure and order of the people for
declarìng war against king Philip.
Lex Aeliâ Sentiâ (Gaius, I. 6. 18), the law passed by Ælîus and
ASentîus.
Vsus fructüsf est iüs áliénis rébüs ütendi fruendi saluâ rêrum
substantiä (Paul. in Dig. VII. 1. 1), the wswfruct is the right
to the w8e and produce ofproperty belongìng to others, without
detrìment to the property itself.
b. Né cursem hüc illuc uiä dëterrümä (Cic. ad Att. Ix. 9. 2),
that I may not keep rummimg first to this place and ther, to that
along the worst possible road.
Omniä, mínümâ maxüma, ad Caesărem mitti sciébam (Cic. ad
Q. F. III. I. 3. 10), all the news, from the most vnìmportant
to the most important, I kmew was regularly 8ent to Caesar.
. * More literally * he advertised a bill asking whether they wished
and ordered that war should be declared against king Philip.”
f Thus what was originally two independent words became almost
one ; still the accusative is ausum fructum.
ET. QVE. ATQVE. 391
Quum diu anceps fuisset certämën, et Säguntinis* quiä praetér
spem résistèrent créuissent áními, Poenus quiâ non uIcisset
prò uicto esset, clämörem rêpente oppídáni tollunt (Liv.
xxI. 9), when the contest had beem for a long time doubtful,
and the spirit of the Saguntines was increased becau8e they
had wp to this time made a resistance beyond their hopes,
«ohilef the Carthaginiam was as good as defeated because he
Qoas ^ot already victoriows, the townspeople suddenly set up a
shout£.
Sullä pötuit, égo non pötéro ? (Pomp. ap. Cic. ad Att. Ix. 10. 2),
vas Sulla able, and shall, mot I öe able ?
c. Adérant pröpinqui, ámIcI (Cic. II. Verr. I. 48. 125), his con-
^ections, frìends vere present.
In fëris ínessé fortîtüdïnem saepè dicímüs, üt ín ëquis, in leó-
nibüs (Cic. de Off. I. 16. 50), we often, attribúte cowrage to a
beast, as the horse, the lior.
1437 When clauses follow one another without any conjunctioms to
connect them, the same order is commonly used in each (except
that an inversion is admissible in the last clause): as,
Ad hoc praeusti artus, nîué rígentes merui, quassátá fractáque
armâ, claudi ac débîlës ëqui§ (Liv. xxI. 40), án, addition to
this their limbs frostbîtten, their muscles stìffened by the 8now,
their arms shaftered and brokem, their horses lame and eae-
hausted.
Is mótus terrae multärum urbium magnas partis prostráuit,
märë flümíníbüs inuexit, montis lapsu ingentI pröruit (Liv.
xxII. 5), this earthquake threw down a great portio^ of^a^y
cìtìes, carried the sea vp rêvers, caused fearful ava\a^che8|.
* In the passages where long clauses are opposed, the writer takes
care to place opposed words at the beginning of each clause, as here :
Saguntinis..., Poenus... Where the phrase is a short one, this is not
necessary, as in Cic. in Cat. II. 11. 25, quibus nos suppeditamus, eget ille.
* of which we have abundance, while he has none.*
f This conjunctiom is almost necessary in the English translation when
two opposed clauses are attached by a conjunction to another sentence.
3. Compare also the use of such opposed clauses after am in § 1426 ;
and see * Journal of Education,' Iv. p. 140, &c.
§ After merui the editions have membra torrida gelu ; which, to say
nothing of the substantive preceding the epithet, is evidently a mere mar-
ginal interpretation of praenusti artus.
|| Here agaim our editions insert after prostrauit, auertitque cursu
rapidos amnes, which is evidently an interpolation.
392 . - 8YNTAX.
1438 With adjectives and adverbs of comparison*, the conjunctions
ét and quô are used in such a manner that the two things com-
pared are brought together and under a common construction,
while the adjective or adverb of comparison either precedes or fol-
lows the things compared; or is interposed after the first of the
things compared, as a sort of enclitic. Thus, if we include the
double and single use of each conjunction, there are six varieties:
a. Strénui milftîs et böni impërätöris officiä, simül exséquëbä-
tür (Sal. Cat. 60), he was perforning the parts at once qf a
2ealous soldier and a good general.
b. Quoi-símül et Volcatiö pécùniâ nümérätast (Cic. II. Verr.
III. 76. 176), the money having been paid to him, and Volcatìus
at the 8ame tíme.
c. Nihfl est ënim símül ét inuentum et perfectum (Cic. Brut.
18. 70), for nothing was ever invented and brought to perfec-
tiom both at the same time.
d. Aliénâtâ menté símul luctü métüquë (Liv. xxIv. 26), their
mánds distracted by the doóle feeling, of sorrow (for their
mother'8 death) and fear (for themselves).
e. Hoc, princípiúm-Símül ömenqué belli (Liv. xxI. 29), this, at
o^ce a commencement and an omen of the war,
f. Páríter, cömitique önériqué tìmentem (Virg. A. II. 729),
fearful alike for his companion, and for the load he bore.
1439 The use of atquë with adjectives and adverbs of comparison is
much more free, as neither an identity of constructiom mor the
close union of the things compared is essential. Thus,
Më cölît ét obseruat aeque atque illum (Cic. ad Fam. xIII.
69. 1), he pay8 a8 mwch réspect and attentiom, to me a8 to húm.
Si qui dicätür älium occidisse ac uöluërit (Cic. de Inv. II. 7. 23),
£f a person were charged with havîng killed a different person,
from what he had intended.
Par désidérium sui réliquit ac Ti. Gracchus réliquérat (Cic. p.
Rab. 5. 14), he died as much regretted as Tiberius Gracchus
had dome.
1440 Et is occasionally used in the sense of * also,' * too,' even in
* This word is here used in a wide sense, so as to include such adjec-
tives a8 aequo-, par- or pari-, simli-, dissimili-, ídem, wmo-, duo-, duplici-,
and the adverbs aeque, pariter, simul, una, &c.
ET. QVE. ATQVE. AVT. VEL. 393
the best writers*, but for the most part only in certain combina-
tions: as, sëd ét, simül ét, sic ét, ét ipsë. -
1441 Qué and uë in the poets are sometimes placed, not after the
Second of the two words compared, but after a word which is the
common predicate of both causes: as,
Insánum te omnes puéri clämentquéf puellae (Hor. Sat. II.
3. 130), the madman, / all would evclaim, both öoy8 and girlsf.
1442 The poets take the liberty of placing quë behind a later word
than the first of its clause, particularly in a pentaImeter line : as,
Quum maestüs áb alto
Iliön, ardentes respícéretquë deos (Tibul. II. 5. 21),
A8 în 8adnes8 from the deep
On Ilion, and the burnìng gods he was looking back.
1443 The construction néqué — ét —, and also that of êt —
néqué — deserve attentiom, because they differ from the English
idiom. Thus,
Pâtêbat uia, et certâ nec longâ (Cic. Phil. XI. 2. 4), a road lay
oper to them which had the double advantage qf being certain
and not long.
Wöluptätës ägrïcölärum, néc ulla impëdiuntur sénectüte, et
mihi ad sápientis uitam proxümé uídentür accédéré (Cìc.
de Sen. 15. 51), the pleaswres of the farmer (have a twofold
recommendation : they)§ are never obstructed by old age, how-
ever advanced, and they seem, to me to approach m08t mearly to
the life a wise man, wowld lead.
DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIONS.
1444 The difference between aut| and uël, though commonly trans-
* See Allen's * Doctrina Copularum,' p. 52.
+ A construction that probably began with a repetition of the predi-
cate: pueri clament clamentque puellae. Other instanges are to be found
in Horace ; as, mutatosque, Od. I. 5. 5; horribilique, II. 19. 24 ; mediusque,
II. 19. 28; tetigitque, II. 19. 32: and in Tibullus; as, pereatque, I. l. 51 ;
sequiturque, I. 3. 56. See Orelli ad Hor. Od. II. 19. 28.
f See Allen's * Doctrina Copularum,' p. 120.
§ Or the words withim brackets might have beem omitted, and the
worâ * and' exchanged for * at the same time that.'
|| See § 840, notes f and f.
394 SYNTAX.
lated by the same word in English, is marked. Aut divides two
notions essentially different, while uël marks a distinction either
not essential in itself or unimportant in the mind of the speaker,
so that it is oftem used to correct a mere expression. When they
are repeated, the distinction becomes still more marked. In the
construction aut aut, , the denial of one clause is an affir-
Ination of the other. Whereas in the construction uël uël
all the clauses may coexist or not, the speaker merely ex-
pressing his indifference as to a choice between them. Lastly, uél
is used with superlatives and in other phrases with the sense of
even, or perhaps more precisely âfgyov like*.
a. Audendum est álíquíd üniuersis, aut omniâ singülis päti-
endä (Lîv. vI. 18), we must make a bold effort ö^ a body, or
else every individual must suffer the worst. -
Aut occúbuissem höneste, aut uictörës hódiè uiuêrëmüs (Cic.
ad Att. III. 15. 4), either I should have fallem honowrably, or
else we should have beem mow lîvîng a8 conquerors.
ö. Magnüs hömo, uel pötius summüs (Cic. Brut. 85. 293), a
great man, or rather the greaiest qf me^.
Vna atque altéra aestas uel mëtü uel spé uel poenâ uel prae-
miis uél armis uel lêgîbus pötest tötam Galliam sempiternis
uincülis adstringéré (Cic. Prov. Cons. 14. 34), ore or two
summers, ôy the ìnfluence offear or hope or pwnishment or
rewards or arms or laws (I care not which), magy δέnd al/
Gallia án, eterTal, chaîns.
c. Vîdëtur uel möri sätius fuissê quam essé cum his (Cic. ad
Att. Ix. 6. 7), it seems to me that even deatfi would have been,
better tha^ to live in the company of the$e people.
Vesträ caussâ mé löqui quae löquor, uél eâ fîdës sit (Lîv. XXI.
13), that åt is for your sake that I say what I do say, let even,
this be a security to yoù. -
Cüiüs eö tempörë uel maxüma äpud rêgem auctörïtäs ërat (Lìv.
xxxvI. 41), whose influence with the king at this time was the
very greatestt.
* It will be seem that all the meanings here given to uel are consistent
with its being in origin am imperative of uol- * wish,' in the sense of* make
your own choice.* See § 840, note f.
+ The use of ue agrees nearly with that of vel, from which it is pro-
bably formed ; but it is always an enclitie, and occurs more frequently in
poetry than in prose.
AT, 395
VARIOUS CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS.
1445 The conjunction ät denotes rather addition than opposition.
It is commonly employed after a concession, especially—
a. After Si, in the sense of yet, still : as,
Si minus supplício affîci, at custódiri öportébat (Cic. II. Verr.
v. 27. 69), ìf it wa8 not right they should be severe/y pwnished,
8till they ought to have been guarded.
Si non bönam, ät äliquam rätiönem afferré sölent (Cic. II. Verr.
III. 85. 195), they vsually öring forward, $f not a good reason,
37et somne reason.
6. In a reply, when a propositiom of the other párty is assented
to, but at the same time rendered useless for his purpose by Some
addition : as, *.
Nunquam nísi hömörffîcentissümé Pompêium appellat.—At ín
éius persönä multâ fécit aspériüs (Cic., ad Fam. vI. 6. 10), *
he never speaks Qf Pompey eaccept ίη the most complimentary
terms.— Precise'y eo, övt in dealîng with him he acted or.
man3y occasions 8omewhat roughly.
c. Hence it is employed to anticipate am opponent's objection,
in which case the verb inquies or dices is commonly omitted, and
not unfrequently the particle énim or uërö added : as,
At sunt mörösi et diffícíles sénés (Cìc. de Sen. 18. 65), but yow
will tell me, old men are crosS and difficult to please.
At énim Q. Cätülüs äb hac rätiönë dissentit (Cic. p. leg. Mam.
17. 51), true, I 8hal! öe told, but Quïntus Catulus dissents
from thês view.
d. It denotes a suddem emotion of the mind, and is employed
in sudden transitions in a speech : as,
Exí foras sceléste. At etiam réstitas ? (Ter. E. Iv. 4.1) get ovt
qf the hovse, 3yow scowmdrel. What / do yow still resist ?
Narrábat se hunc neclégere cognatúm suom. At quém uirum ?
(Ter. Ph. II. 3. 19) he often told me that this kinsma^ took no
notice of him. And 3yet what a moble creature he wa8 /
e. Hence the repeated form attìt, ì. e. ätätät*, is used to mark
a sudden discovery : as,
* See § 24.
396 SYNTAX.
Attät hoc illüd est (Ter. And. I. 1. 98), ah, ah, I see it then, this
eæplaìns that δυ$iness.
1446 Autem strictly denotes again, and is never used in the sense
of opposition, but real additiom. It newer occupies the first place
in a clause. ItS significations are—
a. Again : as,
Tum autem hoc tîmet (Ter. And. I. 5. 34), ther, again she ás
afraid of this.
Sed quîd égo haec autem néquiquam ingrätâ rêvolvo ? (Virg.
A. II. 101) but why do I again, in vain turn, o'er the$e vnwel-
come thoughts ?
Horro autem áliö (Ter. Ph. I. l. 14), and ere long with another
agaör.
ô, Or. the other hand : as,
Nëque ënim tu ís es qui quid sis nescias ; néque autem égo
sum îtâ démens üt &c. (Cic. ad Fam. v. 12. 6), ^or ìndeed
are yow the persor, not to know what ås due to yow, nor on the
other hand am, I so mad as dëc.
c. And or noω (especially in a parenthesis): as,
I)iögénem ädülescens, post autem Pänaetium audiërat (Cic. de
Fin. II. 8. 24), he had attended the lectwres of Diogenes when
a yowng man, and afterwards those of Panaetius.
Némînem conuêni (conuênio autem quötidiè plürümos) quin
omnes mihi grätiäs ägant (Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 14. 1), I have
amet no one (and I daily meet very man3), but they all thank
7??.€.
d. But or ^0^0, especially in adding the new propositions of a
syllogism : as,
Si ämitti uitä beätä pötest, beáta essé non pötest. Quïs ënim
confidit sibi sempër id stäbílé permansürum quod frägilë
sit ? Qui autem diffidat perpétuïtäti bönörum suórum,
tímeat nécessest, ne álíquando ämissis illis sit míser. Be-
àtùs autem esse in maxümärum rërum tïmörë nëmö pötest.
Nêmo ígítür essë beátus pötest (Cic. de Fin. II. 27. 86), íf
happêness can, öe 'ost, it cannot öe happiness. For who feels
sure that that will always remain stable to him which is în
êtself frail ? But $f a man feels no security in, the continw-
ance qf his ölessìngs, he must needs be afraid of some time or
AVTEM. IDEMVM. DVM. 397
Other losìng them, and so becoming miserable. But no one
can be happy when in, fear about matters qf the greatest îm-
portance. Consequently wo one can be happy.
e. Autem is also used in catching up Some objectionable word
or phrase, where we insert some such expression as did I 8ay ?
Numquis testis postümum* appelläuit ? testîs autem, num ac-
cussätör ? (Cic. p. Rab. P. 5. 10) now did any witness meritiom
the name of Postumus ? Witness did I say, did the accuser ?
Intellìgis quam meum sit sciré quíd in ré publîcâ fiat ; fiat
autem, immö uéro étiam quid fütürum sit (Cic. ad Att. v.
13. 3), 3yow, wnderstand how much it concerns me to know what
ês doîng în the public world ; doing did Isay, ^ay even what
φῖll be dome. -
Im äfricam* transcendes ; transcendés autem dicö ? höc ipso
annö duos consülés, ünum ín hispániam*, altérum ín äfrí-
cam* misêrunt (Liv. xxI. 44), yoω σύ/ cross over înto Africa.
Wìll did I say, this very year they have sent their two consuls,
one into Spain, the other ínto Africa.
1447 Dëmum is strictly an adverb of time, and signifies—a. At last,
a very long time having preceded : as,
Ego nóuos maritus ánno demum quinto et sexagénsumo Fiam !
(Ter. Ad. v. 8. 15), I become a bridegroom mow for the first
time ίη ^^y sivtyfifth year /
Nunc démum uénis? Cur passu's ? (Ter. Ad. II. 2. 25) are yow
come now for the first time ? Why did 3yow put αρ with έt so
long ?
Quartâ uix démum expönïmür hóra (Hor. Sat. I. 5. 23), at last
at ten o'clock (and then with difficulty) we land.
6. Wothèng short Qf, especially with the pronoum i- or eo-: as,
Sic énim sentio, id démum essë mîsêrum quod turpé sit (Cic.
ad Att. VIII. 8), for Ifeel, that that, and that alone, îs vretched
which is base.
Idem uelle ét ídem nolle, eâ démum firma ämicítia est (Sal.
Cat. 20), an ìdentity qf desìres a^d dislikes, that and ^othing
&hort of that constitutes lasting friendship.
1448 Dum is strictly an adverb of time, and signifies—a. Whúe, as
(omq a8 (nearly always with the indicative):
* To copy the Mss., where proper names have no capitals.
•
398 SYNTAX.
Dum haec dicit, abiit hóra (Ter. E. II. 3. 49), while he cas
8aying this, an howr passed away.
Dum haec in uénétis* gérunturf, titurius in finis unellörum*
peruênît (Caes. B. G. III. 17), while these things were goîng
on among the Veneti, Titurius arrives in the territorie8 of the
Unel/;.
Dum lätïnë* löquentur littérae, quercüs huic löcö non dérít
(Cic. de Leg. I. 1. 1), so long as literature shal, talk Latin,
this spot will not be without its oak.
Diem inséquentem quiêuêrê milítes, dum praefectüs urbis uirës
inspîcêretf (Liv. xxIv. 40), the next day the soldiers rested,
that the general, might in the interval examine the 8trength of
the city. -
δ. Until (nearly always with the indicative mood, unless a pur-
pose be intended): as,
Expectabo düm uenit (Ter. E. I. 2. 126), I shall wait wntil he
C077?68. •
Expecta ämäbö të, dum attîcum* conuéniami (Cic. ad Att. VII.
1. 4), wait, I pray yow, wntil I can. 8ee Atticu8.
c. Provided that (always with the subjunctive): as,
Odêrint, dum métuant (ap. Cic. Phil. I. 14. 34), let them, hate,
provided they fear.
Omnia hönestâ neclègunt, dum mödö pötentiam conséquantür
(Cic. de Off. III. 21. 82), they neglect all that ås honourable,
£f they can, övt attain political, power.
d. Yet, a while, as an enclitic after negatives (including uix) or
a present of the imperative : as,
Vixdum épistölam tuam légèram cum curtius* uênit (Cic. ad
Att. Ix. 2 A. 3), I had &carcely 37et read 3yowr letter, vohen,
Cwrtius called. ¥
Lëgätiönë décrétä necdum missä, (Liv. xxI. 6), when, the embassy
had been decreed, but not 37et sent.
Adesdum, paucis të uölo (Ter. And. I. l. 2), here a ^noment, I
vant a few words with yov.
1449 Enim must commonly be translated by the English conjunction
for, but at times retains what was probably its earlier significatiom
* See p. 397, note. f See § 458.
£ The subjunctive, to denote a purpose.
DVM. ENIM. IAM, ITA. 399
in deed, as in énimuërö indeed, indeed, néque ënim ^or indeed,
ëtënim and indeed, ätënim* true 3yow, will, 8ay, but in fact, séd
énim but ìndeed, &c. : as,
Enimuéro dauet, níl locist segnitiae nec socórdiae (Ter. And. I.
3. I), indeed, indeed, Davus, there & no room for 8l0th or
8tupidity.
Quid túte tecum ? Nihil enim (Plaut. Most. III. I. 24), what
are 3/ov, 8aying to 3yourself? Nothing, I asswre yow.
1450 Iam is an adverb of time, and oftem differs from nunc just as
eö tempörë differs from hoc tempörë. It commonly denotes some-
thing extreme in point of time: as,
a. Already (Soomer than might have been expected): as,
Hermae tui pentêlîcif iam nunc më dëlectant (Cic. ad Att. I.
8. 2), your Mercuries of Pentelíc maröle a/ready ^ow char^
me (before I have seer, them).
Haec iam tum cum ádéräs offendêre ëiüs ánímum intellégébam
(Cic. ad Att. I. ll.l), this, already when 3/ov were with us, I
perceived annoyed hîm.
b. At last (later than might have been expected): as,
Postülo ut rédeat iam in uiam (Ter. And. I. 2. 19), Veapect hêm
to retur^ at last into the right path. (He has gone astray long
enough.)
c. Presently: as,
Dé quíbus iam dicendi löcüs érít (Cic. Brut. 25. 96), of which I.
8hall presently have an, opportunity Qf speaking.
d. Then again, lastly (to denote a transition from one subject
to amother): as,
Iam quantum dicendi gräuftätë uäleat, uos saepè cognostîs
(Cic. p. leg. Man. 14. 42), then again, hoω άmpressive he is as
a speaker, 3yow, 3yourselves have qftem witme88ed.
e. Iam iamqué, of what is expected every moment : as,
Quanquam ipsë iam iamque ädéro (Cic. ad Att. XIV. 22. 1), and
3yet I my8e(f shall öe with yow forthwith.
«* 1451 Ität so differs from sic so as the logicali- or eo- this from the
demonstrative ho- this.
* See § 1445 c. + See p. 397, note.
£ The oldest form of the neuter pronoum id. Compare the Gothic
neuter thata, whence our that.
