==º-º-º-º-º: Fº ****-ºr-wºw ºr ºº::… r-, - W § 5-ºxº~ * ſººniº ºº: ŠŇ ****/:.*? ſºſ，& ！*） §§ $ ſae， № §§ * | } | | §§ º §§ } d> $ |-§@₪ſraesiſ· E}{J}IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIĮĮĶĶĹŇŮÑ\}siſsae №ae!!!!!!!!!!！!！!!!!! DOE\! .*..*. . , ' ';|'; ------- §§§§ ---- ***** 、。 IGA) Aſ . }}$ >ș· {&\ H. ||||||||||| IIITIIITTTTTTTº ĒĒĒTĪTĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪTĒá};ſae 5ÎÏÏĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÎÏÏĪĪĪĪĪĪĪĪİIĮĮ • • ~~ ، A. alºre case ºne- are ńſſ; Fºſſ * ... .s.º.º.º.º. . º § § ğ º § - º: ğ - .. - * . . . * * & * - * - * . 3. - * - : - * - - * - . - * *~ - * - : - - * . - :* . . - - * - *… ** -- 3. . . …" g - - tº * * e - 4 - - - - - ‘. & - \ & - - - 2. , sº & - - } * - - * *. + sº gº ſº & A R C H A I C C L A S S I C S. AN ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN LANGUAGE, IN THE H I E R O G L Y PH I C T Y. P. E. BY Syrº-e P A G E R E N O U F. ONE OF HER MAJESTY's INSPECTORS OF SCHOOLS. - HT E +F Multae terricolis linguae, coelestibus una. L O N D O N : SA M U E L B A G S T E R A N D S O N S, 15, PATERNOSTER ROW. I875. [All rights reserved.] · · · * * * *-***#！*... :-（, , :， ’:’， :. \ I) E D I C A TI O N. TO SA M U E L B I RC H., E S Q., LL.D., THE PARENT IN THIS COUNTRY OF A SOUND SCHOOL OF E G Y PT I A N P H I L O L O G Y ; BY HIS DEEPLY OBLIGED AND GRATEFUL FRIEND, THE AUTHOR. LONDON. September, 1875. : ; d t - * “. * - * * . & ; . & *. -- - - # * * g * 4. • 3- & : - sº w - - • * - * * ... t- - *. y * →. - . C O N T E N T S. PREFACE Hieroglyphic Signs *** y) Vocabulary Nouns and Adjectives Numbers Ordinals Pronouns Prepositions Adverbs and Conjunctions Interjections Verbs Forms Concluding Observations PAGE I I I 3 I4. I 5 2O 3 I 46 47 6 I 65 P R E F A C E . THE Elementary Grammar contained in this volume is available for all hieroglyphic texts written whilst the old Egyptian was still a living lan- guage, and the hieroglyphic system of writing continued in its original purity. It is of the utmost importance that the student should begin with these texts, for although the vocabulary and grammar of the later inscrip- tions resemble those of the better period, as closely as modern Latin does that of the ancient, and although the contents of these inscriptions are often of the highest historical and archaeological interest, the hieroglyphic system which they exhibit is extremely corrupt, particularly in the Roman period; it confounds articulations which the ancient Egyptians scrupulously dis- tinguished, signs originally syllabic are used with purely alphabetic values, the ancient values are sometimes ignored and entirely new ones substituted. When the original system is more thoroughly known, the corruptions which it has suffered will be readily learnt. A complete list of the hieroglyphic characters, together with their values in the “base ’’ as well as in the better periods, forms a book by itself of a certain bulk. Such a book has been separately published by Dr. Brugsch, in a convenient form and at a moderate price. I think it sufficient to refer the student to that publication. A similar list appended to this volume would necessarily be all but identical with it. ii PREFACE. The present work is intended to supply a want which in this country is daily felt more and more, and in no spirit of rivalry with the excellent works already published by revered friends and teachers of mine, for whose scientific authority I have the deepest respect, even when I am compelled to depart from it. In the present state of the science, new facts are constantly presenting themselves on a field already too extensive to be mastered by a single enquirer, and it is impossible that the same rays of evidence should fall upon different minds with exactly the same force. I will refer to two instances in point. Since the first portion of this Grammar has been in print, a very able young Russian scholar, M. Golenischeff, has discovered evidence which, if confirmed by other evidence, would prove that the pronominal suffixes —H- º and ºr, were pronounced thu, Snu. It is no doubt quite as natural that M. Golenischeff should attach the greatest importance to this discovery, as that others should be sceptical, not as to the facts referred to, but as to their real bearing. But this scepticism would soon be dispelled were fresh evidence in the same direction to be discovered. On the other hand, most scholars now read the sign % Sep, or seps, whilst I adhere to the old reading, às. There is no doubt whatever that in the latest times of hieroglyphic writing, the very ancient word HF Seps was written §ſ. But the evidence which proves this cannot set aside a mass of evidence quite as conclusive of another value of the sign at a more ancient period. I. We have the following variants of a passage of the Book of the Dead, chapter xv. line I5: ! st-ºff ºf Sºji ſã|| || “...Tº... according to some papyri, Nºst-1} \º-º ji || @ || 4 || |! : according to others; from which follows the equation % ſ F |ſº = d.S. PREFACE. iii 2. Mr. Goodwin having made light of the variant % Fº: |HE O1] 2 I) ancient monument of the British Museum, Dr. Lauth has quoted a tablet at Vienna in which #" is substitued for |||}|TF as pen in the same well- known invocation. As quoted by Dr. Lauth, this evidence would alone be perfectly conclusive, for the sign º has the well-known syllabic value às. I am, however, informed that the sign which really follows % on the Vienna tablet is |. This diminishes the cogency of the