400 - SYNTAX,
a. S0 (80 evceedingly), pointing to a coming üt that : as,
Inclüsum in cüriä sënätum häbuêrunt îtâ multos diës üt in-
tériêrint nonnulli fämë (Cic. ad Att. vI. 2. 8), they kept the
senate shut αρ έn their hovse 80 mary days that some died Qf
/.α^ger.
δ. So (so little, or with a restrictive sense), with the same con-
struction : as,
Ità triumphârunt, üt illë pulsus súpërätusquë regnáret (0%c.
p. leg. Man. 3. 8), they trìumphed, ît îs true, 3yet so that the
other, routed and overpowered though, he was, was stù7 a 80ve-
reign. •
c. So, referring to the preceding sentence : as,
Ită sunt omniä dëbflftätä (Cic. ad Fam. II. 5), to swch ar, extent
£s every thing ezhausted.
Ita est (Ter. E. I. 2. 44), ges, ät is 80.
d. ASo, corresponding to a preceding or following.as (üt &c.):
8\§
' Vt quisque optùmê graecè scit, íta est néquissümüs (Cic. de
Or. II. 66. 265), a8 each man üs öetter acquainted with Greek,
so ìs he a greater rogue.
e. So*, in expressing a prayer: as,
Itá më Di äment, nonnihil tímeo (Ter. E. IV. 1. 1), 8o may the
gods love me, 1 am, somewhat frìghtened.
f. Ut ... îtâ although ... 3/et : as,
Vt à proeliis quiétem häbuêrant, îtâ non noctè, non die un-
quam cessäuêrant áb öpéré (Liv. xxI. ll), although they had
had rest from fightìng, get they had rever ceased either by day
or by night from working.
g. Ität. . . SI on the one condítíor. . . . that : as,
Eäcîs îta àlîquâ spês est, si uós ut uicti audiétìs (Liv. xxI. 13),
of peace there is not the &lightest hope, eaccept on the conditior.
that you listem, to the term8 qffered a8 men who are conquered.
* Sic is used in the same way : sic te diua potens cypri . . regat,
Hor. Od. I. 3. l.
f So also sic is used in Horace (Ep. I. 7. 69): sic ignouisse putato
Me tibi, si cenas mecum. Indeed sic is only si with the demonstrative
suifix added. Compare the use of so in English for if: * So you dine with
me, I'll forgive you.'
ITA. NAM. QVIDEM. 401
h. 7'his, referring to an accusative and infinitive following*: as,
itâ constîtui, fortîtër esse ägendum (Cic. p. Clu. 19. 51), this I
7re8olved wpon, that I must act with firmness.
ί. So (so very), with the words by which the degree is to be
measured, not expressed (especially after negatives): as,
Símüläcrä praeclärä, sed möm íta antiquâ (Cic. II. Verr. IV. 49.
109), figures of great repute, but not so very old.
1452 Nam, while it commonly signifies for, has two other meanimgs
which deserve attention :
a. Thus, for evample (introducing a particular instance after a
general proposition)f. ö. It often assigns a reason why a parti-
oular name or fact which might have been expectedis not included
in a series or argument just preceding. Thus,
6. Nam quod négas të dübftärë quin magna ín offensâ sim äpud
pompéium hoc tempörë, non uîdeò caussam cür îtâ sit (Cic.
ad Att. IX. 2. 2), I purposely pass over 3/o^/r statement that
3yov have no dowót of my fiavìng given great offence to Pompey,
for thìs sìmple reason, that I do not 8ee any reason why ít
should be so. s£g.
Nam maeciam, non quae iüdïcäret, set quae reicérétür essé
uöluisti (Cic. p. Planc. 16. 38), I omit the Mæciam tribe,£
án presentìng that tribe you intended it to be, not one oftfiose
to furnish a jury, övt the one to öe challenged by your oppo-
7^e77t8.
1453 Quídemf gives emphasis to the word or words before it, and
its meanings deserve great attention. They are—
a. At least : as, -
Ut mihi quídem uídëtür (Cic. de Fin. I. 7. 23), so it seems to me
at least.
Meâ quídem sententiä päci sempër est consülendum (Cic. de
Off. I. 11. 35), in my opìniom, at least (whatever olhers ^nay
think) peace ought ever to be the object of our counsels.
6. Né... qufdem§ not even : as,
* Sic is used in the same way.
if See Caes. B. G. III. 28; Pl. Trin. I. 2. 46, Men. I. 1. 20, Pers. iv. 3. 2.
j The same in meaming and perhaps in form as the Greek ye. See
* Alphabet,' p. 141.
§ See §§ 1405, 1412, l4l5.
402 SYNTAX.
Id mé férae qufdem fáciunt (Cic. de Fin. I. 10. 34), this even the
vîld-bea&t. does not do.
Ne id qufdem est explörätum (Cic. ad Att. x. 8), even that is
mot certain.
c. Et quídem and ändeed, nay: as,
Mé cum gäbiniö sententiam dicêre, et quîdem illum rögäri
priùs (Cic. ad Att. x. 8), that I should give my opìnìon ín
the sane room, with Gabìnìus, and indeed he be asked his first /
d. Et quîdem, and qui-quídem (in replies), assenting to what
is said, and at the same time ironically adding what renders the
assent useless: as,
Torquem détraxit hosti.—Et quîdem sé texit né intériret.—At
magnum përicülum âdiit.—In öcülis quîdem exercítüs (Cic.
de Fin. I. 10. 35), he tore the collar from his enemy's neck.—
Yes, and (eaecuse my adding) covered himself with his shield,
that he might motbe killed.—But stil] he incurred great danger.
—Certainly, în the eyes of the army.
At ërat mëcum sënätüs—et quídem uesté mütätä. At töta
Itâliâ conuénérat—quoi quîdem uastftätis métùs inféré-
bätür (Cic. p. Planc. 35. 87), but the senate, 3yow say, were
with me. They were, and (3yov have forgotten to add) dre88ed
in mourning. But all the inhabitants of Italy had asse nbled
to support ^ne. They had, and (öy way of encouragement I
suppose) vere daily threatened with the devastation of their
property.
e. Qui-quîdem which by the way : as,
Quö quïdem in bellö uirtüs ënîtuit ëgrëgiä . m. cätönis proäui
tui (Cic. pro Mur. 14. 32), in which war by the way, the
valowr and abílitíes of 3yowr great-grandfather M. Cato &hone
conspicuoù8.
Dê triumphö tîbi assentior, quem quidem tötum fäcile abiécérö
(Cic. ad Att. Ix. 7. 5), about the triumph I agree with gow,
and by the way I shall readily at orìce abandon, all ádea
ofît.
f. It is true, certainly (a concession commonly followed by sëd):
àS
' Facis $micè tù* quîdem, sed mihi uídérís áliud tu hönestum
* See § 1080.
QVIDEM. QVOD. 403
iüdïcäre atque égo existümem (Cic. ad Att. vIII. 2. 2), yow
act like a friend I grant, but still yow seem to me to hold a
different opìnìon of what is right and proper from that which
I entertaîm.
Ignosco équidem* tìbi, sed tü quöquë mihi uëlim ignoscäs
(Cic. ad Q. F. III. 1. 3. 7), I forgóve yow certainly, but I must
beg you too to forgive me.
g. Similarly in a transition from one subject to amother, the
last clause of the preceding matter has a quîdem, while the new
matter is introduced with an autem. Thus,
Ac dé primö quïdem offîci fontë dixìmus. Dê tríbüs autem
rélíquis lätissümé pátet eâ rätiö quâ söciétâs höminum
contînëtür (Oic. de Off. I. 6. 19 et seq.), and we have now
&aìd enough of the first sowrce of duty. Qf the three which
remain, the most extensîve ίη its operation8t is the principle
δy which society is held together.
1454 Quöd (iu origin only the neuter of the relative, signifying this
or that) is translated by the words tfiat, because, &c. In the older
comstructions it is generally preceded by Some part of a logical
promoun. The difference in use between quöd and üt in the semse
of that, lies chiefly in this, that quöd commonly precedes a state-
ment of facts past or present in the indicative, üt commonly in-
troduces purposes or results expressed in the subjunctive. The
uses of quód belong for the most part to the following heads :
a. That, the fact that, after a logical pronoun (see §§ 301 &c.,
1112 &c.): as,
Eo ipsö quod nécesse ërat solui, fäcultas soluendi impëdiëbätür
(Lîv. VI. 34), by the very fact that it was necessary payment
should be made, the means Qf making that payment were ob-
8tructed.
Hörum fortissîmi sunt belgae, proptéreà quòd à cultü próuin-
ciae longissîme absunt (Caes. B. G. I. 1), qf the$e the öravest
are the Belgæ, for the reason, that they are fwrthest removed
from the civilisation of the province.
Praeterquam quöd admissi auditiqué sunt, eà quoquè uämä
* i. e. ego quidem, and perhaps pronounced èkem or àke.
f Literally * extends most widely.'
404 SYNTAX.
ëgätio fuit (Liv. xxI. 10), beyond the fact that they were
admitted and heard, this embassy also was without effect. •
ö. As quîd why is used for propter quid, so quöd is commonly
u8ed for propter quöd, that is öecavse. Thus,
Grätiäs ágimus dücïbus uestris, quödöcülis mägis quam aurïbus
crédidérunt (Liv. VI. 26), we thank yowr generals for that
they gave credit to their eyes rather tham, to their ears.
In uiam quod té dés* hoc tempörë, nihil est (Cic. ad Fam. xiv.
12), there is no reason, why 3yow showld expose yowrself to tra-
velling at this season.
Laudat åfricánum quod fuéritf abstinens (Cic. de Off. II. 22.
76), he praïses Africanus for having been temperate.
c. In that, where quum or the relative itself might havé been
used (see § 1455 h.): as,
Bënë fácitis quöd äböminämîni (Liv. vI. 18), 3yov do well ίη
rejectìng it as somethông ãmpδοαS.
Fêcisti mihi pergrätum quod sëräpiönis lîbrum ad më misisti
(Cic. ad Att. II. 4. 1), 3yov have done what is m08t agreeable
to me, in sending me Serapion's book.
d. Quöd oftem introduces a clause which serves as the nomina-
tive or accusative to the main verb, or stands in apposition to a
moum. Thus,
Accëdit quod mirífice ingéniis excellentibus dëlectátür (Cic. ad
Fam. vI. 6. 8), there is added the fact, that he ás wonderfully
charmed with men, qf eztraordinary genius.
Mitto quöd omnis meas tempestâtes sübiêris (Cic. ad Fam. xv.
4. 12), I pass over 3yowr having encoω^tered, a8 3yow 8ay, all,
the storm8 to which I have beer, eæpo8ed.
Me ünä consölätiö sustentat, quod tîbi nullum à më piétâtîs
offícium dèfuit (Cic. p. Mil. 36. 100), for myself but one con-
solatíon supports me, I meam, the fact, that ^o duty demanded
of me by affection has been wanting to 3yoυ.
e. Quöd oftem introduces a sentence, which is to be the subject
of remark, when the English may be expressed by with regard to
the fact that, or more simply. Observe too that a. if the sentence
so introduced be a present or past fact, the indicative is required ;
b. if it be a future possibility, the subjunctive : as,
* See § 1189. f See § 1205.
QVOD. 405
a. Quod scribis tê si uëlim ad më uentüram, ëgö uërö te istic
essë uölo (Cic. ad Fam. xIv. 3. 5), as to yowr offer to come to
me £f I wish it, I do not wish it (my dear Terentia); on the
contrary, I wish yow to remain, where yow are.
Quod më uëtas quidquam suspícári..., géram tîbi mörem (Cic.
ad Att. III. 20. 3), 3yoù forööd me to haröovr angy suspicio^ —
I will oblíge 3/00/.
Quöd ad crimina attínet, quîbus móti bellum indixistis, uel
fätëri eâ tütum censëmüs (Liv. vI. 26), as regards the
charges which ìnduced $yow to declare war, we think it safe
for ws evem, to confess them. -
5. Tum quod tê postërius purgés, hüius non fäciam (Ter. Ad.
II. 1. 8), them as to your trying afterwards to clear yourself,
as $yου, perhaps will, I shall ^vot value ôt at this.
Nam quód de argento spérem, aut posse póstulem me fâllere,
Nihil est (Ter. Haut. IV. 2. 4), for as to my entertaining any
hope about the money, or expectìng to öe able to take themò ìn,
that's at a^ end.
f. Non quöd not because, not that (or more commonly non quö*),
with a subjunctive, is used to deny a reasom, or to guard against
am inference (see § 1208): as,
Nullö mödö prorsüs assentior, non quod diffícílé sit mentem
áb öcülis séuöcärë ; sed quö mägis sëuöco, eö minùs id
quod tü uis possum mentê comprehendéré (Cic. N. D. III.
8. 21), I by ^o means gôve an vnqualified assent, ^ot that I
find it difficult to abstract my thoughts from what I See with
my eyes, but becau8e the more I do this, the less able am I to
grasp with my mînd the idea yow wish me to grasp.
g. Quöd, like quum (see § 1455 g), is used to denote duration
of time : as, -
Iám diu est quod uéntri uictum nón datis (Plaut. Am. I. 1. 146),
êt îs now a long time 8ince 3/ou gave my belly a^y food.
h. Quid quöd often introduces a mew and striking fact when
the literal translation would perhaps be : what would yoυ 8ay to
the fact that — ? but the idea may often be more simply ex-
pressed by ^ay. Thus,
* Not only is non quo more common, but the examples with non
quod seem apt to have a following d, as difficile here, and doleant § 1208,
ex. 3; and so are open to suspicion.
406 SYNTAX.
Quid quod sënätüs eos uöluit praeessé próuinciis, qui non prae-
fuissent ? (Cic. ad Att. vI. 6. 3) nay the Senate decreed that
those should preside over the provinces, who had ^ot already
done 80.
i. Quöd followed by a conjunction, as si, nísí, ütïnam, übi,
&c. is oftem used to commect a mew sentence with what precedes ;
in which case it oftem admits such a translation as öut, whereas,
and. Thus,
Quod si tü uälëres, iam mihi quaedam explöräta essent (Cic.
ad Att. VII. 2. 6), whereas íf 3yow, had been in health, 80me
points would have been cleared wp for me before this.
1455 Of quom, quum, or cum*, the chief uses are as follow :—
a. To denote time, with the past-imperfect subjunctive, while,
i. e. at some point of time in a long period. Thus,
Ad hannibălem, quum ad lácum äuerni esset, quinqué nóbiles
iüuënës ab tárentö uênêrunt (Liv. XXIV. 13), there came to
Hannibal, while he was mear the lake of Avernus, five young
mer. qf high family from Tarentwm.
b. Time with the past-perfect subjunctive, afterf, when : as,
Cum hostis füdisset, moenia ipsa oppugnäre est adgressüs (Liv.
VIII. 16), after routông the enemy, he advanced to storm the
fortífications themselves.
c. In indefinite expressions£, quum, when preceded by a verb
$ignifying existence, is followed by a subjunctive: as,
Erit illud pröfectò tempus quum gráuissümi höminis fidem
désidèrès (Cic. p. Mil. 26. 69), there assuredly will conne the
tóme when yow will feel the loss of 80 high-prìncìpled a mam.
d. When a time is precisely defined, as for instance by the two
particles tum quum, the indicative is used even with the past
tenses, both perfect and imperfect : as,
Tum quum in äsiâ res magnas permulti ämisérant, scimus
römae fîdem concîdissê (Cic. p. leg. Man. 7. 19), at the time
* In form an old accusative of the relative. Compare the English
?uhem, the old accusative of who, as then fs of the.
a f Yet after postquam, ubi, and ut, im a sense nearly the same, the
indicative aorist is used.
3. See § l 189.
QVOD. QVOM. 407
when very many loet vast properties in Asia, we know that at
Rome credit was knocked down.
Quid quum däbäs his litëras, nön eös ad më uentürös arbítrá-
báré ? (Cic. ad Fam. III. 7. 3) vell, and phen you were hand-
ông the letter to them, did yow think tfiat they would not come
to me ?
e. When, used with the perfect and the other tenses in a man-
mer not included under the heads a, b, c, and requiring commonly
the indicative : as,
Quum se intër équîtum turmäs insfnuäuërunt*, ex essëdis dé-
siliunt (Caes. B. G. IV. 33), their habit is, when, they have
vorked their way among the squadrons of cavalry, to leap
down from their chariots. .
Quum caesär in galliam uênit, altërius factiónis princípës ërant
aedui, altërius sëquàni (Caes. B. G. VI. 12), when, Cæsar
first came înto Gallia, the Aeduę vere at the head ofone party,
the Sequani of the other. •
Longum illud tempus, quum nön éro, mägis më möuet quam
hoc exîguom (Cic. ad Att. xII. 18. l), that long perìod, when,
1 shall no more eæist, has more influence with me than the
present Short spar. -
Cum inde ábeot, iam tum incéperat Turba intér eos (Ter. E. IV.
4. 58), when I came away, there had already commenced a row
between, them.
Iam áddicta atque abdúcta erat, quom ad pórtum uenio (Plaut.
Merc. III. 4. 31), she had already been knocked down (öy the
auctioneer) and carried off, when, I got to the harbour.
f. When, where the time or circumstances are first defined, and
then follows quum with an indicative verb, which is in substance
the main verb of the sentence : as,
Légébam tuas littéras, quum mihi ëpistöla affertür à leptâ,
circumuallätum essë pompêium (Cic. ad Att. IX. 12. 1), I
was in the act qf reading your letter, when behold de8patches
* This reading, not insinuauerint, is justified by the Mss. and required
by the idiom of the language. It is one of many such passages corrupted
by editors. See Madvig ad Cic. de Fin. v. 15; and above § 1159.
f A present with the power of an aorist seems to have been the idiom
of the language in phrases of this kind. Compare in this same play re-
spicio (II. 3. 50), aduenio (II. 3. 53), perit (III. 3. 16). See also § 458. *
408 SYNTAX.
are brought me from Lepta, stating that Pompey was com-
pletely blockaded.
Commödum ad té dédéram littéras, cum ad më diönysius fuit;
(Cic. ad Att. x. 16. 1), I had only that moment sent off a letter
to yow, when, Dionysius made his appearance here*.
g. It is used to express a long period down to the present in-
clusive : as,
Hànc domum Iam múltos annos ést quom possideo ét colo
(Plaut. Aul. prol. 3), this house I have occupîed and taken
care of the8e many 3years.
Multi amni sunt cum ille ín aeré meo est (Cic. ad Fam. xv.
14. 1), it is now many years that that man has been in my
deöt.
Quia séptem menses súnt, quom in hasce aedis pedem Nemo
íntro tetulit (Plaut. Most. II. 2.39), because for the last 8even
months not a soul has 8et foot in this house.
h. With two indicative verbs in the same tense, it expresses
identity of action as well as idemtity of time (whem the best trans-
lation is by the preposition în): as,
Quae quum tăces, nulla essé concédîs (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 19. 54),
ên, the very fact that yow, Say nothing about these matters, you
acknowledge that they amount to nothing.
Praecláré fäcis quum puërum dilígís (Cic. de Fin. III. 2. 9), 3yow
act a most noóle part in thus lovìng the child.
Löco illé mötüs est cum est ex urbë dëpulsüs (Cic. in Cat. II.
1. 1), in drîvîng him out of Rome, we dislodged hìm from his
(military) position.
ê. When used as am equivalent for quöd, it has an indicative :
8§
Grätülor tibi quum tantum uälës äpùd eum (Cic. ad Fam. Ix.
14. 3), I congratulate yow on 3yowr having such ìnfluence with
hóm. -
j. Quum, since, as, although, used to dcnote a reasonf for or
against, requires the subjunctive. Thus,
* Literally * at my house.* See § l 161.
f The text of Cicero, particularly in the sixth and following books of
the miscellaneous letters, has often quum or quando where the best Mss.
have the more correct reading quoniam, viz. where a reason is given and
an indicative mood follows. See Wunder's V. L. ex codice Erfurtensi,
praef. p. 97 &c. See also § 1229.
QVVM. VERO. 409
Qui cum ünä dömö iam căpi non possint, in älias dömös exeunt
(Cic. de Off. I. 17. 54), and as at last they cannot al) be co^-
tained in one house, they move off into other houses.
Druentiä, quum äquae uim uehat ingentem, non tämen mäuium
pátiens est (Liv. xxr. 31), the Durance, although öt carries
with it a tremendows volume of water, still is not able to foat
ships.
K. Quum followed by tum* unites two clauses, the first of
which deals with what is general, or common, or old, while the
latter opposes to it that which is special, or strange, or new.
Hence the tuum is oftem accompanied by emphatic adverbs, such
as maxümé, imprimis, uërö, &c. In this construction sometimes
the subjunctive mood, more commonly the indicative, follows
quum. Not unfrequently the quum is used without any verb of
its own. Thus,
Quum plürümas commödftätës ämicîtiâ contîneat, tum illâ
praestat omníbüs (Cic. de Am. 7. 23), among the very many
advantages which frìendship possesses, the most ìmportant Qf
al' s this.
Quum ipsam cognítiónem iürís augúrii consëqui cüpiö, tum
mercüle tuis stúdiis ergâ më dëlectör (0%c. ad Fam. III.
9. 3), at the same time that I am, eager to acquìre a knowledge
of the augural law for its own sake, I am wpo^ my word
charmed with 3yowr zeal in my favour.