proof; but as there can be no doubt that ea is an ignorant blunder, there is as little doubt in my own mind that it is a mistake for zir-i. 3. The Coptic word corresponding to the hieroglyphic %| in the sense of “precious ” is acor. Here we have a consilience of evidence which is still further strengthened on examining the rival value seps. In the Roman period, % stood for sep, not seps." The word *} Sep, signifying statue, appears to me to be fatal to this reading, for even in the Rosetta inscription the word for statue is %| Whence comes the | S Dr. Brugsch has explained it as a quasi-reduplica- tion of the EWH S at the beginning of Sep. But, if this be granted, how shall we explain the second | in %| which is the commonest form of the word In the earliest monuments P No reduplicated form is susceptible of still further reduplication. The truth is, that whereas the evidence of the Roman period proves % to have a syllabic value ending in p, the ancient evidence proves it to have a syllabic value ending in S. The evidence is true in each case, but only as far as it extends. There was an ancient value as and an extremely modern one sep, and we have no reason to use the latter exeept for the monuments of the base period. I have spoken at length of this example for the purpose of showing that it is not out of ignorance or ill will that a few signs have values assigned to * This is proved by Dr. BrugSch, Zeitschrift fur aegyptische Sărache, 1867, p. 97. iv PREFACE. them in this volume which are not yet universally accepted as the true ones. Nor is it upon light grounds that on the general theory of Egyptian Grammar, as well as upon matters of detail, I have sometimes felt compelled to follow my own lights. But in a work of so elementary a character as this, I have abstained from putting forward views peculiar to myself, except when I should otherwise have been compelled to give rules which . appear to rest upon insufficient evidence. This volume will be followed, as soon as health and time permit, by a Chrestomathy of Egyptian Texts, accompanied by a transliteration in Roman Characters, and as literal translations as the diversity between the Egyptian § and the English language admit. E GY PT I A N G RAM M A. R. Hieroglyphic signs are either phonetic or ideographic. Phonetic signs are either, purely alphabetic or syllabic. The purely alphabetic signs are as follow:— )N Vozvels – | a. $, a —n 6, | or \\ , Sº or e u. Zabials - || 6, U 2, 4–ſ. Ziguids - \ or Z- ?/2, wa or §ſ 72, - Or 2-s 7. Palata/s - US #, six #, A q. Gułturals - § Å, [[] /, S X. Szötlants - ſ or —— s, $ (=English sh). ZPentals - ea t, as t, z= 0, - #. It is an important characteristic of the language that the medial letters 6, g, d, 2, are wanting. The Egyptian & is a breathing like the modern Greek Á or our z. There is no distinction between / and 7. Vowels are very commonly omitted in writing, except at the beginning of a syllable. The omitted vowels are conventionally transcribed by the letter e. All the other Egyptian phonetic signs have syllabic values which are resolvable into combinations of the letters of the alphabet just given. Thus # is equivalent to | dé, + to |\ dºme, † to * anx. The number of these syllabic signs is large, but each of them is restricted in its use to a limited 2 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. number of words, and it is from alphabetically-written variants of these words that the values of the syllabic signs are discovered. The syllabic signs are very commonly accompanied by one or more of the letters which they represent, e.g., #) àó, +\ Of |+\ &m, #o Or #º &zzy. In examples like these the alphabetic signs are called phonetic complements. Almost every Egyptian word is followed by an ideographic sign, which is either the picture of the object spoken of, or a conventional symbol of the class of notions expressed by the word. The word &/, an ox, for instance, may be written | º Or | § R. the sign *#) being the picture of the animal, and R a hide, being the recognised symbol of all quadrupeds. These two kinds of ideographic signs, when placed at the end of words are called determinatives. Those of the first kind we shall call ideograms, those of the second generic determinatives. § is the generic determinative of all actions performed by the mouth, such as eating, drinking, speaking ; A of words implying motion; tºod of countries; \_ſ of words implying strength ; & of towns; © of light and of time and its ET, of houses or parts of a house; parts; ğ of water; = of darkness; —A - of negation or privation; E->{-, () of trees; of knowledge or design; <-- of objects in wood; Sº, of evil; o o o of minerals; § of men ; T of stone; § of gods. XI of plants; The number of these determinatives is very considerable.* An Egyptian word may be expressed by its ideogram alone, which in such * Lists of these and of the syllabic signs with their values will be found in Bunsen’s Egypt, 1st vol., E. de Rougé's Chrestomathie 1er fascicule, and Brugsch's Verzeichness der Hieroglyphem. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 3 a case acquires a phonetic value. Thus the sign º by itself may stand for the word &/, which signifies ‘ox.’ It is in this way most probably that all the signs which we call syllabic have come to be used phonetically. Thus the word sóa, “a star,’ is written || || Sk, or simply k. But in the word sôa signifying ‘a door’ and which is often written *$k [], || || xth ||x|| | Or || || **E= the sign k is used as a purely syllabic character of the value séa, accompanied by phonetic complements. In the word ||&# &ć signifying “a kid,' āş; is the natural ideogram. But in | |& à ać signifying ‘thirst' the same sign is found merely on account of its syllabic value à6. Signs used in this way are called determinatives of sound. The following short vocabulary will serve to illustrate the hieroglyphic system of Orthography:— |→º äääni affe sº apt duck —D \\ <--> & Q |{\º alla. O3C Jes bauk /azek Scº | § º ah 0% <-T- | Sº, neräu z7//fuze | ; ſ #) behes heiffer o \\ º texi C}^{2/26 y s ſ jº IIl2S calf & sesh bird’s nest <--> è; 5) ba 7%.7% rem fish —D sº- CA C. º ât goat ë C. & tebat fish §§ | º kahes oryz \ ſ Ş. § “Saºs. emsub crocodile C. *~ {- | Ā hetrá Aorse § \\ WU hfi snake *~ ! | Ş. ls mâu cat awvw lºſu. fent 20/07/2 C. 3–5 <--> -Hº- \R. tesem hound | 's CA 3ſº t’art scorpion |NZ) EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. ret) Se - Set nexen menät hemet menfat Suten tut texen pet ===T AAAAAA AAAAAA AAA/VNA *All Q º Jº <-T- <--> -Hº- Fºo AVN/VVVN Sºlºssa. <--> D-V-J --> *SV cy -º- <-K & Jº. A $ºl's leſi, lºº <--> AAAA/VA [L] 'sº x2 & Ö ..º. Sexet Šen nehat bener. herer sešen uâa. urerit Šemert sti bent mäxait ta *}^*== & CSk aw o G) #|-ſo ~lſo sba hru kerhu unnut renpit trá bee zmankind %20% 70/07/20/72 babe 722/7. Sø z0/ife soldier king statue obelisk heaven SZZ% 7%00% Sfaz’ day night Åour yeaz' S&2SO/2 tehant 3:eft Šennu % meSter ânhu earth Zºya ſer field 2% sycamore palm tree flower lily boat chariot bozw (Z7%OZ2/ harp balance Åead forehead face hazr &Q?" broze, EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. &\ was 45° $$). “..}}~ - is's Sº- <--> # 2–Il ſitual e- wVV ~ Q <--> E3 : s\, º–R ...}º e Q Q *—" *~ C. [] § 0. di. spet fent nelabet qāhu kabu ermen menet Xat ret anem teher tenh auf lip Dº I |º]}} =||. flºº $3% == |# <-T- [III] pa. aneb temä llat mätennu âner nub hat Xemt Xet sáti neb bak xerui nefer bân âa. urá ket snef àrt ârp heqt hebs 770S6 neck shoulder 27°/2 (27% breast belly foot skin, colour /htde Zwing //mö flesh blood bread ma/A zºne beer clothes nets house zeal! town, village z0ay road Sãozze gold sz/wer copper fire fame Jord, master Sezzazzf enemy good bad great great small inferior 2 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. º <--> *—d & A C e awa Et:- rºses. AAAAAA § (º) ...]a y^*. next U1Ser pehti Iſhen Iner âbé kam teşer qennu neb nehau Uill Xeper ân Y mut snä II].3.2. sº \" ſº's setem * tet kre wictory, victorious rich, powerful strength, strong Aa2n, £ainful sick, suffering zeyhate * red many all few 6e *m. /zzle death, die breathe Sé62 Åear speak be silent —D |||}} e= |}}º —ºff |s||& 6 *6 *s- ||$ {\{\ff ri sã Fºr ". iſlaº- * |& iºn | Bºlº A || or ) TišJA semā tebhu surá tepä senq heqr llalla, neham rem kat hemse kes ster hab call fº/ Aray eat drºżek t faste suck Aunger thºrst thank nejoice weep sleep azuake stand szt bend /te go send EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. <--> Q = \º sper Sexsex Xera. sexer Sexeſ: seher xesef xatbu Xet hu hab aSX Šep Iner mest ka approach £2/??? flee fight ozerthroze, capsize drive off repel AE2// cut "iMo #-- “s F te Fl jºi |S. " : º |}}. .0. T ~ \\ DS-C-Z heh tetá hatui XeX. 116S suht âbti âmenti Qa. tet kekui beat plough 7/2070/ give receive Joze Aafe bu// * darkness helm ãxen pset uben light duration observation time everlasting time everlasting rain place throat tongue & east zøest height depth fire wash close the eye shine shine forth, rise 8 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. The letters are read in the order in which they are written. In the lapidary style, however, or in ornamented texts, the order of the signs is sometimes made subordinate to notions of symmetry. Thus §§ is found instead of §es àetem, |Sº instead of |D Ş. | &/º/, Sºſ. instead of Sº ſº 2/sexeſ, || || Or ſº instead of |º seóexeff. The two signs | of the letter i are very frequently divided from each other by one or more small letters, which take precedence of it in the real orthography; thus |=| for s= | Áz, |: A for ºl. A Xepi. The feminine ending a t, is often placed before ideo- grams the top part of which project over the base, as in AT metárić, a goddess, º mãì, a mother. The sign l l l in the middle of a word indicates the end of a syllable, as in <= &van NQ <--> Z. | | | § \| garnata (the Aramaic word A43), |É Q | the river Orontes. The consonants between which it is placed are often assimi- lated. Thus the proper name A arre is written both =\ | § Áazz-re and s=\ºſºft Áare. ||| The gemination of letters is not expressed in writing. When the same consonant is repeated the intervention of a vowel must be understood; e.g., MVVVVN AAAAAA • * Ill., º arºzz-ta, < > . & - S-a |= &rere, grapes, Coptic 2.2\O2\, Jº ðeneme, 6ttooſu, a gem, =Y& Arere, 2,p}{pi, a flower. A short vowel must be understood to precede the single consonant in the words \em. w em, = er (as in the Coptic ºx, it, p) and in a few words beginning with the same letters. Egyptian words often begin with two consonants, which sometimes produces a harsh or disagreeable sound. In cases of this kind it is not unusual to find (as in Hebrew) a second form of the word beginning with a vowel intended to support the first of the two consonants. We find among other instances— *L- | | & º *~. | | <==> }I aftu by the side of || ftu four EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. afte āpten ahti axmiu axtu âSmu âstet âtfe atmu at’rā ākpi ākre aktenu āqrā ãxna āsmer by the side of 25 55 