Quös égo sënätöres uidi, qui àcerrümë cum cêtêrâ, tum hoc
fter pompéí uítúpërärent (Cic. ad Att. VII. 5. 4), what $ena-
tors have I seen, most fiercely attacking every thông that had
been, done, but above all this march Qf Pompey's /
1456 Vërö always gives great emphasis to the word before it. Its
chief uses are as follows:—
a. Added to énim îndeed, givimg it greater power : as,
Enimuéro daue nil locist segnitiae nec socórdiae (Ter. And. 1.
3. 1), indeed, indeed, friend Davus, there ís no room mow for
sloth or stupidity.
b. In answering questionsf emphatically, in which case it com-
monly follows either the verb or a personal pronoun which stands
first in a sentence. Thus,
* See § 1231. - + See §§ 578, 586, 1079, 1427.
410 §YNTAX.
Egö uéro äpüliam pröbó (Cic. ad Att. x. 7. 1), yes, my friend,
3/ov are right ; 1 do approve qf Apulia (as the place for you
to go to). $
c. It is particularly used after the pronoun i- or eo-, as also
after the particles of time, tum, übi, üt, to introduce the end of a
climax, then beyond al/ mistake, then with a vengeance : as,
Hoc sënätui cüram iniécit nè tum uërö sustînëri sédîtió non
posset (Liv. v. 7), this filled the senate with alarm lest their
last hope should now be destroyed, and the sedition should be
vndeed past resistance.
Vt uërö* nümidäs inséquentës äquam ingressi sunt, tum rigêre
omnibus corpörä (Liv. xxI. 54), but the moment that, in pur-
8uit Of the Vumidians, they entered the water, them beyond all
mistake the bodies of all the men became nwmbed with cold.
Id uéro fta accendit ánímös ut për omnë fäs atqué méfas sécü-
türi uindicem libertätis uídërentür (Liv. VI. 14), this ìndeed
completed their indignation, enragìng them, to such a degree
that they 8eemed ready to follow the assertor of their liberties
evem, to the violation of every divîne and human law.
d. As a connecting particle it may be translated by but ; yet
some words should always be inserted to express the importamce
of the matter added : as,
Certior factüs est tris iam cöpiärum partIs heluétios transdux-
issé, quartam uërö partem cfträ flümen rêlîquam essë (Caes.
E. G. I. 12), he received înformation, that the Helvetîâ had
conveyed over three parts of their forces, but that the fourth
part fortunately was still on his side of the rêver.
1457 Vtf is translated by that or to, as, how, when, &c. Its cou-
structions are as follows : -
a. That, to, to express an object (always with an imperfect sub-
junctive)I : as,
* Observe that the full translation of uero after ut or ubi is not given
until the apodosis as it is called of the sentence. To understand the force
of uero in this passage, it should be known that the Roman troops had
come out of their camp without sufficient clothing, without breakfast, in
a Winter-day amid snow and wind
f Vt is in origin only another form of quod. The difference in form
is explained by the several changes which hâve occurred in illud amd illut,
in quoius and cuius, in cubi and ubi.
f See § 1179.
VERO. VT. 41l
Ab ärätro abduxêrunt cincinnätum, ut dictätör esset (Cic. de
Pin. II. 4. 12), they took Cincinnatus from the plough, that he
might be dictator.
Sëd (üt ád eâ quae coniunctiörä rébus tuis sunt réuortär) (Cic.
ad Fam. I. 8. 5), but (to return to what ìs more closely con-
^ected with 3your affairs*).
Vt te omnes di deaeque pérduint (Ter. Haut. Iv. 6. 6), oh that
all the gods and goddes8es would destroy thee /
Hos lábóres timeo ut sustïneäs (Cic. ad Fam. xIv. 2. 3), these
labours Iam afraid yow will not 8upport.
b, That, so that, to, so a8 to, to express â result (always with a
subjunctive)f : as,
Söl ecffcft üt omniä flöreant (Cic. N. D. II. 15. 41), the sum
causes every thông to ölossom.
Sicîliam ítá uexáuit üt eâ restítui íu anticum státum nulló
mödö possit (Cic. I. Verr. 4. 12), he has harassed Sicily to
8uch a degree that it can^of by any means be restored to äts
former condition. -
c. That, in the sense of grantìng that, even allowáng that, al-
thoughf, in which case it commonly begins the sentence (still with
a subjunctive): as,
Sëd üt fuéris dignior, non compétitör in culpast (Cic. p. Planc.
4. 10), but even, allowing 3yow were the more worthy of the two,
vt is not 3yowr competitor who îs în fault.
Vërum üt hoc non sit, praeclárum spectäcülum mihi pröpönö
(0%c. ad Att. II. 15. 2), but even, supposing this is not 8o, I
promise myself a glorìoù8 sight.
d. Tfiat, to think that, the idea of
indignation or ridicule§ : as,
Pätër üt öbessë fïliö dëbeat ! (Cic. p. Planc. 13. 31), the idea of
a father being bound to damage his son /
/ in elliptical phrases of
e. In explanation of some preceding word, ^amely (still with a
subjunctive): as,
Quöd ipsi diébus uiginti aegerrìmè confëcërant, ut flümen
transirent, ille ünö dië fëcërat (Caes. B. G. I. 13), what they
them&elves had completed with the greatest difficulty in, twenty
* See § 1227 g. f See §§ 1182, 1187.
1 See § 1227 b. § See § 1227 e.
412 SYNTAX.
days, namely the passage qf the river, the Other had done ύι a
single day.
f. How (with an indicative in direct, a subjunctive commonly
in indirect sentences): as,
Vt uälës ? (Plaut. Most. III. 2. 29) how do 3yow, do ?
Audisti ut mé circumstêtêrint (Cic. ad Att. I. 16. 4), 3/ow heard
how they planted themselves rownd me.
g. As, to express similarity, often with sie or îtâ 80 to corre-
spond with it. An indicative is required in this and all the fol-
lowing constructions. Thus,
Ità est, ut scribfs* (Cic. ad Att. vII. 8. 1), it is as 3yow, sagy.
Ipsë rex, sic ut sompno excitüs érat, sémínüdus fügit (Lîv.
xxIv. 40), the king himself, just as he was when rouSed from
sleep, with but half hìs clothes om, rwns off.
Hömo üt érat füriósus respondit (Cic. p. Rosc. Am. 12. 33), the
fellow with his usual madness replied.
Illi, üt est höminum gémus suspiciósum, hoc arbítrantür (Cic.
in Caecil. 9. 28), those (Sicilians), with that readiness to su8-
pect which characterises their ^atìor, hold this opênêor.
h. As, to judge from what —. Thus,
Vt stám rem uideo, stíusf obsaturábere (Ter. Haut. Iv. 8. 29),
to judge from what I see of that διεῖness Qf 3yowrs, 3yow, will
have gour fill of it.
6. As was to öe eaepected —. Thus,
Vt äb Irätö uictörë (Liv. xxI. 12), as might be expected from an
angry conqueror.
j. As, 80 far as ęs possible, making allowance for — (in ellip-
tical phrases, no verb following the conjunctionf). Thus,
Multum ut tempörïbùs illis uäluit dicendö (Cic. Brut. 7. 27),
he had great power in oratory, making allowance for those
tímes.
Non nihîl üt in tantis mälis est pröfectum (Cic. ad Fam. XII.
* Literally * write,' the extract being from a letter in answer to one
from Atticus.
f See §. 288, note.
i Some such phrase as fieri potest understood. This construction
must be carefully distinguished from another elliptical use of ut with fieri
solet understood, * as naturally happens.* See Heindorf ad Hor. Sat. I.
6. 80,
vT. 413
2. 2), some progress has been made, considerìng the very bad
8tate of affairs. •
k. To express contrast, rather tham similarity, when the üt and
ftâ may be translated by though, 3yet. Thus,
Vt löcus pröcul mürö sätïs aecüs ágendis uineis fuit, íta haud-
quáquam prospéré, postquam âd effectum öpëris uentumst,
coeptis succëdëbat (Liv. xxI. 7), although the ground at a
distance from the wall was sufficiently level for brínging up
the víneæ, get when they came to the actual employment Qf
them, mo success whatever attended their efforts.
Y. As applied to time, üt commonly signifies immediate succes-
sion, the instant that, and is most frequently followed by the aorist
of the indicative: as,
Fügâ sätellitum, ut iäcentem uidërë régem, factast (Liv. xxiv.
7), a flight among the guards took place the moment they saw
the king lying on the ground.
m. It is also used to denote the point from which a period of
time commences, but with the same notion of êmmediate succes-
siom, from the very moment that : as, -
Vt cätïlina ërüpit ex urbé, semper uígíläui (Cic. in Cat. III.
1. 3), from the very moment that Catìlìne 8allied from Rome,
I have ever been on the watch.
Vt áb urbë discessi, nullum ädhüc intermisI diem, quin álí-
quîd ad tê littérárum därem (Cic. ad Att. vII. 15), from the
time of my leavìng the city, I have never 37et allowed a sîngle
day to pass, without 8ending 3yow somethông in the way Qf a
letter.
Wt primum förum attîgi, spectäui sempêr ut tîbi possem quam
maxüme essé coniunctüs (Cic. ad Fam. v. 8. 3), from my
first setting foot in the forum, to the present howr I have ever
made át an object to be as closely a8 po88ible wnited with 3yov.*
1458 ORDER OF WORDS.
In the simplest form of sentence, viz. one which denotes an
action, the common order is the nominative, the accusative, the
* Other examples are : ut semel emigrauimus (Plaut. Most. II. 2. 39),
vaeorem ut duæit (Ter. Hec. v. l. 25), vt uenit (Hor. Sat. 11. 2. 128), ut
tetigi (Ov. Trist. III. 8. 27), ut fuaeit (Hor. Epod. 7. 19), ut equitauit
(Hor. Od. Iv. 4. 42).
414 SYNTAX.
verb ; î. e. first the quarter whence the action proceeds, them the
direction of that action, lastly the action itself. Any words be-
longing to the nominative and accusative commonly follow them,
while those belonging to the verb commonly precede it. The lat-
ter consist of adverbs or adverbial phrases which express the time,
manner, means, and generally the attending circumstances.
1459 But as the grammatical connection between Latim words is
expressed in the terminations of those words, a greater freedom
of position is admissible tham would be practicable without am-
biguity in English. Hence the words of a Latim sentence are
commonly placed with a view to marking their relative import-
ance and emphasis,* and on this principle must the arrangement
of the Latim sentence be studied.
1460 The most conspicuous place in a sentence or clause of a sen-
tence is the first. Hence this place is allotted to am emphatic
word. Thus, Cæsar's Gallic war properly begins with the word
Gallia. Again, in the seventh chapter there occurs a sentence
beginning with Caesar,f because the preceding paragraph spoke
only of what the other party, the Helvetii, were doing. Hence a
sentence thus beginning with the nominative of a proper mame
should have some such words as o^ the other hand, meanwhile, &c.
inserted after the nominative, to give it a sufficient prominence in
English.
1461 A still greater emphasis is given to other words; when placed
at the commencement of a sentence, because the very inversion of
the ordinary order draws the greater attention to them : as,
Susceptum§ cum säguntinis bellum, häbendum cum römänïs
est (Liv. xxI. 10), we began the war with Sagwntwm, we must
conduct it against Rome.
* Emphasis always implies an opposition to some other word ex-
pressed or understood ; and the student would do well in each case to ask
himself what the opposed word or notion is.
* See also the sentences beginning with Dumnoriæ, c. 9; Heluetii,
c. 11 ; Caesar, c. 18; or Liv. xxI c. 3, Hanno ; c. 5, Hammibal ; c. 7, Han-
nuibal ; c.-ll, Saguntini.
f See the examples in interrogative sentences, § 1417. See also the
position of the verb in cases of concession, §§ 1156, 1227 b, and in hypo-
thetical conditions, § 1219; also § 1436 b, third example.
§ Still susceptum in the Latin is only a participle ; but the English
translation would lose its force if the sentence began with * the war."
ORDER, OF WORD8. 415
1462 The word est*, commonly the most unimportant word in a sen-
tence, acquires a strong accent when placed first in a sentence or
clause (see § 1080, lst example ; § 997, 36 example); but est and
èrat are also found in the first place when a formal narrative or
descriptiom commencest : as,
Erant in eà légiönë fortissimi uiri centúriónes qui &c. (Caes.
E. G. v. 44), now there happened to be in that legìom two very
brave officers, with the rank of centurions, who déc.f
Est in sécessü longò löcüs &c. (Virg. A. I. 163), there ís ín a
deep recess a place déc.
l463 Relatives, interrogatives, and conjunctions naturally occupythe
first place in their several clauses. If they give up this place to
another word, the stramgeness§ of the transposition gives unusual
emphasis to the word thus occupying the first place : as,
Nos túa progénies, caeli quibus ádnuis árcem (Virg. A. I.
254l), we, thême owm progeny, to whom thow, promìsest the
height of heaven.
Adeon rem rédissé, pätrem üt extìmescam (Ter. Ph. 1. 3. 1), to
think that matters should be come to this, that a father should
öe the object of my dread /
Posthâc si quidquam, níl precor (Ter. Ph. l. 2. 92), ìf awght
occur hereafter, 1 offer no prayer (for hóm).
Ego illius ferré possum magnífícá uerba, Verbâ dum sunt (Ter.
E. IV. 6. 3), I can, öear that fellow's grand words, 80 long a8
they are mere words.
* Thus in Greek, eo tu, generally an enclitic, has an accent when it
COmmences a sentence.
+ The monosyllabic verbs dat, fit, it, seem at times to occupy the first
place when not emphatic. Possibly their very brevity is a reason for
giving them this advantage, lest they be wholly overlooked. See a parallel
case in § 1469, note §.
it See also I. 6, Erant ; III. 12, Eramt &c. ; v. 6, Erat ; v. 25, Erat
&c. ; vI. 38, Erat. See also Virg. A. II. 2l.
§ This doctrime of emphasis growing out of a strange position is well
exemplified in the heroic verse. The most natural place for a sentence
to begin is at the beginning of a verse. But there occur passages where
a sentence begins in the sixth foot ; and in such cases the isolated word
is always specially emphatic in good writers. See Bentley ad Lucam. I.
231, and Journal of Education, iv. 356. Perhaps too, when a sentence
terminates with a word in the first foot of a line, that equally isolated
word should be one of importance. -
|| Compare also v. l, Troiaé qui &c.; 392, Tyriám qui &c. ; and 111.
658, ingéns cui &c.
416 SYNTAX.
1464 It snould be recollected that there are many actual pauses in
a sentence where the printer inserts not even a comma. The
Word which follows such a pause must, for the purposes of em-
phasis, be considered a commencing word*.
1465 It must be recollected too that many little words, as üt, si, ét,
néc, sëd, nè, nónf, än, quamf, and the prepositions, are at times
proclitics§, thatis, pronounced with the word which follows them,
so that they must not be deemed to be first words to the exclusion
of the following word. See Addenda.
1466 The last place in a sentence is oftem an emphatic one : as,
Qui hönos post condîtam hanc urbem häbÌtust tögäto antê mê
nêmfni (Cic. Phil. II. 6. 13), an honour which, since the fown-
dation of this city was mever paid to amy one weari^g a toga
before me.
Aliüd Ítér hàbëbant nullum (Caes. B. G. I. 7), other road they
had mone.
Apùd heluëtios longé ditissfmus fuit orgëtörix (Caes. B. G. I.
2), among the Helvetiì òy far the richest man was Orgetoriae.
Nam ex his praédiis talénta argenti bina Capiébat statim (Ter.
Ph. v. 3. 6), for from these farms he received two talents of
silver every 3year invariably.
Animos uestros temptäbunt semper, uires nön expérientür
(Lîv. Iv. 5), 3your courage and 3your feelings they will attempt
to master, aye without ìntermissior ; Qf your actual strength
they will make no trìal.
1467 It has beem stated that the ordinary place of a verb is at the
end, and that it is emphatic at the beginning of a sentence. When
placed elsewhere it has the power of making the preceding word
or words emphatic] : as,
* Thus in the ordinary hexameter there is frequently a pause after
the first two feet and a half, which is followed by an emphatic word: as
in Virg. Buc. x. 73,—
Gállo, cúius amor tantúm mihi créscit in hóras,
Quântum uére nouo | uiridís se súbicit álnus ;—
where uiridis means * with the sap flowing freely,' not * green.'
f See § 1404. 1.
£ In the Mss. these little words are very often, ifnot generally, written
in immediate connection with. the following word.
§ See § 28.
II The reason of this appears to be, that the predicate of a sentence is
ORDER or woRDS. 417
Säguntum vestrâ circumsídent exercitüs : mox karthagínem
circumsídébunt römänae légiönës (Liv. xxI. 10), Saguntum,
is besieged by your armies : ere long Carthage will be besieged
by the legions of Rome.
Vtinam prò décörë tantum et non prò sälüte esset certâmém
(Liv. xxI. 41), oh that the struggle had been one for glory
only and mot for existence.
Vt seruêmini dest* uóbis ánimus ? Quid, si möriendum prò
pátria esset, fâcërëtîs ? (Liv. xxII. 60) soher, the object is to
8ave 3yourselves, does 3your cowrage rum low ? What then would
3/ov have done, fgyov, had had to die for 3yowr covntry ?
Prius sempröniö per ciuium agmen quam për hostiúmf fuit
èrumpendum (Liv. xxII. 60), Sempronìus had to force a
passage through the ranks qf his own cow^trymen, öefore he
forced one through tho8e of the ememy.
1468 Sometimes the word thus placed before the verb is not itself
so emphatic as the word with which it is intimately connected,
and which then stands at the end of the sentence: as,
O Geta, Prouínciam cepísti duram (Ter. Ph. I. 2. 22), oh Geta,
the duty yow, undertook was a hard one.
Maecënäs ätäuis édité régibus (Hor. Od. I. 1. 1),
Mæcenas sprung of royal line.
1469 An adjectivef or dependent genitive, if emphatic, commonly
precedes its substantive ; whereas when not emphatic, it com-
monly follows§. Thus,
Saepe et contemptüs hostis cruentum certämên êdidit, ét in-
cliti pöpüli régesquê perlëui mömentó uicti sunt (Liv. xxI.
commonly the more emphatic part, and that the verb is commonly the
chief part ofthe predicate. Observe too that a participle in its own clause
has the same influence.
* So generally in Mss., mot deest.
f The comma usually inserted after hostium is inadmissible, as the
fuit should be promounced almost as though it were attached to it like an
enclitic.
f In the phrase tuom officium facere to do your duty,* it would at
first seem that tuom has no title to the emphatic position which it com-
monly, though not always occupies in this phrase ; but the answer is, that
qfficium (= opificium) originally meant not * duty,' but * work,' so that the
phrase literally translated is, * to do your own work, not another person's.'
§ When a substantive is very short compared to its adjective, the
former commonly precedes, as aes alienum, res familiaris.
JE E
418 SYNTAX,
43), €f a despised foe has often maìntained a bloody contest,
not less Qften, have renowned 8tates and monarchs been con-
quered by the slightest blow.
J'ulchrum érit campâni, römäaum impërium uestrâ fîdè, ues-
tris uirîbus rëtentum essë (Lîv. xxIII. 5), it will be a prowd
reflection, men of Capua, that the empêre of Rome herself was
8aved from fallíng by your fidelity, by your power.
1470 A still stronger emphasis belongs to the adjective or dependent
genitive when it throws* as it were its substantive to the end of
the sentencet : as,
Dé quó quum dispütärem, tuam mihi däri uellem cotta élö-
quentiam (Cic. N. D. II. 59. 147), in discussîng which, I
should have wished your eloquence, Cotta, to have been given,
tO ???e.
Hoc tíbi iüuentus römäna indicImus bellum (Liv. II. 12), such
the war which we, the youth of Rome, declare against yow.
Bon6s me absente hic cónfecistis núptias (Ter. Ph. II. 1. 28), a
pretty marriage 3yov have knocked wp here în my absence.
E qufbüs ümüs äuet qαάαῖs aspergéré cunctos, Praetér eum qui
praebét, àquâ (Hor. Sat. I. 4. 87), one of whom delights fo
sprinkle with angy (the díríest) water all 8ave him who acts
pwrveyor. �
Néc cum huiusmodi fisus uenit fit conflictarés malo (Ter. Ph.
III. 3. 21), and have never been called wpon to struggle with a
misery of this kind.
Nam per éîus vnam, ut aúdio, aut uiuam aút moriar sentém-
tiam (Ter. Ph. III. 1. 19), for or. his one vote át depends, I
hear, whether I am to live or die.
1470. 1 And generally any qualifying word may in this way be sepa-
rated from the word qualified : as,
Itó patrem adolescéntis facta haec tólerare audi6 uiolenter
(Ter. Ph. v. l. 4), 80 very fwriously is the 3yowng man's father
offended I hear with the8e proceedings.
* This wide separation of the adjective and substantive would cause
confusion, but that the great emphasis of the adjective causes it still to
be ringing in the ear when we come to the substantive.
t Compare in the first book of the Aeneid, v. 647, patrius amor, rapi-
dum Achaten ; v. 661, noua consilia ; v. 673, mostro dolore ; v. 675, Iuno-
fmia hospitia ; y. 679, magno amore ; v. 680, nostram mentem ; v. 688,
fotos voltus.
ORDER, OF WORDS. 419
1471 The demonstrative pronouns, and the logical pronoun i- or eo-,
commonly occupying the place before the substantive, appear to
acquire a special emphasis when placed after it : as, .