o e E-- | |\ſº == W.H.; * || |- 2W. & fte pten hti %miu Xtu SIIll] stet tfe tn]ll t’rá kpi āšpa 5 x 52 33 92 9) 95 kte-nu qrā xna SIſler faint this, these throat ignorant things name of a metal tremble father name of a god zeal, forfress, prison cloud silent build bolt enclose a mineral festal garment EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. | Ö – º àtmä ăţne by the side of y 9 29 23 99 }} e=||8 ** cºa NS- ~$ºi Q @ *i; tmä atnet âtru afru : : : tnet trul truu purse Æstem cut S&SO? end EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. I 1 NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. There are two genders in Egpytian. Feminine nouns and adjectives usually, but not invariably, end in e, as leš sent a sister, lºſt, Xaret, a widow, ſe mefrit, good, *: āat, great. Plural nouns and adjectives usually end in Sº ZZ Or | Ş. Żu, and take the sign or III after them as a determinative of plurality. The phonetic ending is often omitted in writing. Thus— | | |Sº | Iſles Ul children will be found written ſ ſ § | | *55 i *} | tau /and's 3 y 5 J | | | |} CA |||}}} suteniu Åings 55 5 5 l <> or by a e AAA/VVV | www. i breviation ºf <><> <>> Q - * º | L*- a.alll great 5 y 25 —D | | | | | | The plural of a word may be expressed by its ideogram being thrice repeated ; e.g. th netaru, gods. The plural of sº, set, a region, may be º D-C-Z1 [X^^ * Written c | Or D-O-d | | | D-C-Z1 The dual masculine ends in §§ ui as iº metazºuz, the feminine º AVN/VVVN CA e & tº tº e 1I] º as IT Sº QQ nehuti, two sycamores. The ending w £7, or as it is often * <> Written c. * has even in singular and masculine nouns a dual sense. The dual may also be expressed by the repetition of an ideogram, as T netarui, two gods, : taui, two lands. There are no declensions. The relations of case are expressed by particles signifying of, to, from, by, with, etc. Of is sometimes understood. All adjectives, except i net&r, divine, and l suten, royal, follow the nouns with which they agree. I 2 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. Adjectives have no grammatical forms indicating degrees of comparison. The particle = er after adjectives and verbs is susceptible of the meaning ‘more than,' as :- --- = , = ºf ºſſ º 1. t—-º-, *~ - <-T- C. c. CŞ <--> AAA/VVA âa. er tſe - f nefer er set hemet nebt ases Xer Suten Great more than his father. Beautiful more than any woman wife. Esteemed by the king = *-* = ** Sº I = **ś- = er bak neb merer- u hen - ef er bak - ef neb more than any servant. Zoved me his majesty more than any his servant. * =S #, Sºft – Tij : ºli, º, - C. NAVN/VV\ <--> ANN/\/\/\ <><> <--> <-T- | | | | | | s= Scº mer - tu - ten - uá er netäru - ten ãai - k uru - k er Move ye me more than your gods. Thou art great, thou art mighty, more than iii ſi jià Ti = ~ 2. S Lö < −. Z! Scº -> AAA/NAVA *—ſ wº V- A netăru user ren - ek er netăru ka - k er pet benen the gods. Powerful (is) thy name more than the gods. Thou art higher than heaven. A/eef TNR lºs' - 'Sºl <--> | <--> * - G) | A er 6eSemu 2(a)(. er Šui more than grey/hounds, swift more than /ight. The particle signifying ‘of’ when either expressed or understood after an adjective and before a noun, gives a superlative meaning to the former, as in 3= jºi º ura en netaru V, ‘the greatest of the five gods, literally “the great one of the five gods.’ The idea of the highest degree is also expressed (as in Hebrew) by repeat- ing in the plural the noun which has to be qualified, l C. º l C. |Sº suten suteniu king of kings s−z sº neč meðu, lord of lords, instead of ‘greatest of kings,’ ‘greatest of lords.’ - The word s urá when accompanying an adjective has the sense of ‘very,’ <= g *º- e * thus ‘s da tºa, ‘very great.” <= da is used in the same way. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. I 3 N U M B E R S. Numbers are almost always expressed by means of ciphers. The following is a table of their phonetic values as far as they are known – *ę * | | |-} § f J lla, (972& | | | Sexe SéZJé/? -Hº- Eºs º- NAVVVV\ gº | | ww. Sen. £200 - - ſ ſ Xmennu eight *=ºmmº tº gº Ö Q * | | | e | | | **E Xemet three | | | patu %22%62 C. | | || (later pset) ! I or f ſ) meti terz | | 2 <--> tu four | & ! Or Sk tua. five ſ\ſ) - t’aut twenty Sūll six (\{\ſ) Sa. thirty Numbers between ten and twenty were read, as afterwards in Coptic, ten one, teſt two, ten three, &c. The numbers 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90, closely resembled 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Q Šaä a hundred | teb £en thousand Q Aundred Q Šetau two hundred SS- *~ Ö hefennu (Z /22/72(Z? & & awa Q thousand QQQ Xemet Śaä threehundred § heh a ma//zozz QQQQ ftu Šaä four hundred Q šen ten ma/Złom l Xa a thousand sº tº @ (\Oſ) wº The notation of whole numbers is simple enough. ill º Oſ) # : 1S 4359. S \,\ Q ſl . | ]]: ), 1S I2O,2 I4. All fractions except 3, # and # have unity for numerator. The cipher gº © tº te tº tº e 2 expressing the denominator is placed under <= re, which signifies ‘part; e.g., <--> I <--> I T- gº * 2 . * c l, o — 2. d o — 3. - -fi - º. is the sign for #: o is = i, and o. = #. | | | || 4. nnn - 30 g 3 * 4 o 4 ) O I4. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. O R D I N A LS Ordinals are expressed by placing ee meſ, before the cardinal, as in the last line of the Rosetta inscription º ºs º mek ua, mek sen, meh Xema first second, third.’ Another way is by placing the sign o, one of the phonetic values of which is meſ, after the cipher representing the cardinal number, e.g., º ‘second,’ º ‘third.’ ſº º ſ) # seóext meht XVI (Lepsius Demémáler III. 206 a) ‘the 16th cell’ is commonly written |Jºn. ° in the I45th chapter of º Or āpi signifies “first,’ |\ mem ‘second.’ The latter word is more frequently found as an adverb (iterum) or a verb (iterare). & the Ritual. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. I5 PRO NOU NS. The demonstrative pronouns are as follow— Masculine. Feminine. Plural H or %'s pa e's tº ~'s na the (article) %\|| Pai cºll a ~$|| nai the CŞ. | pui ešº | tui | CŞ. apu this, these or . . pf . ti this The masculine ... pen this, these, and the feminine ... ten are of both numbers; cº menu that, those, and ++ enem those, like the articles, precede the noun, all the others follow it. Another very important demonstrative pronoun, D Ş. pu this, these, the same, very frequently serves, like a “substantive verb,” to connect the subject and predicate of a proposition, e.g.— <> <--> CA * @ US $. i - \) & US #5 iſ US 3 e c. O S-5 D-C-4 tfe - a pu Seb mât - a pu Nut temā- k pu Bexten My father, the same (is) Seb; my mother the same (is) Mut. Thy city the same is Bachtan Seb is my father, Nut is my mother, Bachtan is thy city, | | | 3=> *_- henu - k pu ret – ef thy slaves the same are its people. its people are thy slaves I6 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. The series of personal pronouns in most common use is as follows:– Singular. Ist person Ö nuk 07” | Ö anuk f <-5 S-5 AAAWVA 2nd , Masc. ce Q entuk thou, SCS AAA/VVA 2nd , . Fem. ce Q entut thoz, ax AAA/VVA 3rd , Masc. ce Q entuf /he *~ A/VVVVA AAA/VVA 3rd , A'em. ce Q entuS 0/* |= entuSet she —#– ce Q Alural. Ist person has not been found in this series. d MVVVVA cy 2Il AWAVN/VN Intuten (9% 52 e? ||| entute J) MVNN/V\ —H- 3rd , e? * entuSen they O?” º Ş. entu The following are examples of the use of these pronouns:– § { £, G} 3. * * ~|| & N. [] [] C. C. ~ *~ SLö CD S Lö *A- SC& pu se - a entuf nuk tes-rer nuk pu entuf entuk meri Åe the same is ſ, so also I the same is he, thou (art) my son beloved; I am he and he is I; thou art my beloved son; AA/VVVA CŞ. § ANNANA -H- -GOD-> TV- c. entuten ax entuSen ar Śāt you are who 8 they do the slaughter. who are you ? EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. *. 17 The suffixes representing the different persons are:— Singular. A/ural. * - AAAAAA 1st person | 07” § (Z Ist person | | | 72 2nd , Masc. Scº Å. 2nd , & fene | | | -H- 2nd , Fem. c 07" § f 3rd , ſº Sø/2 3rd , Masc. • *- f 3rd , ||| Sef CŞ 3rd , Fem. —#— S 07” ſe Sež Ś Z/ * AA/VVVA O7° Sº 2/72 ||| These suffixes, with one exception, have no independent existence as words; when affixed to nouns they have the force of possessive pronouns, but when affixed to verbs and particles they have the force of personal pronouns; as :- º, $ Tºº $ 7's's ºf º- () & \ ºr ſº, ptehu - a re - a Iſlala, tfe-f abe - f €IY) Snef - ten A open my mouth. A/e sees his father. He washes in your blood. A_ſ] MVVVVN § AAA/NAVA --5– -Hº- AA/VVVA —ſ = # * * | * |\ rº, +AS). | T. = tă-n nek xera - n uā âm - sen amtu-n am - ek pir We give to thee. By us. One of them. Between them twain. ZX, not then go out. These suffixes when affixed to the base e? tu form a series of independent personal pronouns eSºft £ua, I, ~$ºs= £uá, thou, e.Sº *— taſ, he ; on pre- fixing wa en to which we obtain another series identical with the first, except as regards the first person. Two other series have been pointed out, one formed by prefixing \ to £ua, tuft, tuſ, etc., and the other by prefixing \ to ezzzzza, entué, entuſ. All the persons of these series have not been actually found in the texts, and it may be doubted whether the \ does not discharge the function of a logical copula in all the instances when it is supposed to form an integral part of a pronoun. I 8 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. e? tu itself is used as an indefinite pronoun like the French on. To the suffixes already mentioned we must add =}| Äuä and six #á, Sºl wd and Sº w, for the first person. The first two are only appended to verbs. -Hº- The only suffix which has been found as an independent word is ce lll set, they, them. |} su, he, him ; it is an independent personal pronoun. The personal suffixes when appended to the demonstrative pronouns %\| Żai, CŞell pui, to their feminines eşll łaż, e.Sºl £ui, and to A/VVVN/\ © ſº g © the plural \ | nai, form series of independent possessive pronouns. Kºlé º Xº- lººſ- tº -º- pai-a pai-k netar pai-set €In tai-f My Jord. Thy god. A/e7. brother. Aſº's ... eºsillº jel) e^{- sº ºllº— |}|º CA [] | hemet tai-a nebet tai-f atep naif ahāu wife. My (a woman's) hair. Afgs load. Afz's 0.336/7. Each of these pronouns is in a two-fold concord. The initial letter Ž, # or 7. is determined by the number, and in the singular by the gender of the thing possessed; the ending depends in like manner upon the possessor. The base ºn £es, self, also takes the personal suffixes, as ºnl £es-á, I myself, º £ese-AE, thou, thyself, etc. Pronouns of this series are often added with a reflexive sense to verbs or nouns, as §= +\ Xeper £eseſ, self-existent, *— < T- | +\ re-s feses, her own mouth. —#}— —H- EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. I9 A certain number of nouns, chiefly some denoting parts of the human body, are used pronominally when accompanied by personal suffixes, thus .2% Arà-à, my face, =% re-à, my mouth, are sometimes simply equivalent to the pronoun I. º Ara með, “every face,’ is used in this way in the sense of “every y