Te appi tuumqué cáput sanguíne höc consécrö (Liv. III. 48),
thee Appîus, and thy head with this blood I devote.
1471. 1 Numerals are oftem placed at the end of a sentence or clause.*
Gallia est omnis diuisa in partis tris (Caes. B. G. I. 1), Gallia
as a whole is divided into three parts.
1472 Nouns in apposition and the genitive commonly follow the
substantive to which they belong, and therefore have am emphasis
when prefixed to the substantive: as,
Vni consüli seruilió ius fuit dicendi dictätörïs (Liv. xxII. 31),
to Servilius alone, as consul, belonged the power to name a
dictator.
Séd ítá forsîtam décuit cum foedërum ruptörë düce ac pöpülö
deós ipsos committêre ac pröfligärë bellum, nos qui sécum
dum deos uiöläti sümus, commissum ac pröfligätum confí-
céré (Lîv. XXI. 40), but perhaps it was fittìng that, with a
general and a people who habitually violate treaties, the gods
themselves should commence the war and break the meck qf itf,
and that we who neaet to the gods have been ìnjured should ther,
come în and finish it.
Fäbius pötens uir, quum inter sui corpöris hömines, tum étiam
ad plébem (Liv. VI. 34), Fabìus, a mam of ìnfluence ^ot
7nerely among the men of his own body£, but also with the
commo^alty.
1473 AS an emphatic word demands a large share of the attentiom,
it tends to prevent the mind from dwelling on the word or words
which follow. Hence as the first place in a sentence or clause is
allotted to emphatic words, so the second place is adapted to um-
important words§, which are inserted here although unconnected
with the adjoining words : as,
* A habit borrowed probably from the form of accounts, where the
numbers are placed at the end of the limes in a vertical column for the
convenience of addition. ' , '
f Literally * to give the knock-down blow which all-but finishes.'
3. i. e. class or order. .
§ Such words should be read most faimtly, so as not to attract atten•
tion.
420 SYNTAX.
Iänuâ se ac päriétíbus texit (Cic. p. Mil. 7. 18), he protected
himself behind the gate and the walls of his house.
An hüiüs illë legis mentiónem fácêre ausùs esset ? (Cic. p.
Mil. 12. 83) or would he have dared to make mention qfthis
'aov ?
Hunc illi é náui égressum comprehendérant atque im uincülä
coniécérant (Caes. B. G. rv. 27), this man had no sooner dis-
embarked than they had seized him and thrown hám ínto
prosom.
. Magnüs ibi númérus pécöris répertiis est (Caes. B. G. v. 21), a
great númber Qf sheep was found there.
Magnam haec res caesäri diffîcultätem adférëbat (Caes. B. G.
vII. 10), no little difficulty did this occasion to Cæsar.
Résistês autem SI sätis firmus stétéris, sí te néqué collègae uänä
glóriá néqué tuä falsa infámiä möuërit (Liv. xxII. 39), and
resist him 3yow, will, £f 3yow stand firm enough, f — ^or 3/ovr
colleague's empty glory, ^or 3yowr owr. il/ºfounded, disgrace
affect 3yov.
Vnö dië intermissö galli, atque hoc spätiö magnó crätium nü-
méro effectö, médiâ nocte ad münitiönës accédunt (Cae8.
E. G. VII. 81), having allowed one day to pass (without angy
attack), and havêng ên this înterval made wp a great quantity
qfhwrdles, at midnight the Gawls quietly advance to the lìnes.*
Quos sibi caesärt oblätos gáuisus rëtînëri iussit (Caes. B. G.
Iv. 13), delighted that these mem should öe thrown, in his way,
Cæsar ordered them, to öe detainedi.
1474 It is because of their emclitic character§ that autem, quîdem,
quöqué, &c. never occupy the first place in a clause Or sentence.
Igitür, ënim, uërö, are occasionally found at the beginning, and
* Many editors would place a comma before Galli, thus giving it an
importamce it does not deserve. It is in fact a sort of enclitic, and should
appear in the English translation in the least prominent place. Similarly
a comma should follow, mot precede the word Caesar or Galba in the first
line of the following chapters,—B. G. II. 2, II. 7; III. 3, III. 28; Iv. 6,
IV. 13, Iv. 20; v. 7, v. ll. s •
f Here both sibi and Caesar have the nature of enclitics.
£ For the enclitical position of a word which refers equally to two
words or to two clauses, see § 1438 b and e.
§ The vocative when in the first place is of course emphatic. Other-
wise it is commonly an enclitic, and should be thrown in after an em-
phatic word.
ORDER, OF WORDS. 42]
then have more importance than when they occupy their more
ordinary place after the first word.
1475 In short* sentences, words which are opposed to one another
are either brought close together, or placed as far apart as possible,
in the latter case occupying the two emphatic positioms of first
and last. •
Hostís hostem occidërë uölui (Liv. II. 12), I wished to slay the
enem3y of my covntry.
Hospés necauit hóspitem (Plaut. Most. II. 2. 48), he 8trangled
one who was his own gue$t.
Cum hánc sibi uidebit prâesens praesentem éripi (Ter. Ad. IV.
5.34), when, he shall see her torn from him before his very face.
Rätiö nostrâ consentit, pugnat örätiö (Cic. de Fin. III. 3. 10),
our prîncîples agree, our langwage is at variamce.
Néc ad mortem mínús áními est, quam fuit ad caedem (Lîv.
II. 12), ^or have I less courage to die myself, than, I had but
^ow to slay another.
Mihi mägis littérae sunt exspectandae à té, quam à mé tíbi
(Cic. ad Fam. Ix. 10), I have a better right to ea pect a letter
from you, than you from me.
1476 When two clauses opposed to one another contain the same
word in different cases or tenses, that common word usually pre-
cedes the words opposed.
Si ciuis uester, Sicüt ad pácem pètendam, uênit, ftà pàcis condí-
ciónes rettülisset, süperuäcäneum hoc mihi fuisset ftér (Lîv.
xxI. 13), f 3your cow^fryman, who came to ask for peace, had
ên the same patrìotìc spìrit reported the terms qf that peace,
this visit would have been superfluou8 for me.
Vincéré scis, uictöria üti nescis (Liv. xxII. 51), how to gain a
victory, you know ; how to use a victory, you do not know.
Non sölum cälämïtätë, sëd étiam cälämítátis formidíné libérâ-
tös (Cic. p. l. Man 6. 16), relieved ^ot merely from ruìn, but
also from the fear of ruin.
Et fácé prò thälämi fax mihí mortís ádest (Ov. Her. 21. 172),
and in lieu qfthe marriage-torch the torch of death awaits me.
• See § 1436 b note, and § 1437.
APPENDIX I.
ON THE CRUDE-FORM VIEW OF LANGUAGE, ITS TRUTH AND ITs
PRACTICAL ADVANTAGEs.*
As the very phrase * crude form'is yet strange to the ears of most
scholars, it may be useful to explain what is meant by it ; to es-
tablish the truth of the mew system ; and to show the practical
advantages which it offers even for elementary instruction.
In the first place, it may be noted, if only to conciliate the
attention of readers, that upom the system of crude forms every
Sanskrit grammar is constructed.
** Inflection”, says Professor Wilson (§ 48 of his Grammar, 2d
ed.), ** whether of declension or conjugation, is contrived by the
Sanskrit grammariams om the same principle. It consists of two
parts : 1, the anga, * body,? or inflective base, that is the word
itself; and 2, of certain particles, which, being attached to the
base, complete the inflected word*. He goes on to say, at the
latter part of § 51, ** there is but one general declension in Sans-
krit grammar”; and though it is convenient to divide nouns into
classes, yet even then, he adds, ** no arrangement admits of more
ready reference than that which classes them according to their
final letters.*^ •
Again, in § 167, he founds the system of conjugation on the
dhatu, or * crude verb ;' observing also, in § 171, that ** the verb
in its infleeted form is composed of two elements : 1, the anga, or
* base,' the modified verb to which the inflections are subjoined ;
and 2, certain letters or syllables which constitute the inflectional
terminations, and are subjoined to the base.” »
The exhibition of the Greekt and Latin languages upon the
* Chiefly reprinted from the English Journal of Education (Bell),
New Series, Nos. 48 and 50 (Dec. 1850 and Feb. 1851).
+ See the Elements ofGreek Grammar by Joseph G. Greenwood, Esq.,
now Principal of Owen's College, Manchester.
ON THE CRUDE FORM. 423
crude-form system is in perfect accordance with the passages we
here quote from Professor Wilson's Grammar, and with the remarks
of Bopp in his Vergleichende Grammatik, § 112, &c.
The first proposal in print to apply the principle to the analysis
of the classical languages was made by the present writer in a re-
view of Zumpt's Latim Grammar in the first Number of the Journa!
vf Education, published by the Society for the Diffusiom of Useful
Knowledge in 1830 (pp. 98—100 and 105). The system had been
previously expounded in the classical lecture-roomms of the Univer-
sity of Londom (now University College).*
In endeavouring to give a more distinct exposition of the sys-
tem of crude forms, we shall, for the sake of brevity, for the most
part limit our observations to the Latin language.
In the ordinary grammars it is the practice to start from the
nominative of a noum, and from the infinitive or first persom of
the present ind:cative of a verb. Now the nominative of a noum
is something more tham the naked word, as it also expresses a
certain relation to the sentence. So again, the first persom of a
verb includes in its termination a representative of the pronoum
* I'. The infinitive mood in like manner presents to us a suffix,
by means of which the notion of the verb is expressed in the form
of an abstract substantive. Thus, in every one of these three
cases we have some foreign matter, so to say, added to the pure
metal.
Now the principle of the crude-form system is to get rid of
this foreign matter, and thus to exhibit the simplest form of a
word, or, as Bopp expresses it, die Grundform, die nackte Wort-
gestalt. But it would be thought, a false step to introduce that
which, though in a certain sense more true and more philosophical,
would involve a complicated process of analysis. To such am ob-
jection the supporters of the crude-form system answer, that their
principles are not only true, but at the same time are recommended
by extreme simplicity. Thus they affirm, with Professor Wilson,
that om the crude-form system there is at bottom but one declen-
sion and but one conjugation ; and iffor Some purposes it is still
* In the year 1836 was published the Bromsgrove Latin Grammar
by the Rev. G. A. Jacob, M. A. (late Scholar and Tutor of Worcester
College, Oxford) ; which is drawn-up in a great measure, but far from
uniformly, upon the crude-form system. Mr. Jacob subsequently pub-
lished a Greek Grammar upon the same plam.
424 A PIPENDIX I.
convenient to divide nouns and verbs into classes, these classes
depend upon one simple and unvarying rule, viz. the character-
istic or last letter.
Eut examples will best explaim what is meant. In the fourth
declension, that of gradus for example, the same letters down to
the vowel w inclusive, appear in every case both of the singular
and plural, except in the dative and ablative of the latter, and the
doubt which this one exception might suggest is removed by the
Dccurrence of such forms as verubus, acubus. From the fact of the
five letters gradu beimg thus common to all the inflected forms, it
becomes to some extent, probable that the several ideas of mumber
and case are distinguished by the letters which follow gradu. Si-
milarly in the fifth declensiom, dies for example, the three letters
die, being constant, tend to a similar conclusiom. In the third
declension, nouns such as turris, avis, differ much in several of
the case-endings from reæ, homo, aestas. The former exhibit an â
in nearly every case ; for we have turräm in the acc. singular, and
turrìs, avìs, as well as turres, aves in the acc. plural ; turri, aui,
as well as twrre, aate in the abl. sing. Nay, evem a plural nom.
such as turrìs is well established as an archaic variety. Thus am á
presents itself in every case of both mumbers. On the other hand,
we never meet with an acc. regim, nor with such plural cases as
regìs or regìum. Under these circumstamces there are styomg rea-
sons for separating the consideration of such words as reae from
those nouns which have a nominative in îs. Looking them, in
the first instance, to turris as an example of a class, we find turri
in every case. To proceed : in the nouns of the first declension,
as mvsa, an a is traceable through every case of both mumbers, if
we include in our view such datives as equabus, duabus, ambabus,
amd the Greek forms povoraus, &c.
In the nouns so far discussed, the parts common to every case
are gradu, die, turri, musa ; and so we have come across classes
which end in four out of the five Latin vowels. There remains
one declension, the second, and one vowel, viz. o. Now the nouns
«of this declensiom exhibit the wowel in questiom in the dat. and
abl. of the singular, in the gen. and acc. of the plural, as domîno,
dominorum, domino8. The corresponding Greek declension helps
* us out in many of the other eases, as δουλos, δουλοιο οr δουλον.
δουλον, δουλοι, δουλοιs. But we need not depend on the Greek
alone. Cicero also wrote servos, 8ervom, rather than ser/us, ser-
ON THE CRUDE FORM. 425
vum ; and so in all words where the ordinary ending of these cases
would give us the combination -vus, -αιιm. Again, Cicero's geni-
tive of qui was quo-íus, not cuius. So also we may fairly assume
that nullius with its long , is a contraction of nullo-έus, a genitive
which bears a marked affinity in its termination to the Homeric
genitive λογοιο. We may the more safely assume that nullius is
only a reduced form of nulloius, because a long , in Latin often
corresponds to the diphthong ot of the Greek, as in domini (nom.
pl.), domìnis, compared in respect of ending to δουλοι, δουλοιs.
In the nom. pl. Terence wrote Adelphoe ; amd oloe is said to have
been used as am archaic form for the nom. îlli. At any rate, as
regards the abl. pl. Festus says: * aboloes dicebant pro ab illis.'
Thus the sing. vocative alone in this declension presents any diffi-
culty. But the change to a short e is seen even in the mom., as
in ille, iste, îpse ; and that the last of these grew out of an old
δpsos is pretty well established by the fact that the old writers
give us a nom. ip8u8. In truth, it is mearly a law of the Latin
and other languages, that any short final vowel is soon reduced to
a short e. Thus magis, scriberis, aetatis*, scripserunt, when de-
prived of the final consonants, become at omce mage, scriòere, aetate,
scripsere. Add to this, that a vowel o is wholly unknown to the
terminations of the other declensions. From all these facts it is
inferred that in the second declension the part essential to the
noun, as opposed to case-endings, terminates in the vowel o.
IBut we have passed over that, portion of the third declension
which differs in the mode of forming the cases from turris. Ex-
amples of such nouns are, if we define them by their nominatives,
rev, ^uae, lapis, paries, uirtus, aetas, pater, consul, hîemps, ratio,
homo, pulvis, &c. Upon any grammatical system such words pre-
sent anomalies in the nominative case. In the other, or so-called
oblique cases, the difficulties are few ; and it will be found that
the essential part of these words ends in a consonant, viz. rég-,
^ìc-, lapíd-, parîèt-, virtút-, aetät-, hîëm-; and again, patér-, con-
sú-, ratión-, homön-, pulvás-. The modification or loss of the final
consonant which ensues in the first sevem of these mouns on the
addition of an 8 to form the nominative, is nearly parallel to what
happens in the formation of the perfect tenses, revi, duaeâ, divisâ,
nisi, sumpsê; and this was to be expected, as the same consonants
'• See Grammar, § 909 note.
426 APPENDIX I.
are brought into juxtaposition. As regards pulvis, cucumis and
cinis, the final s of the nominatives in reality performs a double
office. In other words, puluiss would have been theoretically a
more correct form ; and hence it is that the last syllable of this
nominative is at times found long, as in Virg. Aen. I. 478, et versa
pulvìs ìnscribitur hasta. That the base of pulvis must put in a
elaim to an s, is proved by the diminutive pulvisculus as compared
with mauicula, canicula, fraterculus. The oblique cases puluerem,
pulueris, &c. confirm this, for the syllable er in these words repre-
sents the is of the base, just as er in scripserunt corresponds to the
middle syllable ìs of scripsistis, and the er of the reflective or pas-
sive scrìöér-is to the is of the simple verb scribis. The change of
& between vowels into r is familiar to every Latin scholar. It
must also be admitted, on consideration, that while i is the vowel
which the idiom of the language prefers before 8, a short e is all
but required before r.
The absolute disappearance of the final s in the nominatives
pater, consul, ratio, homo, and the loss in addition of a liquid from
the end of the last pair of words, will need a fuller discussion, and
shall be considered presently.
Thus far we have dealt only with the declension of nouns, As
regards the verbs, the question is exceedingly simple. No one
will have any difficulty in assigning ama, mone, reg, and audi, as
the essential elements in the conjugation of the verbs ama-re,
mone-re, reg-ere, and audi-re. The only parts of the verb amare
which fail to exhibit am a after the m are the first persom amo of
the indicative present, and the whole of the present subjunctive,
amem, &c. But a contraction of ama-o into amo would be per-
fectly parallel to what is seen in the Greek grammar in τιμago,
τ ιμω ; and the compression of ama-am, ama-as, ama-at, &c. (which
the analogy of 8crìö-am, 8crìö-as, 8crìò-at, &c. would have led us to
expect) into amem, ames, amet, &c. is a matter of no extraordinary
character, considering the intimate connection between a long
vowel e and the simple a. A Greek scholar is of course familiar
with this fact ; and in the Latin perfect eg-ê (as compared to the
present ag-o) we seem to have a word which has been contracted
from a perfect of reduplication a-ag-i. In the second conjugation
we should have been able to trace the vowel e throughout all the
deduced forms, if we had taken for our example any of the verbs
fle-re, ne-re, de-le-re, or eae-ple-re, for in thesé the perfect and so-
ON THE CRUDE FORM. 427
called supines still exhibit an e in the base of the word. And even
among those verbs which commonly form the perfect in -ui, as
'moneo, habeo, &c., the archaic forms, such as habessit, seem to im-
ply am old perfect habewì ; for habessit must have been a contrac-
tion of habeue8it, just as ama880 and amassîm, are admitted to be
contractions from old forms amaueso and amauesim, which pre-
ceded amauero and amauerim. Lastly, the conjugation of audí-re
in no single instance fails to retain the î.
Thus we reduce the four conjugations to the four heads, of
verbs in a, in e, in consonants, and in î. The question here sug-
gests itself, how is it that there are not six conjugations to corre-
spond to the six declensioms ? in other words, what has become of
the conjugations in o and in w ? To speak first of the verbs in w :
the class exists, and as examples of it may be takem the verbs
^w-ere, plu-ere, acu-ere, metu-ere ; but the vowel w is rarely subject
to contraction with a following vowel, so that it was found unne-
cessary to separate verbs of this class from those which ended in
a consonant. On the whole however it is perhaps desirable, for
simplicity's sake, to make a α conjugation ; and in fact in the
third persom of the plural of the present indicative these verbs
have a peculiarity which distinguishes them from such verbs as
reg-ere, scrib-ere ; we meam that metuunt and sequuntur, though
supported by the authority of our grammars and ordinary editions,
are not so legitimate, if manuscripts are to be trusted, as metuont
and 8ecuntur. Secondly, an advantage is gained by the separation
of verbs im w from verbs in a consonant, in the complete analogy
of the perfects col-wâ, audi-αζ, ne-ui, ama-vi, gno-αί, plu-vi, where
we have the same suffix added without distinction to a verb end-
ing in a consonant, and to verbs in all the five vowels, î, e, a, o, v.
Pluvit was the only perfect known to Livy ; and the older writers
generally adopted either the form anmwwit, or at least annwit with
a long w, thus distinguishing the perfect from the present. But
there still remains a vacancy caused by the non-appearance of a
class of verbs in o. Such vacancy can only be filled by a wretched
remnant of a conjugation. The forms gmo-ωί, gno-twm (novâ, mo-
tum), the participles potus and aegrotus, all poimt to bases in o,
viz. gno-, po-, aegro-. The present of the first exhibits a somewhat
fuller form in the so-called inceptive gnosc-o. That there was
once a verb po- * drink,' is proved by the substantives po-tion-,
po-culo- (nom. potio, poculum), by the frequentative po-ta-re, amd
428 APFENDIX I.
by the Greek τα-σω, treTao-ka. Again, a verb aegro-o from the ad-
jective aegero (nom. aeger, aegra, &c.) would be in perfect keeping
with the Greek verb δουλο-α from the noun δουλο- (nom. δουλοs).
Unfortunately there was a tendency in the Latin language to force
all those verbs which are formed from substantives or adjectives
of the second declension into the first conjugation. Thus from
the substantives domo-, domino- (nom. domwm, dominus), and from
the adjectives misero-, denso- (nom. miser, densus), were deduced
the verbs dona-re, domina-ri, misera-ri, densa-re. The readiness
which exists in the Latin language to interchange the vowels a
and o is well seen im îgnora-re, from am adjective ìgnaro- (nom.
ignarus), while the simple adjective gnaro- (nom. gnarus) is de-
duced from the verb qno- (gnosco or nosco).
The application ofthe crude-form system to verbs was virtually
adopted in the Latin grammar which was used in the Charter-
House during the headship of the Rev. Dr. Russell, as the three
conjugations of amare, monere and audire were treated as contract
verbs, amao amo, amais amas, amait amat, &c. It has at times
been objected to this view, that a contraction of amait to amat
ought to have led to a long vowel in the last syllable of amat.