O1162. AA/VVVN The relative pronouns are wa eme, ’’ ent, `` enti, who, which. |É a prefixed to a word has the sense of a relative pronoun. f J º 1 * = 246a-re ‘whosoever, whatsoever, all,’ is a universal relative. We may class as indefinite pronouns ‘’T uá, ‘one,' which is frequently used like the French zºn as an indefinite article, <= neč, every, each, gº &ezzzzzé, each, fi's # nehau, Some, few, s=|| Ää, feminine Äet and C. | Áetta, SLT25 t---, cy O | | | feminine #: ment, corresponding to the Greek Selva. , CA § e ſº Euiu, other, Áetu, other (plural), HE seſ, other, \\ | Xà, such, §§ 772é72, &l; who, what? (all these & tº º y 3. A/VVVN/\ te $º are found in the positive sense of ‘what,’ ‘how great') \\ *\tº mimeå, who P The interrogatives are | § dºx, \ 7/23, t-4-3 -Ty- \\ or -º-'ll mási, who, what P The demonstrative pronouns %\ Aa. and dº are also used with an interrogative sense, particularly when followed b tº C. |{ tº g * e º y the particle tra then, which is commonly placed after interrogative pronouns. Certain nouns, pronouns, and adjectives are used as prepositions, conjunc- tions, or adverbs. 2O EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. PREPOSITIONS. In dealing with the Egyptian words used as prepositions, it is necessary to observe whether they are intended to point out the direction of a verbal action, or merely to express the relation between two nouns. In the former case they are invariable particles as in other languages. But in the latter they must be considered as relative adjectives or pronouns in concord with the former of the two nouns as an antecedent. 1. www en when expressing the direction of a verbal action (such as giving or saying) signifies to, and remains invariable, as º 4. Şs AAA/VV\ º tat &m A/or en Aºû, ‘saith Horus to Ra." As an exponent of the relation between two nouns it signifies of. In the texts of the best periods ~ ent implies a feminine and º Or ". new a plural antecedent. Thus— - | A/NAVVVN AA/NAVN/\ 'N C. (Oh AAVN/VVN [] o tº-4-, AAA/NA/\ /VVVVVN s ! &\ C. *~ c. Cl CA V-J co I C. as NN Se €Il Sent ent mât - ef 'Xut ent pet Šat ent Tahuti Son of the sister of his mother; Horizon of Heaven; Book of Thoth, …" & Nº. "... if ºne Tri kºs," ãfnet ent Hathor Samt ent Asări taui nu nétaru sbau wig of Hathor; abode of Osiris; two lands of the gods; gates Ö Sk o | LTL nu tuat of mether-heaven. * .…, em is used with antecedents of both genders and numbers, 2, end with feminine nouns of both numbers. AAA/VVA e e e Tº enti, another form of the relative pronoun, is equally used to express the relation of the genitive case. º EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 2 I 2 \ em, according to its position in a sentence, signifies of, from, in, It expresses the relations of the Latin ablative case. among. <><=> AA/VVVA J|=\ = # s \}} ~ ||A e Bºº tº-º-; A O <--> | | | bäuk ãa. per em. suht – ef i - na 6 In truu A great hawk coming forth from its egg, A am come from the ends of * =\ = T, ºr e = < A= * | * —D <==> * > - -Hº- O O O ta. băuk €ſſ) mah ftu her pest - ef sexa em Xesbet the earth ; a hawk of cubits four over his back, painted in blue; –H– * @º e ), sº I ºf $ºf e- $1, $ j ºff [...] <--> | | | —D hems - a em bu neb mer - a mä - Sen €II] hââ em xesef - a A saf an every place / please; they come in exultation atºmy aftproach, |s- \ . . ; G= ſº &\ c. I O O. O. āpt €Iſl tot - a €1]] nub my hand of gold. sceptre 2n \ em is lengthened into |\ Or +\ &m, whenever it is followed by pronominal suffixes, or has relation to an antecedent, 3 ºr ºff ºf ºr . . sº àm - a au - a am – ek nuk 2%ou art in me, A am in thee; I (am) (97.26 of you ; = . T|| || +\, , i. <--> ./\ | *~ | | | 63 per rå am – ef am - u Annu Those who are in Heliopolis, comes forth the Sun-god from it. Among different readings of the 72nd chapter of the Book of the Dead the two following are found — 3. * Sºft & sº is ºn ... at €IY). ta. pen nehem - ten - uá mä AXelizer me from the crocodile in this land. 3 22 - EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. * : ºff ºf \I +\ [] 2– “fitº Sºtº. * . nehem- ten - uá mä at âm ta. pen ADelizer me from the crocodile zwhich is in this land. The first of these signifies deliver me in this land from the crocodile’ the simple \ being complementary to the verb ‘deliver.” In the second instance +\ &m has for its antecedent the “crocodile.” The pronominal suffixes are sometimes omitted, but understood after +\. tº I —D A - * º { % alS in El S- 2 |\ ôze með &Q - e.8 dime, “every place thou enterest into. C. AAVVVVN GS = || Wºº, e º lºs <-- - Scè pu trá Iſlala, - nek âm 2. What, Aſay, didst thou see in (it) P º After verbs of taking, receiving, concealing, avenging, and some others, \ becomes * mã, in the sense of from or òy. †: *†— *~ með ſeſ, in the texts of Canopus and Rosetta, is translated by Tapa Toi Tarpos. The following are more ancient examples — - * =Sºº - ~ | f < 3 \— ºf . baku neb en Suten pa her Xeper ma - 3. ân The zworks a// of the palace were done ày me. IVof -Z Oc- AWAVN/VN - W-7 R-d | • AAAAWN \tº S-d - | nehem-tu api en Asäri mä - f ân nehem - tu āpi - a taken away is the head of Osiris from him, 720ſ taken away is ſmy head ºr §§ – ) ºff tº ~ || 5 | AAVN/VVN Z- | * § \tº S-M ll) —D -- § Ú mä - a nehem - ten uá , mā Baba ān): €II) besek from me. AXaliver ye me from Aaba, who liveth on the entrails of EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. º 23 #e3 ſilº & “ . . °.S. § ºf : | <-> XI I \\ F*= —D & D | UII'll hru pfi en ap âa. Xul Se rã. mä great ones on this