The argument is valid, but yet no way damages the theory, for
the syllable was originally long, as indeed is seen in the passive
amátur, monétur, auditur, whereas from regìt comes regîtur. It is
thus that the old writers, as Plautus, Terence, &c. never hesitate
to treat the third person of a tense as having a final long syllable,
whenever the corresponding vowel is long in the first and second
persons of the plural. Examples may be seen in the ** Prolego-
mena” to Ritschl's Plautus, p. 182, &c., such as velit, audiët, fìt,
8olét, attìrvât, habét, 87t, dèt, fuât, mauelìt, afflictât, egét, desiderét,
ât, lubét, though followed in every example he quotes by a word
with an initial vowel. There are not wanting similar examples in
Virgiland Horace ; but editors and teachers complacently get over
the difficulty by attributing the unusual length to the so-called
principle of cæsura, or to poetical license. What therefore at first
view appeared as a defect in the theory of crude forms, only tends
to prove the validity of the system.
In the irregular verbs the system of crude forms has its usual
superiority. The conjugation for example of the so-called sub-
stantive verb, in both Greek and Latin, becomes more intelligible,
and therefore more easy to remember, when attention is paid to
ON THE CRUDE FORM. 429
the form of the base. Sum and eupu, when examined by them-
Selves, appear utterly unconnected ; but a light is thrown even
upon these, and still more decidedly on many other parts of the
conjugation, when és is regarded as the point of departure. Varro,
for example, tells us that esum, esumus, esunt were the old forms,
which, losing their imitial vowel, became severally sum, sumus,
8?/nt. That eo--pw* in Greek should be changed to eupt was to be
Yxpected from the habitual tendency of that language to suppress
&ie sibilant. Further, an attention to the crude form és at once
explains the so-called adjectives, but really participles, ab8en8,
praesens, which are but reduced forms of ab-es-ens prae-es-ens.
Again, the beginner in Greek is somewhat confused at times by
the similarity in many parts of the verbs eugu * I am* and eupu * I
go'. He will have most of his doubts at omce solved by the know-
ledge that the former has ea, the latter t, for its base.
We next proceed to examine the proposition that all the Latin
declensions in reality belong to one type. In the process of word-
building the chief difficulty arises from the fact, that if vowels are
brought together, contraction commonly results ; while if conso-
mants are placedin juxtapositiom, the one or the otheris frequently
modified, so as to harmonise with the other. Hence it follows :
that where the choice presents itself, we should select for our first
consideration those forms, where, of two syllables brought, into
contact, either the first ends in a consonant and the second begins
with a vowel, or vice versa, where a vowel at the end of the first
is followed by a consonant at the beginning of the second. Now
it so happens that among the suffixes which have the office of
denoting cases, the majority commence with a vowel. Hence
the consonant, declension for the most part exhibits the cases in
a fuller and less modified form. Thus to take the accusative,
reg-em, assigns a whole syllable to the case-ending, whereas in
turri-m, die-m, musa-m, seruo-m (or Servw-m), gradu-m, a vowel
bas been lost. The same applies to the plural accusatives reg-es,
turrì-8 (turres), die-s, musa-s, seruo-s, gradu-8. Similarly in the
ablatives of the singular, reg-è, turrì (turré), dié, musâ, servó,
gradü, the first gives us a letter è as the representative of the
case, whereas contraction absorbs this vowel in all the vowel de-
clensions, yet at the same time leaves a trace of the same termi-
* The modern Lithuaniam, or the language now spoken around Memel
and Riga, conjugates its substantive verb, esmi, essi, esti, &c.
430 APPENDIX I.
nation in the length of the final vowel, as arising from contrac-
tion. •
The genitival is of reg-is would lead us to expect from analogy
turrä-äs, die-âs, mvsa-is, seruo-is, gradu-is, not one of which occurs.
This fact at first sight appears somewhat fatal to the theory ; but
a closer inspection will remove much of the difficulty, and the
satisfactory removal of a difficulty ought to be held a strong con-
firmation of a theory. Now the forms qru-is, su-ês, anw-is (the
last in Terence) really exhibit what is demanded ; and the long w
in gradu8 gen. has always been held to be the result of contrac-
tion from gradwìs. Secondly, in the first and fifth declensions
the older language has at least two forms, mwsai and musas (as
in pater-familias, to say nothing of the Greek gen. σοφιas), diei,
dies and die. Now it is evident that all these varieties would
grow out of musa-i8 and die-is. By the loss of the s we obtaim
m^ι8aì and diei, and then by an ordinary contraction musae and
die ; while the absorption of the è in musais and dieis gives us
^mu8ö8 and diés. In the second declension, although seruo-is is
unknown, yet in nvllius, or rather nullo-iws, we get evem more
than the suffix wished for ; and a termination ws harmonises better
with the Greek genitival suffix os than the ordinary Latin suffix is.
Thus in the celebrated Baccamaliam inscription we find senatù-08
for the genitive of senatu-.
Eut there still remain the genitives avis, turris, which refuse
evem in their quantity to justify the theory of a previously exist-
img awi-is or turrì-ìs. The explanation probably is this : the Latin
language had some twenty verbs which blended together the third
and fourth conjugations, as facio, îacio, orìor, gradior, which in
the first person singular and third plural follow the analogy of the
fourth, but in the other persons that of the third conjugation.
Nay, as we look further and further back into the lamguage, we
find such forms as parêre for parêre, morimwr for morìmur, evenat
for eueniat, &c. Similarly in the declensions they seem at times
to have had double forms, one ending in a consonant, one in the
vowel i. Thus by the side of navi- * a ship' we may assume a
shortcr form maw-: compare the Greek vav-s. Thus naw-is woula
be a legitimate genitive, and ^aw fragus, nauta need not be deemed
contractions from navifragus, naui-ta. So aw in auceps, au$peae,
may have been am original base, signifying * bird,' from which the
gem, aw-i8 with a short á is regularly formed. In fact, we have
ON THE CRUY)E FORM. 431
probably in this tendency to double forms the explanation of the
confusion by which the Romans themselves were led to force the
nouns ending in a consonant and those ending in a vowel , into a
commom declensiom.*
In the genitives plural die-rum, musa-rum, 8ervo-rum we have
a common suffix ; while in reg-wm, av%-%/m, gradu-α^ we only
miss the r, the addition of which would bring them into perfect
agreement with the preceding trio. Now this r really represents
the 8 which formed the essential part of the gemitival suffix in the
singular, it being a law of the Latin language to change an 8 into
r whenever it is thrown between vowels, as in such neuters as
opus, operis, in the verb e88e, eram, ero, &c. But this s of the
genitive is itself lost in mwsai, musae, in servi, in Vliaci, Achilli,
Cleomenâ (for V7iacis, Achillis, C7eomenis), and in diei. Hemce
there is nothing very surprising in the disappearance of its repre-
sentative r in the plural. Besides, caelicolum, amphorum, num-
^mwm, duûm, and evem dieum, specieum, are more or less familiar
contractions for caelicolarum, amphorarum, nummorum, duorum,
dierum, &pecìerum. Lastly, it is a well-known fact that mvcerum,
öoverwm were the old forms of mvcum, bowm. And these two
words by the way justify the theory at which we have hinted
already, that the plural cases are in reality formed from the sin-
gular genitive by the addition of a suffix for plurality. Thus παcer
amd bower, of the two archaic forms mvcerum, bowerum, represent
the singular genitives nwcis, bovis, precisely as from the base cinis
or pulvis we have a genitive ciner-is, pulver-is. Thus musarum,
is for mu8as-um, of which musas is an old genitive singular. In
the Greek language this & falling between vowels is of course lost
as usual, and we have povaaov instead of μovorao-ov. Similarly
theory would give us for the noun yeveo- (nom. yevos) a singular
genitive yeveo-os, but in place of this the Greek ear preferred
yeve-os ; while the Latin has gener-is.
What we have said of the plural genitive being formed directly
from the singular genitive has its parallel in the accusative. Thus
mºu8am, 8ervom should be considered as the Latim mode of writimg
what would have appeared in Greek as musam and seruom. The
* Indeed there is strong reason for believing that the final i is in
origin a diminutival suffix, the special power of which was soon lost. In
other words the two forms mau- and naui- stood to each other in the same
relation as our lad and laddie.
432 APPENDIX I.
addition of an s as the symbol of plurality would have given us
*m^/8ans, 8ervons ; but as ^, was never pronounced in Latin, any
more tham in Greek, before the consonant s, it was at last omitted
in writing, and so there: arose musàs, 8ervös, but of course with a
long vowel. In the Cretan dialect of the Greek language such a
form as δουλονs for the accusative plural was in ordinary use ; but
the Attic dialect substituted δουλονs, precisely as the nominative
of oöovrs became mot oòovs but oòovs.
The Latin dative reg-i would suggest other datives, avìi, diei,
musaî, seruoi, graduâ, Of these diei and graduâ occur in the
.ordinary language ; mwsai is an archaic variety of musae ; and
even in the Second declension quoì, as we have already observed, ex-
hibits the desired form. But graduì and diei are often contracted
into the disyllables gradu and die. Moreover the Greek grammar
habitually 80 far suppresses the final ί as to make it subscript,
which seems very like retaining it as an etymological symbol,
while in pronunciation it was altogether destroyed. Hence 8ervö
agrees substantially with δουλφ. Besides, the Latin datives nulli,
vtrî, &c. are evidently representatives of nulloê, vtroì, as nullôws,
τωι/ί nom. pl., ^^/l/is, stamd for nulloiws, mulloë, nullois.
We have Said that á is the ordinary suffix of a singular dative.
An older form must have been bî. Such is seem in the so-called
adverbs, but originally datives, ί-δέ (nom. i-8), w-δέ (or cubi, as
seen in sî-cubi, nwm.-cubi, ne-cubi, from the relative), ali-öi (archaic
nom. alì-8), utro-δέ (nom. vter), ωδέ-que (nom. quisque), mo-δί-8,*
vo-όί-8 ; secondly, in the plural datives reg-i-öus, avi-bus, die-bus,
equa-öus, duo-bus, acu-ότι8 ; thirdly, in the Homeric datives -φι,
ßtm-φι, ovpavo-φι, στη6eo-φι ; fourthly, in the Sanskrit datives of
the dual and plural mau-öhy-am and mau-öh y-as from naw- * a ship,'
as well as the plural instrumental case maw-bhi-s. But if it be
admitted that a b once belonged to the datival suffix, it remains
to be explained how it came to disappear, as in mwsis and 8ervis.
This objection will be answered if it be shown that those very
forms which long retained a b have simce lost, it. Now the four
little words, tibi, sibi, vbî, îbî have all lost the labial in the French
derivatives toi, 8oi, ou, 3y. Again, the three prepositions ab, sub,
ob are subjected to the same curtailment, in a, in asporto (for abs-
porto), in suspendo, suscito, sustollo (for subs-), and in ostendo (for
* Sibi, tibi are omitted in this enumeration, because there is reason
to believe that the bases of these words have a claim to the ò.
ON £l'EIE CRUDE FORM. 433
obs-tendo). The two verbs iubeo and habeo also lose their δ at times,
the first in jussi, jussum, the second in the derived substantive
a-mentum for habi-mentwm * something to hold by,' and also in the
Prench present j'ai, tu as, ú a, ils ont. The persons avons, avez
do indeed retain the à virtually in the form of a v ; but when the
French add this present tense to the infinitive in order to make a
future, * I have to —,' the syllable av falls off from both av-ons
and av-e2, as seen in finir-ai, finir-as, finir-a, finár-ons, finir-ez,
finìr-ont. Similarly the conditional of the French verb is always
made up by attaching the past tense avais, &c. to the infinitive,
but in this process the syllable av again disappears, and we have
finir-ais, &c. The German verb haö-er. and our own have suffer
in the same way. Thus the German haben in the present exhibits
hat not habt, and in the past tense hatte not hab-te ; while we say
has, had, rather than haves, haved.
Hence with a knowledge that the ô in Latin words had no safe
footing, we may boldly infer that from am old dative musa-öí were
formed first mwsai and ultimately musae ; and from a plural mu8a-
bì-8, on the one hand mvsa-bus, on the other, with the loss of the
δ, m^tsais, mwsis. For the vowel-changes compare the three words
quaîro (the Old form), quaero, ίη-quìro.
The nominative has been reserved to the last, because it com-
tains what has been deemed by some a grave difficulty. Although
8 is visibly the suffix of the nominatives reg-s (reae), auó-s, die-s,
Aenea-8, $eruo-s (seruus), gradu-s, yet it has beem objected that
neuters, with few exceptions, are without the final sibilant, that
the same is true of nearly every nominative of the first declension,
of such words as puer in the second, and of pater, consul, ordo,
ratio in the third declensiom.
With regard to meuters, the identity of the nominative and
accusative in every instance is a difficulty which must attach to
every grammatical system, as much as to that founded upon crude
forms. Perhaps the cause may lie in this, that in the simplesv
form of sentence, viz. one consisting of a nominative, a verb, and
an accusative, as dominu8 8ervum caedit, the action expre8sed in
the verb proceeds from the nominative to the accusative, from
the master to the slave ; and so the idea of the nominative in
origin was identical with that of an agent. But an agent having
life must of necessity be either masculine or feminine. Thus a
neuter noun would have no claim to serve as a nominative, and
JF F
434 APPENDIX I.
consequently could not in strictness be emtitled to the nominatival
suffix 8. Again, if neuters had at first no nominative, there was
little use in a distinctive mark for an accusative, these two cases
being under ordinary circumstances specially opposed to each ,
Other. But in the second declension a special difficulty presents
itself. In other neuter nouns the nominative, vocative and ac-
cusative obtain their identity by the omissiom of all case-endings,
and at times by sacrificing a portion evem of the crude form,
whereas with nouns im o an m seems to be attached, in violation
of the general rule as regards the accusative, and with still less
justification in the nominative. This difficulty is one which will
be considered in the next appendix (§ xxII.), and we hope solved.
It is mixed up with a somewhat recondite question.
The s* in the first declension, it must be admitted, is only
found in masculine nouns, and even they are of foreign origin, as
the word above quoted, Aeneas. Still there is so close a commec-
tion between the first declension of the Latin and the first declem-
siom of the Greek language, that any thing proved for the one has
a bearing upom the other. Thus the s of raptas and Tro\tTms leads
to rather a strong beliefthat the Latim also must once have pos-
sessed such a letter, although no longer found in what is left of
the language. But it has beem said that the office of this s in the
Greek words is not that of denoting a nominative, but to mark a
gender. The assertion is founded solely om the accident that the
masculine nouns take an s in the nominative, which the feminime
nouns have discarded. But even the masculine nouns appear with-
out this letter in many phrases of Homer, as veq)e\myepera Zevs,
μητιera Zevs, itTTota Neo-Top, &c. ; and Cicero too preferred the
forms without a sibilant in the Greek words Archyta, Aristagora,
as well as in the names of his countrymen Sulla and Cìnna. More-
over, am argument such as that of the Greek grammarians might;
just as well be used in proof that 8 in Latin is a mark of the femi-
nine gender, seeing that of acer, acris, acre, the middle form acris
is generally feminime. We have a parallel error in the Icelandic
grammarians. This language, it is well known, has a general
tendency to employ the letter r where the classical and other kin-
dred languages have an s. Accordingly am r is found as an ending
of many nominatives ; but it happens to be limited for the most
* The greater part of this argument was first printed in an article in
ùe Clussical Museum, No. xix. p. 59. • .
ON THE CRUDE FOR.M. 435
part, to those of a masculine gender. Hence, in § 141 of his Gram-
mar, Rask calls it the sigm of the masculine. Unfortunately for
his doctrine, £u- * a cow', sw- * a sow', also take an r to form the
nominatives kyr, syr (§ 170); and in § 159 he has the candour to
say, ** In the oldest times there were also many feminines in- r,
e. g. aedr * a vein', afterwards æd, elfr * river', afterwards elf,” &c.
But a comparison of the Greek and Latin grammars will present
us with evidence to prove that even feminime mouns of the a de-
clensiom were not averse to the nominatival s. In the Greek lam-
guage it is the ordinary doctrine that σοφιa and oroqum are but
dialectic varieties of the same word. If we may extend the same
doctrime to the Latim language, we are entitled to say that there
is no substantial distinction between luacurìa and luacurìes, tristîtîa
and tristities, materia and materies, words which (as Madvig ob-
serves) rarely form their genitives, datives and ablatives after the
model of the fifth declension.
We next consider those nouns whose crude form ends in a
liquid, as patêr-, consùl-, ratión- or ordón-. Our theory as regards
these words is, that the s, originally added, was first assimilated
to the preceding liquid ; that by a second change ome of these
two liquids was dropped, but 80 dropped that the preceding vowel
by its increased length was made to compensate for the loss; and
thirdly, that this long syllable was finally deprived of its length.
A triple assumptiom such as this, of course requires strong proof
in the way of analogy ; and it is believed that the nine arguments
which are presented in the following paragraphs will be thought
to contain such proof.
1. The four Greek verbs στetpo, στ€λλω, qìatvo, and vepo, to
take these as examples of classes, have for their respective bases
the syllables στep, ατ€λ, q)av, and vep. From these, if the regular
formation had been followed, we ought to have had, as first
aorists, eorTepora, eo re\ora, eq)avora,* evep!ora. Assimilation would
have changed them to eo Treppa, eo re\\a, eq)avva, and eveppa ; and
again, the suppression of one of the liquids, together with the fit-
ting compensation by increase in the length of the vowel, would
give us, what is actually found, eo Treupa, eo tei\a, eqúnva, eveuua.
2. As the feminime of adjectives ending in a consonant was
oftem formed by the aädition of the syllable ora, e. g. rvTrov-ara,
• Aorists ekepora, esλαa, ekevora occur in Homer. See Adder.di,.
436 APPENDIX I.
xapteo-ara, Φοινισ-σa, for rvTrovr-ora, xaptevr-ora, Φοινικ-ora, so from
the crude forms paxap-, ra\av-, repev- should have been formed
μakap-ara, ra\av-ara, repev-ara, which, if our view be correct, passed
through an intermediate paxap-pa, ra\av-va, repev-va, to μakaspa,
ta\avva repeuva.
3. The Latin superlative ended commonly in sumo- or simo-;
but in acer-rimo-, deter-rimo-, simil-limo-, the 8 has assimilated
itself to the preceding liquid, r or l.
4. The Latin infinitival suffix êre appears to have grown out
of am older form èse, as seem in es-se * to be' (for ès-èse). This view
is confirmed both by the universal habit of the old language to
present an s between vowels where the later language preferred r,
as in Fusius, asa, afterwards Furius, ara ; and by the occurrence
of a passive infinitive dasi (see Forcellini), which of course implies
an active infinitive dase for dare. Hence vel-le, mol-le, mal-le have
in le a substitute for am older re, as that was a substitute for 8e.
5. In the Icelandic tongue, as we have already Said, an r in-
stead of an sis the ordinary nominatival suffix of masculine nouns.
But when such a noun ends in ^ or ', the r is at times assimilated,
so that from a base ketù- * kettle', graen- * green', span- * spoon',
we have the nominatives ketill, graen^, spann. Again, some words
whose base has a final r, as dör- * spear', are not afraid to take a
second r in the nom., as dörr. And if the base ended in 8, the
old language at times even added a second & for the nominative.
Thus from ìs- * ice', lau8- * loose', were formed old nominatives áss,
lauss. We have here, by the way, a case precisely parallel to the
theoretic nominative p^/wiss mentioned above. But in the later
Icelandic language there was a tendency, as was to be expected,
to discard orie of two similar consonants at the emd of a nomina-
tive ; and thus what was a virtual symbolofthe nominative wholly
disappeared. In § 139 of Rask's Grammar it will be seem that the
11υuns which were thus truncated had a base ending in the letters
^, l, ^ and s, î. e. the wery endings which are subject to the same
mutilation in Latin. We have here them a simile which really
runs on all fours, and which alone ought to settle the problem.
Eut to proceed.
6. The Icelandic verb in the third person regularly takes an r
corresponding to the 8 of English, as from the base tel- * tell', han^
tevr' he tells'; yet from skín-* shine', the old writers preferred 8k%nr.
for &inr * shines', and this sk%n^ afterwards became skin (§ 93).
ON THE CRUDE FORM. 437
7. The genitive plural in Icelandic has regularly a suffix ra
(corresponding to the Latin rum, and so a corruption of sum), yet
from hör- * the', and gamal- * old', the gen. pl. is hin-na, gamal-la,
(§ 93).
8. The ordinary termination of the neuter comparative in Ice-
landic is ara or ra,* as kaldara * the colder'; but from vaen- * fair',
&ael- * happy,'are formed the comparatives vaen-na, &ael-la (§ 199).
9. The Latim language is specially apt to discard any final 8
which follows an r. Thus for videbaris, vîdereris, we find in pre-
ference videbare, viderere. Again, although the analogy of the
Greek διs, tpus, the Latin bis (duis), and our own twice, thrìce,
would have led us to expect tris and quatris in Latin, yet we find
nothing but ter amd quater. It is therefore no matter for Surprise,
if instead of puerus, paters, lintris, which strict theory demands,
we find puer, pater, linter. But the Greek nominatives Tatmp, Xeup,
repnv, from the several crude forms trarep-, xep-, repev-, exhibit
the long vowel of compensation ; and so also does the Latin more
frequently than is commonly believed, as patêr in Virgil :
Ostentans artemque pater arcumque sonantem. Aen. v. 521.
Concilium ipse pater et magna incepta Latinus, &c. xI. 469.
Congredior. Fer sacra pater et concipe foedus. xII. 13.
What we have said would account for such nominatives as
ration, homon ; but evem these are not found. The difficulty is
however cleared up when we call to mind that while the Greeks
wrote >rpaßων, the Romans preferred Strabo. Nay the Greeks
themselves changed eyoov to eyo. See Addenda.
So much for the singular. In the plural nominative a com-
parison of reg-es with the forms exhibited in the other declensions
leads us to the conclusion that avìs (archaic), gradùs, and diés
have all by contraction lost an e before the final 8, whereas musae,
standing for musa-es, has lost the sibilant itself. Lastly, 8ervâ
(δουλοι) must be considered as contracted from 8ervoe, and this
reduced from am obsolete seruo-es.
Thus all the Latin declensions appear to have been moulded
upon one common type.
We will close these remarks with a word or two of comment on
am objection, to which reference has already been made. Even if
* This guffix in the Moeso-Gothic has a sibilant in lieu ofthe liquid r.
438 APPENDIX I.
we admit your system to be founded om the firmest basis of philo-
logical truth, it requires much complicated argument to prove its
truth, and for that reason would be found utterly impracticable
in the instructiom of the young. The answer is simple. The
proofs are for the learned alone. The business of the pupil is to
learn the contrary process, by which from the bare word or crude
form the so-called cases are formed by the addition of syllables or
letters. This process is far easier tham that put forward in the old
grammars. Thus the Latin words for* king', * bird', * thing', * wing',
* slave', * step', are presented for the first time to the beginner in
the forms reg-, avi-, re-, ala-, 8eruo-, gradu-. From these he is
taught to build up the different cases. In this process he has at
once an advantage over those who follow the old course. He cam
mever be at a loSs for the declension, as the last letter is an in-
variable guide. Nay, he may throw aside all consideration of the
order in which the declensions follow, as the terms * consonant
declensiom', * î declension', &c. are at omce simple amd sufficient.
Thus he is saved from many traps which are set for ome who uses
the Eton Grammar. For example, the words puer, linter, pater
are only deceitful guides to the declension until we know some
other case or cases ; whereas the crude forms potèro-, lîntéri-, patér-
at once give a directiom which cannot be mistaken. A treacherous
similarity exists betweem eqαυs, vìrtus and senatus, betweem seruos
and arbos, betweem dies and paries ; but there is no chamce of the
pupil referrimg to the same declensions eqwo-, virtút- and Senatu-,
or $eruo- and aröös-, or dié- and parîèt-.
We now pass from the familiar matters of declensiom and con-
jugation to a part of grammar usually much neglected—the gene-
ral doctrime of derivation ; and we shall still find that the crude
forms of nouns and verbs give us a safer foundation om which to
build. Thus from the substantives cîvî-, fide-, vita-, tribw-, we
more readily proceed to the adjectives cîvî-lí-, fide-li-, vita-lí-,
tribw-lí-, than we cam from the nominatives ciuis, fides, vita,
tribws. Still more decided is the advantage in deducing directly
from the crude forms marì-, Roma-, bello-, tribù-, rather than
from the nominatives mare, Roma, bellum, tribus, the derivatives
7marino-, Romano-, Belloma-, tribuno-. Again, the diminutives
^auvcula, vìrguncula,* díecula, swcula, ratiuncula, are with little
* Zumpt, through looking to the nominatives, speaks of uirguncula
as formed by the addition of a suffix umcula.
THE SUFFIx AGH ? 439
difficulty referred to the crude forms naví-, αέrgön-, díé-, 8w-,
ratíón-. -
The light which the study of Latin throws upon the etymology
of our own tongue is a secondary but still an important conside-
ration. Here again the crude forms have a marked advantage
over the nominatives. Thus our English adjectives re-al, reg-al,
gradu-al, manu-al, vertic-al, natio^-al, are less easily referred t6
the nominatives res, reae, gradus, manus, Verteæ, matio, than to the
crude forms, which present themselves at once to the eye. The
same, or nearly the same, is true of the words lapód-ary, avi-ary,
&angwîn-ar?/, 8alut-ary, 8tatio^-ary.
Im what has been hitherto said, the chief stress has been laid
upon the forms of words. But there is amother consideration of
even greater moment for the student. To give the name of no-
minative to what is really something more tham the mere expres-
sion of a name has naturally led to the utter neglect of that some-
thing more ; and the logical view of language has only confirmed
the error. On the other hand, when we know that the nominative
is really a case, in other words that it expresses a relation between
the word and the other members of a sentence, we have much
light thrown on the nature of the Latin language. We then see
that the special office of the nominative is to define the source of
the action implied in the verb. Nor let it be objected that such a
view is traversed by the employment of mominatives with a passive
verb, for the passive is at bottom a reflective verb.* Nay the con-
struction of a passive sentence only confirms what we have said ;
for the moment the true agent is formally expressed in a passive,
the preposition ab is called in aid ; so that in the two sentences
dominus seruum caedit and seruus caeditur a domino, dominus and
a domino are equivalent phrases.
APPENDIX II.
ON TRACES OF AN OLD diminutival SUFFIx, MORE OR LESS LIKE THE
RELTIC agh, IN THE LATIN VOCABULARY.
A DISCUSSION, ill-fitted for admission into the body of a school-
grammar, may yet deserve a place here ; and I am desirous that
my more precise views should be accessible to the reader of these
* See Grammar, §§ 375—379, and the two notes * pp. 59 and 60.
440 .APPENDIX II.
pages. Still, for details, that is for the full arguments, which
alone can carry conviction, I must refer to the paper, as printed
in the Transactions of the Philological Society of Londom for 1856.
Here I can give only an abstract.
I. Introductiom.—The Gaelic suffix ach or ag * little' has its
representative in the final syllabkes of the various Scotch diminu-
tives, lass-ook and lass-ov, lass-ick and lass-ie, * a little lass.* But
the Latin and Greek also have intimate relations with the Keltic.
Again, as our owm tongue throws off final gutturals in way, day,
honey, Vorway, &c. (German weg, tag, hor.ig, Worweg, &c.), so the
Latin also loves to drop a g, as in maior (= mayor), mavolo, málo.
Yet as with us derivatives sometimes restore the g, for example
in Vorweg-ian, so is it in Latin. Another mode of avoiding a
guttural with us is to substitute a labial sound for it, as in laugh,
rough. This habit also prevails in Latin. Lastly, diminutives im
form often discard their diminutival power, as French sol-eíl, Ita-
liam fratello, 80rella ; and these are apt to stand alone in a lan-
guage, without any primitive to contrast with them.
II. Agh, as seen in substantives : lim-ac- * slug.' In Greek
occur some 60 examples, as fioò-ak- *dwarf-rose,' qra\\-ak- * youth,*
μ€up-ax- * young person.' The Latin substantives of the first
declension have lost a final guttural, as shown by the derived
adjectives rosac-eo-, ferulac-eo-, membranac-eo- (24 of them), and
vernac-? lo-. To the double-diminutives, Gaelic cur-ach-am * a
coracle,' Scotch las8-îck-in, German veil-(£)ch-er, * a little violet,*
correspond Latin ferul-ag-on-, &c. (about 20) ; and hence it is
inferred that ferul-ac- or ferui-ag- were older forms offeruì-a-.
Plants in the form ferul-ag-, lapp-ag-, would correspond to our
char?—ock, 8hamr-ock, 80vr-ock (sorrel).
III. Agh in verbs. A diminutival suffix added to verbs gene-
rally denotes a succession of petty acts, as twinkle, sprinkle, hobble.
So with Latin verbs which take the suffix agh. The guttural
still traceable in a few of these verbs, which therefore adhere to
the third conjugatiom, as plang-, frang-, trah-, 8tra(g-) whence
* stravi, sb. strage-, adj. 8tragulo-. In the great majority the loss
of it has transferred the verbs to the first conjugation, in which
however it is seen that the final a is something foreign to the root,
as có-a-re, lav-a-re, beside cúmb-ere, lav-ere. The guttural again
traceable in derivatives, as or-ac-^/lo-, lav-ac-ro-.
Iv. Agh in verbs supplanted by ab (for abh). Latin generally
has b nt the end of syllables where Greek has q). Hence a finai
THE sUFFIx AGH ? 441
δ is seen attaching itself to verbs of the a conjugation in the de-
rived adjectives medicab-ili-, laudab-ili- (over 400), compared with
vt-îlî-; in the sbs. vocab-ulo-, venab-ulo-, compared with jac-wlo- ;
in dolaö-ra- ; and in the frequentatives (note this idea) plorab-
wndo-, contionab-wmdo- (over 60). But if ab be thus adapted to
denote continuity of time, it may well be the element seem in
am-aö-am, and evem in am-ab-o, so that am-ab-o will strictly be
an imperfect present. Similarly ero, eoropat, eiplt, are in form pre-
sents, in power futures.
v. Aò for ag in substantives after a guttural, as can^-ab-%-
* hemp,? and otherwise, as, tr-ab- (= dor-aö- ?) * tree.'
vI. As agh denotes what is habitual in all Manx verbs and
many Manx adjectives, so it enters into such Greek words as
xoX-äk- * flatterer,* q)ev-äk- * cheat,' \a\-άy- * prattler' (above
20), and into the Latin bìb-ac-, ed-ac-, loqu-ac- (about 50).
vII. A«, so common in Greek sbs., gives place to ec or ôc in
Latin. Thus to Ta\\ak-, ìpak-, τυνδax- correspond pellec-, 80rec-,
podec-. The lists of words in ec and ic (together over 60) very ge-
nerally exhibit the idea of smallness, as cúlec- * gnat,' pulec- *flea,'
cimec- * bug.* So too, as plants and small birds with us oftem
end in our diminutival suffixes ock and ow, the Latin also has for
plants ulec-, rumec-, carec-, vitec-, frutìo-, 8candio-, 8alic-, fílío-,
tamaric- ; and for birds perdic-, fulic-, cornic-, coturnóc-, sorio-.
vIII. Agh in sbs. becomes vg or we, so as to lie nearer our own
ock. Latin examples crvc-, frug-es. The word cruae (= ακολογ)
examined.
Ix. Agh reduced to a mere guttural, as in our own park for
parr-ock. Ar-c-, cal-c-, fal-c-, lan-c-, mer-c-, analysed.
x. Our ec oftem, yet not always, reduced to ô in the body
of Such words as ros-à-tum for ros-ec-twm, i. e. ro8-agh-twm (see
rosac-eo- in § I). Sometimes the two forms, as virectwm, and vîrê-
tùm, dumectwm, and da/métùm, exist beside each other.
XI. As the Scotch reduce lassock to lassow, 8o the second Latin
deelension owes its existence chiefly to a similar loss ; but the adj.
aprug-no- still bears traces of an older aperogh- * a wild boar ;' and
similar evidence is found in hordeac-eo-, sebac-eo-, foliac-eo-, bulbac-
eo- (19 such), as well as in rapic-io-, tribunìc-áo-, &c.
xII. As the Scotch reduce lassick to lassie, so emsic-ulus, canic-
ula, retìc-wlwm tellus that ensi-, canó-, retí- had once a final gut-
tural. Again in the fifth declension plebec-ula, diec-ula bear wit-
mess that plebe-, die- had once a final c ; which is confirmed as
442 * APPENDIX II.
to the latter by a comparison of our day and the German tag. In
the fourth declension the argument would have been smoother, if
we had found amovc-ula and genuc-vlum, rather than anic-ula and
genic-wlwm. But we know historically that genibus grew out of
genùbus. Moreover as yovv (gerat) : knee : : δοpv : tree : : genuc-
vlum : knuck-le. This seems to establish the legitimacy of genuc-
ulum. Plautus too by his twice-employed adjective metìculosus,
implies a sb. metûc-ulus. Observe too that as lassie : lass, so
canó- : can- ; and a C. F. can- * dog' is consistent with ca^-^/m,
gen. pl., and with kvv os, &c. So with ap-um, juven-um.
xIII. Agh in sbs. sometimes doubly represented, as in verben-
ac-a-, form-ic-a-, samb-uc-o-, fur-c-a-. So ocellulo- has the like
suffix el thrice over. -
xrv. The softemed ow, for ock, seen in English adjectives, as
shall-ow, 3yell-ow, virtually occurs in the Greek 8pax-v-, y\vK-v-,
e\aX-v-, &c., and so is represented in the Latin equivalents brev-i-,
dulc-à-, lev-à-,—am argument confirmed by the derivatives brevic-
vlo-, dulcic-^ulo-, levic-ulo-. Truc-, i. e. tor-uc-, retains the suffix
in greater purity.
xv. Agh in adjectives also sometimes doubly represented, as
in fl-acc-o- (=pa\-ak-o-), plan-c-o-, gi7-b-o-, f-av-o-, gil-v-o-, cur-
v-o-, tor-v-o- (comp. tr-uc-), ard-w-0-, &c.
xvI. Some adjectives in o are deduced from genitival forms, as
patríus, ęgneus ; and so no way connected with our suffix.
xvII. Agh in verbs reduced first to wg or wc, and then to. v,
as in ftw-, fru- (r.), stru-, vìv-, volv-, solv- (with lw-), ferv-, loqw-,
Ἀυ-, rw-, spò-, 8cru- (scru-ta-rô, arka\-ev-ewv), &c.
xvIII. Agh in verbs reduced to ec or îc, as spec-, plec- of plect-,
nec- of nect-, flec- of flect-, and (q)nóc- of (g)niti, (g)nícus.
XIX. Agh in verbs reduced to a simple guttural, as mer-g-,
8par-g-, ter-g-, verg- * incline,' ver-g- * pour,' ful-g-, par-c-, po$-c-,
ves-c- (r.), ul-c- (ulcisci), torqw-e-.
xx. Agh in verbs Supplanted by a labial, first by p. Examples
such as carp-, rup-, 8calp-, 8erp-, trep-, are examined.
xxI. Secondly by ö, as scrib- (= ypaq5-), t(e)rìö- (rpu3-) implied
in triví, tríbulwm ; c(e)r-έb- implied in cr-ib-ro- m., glub-. An ex-
tinct ô claimed for Some other secondary verbs on the evidence of
derivatives. as vol-ub-, sol-vb-, fl-eb-, ten-eb-, lug-ub-, illùc-áò-,
8al-ïò-, in place of volv-, solv-, fle-, tene-, luge-, állícì-, 8ali-.
xxm I. Thirdly by m. The direct interchange of X and p. ap-
pealed to in support of this doctrine. Examples of such verbs in
THE sUFFIx AgEI ? 443
fm considered, as frem-, prem-, trem-, cre^-a-re, and a vb. crem-
implied in the sb. crem-or. The m which appears in the alleged
suffixes mien (μat) and mentum, claimed for the preceding verb, so
that we should rather divide the several elements, as im orn-am-
entwm, mon-um-entum, teg-um-en, ov-op-ar- or ov-vp-at-, &c. The
same argument applied to the infinitive tvTt-ep-ev, &c. The paper
then reverts to substantives ; and after moticing the fact that the
suffix om of bottom, fathom, is represented in the oldest Germam
by am and um, as pod-um or pot-am and vad-um, treats this suffix
as a labialised agh. Thus the old Germam var-am corresponds to
our brake (= bar-agh) * fern ;* and potam not only to the Latim
fundo-, but also to its equivalents tvvò-a«- and pod-ec-. Hemce
om, (um), the strange ending of the nominatives and accusatives
of Latin neuters, ervom, bellum, is justified as representing ervogh,
bellogh, older forms, it is thought, than ervo-, bello-. Hence too
apδύm-, Ilium- (IXtov.), form adjectives apîac-o-, Iliac-o-.
XXIII. Agh in verbs passes through ec or eb to e, as ver-e (r.)
beside verec-ωndo-. The cases of 8uade-, dense-, rube-, teme-, late-,
scate-, luge-, eæple-, spre-vi, cre-vi considered.
xxIv. Agh in verbs passes through ôc &c. to î. If the adj.
lenì- stand for lenîgh, so also must the verb leni- ; and similarly
with like cases. Derivatives too, as orig-on-, claim a guttural in
behalf of orí- (r.), &c.
xxv. Agh in verbs exchanges its guttural for a sibilant, as
tapaoro- (beside tapaX-m) ; so in Latin incipìss-, petess-. The
French forms finêssant &c., and our own finish, show that the
Latin sb. and vb. fini- stood in place offin-igh. So also the Ita-
liam finisco brings in with it§ own claim one for all inceptive, or,
as Homer treats them, iterative verbs ; and these two meamings
alike accord with the power assigned to our suffix in § III.
xxvI. Ec or èc &c. exchange the guttural for a t, chiefly after
a preceding guttural, like our own gobb-et for gabb-ock, giml-et
for giml-öck, spìg-ot for spìg-ock. But the license is oftem carried
beyoud the excuse, as in emm-et for emm-ock. Thus abiet- stands
for abiec-, witmess the adj. abieg-no-. Vell-ic. a-re, fod-ic-a-re,
mors-óc-a-re have our suffix in the legitimate form, ùc ; but fre-
quentative verbs generally have changed ôc for ít, as ag-it-o-re,
which with no less than 300 similarly constituted verbs, may plead
in excuse a preceding guttural ; but not so esitare, $altare, pultare.
Aedilit-äo- &c. we know stands for aedilîc-io-, and perhaps brevit-er
for brevic-er &c.
444 APPENDIX II.
xxvII. Our ôc reduced to it in other forms. Such comparatives
as trist-ic-ior, laet-ic-ior (afterwards tristit-ior, laetit-êor), esta-
blished on good MS. authority ; and hence tristit-îa-, laetit-ia-,
explained as similar to grat-ia-. The same explanation proposed,
more or less doubtingly, for words of the form nav-it-a-, 8erv-át-äo-
n., mon-it-ior-, 8erv-it-wt-, fw^d-ät-or-, mult-it-udon-, nov-öc-îo-
and mov-êt-έο-, 8ubdit-îc-io- and subdit-it-io-.
xxvIII. Agh &c. change the guttural for a d, as in Ta-ιδ-
beside eTrav&a, Tavy-vtov. Hence rubedon-, albedon-, in place of
the classical robigon-, albugon-, &c. Mult-io-vd-on- (if the older
form) would have a valid excuse for d in place of g.
xxIx. The many changes of vowel, which have been here as-
signed to our suffix, justified by the law which assimilates vowels
in adjoining syllables. Thus a Greek writes μαλaoror-, epeoro--,
μ€τλισσ-, opvoro- (o being habitually followed by v rather than by
another o). So a Romam preferred: 1. ar-a-, ar-at-ro- n., ar-ab-am,
ar-ab-ili-, al-ac-er (al- * raise') ; 2. gem-eb-undo-, frem-eb-undo-,
trem-eb-undo-, ver-e- (r.), ver-ec-undo-, ten-e-, ten-eb-am, ten-eö-ra-,
ter-eö-ra-, cel-eó-erí-, fer-et-ro- m., ver-et-ro- m., pet-es8-, nec-e$$e,
c(e)r-e-vi, sp(e)r-e-vi, f(e)r-e-to- ; 3. nit-ib-undo , rìd-ίδ-υmdo-, rid-
ôc-ulo-, in-cip-iss-, vîc-issìm ; 4. lug-ub-ri-, luc-ωb-ra-re ; or with
not identical, yet kindred vowels, as 5. lat-e-, lat-eb-ra-, scat-eb-ra-,
8al-eö-ra-, lac-ess-, fac-es8-, cap-e88-, par-e-, man-e-, alg-e-, ard-e- ;
or 6. quer-ib-undo-, c(e)r-ib-ro- m., t(e)r-í-vi, t(e)r-έ-to-, t(e)r-öö-
vlo- n., vert-êg-o^- ; or again, 7. vol-wc-ri-, vol-up-à-, vol-υδ-υlί-,
vol-um-en-, ίη-vol-vc-ro- m., 8o7-w-to-, 8ol-wb-ili-, tol-w-têm, doc-υη'
ento-, mon-wm-ento-, in-col-ùm-î-. Some exceptions from this law
considered. A convincing example `of vowel-assimilation is seem
in the series of words: a, Ta\\a£ m. * a youth ;' e, Lat. pelleae f.
* a concubine ;* á, fillie * a young mare ;' o, Scotch pollock * a
young fish,' τωλοs * a foal ;' α, Lat. pullus, either a colt or chickem,
—where the words are at bottom identical, and in themselves de-
note merely * a little young one.'
xxx. The many changes of consonant which have been as-
signed to our suffix explained, partly from the desire to avoid
gutturals, especially repeated gutturals, partly on the principle
that aspirates readily interchange. By way of example, the irre-
gularities of the verb q)ep- (Sanskrit öhri or dhri) considered in
Greek, Latin and English.
IN D E X.
The numerals refer to the sections, motto the pages, except where the letter p. is pre-
fixed. The letter n. means mote. Latin words and parts of Latin words are in
italics.
a conjugatiom, 519, 522, 523.
a declension, 89-99, p. 424.
ab, 810, 816, 1303, 1304.
abd-, 542.
abdica-, 1023.
abest ut, 1208.
abic-, 1304.
abim, 1171.
ablative, 50, 51, 989, p. 429, i ;
absolute, 1013; * by' or * with,'
* 1000; for dat. 1019; * from,'
1021 ; in d, 50, 102l ; * in point
of,' 997 ; ofcircumstances, 1009 ;
ofdegree, 1017; ofgerund, 1294;
of means, l000; of penalty,
1005. l ; of measure, 1014; of
price, 1005 ; of quality, 1010 ;
of road, 1008; of time, 992 ; of-
* where,' 991; with comparative,
1015, 1055, 1055 d ; with fac-,
fi-, 1003 ; with prep., 1025;
with verbs of buying, 1005; of
removal, 1023; of sacrificing,
1006.
abs, 810 m.
absenti-, 725.
abstine-, 940.
abstract nouns, 907.
ac, l430 &c.
ac mom,.l409. 1.
accent, 22-28.
accessary conjunctions, 846.
accliví-, 1308. 4.
accusative, 45, 46, 369, 884; singu-
lar, p. 429; plural, p. 429, p. 431;
after active verb, 888; after adj.
in bundo, 1298; after deponents,
891; after intransitives, 893; af-
ter participles in to, 892 ; after
quo, 918 ; after substantives,
907 ; cognate, 894; and inf. 911,
1248 ; factitive, 896 ; for nom.