day of the great judgment. Arotecting the son of the Sun from § c | [S-O <--> - A [] 4– = e Se | |}}~6 WI7 —ſ CA 2S \\ 'Xtu tu re en tebhu emSta. pes ma. Tahuti all things evil. Chapter of fraying for a slab and inkstand from Thoth. The floor of the hal of the Truths refuses to allow the departed to pass over it. Q ^^^^^^ A_ <--> <--> * <--> § Q | c \\ AA/VVVV - E->~, . MAAA/VR <--> <--> | her enti ân rex - ek Ten €11 retui - k Xent-ek her - a Aecause thou knowest not the name of thy feet thou zwalkest ozer me Z– —t- A/VVVVA mä Se1l * with them, i.e., with zwhich thou Zwalkest over me. 3. = er in the Rosetta inscription corresponds to the Greek eis and Štos. The following examples will shew its use — III's Sº lº- = flººk. - ºr 2–3 * habu hen-f ... er abu nuk Sent me /his majesty to Alephantine to fetch granite. A ame -º- l | @ U a , , Dž S S = <-# - ſº *- = H = }, \ AES \\ <> | <--> - * WF *—d Tahuti se-mâxeru Hor er Xeftu - f Sehar - ef er pet. hu Thoth, who justify Horus against Žis enemies. Aſe rose up to heaven. Driving * |||}|al <--> www a Tºš Lºs | <--> AA/VN/VA < T- *Le- <--> *. º i l awa [T] <- SIET xeriu er re • âbet er mer - ef er tem the cattle to the mouth of the watering place. At /his wil/. For the sake of not 24 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. |*|| ||= | === i se-āś tettu un-nef multiplying words. A/e becomeſh - AAA/VNA |^* = i - na er fo IIlala, A haze come S& tfe - a €Iſl netár * \ k = {e} h a god for e º, *-ā iſ Asäri my father Osiris Ö l CA § S-5 Şs O ſº nuk Hor Se Aset I am Horus the son of Zºis, er £7)é?". After words signifying removal, taking away, preventing, and the like, <= has the sense of from. —ſu - § | 43 c. ºft § <--> A/VVVV\ AAA/VV\ *—n Q R} an xnä - tu ba-ā er AVof separated is my soul from ... <=|S. T." § <--> AA/VVA/\ *~ AA/NAVV\ A § àn ràu en ba - f AVof removed is Åis sou! —A- Q 3×S Sº § O O. A <--> àn Šenā - uá er Illala - AVof am / shut out from in fi : x^Sº , º, Sk CA | ||| | D-C-4 ^(at-à her sbau nu Amenti ſny body af the gates of Ament? C. l er Xat - ef from his body. Yà Q || | c. [T] ná nebu tuat seeing the lords of the mether world. In all these examples <= helps to complete the construction of a verb. When it merely expresses the relation between two nouns it is lengthened to |= &7, lº Or |Nº. &ri, and when the antecedent is plural, to |. |=}, | . t—“— . . tº ſº |...} aru or |Nº. in artu. The construction is exactly the same as for +\ and +\}. § a lº O 4- \\ xetem âri The ring which is on <--> -º- | T Sº, 1} =\; @ o awvwa & tº º | or as it is also written >= &ru may generally be translated by the genitive ||| > - - <-->} - º |. Aá aru their bull, literally ‘the bull which | ||| art; dru, “the milk which is to them’ or ‘their milk.’ C. C. - . . . So ||x|| | | sóau äru ‘the doors for it’ or “its doors,' o e | Xà &/º/, . | ||| E-º-º-, ||| their things. sº *ex &rat in the great geographical inscription of Abydos, is used as equivalent to \4. fi apt set “their list.” This mode of expression is - cy - of a pronoun, e.g., is for them.’ |º exactly similar to the Hebrew º nujś and to the later buj, The pleonastic use of the pronominal suffix before dru also occurs in the | —#— <> tº & tº y 3 later texts; e.g., ||x|| | | * = sóau-sen &ru “their doors which are to them, just like the Aramaic Sº yºos” “thy disciples, who are to thee.” In the later periods = er became |} &u. Both forms however are constantly found in the same document. §) Cöö tº ğ) = tº e : ~ * 5 4. The usual meaning of , ape used as a preposition is upon,' as , º, ape nun “upon the heavenly abyss,” and with a plural antecedent *" or .S. #ār āpu tä “those who are upon earth.” 5. The first meaning of 2 or * Æer is ‘above,’ ‘upon,' and other meanings are closely allied. A king sits & IV fi k-- her nest-ef upon his throne; parents carry their children *Exºr Aer Aest-sen upon their back; the gods fall **... ſhe, her-sen upon their face; men travel * ** her waſ | | e <-> <-> | * ||| upon a road. A child is said to be •e- Æer memeſ upon or at the breast; - & C-W- | [TV J AA/NAVNA there is a great cat D () her £a set as: at the alley of Persea trees; | c. 1 <-->1 tº & men pass *Hºº Aer makat at or by a tomb. A temple is situated º Aer res on the south or sº Aer meht on the north of another edifice. 9—nº Aer dián, over a tent. One drinks © } || : ! —D CT-1 | AA/VVVA C. Men watch |† Sº Æer heóeóet ent dºtru, at or out of the source of the stream ; 4-> - Horus proceeds * & * †- her mu mu Afte-f, from the essence of his wvv. 1 father. I pray for many days of life *# §x+". Aer Aruu-ā en änx 26 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. in addition to my days of life. The prince was driving out © a { o,…ſº | <- <--> e e º © - A/NAVN/VA Aer tra en metreſ at the time of noon. The magistrates consult %’s nºvvv, ~- es e e & , ºf wº e <--|| * \} lº's | Aer Aa ent: áriu ma &zazu, about that which the thieves had done. I have fought * s= Aer-ek for thee, like the Greek o & trºp goº. The town of Pe has been given to Horus — Aer-es on account of it. When * has an antecedent it is generally accompanied by the determi- native H. The following are examples of its use with plural antecedents º * Sºf V heru rempit, the five (days) which are over the year, viz., the éTayéueval fipópal. & in ſi º Aeru Xaut-sen those which are on their bellies. 