912; of time, &c. 915 ; two to-
gether, 896-902; with verbs of
calling, 827; of feeling, 889.
accusing, adj. of, 933 ; verbs of,
944.
active verb, 367; conjugated, 575.
acw-, 207. l.
ad, 1305, 1306.
adama-, 1308. 3.
adaequa-, 1308. 3.
adeo, 799.
adim-, 1308. 3.
adig-, 900.
adipes, 1026.
adjectives, 211-239 ; concord of,
1037; as sub., 936, 1034, 1042;
for adv., 1049, 1051; gender of,
1040; place of, 1468; possessive,
1047, 1054 e ; in predieate, 1060;
suffixes of, 225-234; in a, o, i,
have lost a guttural, p. 442, xiv.
xv., p. 444, xxvii. ; in ab-ili,
p. 441, iv. ; in ac, p. 441, vi.;
in ac-eo, p. 440, ii., p. 441, xi.;
in ac-o, p. 443, xxii. ; in bundo,
1298; in ic-io, p. 44l, xi. ; in it-
io, p. 443, xxvi.; of comparison,
1438 ; of fitness, &c., 956.
admodum, 797.
admone-, 1308. 3.
adsurg-, 1308. 3.
adula-, 979.
aduorsus, 1307.
aemula-, 979.
aetate gen., 909 m.
afflig-, 1304.
446
INDEX.
agnosc-, 1308. 3.
ai-, 739.
adverbs, 767, 1398 ; in a, 366,
793 ; in am, 782, 791 ; in bi,
366, 785; in è, 768 ; in im, 790;
in dè, 366, 790, 800; in îs, 783;
in ätër, 773, p. 443, xxvi. ; in
ìtìs, 777; in ö, 366, 771, 789,
1056; in per, 778; in secus, 80l ;
in temus, 803; in tim, 779, 780 ;
in tro, 788; in vm, 792; in us,
781 &c.; in vorsum, 798; in
predicate, 1401; of comparison,
1438, 1439; place of, 1898; pro-
nominal, 366, l 150; with partic.,
1399 ; with sub., 1400.
ai- vb., 739.
ali-, 320, 327.
alio-, 110, lll, 327, 1148.
aliqui-, 114l.
alphabet, 2.
alter differs from alteri, 324.
altero-, 110, 111, 330, 1149.
alterius, 111, 380.
am, 834 a, 1308.
ambur-, 1308. 3.
amplius, 1055. l.
am, 1421 &c.; use of, 1426 ; a
proclitic, 1465; repeated, 1424.
am * up,' 834 b, 1308. 2.
ana, 1308. 1.
anaphora, 1435.
Anglo-Saxon superl., 838 m.
animi, 935 m.
ammona-, 210.
anmiivit, p. 427.
ante, 1309.
anteà, 802.
antecedent omitted, 1126, 1151.
antequam, 1231. l.
anu-, 142, 207. 1.
aorist, 445, 446, 585, 586, 614.
appos-, 1304.
apposition, 1052, 1058, 1472.
apud, 815 m., 1311.
apprehend-, 1308. 3.
ar, 1312.
arasso, 567.
arassere, 568.
arduo-, 555. l. m.
as, divisions of the, 270.
asking, vbs, of, 902.
asyndeton, 1435.
at, 1445.
atque (ac), 1430, 1439; for quam,
853: with comp., 1056. 4.
attraction, 1039, 1055 b. obs., 1059,
1125, 1251.
au, 862 m.
auersa-, 904.
auîs gen., why short, p. 430.
aut, 840; differs from vel, 1444.
autem, 1446; place of, 1474.
benigno-, 238.
blam di-, 971.
bookkeeping, phrases of, 982.
bou-, 157.
buying, vbs. of, 946, 1005.
cam-um gen. pl. explained, p.44l.
capess-, 754.
cardinal numbers, 247, 252, 253.
care-, 1023.
case, 42, 139 l m.
cassum, 540.
ce suffix, 289,298, 319, 792, 11 12 m
cëdo, 731, 1198.
cela-, 898.
centema milia, 1072.
certa-, 956.
cervices, 1026.
cetera, 916.
cimec-, 207. 1.
circa, 1313.
circiter, 1314.
circum, 1315.
circumda-, 906.
cis, 1316.
cito, 772.
citra, 1318.
clam, 782, 1319.
claud-, 760 m.
coeptus est, 1244.
cognate acc., 402, 894.
collectives, 195. 1.
comparative, 240-246, 838, 1015,
1055, 1193.
comparison, adj.and adv. of, where
placed, 1438.
composition, 35; of verbs, 758.
condona-, 975.
conditional sentences, 1153.
comduc-, 1289.
cömici-, 812 m.
conjugation, 518; a, 519, 522, 523;
INDEX.?
447.
e, 386, 519, 524, 525; i, 519, 528,
529; o, 519, 520; v, 519, 526,
527 ; consonant, 518, 521 ; of
verb active, 576 &c. ; deponent,
685; impersonal, 699; part. in
turo with es- and fu-, 702 &c. ;
passive, 655; pass. impers. 70l ;
reflective, 570, 636 &c.
conjunctions, 839; omitted, 1436;
postponed, 1463.
conscio-, 957.
consonant conjugation, 518, 52l.
consonant declension, 55, 87.
consperg-, 905.
consul- vb., 555. 2.
consul for consuls, p. 435.
contra, 1320. .
contract verbs in Latin, p. 426.
contrácted perfect, 563-7.
copula, 874.
copulative conjunctions, 840, 1430
&c.
coram, 132 l.
corona-, 210.
cred-, 981 m.
crude form, 41, p. 422; in Sanscrit
grammars, p. 422; simplicity of,
cui bomo ? 983 m.
cuicuimodi, 31 l.
cum prep., 820, 1322, 1323, 1391.
cum conj., 1455.
cum maaeume, 1057 d, p. 226.
cura-, l 168, 1289.
custom, vbs. of, 1007.
da-, 549, 732, 975, 1275, 1289.
dative, 49, 110 m., 950; doubled,
982; dat. ethic, 978; in poets,
986, 988; of attraction, 985; of
fitness, 1293; of motion to, 987;
of name, 985; of part. in endo,
1293; of person concerned, 877;
of person whose body is com-
cerned, 972; of purpose, 984; of
serving as, 983; plur., p. 433;
sing., p. 432; with adj., 961; with
adv., 962; with gerundive, 967;
with perfect particip., 967; with
static vbs., 963; with sbs., 969;
with vbs. of giving, 973; with
vbs. of taking away, 973.
dé, 1326-8.
dé as a suffix, 366, 800.
debui, 1257.
decet, 964 -
deciems, 1071. •
declensiom, 54 ; first or a, 89-99 ;
second or o, 100-24; third or i,
125-39; third or consonant, 55-
87 ; fourth or w, 140-44 ; fifth or
e, 145-8; vowel, 88; irregular,
157 ; mixed, 148. 1 ; reduced to ,
one, p. 423, 429.
defective nouns, 149, 1032.
defung-, 1023.
demonstratives, 286, 1091
demum, 1447.
demario-, 1070.
deo-, l58.
deponent verbs, 399, 400 ; conju-
gated, 685. -
derivation, 34; of verbs, 740 &c. ;
from prep., 838.
desiderative verbs, 755.
desím-, 940.
desitus est, 1244.
deterior-, 812, 814, 824.
di, 1329. 1330, -
dic-, 534.
dicam omitted, 1228.
digmo-, 1016, l 192.
diminutives, 198 &c. and Appen-
dix ii.
diminutive verbs, 75Q.
direct interrogative, 308.
dirim-, 812.
discrib-, 1329.
disjunctive conjunctions,
question, 1423.
distributive numbers, 249, 252, 262,
1066.
diti-, 221.
doce-, 553, 556, 898, 1236.
domi, 114, 952, 1036.
domo-, 159.
domum, 886, 1036.
duc-, 534.
dum, 1448.
duo-, 117, 118, 120.
duplici-, 1067 n.
1444 ;
e, 1331.
e declension, p. 424.
eâ, 304, 366.
ec, 81 1, 813, 817, 1331.
ecastor, 861.
ecce, 862.
448
INDEX ,
egfer-, 81 l.
edepol, 861.
ego, crude form of, 274 n.
eho, 862 m.
elision, 29.
ellipsis of sb., 1033; of main verb,
1227; ofverb ofrequesting, 1204;
of verb of saying, 1203.
em-, 1005 m.
emolumento-, 530 m.
emphasis decides order of words,
1459.
emphatic adjective precedes, 1468 ;
emphaticgenitive precedes, 1468,
1472.
enclitics, 27, 1473.
enim, 1449 ; place of, 1474.
eo, adv., 304, 366, 789.
epicenes, 190.
epistolary tenses, 1160.
epol, 861.
equidem, 336, 1453.f. m.
equo-, 124. 1.
erat first, 1462.
erga, 1334.
es-, * eat,' 722; * be,* 723.
esse omitted, l259.
est first, 1462.
et, 1430 &c. ; * also,' * too,' 1440;
a proclitic, 1465.
et mom, 1409. *
et-neque, 1443.
et, que, amd atque opposed, 1434.
ethic dat., 978.
etiam, ll7l.
etiammum, 806.
eae, 133l.
excess, degree of, 1056. 5.
eaeerce., 555. 2.
eæistumes, 1228.
extent of place, &c., 915.
eæporgisc-, 555. 3.
eaetra, 1335.
.fac, 1168.
factitive acc., 896.
fastidi-, 939.
.faaeem, 566, 1209 m. f.
.faaeo, 566, 1209 m.f.
fearing, verbs of, 1186.
feeling, verbs of, 393, 872, 889, 938,
939, 1245.
feminine suffixes, 193.
*v-, 729. -
fi-, 736, 1003.
fieri, 736 n.
fig-, 535.
first word emphatic, 1460, 1461.
foras, 886.
forbidding, sentences of, i 173-7.
fore, 725. -
forem, 725.
fore ut, 1260.
foris, 952.
forgiving, verbs of, 975.
fractions, 268-272.
frag-, 535.
frequentative verbs, 745.
fréto-, 1002.
.fru-, 1001, 1287 m.
fu-, 723, 723. 1, 1152. 5.
fugi-, 558.
fullness, adj. of, 931 ; verbs of, 94l.
.fung-, 1287 m.
future, 439, 441, 447, 448, 466-469;
f. perfect, 476; f. perf. subj., 503,
505, 1226; f. perf. pass., 1263;
f. periphrastic, 1260 ; f. for im-
perative, 1170.
genders, 39, 183 &c., 1040.
genitive, 47, 48, 919; sing., p. 430;
plur., p. 431 ; emphatic, 1391 e,
1469, 1470; after gerund, 1286;
after neut. pron., 922; in ius, 110
m. ; in pointof, 935; objective,927;
ofcause, 929 ; ofconnection, 926;
of definition, 926. l ; of quality,
927; of removal, 930, 940 ; of
tendency, 1292; partitive, 922;
place of, 1468, 1472; possessive,
924; subjective, 921 ; with adj.,
929; with adv., 923; with gerund,
1286; with possessive, 1048 ;
with subs., 920 ; with verbs, 938.
gentile name, 1046.
genu-, p. 442, xii.
genus, 917. -
gerund, 435, 634, 1284-6, 1294,
1295.
gerundive, 1287 &c.
giving, verbs of, 973.
Glycerio-, 208.
gratifica-, 971.
Greek acc., 916; nouns, 166 &c.
gus-? 748.
habe-, 386.
habessit, origin of form, p. 427.
INDEX, '
449
hau, 1404. l.
hawd, l4l6. l.
historic present, 449 n., 455; hist.
infin., 1253.
ho-, 295-300, 1092 &c.
hoc adv. 300.
hocime, 293.
hodie, 804.
hordeo-, 207.2.
horsum, 366 n.
house, 1035, 1303 l., 1305 o., 1311 c.
huius, 947.
humi, 114, 952.
hypothetical sentences, 496-9, 705,
1153, 1209, 1223.
i consonans, 9.
i conjugation, 519, 528, 529.
i declension, 125-39, p. 424.
i- or eo-, 302, 1113 &c.
i=y, 25.
â- verb, 737.
iace-, 386.
âam, 1450.
ibi, 304, 366.
ô-dem, 342. l, 1132.
igitur, place of, 1474.
ignora-, l338 m.
ignosc-, 762 m., 979, 980, 1308. 3.
ilico, 797.
illi, illim, adv., 298, 366.
illo-, 287 &c., 1101 &c.
illo adv., 298, 366.
ima-? 748.
imbw-, 1308. 3.
imminu-, 1308. 3.
imo-, 823, 1429.
impera-, 1281.
imperative, 421, 422, 424, 479, 593,
l 168, 1173.
imperfect, 439 &c.; conjugated,
556; infin. 506-13; past, 459-65.
impersonal verb, 371, 393, 699-701,
872; conjugated, 699, 700; pas-
sive, 383, 701.
in, 913, 1336.
incip-, 1308. 3.
ände, 304, 366.
indefinite pronouns, 1138 &c.
indicative, 1152. 8; for subj. 1215;
of concession, 1156; of supposi-
tion, 1155.
indirectinterrogative, 318,494, 495,
1196, 1197.
indirect oration, 492, 120l.
indirect question, 1196.
infero-, 822.
infinitive, 430-2, 506-13, 1232 &c.;
after adj. 1254; after relative or
conjunction, 1251; and acc. 1238-
1240; as a gen., 1252; historic,
1253; imperfect, 509, 512, 513,
625; in poets, 1255; of hypo-
thesis, 1261 ; ofindignation, 1247;
passive, 1244; perfect, 510, 511,
628; with prep., 1233.
infitias, 886.
informa-, 1308. 3.
infra, 1339.
ánhibe-, 1308. 3.
inquam, 408.
imser-, 906.
instar, 833. 1.
insueto-, 1254.
intelleg-, 818.
ánter, 1340, 1341, 1393 m., 1395 n.
inter, * up,' 818, 834 d., 1342. l.
inter se, 1087.
interclud-, 1342. 1.
ánterdic-, 1023, 1342. 1.
interest, 910, 948.
interfic-, 1342. 1.
interi-, 1342. 1.
interim, 797.
interiug-, 1342. l.
interjections, 860.
interlunio-, 210. ].
(intermit-, 1342. l.
interpola-, 1342. l.
interrogative, direct, 308,1134,1417-
1419, 1423, 1425, 1426 ; doubie,
1136 ; indirect, 318, 494, 495,
1196, ll97, 1420 — 1424; par-
ticles, 1417; pronouns, 1134 &c.
infra, 1343.
intransitive verb, 373, 378, 394 ;
used transitively, 401-403.
intro, 1344.
intumesc-, 1308. 3.
inuide-, 979, 1023, 980.
inuicto-, 763.
ipso-, 326, 1090.
iri, 1262.
irregular nouns, 149 &c.
irregular verbs, 892 &c.
is ea id, 302.
isti adv., 299.
istim adv., 299.
G GH
450
INDEX.
isto adv , 299.
isto-, 286, 288, }098.
ita, 1451.
iterum, 822.
iug-, 535.
Iuppiter, 160.
ius-iwramdo-, }6}.
iuaeta, 1345.
k only before a, 6.
Karthagini, 951.
Reltic suffix agh in Latin, p. 439.
J or 1, ? 257
lab-, 533.
lapidervm, 376 m.
last word emphatic, 1466.
last word in an hexameter begin-
ming a, clause, 1463 v.
latum, 543.
leaves, 1031.
letters, number of, 2.
li6era-, 940 m.
libram, 1075.
licet, 807 m.
licuit, 1257.
linter, for lintris, p. 437.
liquids, order of, 3.
loca-, 1289.
logical pronoum, 301, 1112,
loqu-, 398.
lucta-, 956.
^macte, 883.
Madvig referred to in notes, 725,
815, 951, 1141, 1 163, 1165, 1175,
1182, 1195, 1202, 1205, 1209,
1224, 1236, 1287, 1288, 1337 i.,
1337, 1404. 1, l423, 1405. 1.
*magis, 776. 1.
9maior, 1055. 1.
malam rem, 886.
malim, 1221.
*mallem, 122l.
malum, 863.
*manica-, 210.
■manu-, 207. 1.
masculine suffixes, 191.
ama&swmo-, 1019.
meats, 1030.
fmede-, 979, 980.
nedica-, 979.
fmedius fidius, 861
fmemini, 390, 943.
memory, verbs of, 943,
mercule, 861.
fmerg-, 535.
Mileti, 951 m.
mili-, 257, 1064,
^minor-, 1055. 1.
minus, 776. 1, 1055. 1.
*mira-, 939.
mirum—quantum, 1200.
misce-, 956.
mixed numbers, 1065. l δ.
modera-, 979.
modo, 794.
moods, 423 &c.
mori- conjugated, 557.
musas for musans, p. 432.
mam, l452.
nè, 1173, 1179, 1228, 1402 ; a pro-
clitic, l465; differs from ut mom,
1408 n.; me—quidem, 1405, 1453
ô
mâ, * verily,' 862.
mé, 1417, 1420; affixed to interro-
gatives, 1425 m.; repeated, 1424.
nearness, adj. of, 955.
nearness, verbs of, 956.
mec-, 534
mec a proclitic, 1465 ; * not wen,'
1406. 1 -
mecesse est, 1246 m.
medum, 1228.
mega-, 1404 m.
negatives accumulated, 1411.
negative particles, 1402.
negative repeated, 1412.
neg-leg-, 834 h., m.
memom-, l 149. l.
meque— et—, 1443.
neque quisquam, 1406.
mequitur, 1244 m.
^e8cio, 410 n. ; nescio an, 1421.
ne$cio-qui-, 1199.
^eue, l4l6.
neuter nom. in wm, p. 448, xxii.
neuter nom. rejectss, why ? p. 43. 3.
neuter-passives, 392.
neuter pronouns, 909.
neuter suffixes, 194.
mig- or miu-, 162.
nihil for mom, 1410.
nimis, 776. 1.
nimium-quantùm, 1200.
nit-, 555. 8; 100l.
INDEX.
45I
* no,' how expressed, l428.
molim, 122l.
^ollem, 1221.
nominative, 44, 48, 368, 867; for
voc., 880; form of, p. 425; plur.,
p. 437; power of, p. 433, 439;
singular, p. 433 &c.
non, 1402; a proclitic, 1465 ; place
of, 1403.
non modo for non modo non ? 1415.
r.on nemo, 14ll m.
non quin, 1208.
non quo, 1208.
non quod, 1454.f.
non-emphatic words, where placed,
1467.
mövi, 389.
mos, 1082.
noun in apposition, where placed,
1472.
fmonne, 1419.
muò-, 533, 977.
nucerum, 376 n.
maudiu8tertius, 805.
τιullo- for non, 14l0.
mum, 1419, 1423 n. -
number, 52; differs from English
idiom, 1026 ; concord of, 1040.
numerals, 247 &c.; place of, 1471. l.
retumquid vis, l 183 n. f.
nuncine, 792.
mmuper, 778.
o conjugatiom, 519, 520.
o declension, p. 424.
o final in verbs, 410.
ob prep., 1846 ; in comp., l347;
= etrt, 830 m.
obiter, 797.
ºbjective gen., 927.
obliviso-, 943.
obliqua oratio, 492, 1201.
obsolesc-, 555. l.
oculo-, 207. 8.
»di, 390.
qfficio-, 1469 n.
om-i!-, 1308. 2.
opes-, 999.
opitula-, 742. 1 m.
oportet, l246 m.
opus est, 1280.
order of words, 1458.
ordinal numbere, 248, 252, 261,
1065. 1.
ordo for ordons, p. 435.
owner, 1036. 2.
paenitet, 889, 938.
pag-, 535.
palam, 782, 1348.
parato-, 1254.
parc-, 979, 980.
pare-, 956.
* part of,' 1057. i.
parti- verb, 398.
participle, 436, 514 &c., 1264 ; for
abstract differs from adj., 934 m.;
in endo, 1296; in endo with es-,
712; in endo with fu-, 715; in
enti, 1265; in to, 1270; in turo,
1261, 1268; in turo with es-, 702;
in turo with fu-, 705; perfect,
892; perfect, circumlocution for,
1281 ; question in, l 135.
particles, 764.
partitive gen., 922, 925.
pasc-, 1001.
passive, 379, 380, 570; conjugated,
655 ; impersonal, 701, 981 ; of
saying and thinking, 1241.
past imperfect, 459-65, 580-2; past
perfect, 473; imd. 588, 589; subj.
621-4.
pater for paters, p. 435.
patêr, p. 437.
pause in hexameter, 1464 m.
penalty, gen. of, 945.
peme8, 1349.
pensi, 947 m.
per, 1350 ; in comp., 135l ; of de-
struction, 1351 m. §.
per me stat, 1183 m.
perd-, 1351.
perfect, 439 &c., 442, 443, 478,
533 &c.; form of, 471 ; conjuga-
tion of, 561; contracted, 563-7;
present, 472 ; infin., 510, 511,
1256-1258; of intransitives, 477;
third personof, 472 m.; useof, 478.
perinde, 800.
permissiom, subj. im, 489.
personal pronouns, 274, 1076.
personal suffixes, 406 &c.
personal verb, 370.
plag-, 535.
plural suffixes of nouns, 52 ; of
verbs, 414 &c.
plural for sing., 1026.
452
INDEX.
plus, 245 m., 776. 1., 1055. 1.
poena-, 975 n.
polling-, 818.
polysyndeton, 1435.
pondo, 1075.
pone, 1353.
por, 818, 834 e, 1362.
porro, 788. -
possessive adj., 1047; gen., 924-25.
pronouns, 359.
p.ossid-, 386.
possum, 728.
post, 1354; in comp., 1355.
postilla, 802.
postquam, 958 n.
postumo-, 823.
poti- verb, 942, 1287 m.
prae, 1356 ; in comp., 1857.
praedito-, 542 m.
praeter, 1359; in comp., 1360.
predicate, 874.
prepositions, 808, 830, 914 n., 1233,
1303, 1397; case after, 914 m. ;
change ofform in, 809 &c.; La-
tin compared with Greek, 880 m.,
834 m.; meaning of, 1391 n.*;
omitted, 1396; place of, 1391-3.
present tense, 449, 452-8; ind., 575-
9; historic, 449 n., 455 ; perf.,
472; subj., 594-602; perf. ind.,
584, 587; perf. subj., 618—620.
price, 1005.
primo-, 823, 1050.
primor-, 838 m.
principal parts, 531 &c.
prior-, 823.
priusquam, 1231. 1.
pro, 1861 ; in comp , 1362-4.
proclitics, 28, 835, 1404. 1, 1465.
prodes-, 727.
proh, 862 n.
prohibe-, 1237.
proinde, 800.
pronominal adverbs, 366, 1150.
promouns, 278 &c.; demonstrative,
286, 1091, 1471; gender of, 1039;
indefinite, 1138 &c.; interroga-
tive, l134 &c. ; logical, 301,
1112; personal, 274, 1076; pos-
sessive, 359, 1088 ; reflective,
278-85, 1083-89.
prope, 1365.
propior-, 908.
propter, 1366.
prosum, 798. '
Pseudo-Nepos, 951 n.t; 1423 n.
pudet, 938. * ,
puer for puerus, p. 487.
puluis, 8, p. 426.
punishment, verbs of, 975 m.
purpose, 490, 1407.
q, 6.
quâ, 315, 316.
quam with comp., 1055 ; with sup.,
1057 e.; a proclitic, 1465.
quamquam, 858, 791.
quamuis, 352, 791, 1227 b.
quando, 795, 1455 j.
quandoquidem, 857 m.
quanti, 946 n.
quasi, 499, 1223.
quauis, 366. ,
que, 840 n., 1430 &c.; displaced,
144].
quer-, 555. 8. -
qui- verb, 738. -
qui- or quo-, 305, 1120-31 ; * any,'
1138; =i-, 113l.
qui-cumque, 1146, 1158.
quid ais, 1198.
quidni? 1172 n.
quidquod, 1454 h.
qui-dam, 343, 1145.
quidem, 857 n., 1080, 1408, l4l5,
1453 ; place of, 1474.
qui-lubet, l 144.
qui-mam, 346.
qui-piam, 345, 1143.
quippe qui with subj., 1194 n.
qui-quam, 344, 1142.
qui-que, 347-50, 922. 1.
qui-qui-, 1147, 1158.
qui-uis, 351, 1144.
quod, 1454; with eius, 922.
quondam, 792.
quoniam, 1455 j. m.
quöque, place of, 1474.
quoto-, 248, 1065. l.
quum, 1229, 1281 b, 1455.
* rather,* 1056. 3.
ratio for ratioms, p. 485,
re- sb., 910 m.
^re, * back,' 1367.
recidiuo-, 1367 n. f.
reciprocal verbs, 398,
redim-, 1289.
INDEX.
453
reduplicationi, 47l.
£rediit, 472 m.
rëfert, 9 10, 948.
reflective pronoun, 278-85, 1083-9;
omitted, 1249.
reflective verb, 374 &c.; 398-400;
conjugated, 570, 636.
*egerum, 376 m.
relative, 307, 1120-31 ; attraction
of, 106l; double form of, 853-8,
ll58; postponed, 1463.
remit-, 975.
repeated action, 1159.
reported speech, 120l.
reppuli, 555. 2.
re-publica-, 163.
rescisc-, 1367.
result, subj. of, 491, 1408.
retice-, 1367.
retro, 1368.
rite, 770.
Ritschl, 1319 n., 1404. l.
riara-, 391.
road by which, 1008.
roga-, 903.
roots, 30.
7rosa-, 1031.
ru-, 396.
7rup-, 533.
ruri, 952.
rus, 886.
rusum, 798.
& final lost in nom., p. 435.
sacrificing, vbs. of, 1006.
sangui-, p. 9
satis, 776. 1.
scilicet, 807. '
scrib-, 533.
se, 1083, 1369; crude form of, 280.
second person, 1152. 3, 1 175,
1224.
second word non-emphatic, 1473.
secondary clauses, h225.
secundum, 1371.
secus, 917. -
sed, 834, 1369; a proclitic, 1465.
seditiom-, 815 m.
semel, 264 m.
semper, 778.
sen- or senec-, 164. 207. 1.
sense supersedes form, 1038.
ser-, 542 m.
sermocina-, 745 n.
serui-, 971.
sescento-, 1063.
sestertio-, 272, 1070.
sestertium, 1073.
showing, vbs. of, 976. -
si, 496-9, 1153, 1154, 1159, 1209;
omitted, 1219; as an interroga-
tive, 1422; a proclitic, 1465.
sic, 300, 1451 g, m.
simple voice, 405.
simplici-, 264 m.
simul, 853, 854.
sim-, 1236.
sincero-, 264 m.
sime, 1372.
sing. for pl., 1032.
si-qui-, 1139, 1140.
siue, 1157.
Smelling, vbs, of, 895.
sodes, 1361, c, m.
sólo-, 110, 1050, 1192.
Sordido -, 555. l m.
sorti- vb., 398.
8parg-, 535.
spondeo, 410 m.
static verb, 385, 391.
sto- pron., 288 m.
strengthened form of verb, 451. 1.
8tude-, 939.
suade-, 979.
sub, 913, 1373-6.
súbici-, 812 m.
subject, 874.
subject-accusative, 911, 1248-50.
Subjective gen., 921.
subjunctivé, 427-9, 481-505, 1178
&c. ; as a future, 500-5, 1226;
for imperat. 1167; in commands,
488, l 180; in concessions, 1227
b ; in elliptical $entences, 1227;
in hypothesis, 496-9, 1209 &c. ;
in indirect questions, 494, 495,
l 196; in obliqua oratio, 1201-6 ;
in parenthesis, l 195 ; in permis-
sion, 489, 1180; in purpcses,
400, 1179; in results 491, 1182;
of duty, 1227.f; of indignation,
1227 e ; of possibility, 1227 a ;
of prayer, 1227 d ; translated as
indic., 491, 493, 494; with w?
qui, l 194 n.
substantive, number of, 1026 ; in
predicate, 1060; in a, o, i, u, e,
have lost 8 guttural, p. 440, ii.
454
INDEX.
&c. ; in ab-ulo, p. 441, iv.; in
ac-ulo, p. 440, iii.; in ac-ro, p.
440, iii.; in ag-om, p. 440, ii.;
in am-ento &c. p. 443, xxii. ; in
c, p. 441, ix. ; in ic-ula, p. 44l,
xii. ; in ec or ic, p. 441, vii. ; in
ec- ula, p. 441, xii. ; in ed-om, p.
444, xxvii.; in et, p. 443, xxvi. ;
in ê-to, p. 441, x. ; in ic-ulo, p.
441, xii.; in it-ia, p. 444, xxvii.;
in it-udon, p. 444, xxvii. ; in it-
vt, p. 444, xxvii.
subter, 1378; in comp., 1379.
suffix, 32 ; of adj., 225—234 ; of
masculine subs., 191, 192 ; of
feminine, 193 ; of neuters, 194 ;
personal, 406 &c.
8um, sunt, explained, p. 429.
summo-, 823.
su0-, 361, 1083.
suppedita-, 396.
supelleg-, 818.
super, 1380; in comp., 1382.
superlative, 240-46, 1057 ; from
prep., 838.
sui; 433, 434, 887, 998, 1299-
1 •
supra, 1383.
suscip-, 1289.
susum, 798.
syllable long by nature, 14 ; long
by position, l5; short, 13.
symbols, numerical, 251.
syntax, 866.
tag-, 535.
taking away, verbs of, 973.
tamquam, 1223.
tanti, 946 m.
tamtum, ] 065. l c.
te as a dat., 977 n.
telling, verbs of, 976.
tempera-, 979.
* temple,' 1035.
teme-, 386.
tense, 437 &c.
tenses of Latin verb, 451 &c.
tenus, 1384, 1391 b.
tepefac-, 756.
ter, 783, p. 437.
terg-, 535.
* that of,* 1036. 1.
third person, quantity of, 412.
tig-, 535. •
time, difference of, 1017; how long,
915; within which, 993-5; when,
992. -
* too,' 1056.
torque-, 553.
towns, 884, 951, 990, 1021.
traic-, 900.
trans, 1386.
transitive verb, 372; used reflec-
tively, 394-7.
trusting, verbs of, 974, 1002.
tu, crude form of, 275.
v, consonans = w, 10, 25.
w conjugation, 519, 526-7.
w deciension, 140-4, p. 424.
vbi, 315, 366, 953-4.
vbique, 847, 366.
ve, 1444, m.; displaced, 144l.
vel, 840, 1057 h.
velle, how formed, p. 436.
vend-, 542.
vemum, 886.
7uere-, 939.
uero, 1456; place of, 1474.
uesc-, 1001.
ueta-, 1236, 1237, 1243.
wìc-, 534.
uicem, 917.
viciems, 1071.
vicimiae, 1150.
vllo-, 334, l 142.
vls, 1389.
aultu;mo-, 823.
vltra, 1390.
ultro, 788.
vltumo-, 823.
vnde, 305 m., 315, 1150.
undeclined subs., 1032. 1.
vmo-, 1062.
vorsus, 1387, 1391 δ.
vt, 316, 796, 1451 ; a proclitic,
1465.
iit-, 1001, 1287 m.
vtimam, 796.
vtique, 347, 796.
autut, 358, 796.
ut qui with subj., 1194 n.
utrum, construction of, 1425.
vegetables, 1030.
verb, 367 &c.; after emphatic word,
1467; derivatiom of, 740 ; dimi-
nutive, 750 ; frequentative, 745;
INDEX.
455
impersonal, 371 ; of saying,
&c., 1238 ; of wishing, 1242 ;
place of, 1458, 1461, 1467 ; in
a, 522 ; in ag, p. 440, iii. ; in
cina, 745 m. ; in e, 386, 524 ; p.
443, xxiii. ; in ec or ic, p. 442,
xviii.; in esc or isc, p. 443, xxv.;
in ess or iss, 754, p. 443, xxv. ;
in g, p. 442, xix.; in i, 528, p.
443, xxiv. ; in ita, p. 443, xxvi.;
in m, p. 442, xxii. ; in o, 519, p.
427; in p, p. 442, xx. ; in*t final
long, p. 428 ; in turi, 755 ; in
v, 526, p. 427, p. 442, xvii. ;
in ab, eb, ib, b, p. 442, xxi. ; in-
ceptive, 752; intransitive, 373-
8 ; irregular, 392; of accusing,
944 ; of buying, 946 ; of com-
manding, &c., 1180 ; of compar-
ing, 956 n.; of duty, 1217; of
fearing, 1186; of feeling, 393,
889, 938-9 ; of hindrance, 1138;
of memory, 943; of requesting
omitted, 1204; ofsaying omitted,
1203; of smelling, 895; of wish-
ing, 1242; passive, 380 &c. ;
personal, 370; place of, 1437,
1467, 1468; plural suffixes of,
414 &c. ; reciprocal, 398; reflec-
tive, 374 &c., 398-400 ; static,
385-91 ; transitive, 372.
verbal sb., 1264; in tiom, 1302 ;
in tu, 887, 1299.
vi-, 165.
vita-, 1029.
vocative, 43 m., 882 ; for nom. 883;
place of, 1474 m.
vocifera-, 742. l m.
vol-, 733
vowels, order of, 3; vowel silent,
24 ; vowel-assimilation, p. 444,
XXIX.
weather, 1027.
words opposed, place of, 1475.
worth, gen. of, 947
ar, last letter, 2;=ks, 5 ; or rather
XX, 813 m.
gy not a Latin letter, 2.
* yes,* how expressed, 1427.
a not a Latin letter, 2.
ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA.
• .
*a—a
(It will be found convenient either to correct the teat herefrom, or to affiae
the words : * See Addenda.')
§ § 44, 45, 47, 49. For beam read * tree or beam.'
§ 89. For cornü read cornü in the nom. voc. acc., for although Greek
neuters in u, like all other neuters, prefer a final short vowel, and
although a short u is here claimed by the grammarians, as by Diom.
p. 308, 1. 15, ed. Keil; Prob. 31, 26, and 32, 32; Pomp. 172, 4, and 185, 2;
yet we find nuda geni, Verg. A. 1, 320, and Ov. M. 10, 536; cornii Ov.
E. 8, 869; geli, Ov. Nux, 106; and nowhere a short u.
§ 286. To [quadr-] append as a note : Brackets in the form [] denote
obsolete or theoretic words.
§ 844. Dele quaequam, as never found.
§ 866, 1. 2. For de (== 4sv) read ê ( = sv).
§ 472.1, note £. Dele the first eight lines.
§ 503, l. 10. Read acceptürum.
§ 532. Add : The order of words is alphabetical, reckoning backwards.
§ 583. After l. 8, add sáp- or sápi- taste, be vise, sápêre, säpio, sápui.
§ 540, 1. 18. Read claud- or clüd- shut (claud- standing for clauid-;
cf. the sb. xxmfià- a bar).
§ 540, l. 25. After quätio insert per-cussi.
,, last, line but one. For uorti read uerti.
,, last line. For sist- make to stand, read set-, sist- stop.
§ 548. After l. 6, insert plu- rain, pluêre, pluit, plüuit, or pluit.
§ 554. Add senti- or sen- feel, sentire, sentio, sensi, sensum.
§ 555.8, l. 16. After nic- add or nict-.
§ 570. Add to imperative fut.: A form without the final r was pre-
ferred, as censento (= censentor) Corp. Inscr. Momms. 198, 77. Cf. Madv.
Op. 2, 24l.
§ 722.1. Add: perf. part. cömesto-, cömesso-, or cömöso-.
§ 782. Add: the passive also has a short wowel in dätur, däbatur,
dábitur, subj. dåretur, inf. dări, part. däto-.
§ 745. Dele note *.
2.
§ 774. Dele altogether.
§ 777. For itùs or tús read íís ; and, in note, for ?s» read vv; and add :
This us is often cut down to e (cf. ipsus, ipse), as in peregré, from
abroad; superné, from above ; inferné, from below ; ind-é, from this ;
und-é, from which.
§ 788, 1. 2. For trö read ró; also write ret-ro, cit-ro, etc.
§ 800, l. 6. Dele ever and anon. -
§ 830. The first meaning of inter is under; of ob, qfter ; of per and
trans, over.
§ 831. The first meaming of in is down ; hence imus for inimus,
lowest. Cf. sy-tgou, sy-sg4$v. ' -
§ 884, 1. 8. For ambur- burn round, ambed- eat round, substitute:
am-ici- throw round, clothe with, am-plect- (r) fold oneself round, embrace.
§ 886. Add after infitias eaeequius, suppetias. :
§ 958. Transfer first example to § 959. -* •
§ 1068, last line. Dele sets qf, as catena originally meant a hoop or
link, and only catenae in the pl. a chain. - -
§ 1156. Add: Other examples are seem im Laudabunt alii . . . . — .
me nec tam, &c., Hor. Od. 1, 7, l ; Est ut uiro uir . . .—aequa lege
Necessitas, &c., Od. 8, 1, 9; Optat quietem . . . ., Optat Prometheus
. . ., Optat supremo . . .-sed uetant leges Iouis, Epod. 17, 66; Cupio
. . . Gupio . . . sed, Cic. Cat. 1, 2.
§ ll84, last ex. For Cic. read Planc. ad Cic.
§ 1228, 1. 10. For Mortalia facta read Facta.
,, l. 19. For better read much better,
§ 1236, 1. 7. For Herus read Erus.
§ 1256, 3rd ex. Read Bacas. .
§ 1295, 1. l and 4. For gerundive read gerund or gerumdive.
§ 1308, 1. 2. Dele anquir- look round for.
§ 1809 c. For example Dicere, etc. substitute: Ego baiulabo: tu ut
decet dominum, ante me ito inanis (Plaut. As. 8, 8, 70), I'll do the
porter's work ; you as becomes a master shall go before me without anything
to carry. Add: Pone me erat Aegina, ante Megara (Sulp. ad Gic. fam.
4, 5, 4); Unam cohortem quae ante ceteras extra aciem procurrerat
(Caes. B. C. 1, 55, 8); Ante se statuit funditores (Liv. 42, 58, 10).
§ 1338. Begim with : Im in composition meams, first, down, as in-curuo-
bent down, in-clina- bend down, im-flect- bend down ; secondly, into, etc.
§ 1840. The first meaming of inter is under, aqua inter cutem dropsy
(Cels.) ; hence too interula (sc. uestis) under-clothing ; cf. Germ. unter,
. our under, and the simple in down.
§ 1846. The first, meaming of ob (= saru) is after ; hence occiput,
the back qf the head; cf. obsequi. -
§ 1350. Per is decapitated from super and means, first, over, as Ire
praecipitem in lutum per caputque pedesque (Catul. 20, 9) to go head-
foremost into the mud, o'er head and heels alike. Add: Ibi per stragem
8-
iacentium elephantorum atrox edita caedes (Liv. 26, 6, 2—where Madvi3
against MSS. would read super strugem) ; Equus pilo traiectus quum
prolapsum per caput regem effudisset (27, 32, 35); Ponte per Nilum
facto (44, 19, 9).
§ 1851. Per in composition means, first, over, as per-fund- pour all
over, per-ung- anoint all over ; hence too per-uide- = (Hor.) overlook,
per-fuga = transfuga = G. überlaufer one who goes over (to the enemy).
§ 1867. Re (rec) in composition means, first, up, as re-curuo- bent up,
re-pando- the same, re-cubo- lie with the back raised, re-síd-e- sit up (in bed),
reci-proco- up and down, = our ridge and furrow.
§ 1408, 1. 4. For so many engagements read engagements so important.
§ 1454 e, subdiv. a, 1. 4. For wisk you to remain read insist on your
remaining.
§ 1465. Add: In collating a MS. (Harl. I. ?) of Liv. 6, 1—17, many
years ago, at the British Museum, I found the above words writtem as
proclitics, the mumber of times here stated: ut 18, si 8, nisi 1, seu 1, et 1,
nec j, ne 7, non 23, aut 1 , at 1, an 2, quam 4. Also qui 2, quae 1, qua 1,
quo 1, quod 4, quum 6, quin 2, tum 4, tam 1, iam 2, sic 2, se 9, te l,
etiamsi 1. Further, 251 monosyllabic prepositions against 48 not so
written, and 10 disyllabic prepositions agaimst 7 not, so writtem. The
same collation exhibited Written as enclitics : sum 1, sunt 1, est 8, esse l,
sim 2, erat 5, erant 1, se 7, sui 1, quisque 2, tamen 1, enim l, and even
summaui for summa ui (compare summopere).
Page 435, 1. 32. Attach to the word * assimilation' the note : f So
aeon», 82goros, arueros, of Ionic and Old Attic became in later Attic xegnv
42egos, arvegos.
Page 485, 1. 85. Attach to the word * compensation* the mote : t So
»*£vvo), ysyvozaeo (for syworz*o?) of the purer Aeolic became in Attic xrsiva»,
*yuyovo; and sysge», φθsega, became syugo, 44sig». See Liddell and Scott
.under N and P, where however the change is reversed. *
IPage 487, l. 15. To xug append the note: f A nominative xsgs
appears in an epigram of Timocreon's in Hephaestion origi postea, 1 :
ά σνμρουλεύειν xses &aro, vovs 2s arozgo.
In Index. Neuter nom. rejects s, why? For p. 43.8 read p. 433;
for quidquod read quid quod.
.*
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GOMBERT (A.) TheFrench Drama ; being a Selection
of the bést Tragedies and Comedies of Molière, Racine, P.
Corneille, T. Corneille, and Voltaire. With Arguments in
English at the head of each scene, and notes, critical and
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• C O N T E N T S.

IMOLIERE :
*LeMisanthrope. Les Précieuses Ridicules.
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*Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme. L'Ecole des Maris.
* Le Tartuffe. *Le Médecim malgré Lui.
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Andromaque. Phédre.
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Βritannicus. * Athalie.
Eérénice.
» «* P. CORNEILLE :
Le Cid. Horace. Cinna. ] Polyeucte. Pompée.
.- T. CORNEILLE :
Ariane.
, VOLTAIRE : .
Brutus. *Zaire. . Mérope.
Alzire. Orestes. La Mort de César.
Le Fanatisme. Semiramis.
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KOTZEBUE. Der Gefangene (the Prisoner). Edited,
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