6. A. xer, under,’ ‘with; the enemies are prostrate II Šs= xer retui-k L->4–, ~ beneath thy feet; II) |= Xer teātī-É under thy sandals; the Osiris eats |\ ſº e.Sºl º |W Xer mehał żuń ent Hat-hor under that sycamore of <-> ſi Lil c. tº —D - A Hathor; the young woman in the tale went to walk * % º Xer pa as } the elder brother was standing A. |-- L-º-º-, Tºllſ xer paif nui “with his weapon ; ” the ambassador of the king of “under the cedar tree;’ Bachtan comes II) jº xer &mu, with offerings. A picture on the sarcophagus of Seti I. represents A. § º A. § : xeru Xu Xeru séau “those who are with the sun disk and those who are with the stars.” This particle must not be confounded with the following one. * 7. ſº. Áer or ſº 4- in consequence of its signification, “taking, having,” is sometimes used in the sense of “with,” as $o; * 4. Fl Aeſ, Aeru teſta “endless time with eternity,” the usual preposition here being $1. Åemä. In the tablet of Canopus * º x. £er hemºſ, “with his majesty,” corresponds to the Greek évômuotºvtov trapá tº 8aa lºve?. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. & 27 8, 9 Xer (distinguished no doubt by its vowel sound as well as by its <--> hieroglyphic orthography from A. ) is used tº nº of persons or the louns in the f b ith <> . fe?z “I pronouns in the sense of py, nº with, to, as | Yà † -na xerten am come to you; ” | yº i &maxa, xer metàr da “devoted to the j } & C § O I * great god; ” the god spoke to the prince ! º | * se-f “as speaketh a father to his son.” In the tablet of Canopus Tpós is the mad ſet affe xer corresponding Greek particle. Ağ' AAA/NAVN & © awa -- | wº 9. Or Xerºtz, in, among, as ſº *=#| i <-- xenti mertu-f C. c \\ * C. CA | among his servants. In the tablet of Canopus the compound preposition \: C. is of constant occurrence. to. § 4ena, with Horus fights #7. SJ Aema Set “with Set;" the beatified soul is conveyed #T. !. |º \ | Åend suteniu * “together with the kings of upper and of lower Egypt.” The plural form § | Åendu is repeatedly found. In the later inscriptions this preposition is replaced by 3– Aá and # = Aer. I 1. £ºss Aa (literally the back part of the head) is used in the senses of ‘behind' and ‘over.' One of the forty-two judges of the dead is called © I *.*. Aer-ef ha-f “his face is behind him.” In the inscription of Canopus *~ jº (A *T ha àràt ten “behind this asp” corresponds to the Greek Tağrms ôTiao. - AA/VVVN I 2. T mesu (the tongue) has the sense of extension, stretching out, reaching, and hence (like fertimere) of belonging, having relation to. There is a Serpent * yº \ ºx- 7tesze meſ, sa em äu ºf “of thirty cubits in his AVN/VVVA length. --- The obelisk is =le |# | \ _y Cy § nesu-tu aner ua em mat 28 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. Aº —D <-> *S* § AA/VVVN % mesa, ua seräu em pa Ră, of a daughter of the Sun-god. The oxen which they have spoken to thee =l ſº nesu-set “about them." rut “of one stone of granite.” The lock of hair is * == ** |} }% g tº # <--> -ºc, , . ! --- * ~ : tº • . . . . ) I 3. te?" since, as scº ſi ter re/# Asārī ‘since the time of Osiris. <--> <-- G) }}; [...] |: |\º- ter ha mes-sem &m-f “from the day (which) they are born upon it,” & b is dv juépas Yévourat. _º <--> © e 14. ...~ ermen (an arm) has the sense of ‘reaching,' ' touching,' ‘as far g <--> <-rº- . e #E- e as,’ ‘until ; ’ as Hº º I ermen rempit uát until the year one.” In AVN/VVVN the later inscriptions |Sº àumen is used concurrently with the older form. I 5. 3 * xeſt (a face) is used both alone and when preceded by \ <--> and 3 in the sense of ‘facing,’ ‘opposite.’ |~ an is generally classified as a preposition signifying ‘by,’ ‘from,' ‘through.” The right place for speaking of it is in connection with the Egyptian verb. A great many compound prepositions are formed like \ 3 * eme Xeft CA through the combination of a simple preposition with another word. The most frequent compound prepositions are as follow — \ is...}}| em asu, in return for, because of \ –NEvil, or more commonly \ iſº-, *, *m adau, against. \ Jº-ºº: generally written \, º, em ºak, before. \\ Tº or \º em ma, in the midst of \ a ſº em gaº, amidst. \ ź em hau, above, in addition to. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR 29 \ → eme hāt, before. \ -º-º- em Xemat, in default of, without. Ö Q © º \ Xº eme Xennu, within. \ iſ a em Xet, after, with. § c. \ 5 or \ W em sa, at the back of behind, after. \ Bº em ter, because of <--> \ A ſ em td, with regard to, according to, with. = ~") era, in the middle. <= *Sºx' e? &ut, between. = er mâ, by, near, at, with. <--> ** er hāţ, before. <--> # , er henā, with. º º Aer 36, in the middle, between. º # Aer sa, behind, after. Ǻ º Aer (ta ?), at the top of, over. | | |\ -* Xer hāt, before. <--> ſº S xerºek, behind. |É | §§§ àr-mau, bears the same relation to ºf erma, that |\ &m- &m, and |= &”, bear to \ em, and <= er. It signifies “with ” in the texts wherein it occurs, and has reference to an antecedent, 3O - EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. The syllable ešº tu, generally written - or = without the vowel, when added to prepositions probably modifies the sense in every instance. This is demonstrably the case as regards |\e? Or |\ ~ ām-tu, which signifies ‘between,’ ‘in the midst.” The list of prepositions might be greatly increased were we to include every expression which in our own language is most conveniently translated by a preposition. The notion “except,” for instance, is expressed most commonly by \!. s & Aer, sometimes simply by \{ aft, a word very similar in its different meanings to the Greek epively, and notably so in the primitive sense of ‘separating,’ ‘parting.’ ºs- mâu,” “failing,” and 2= xem “not knowing,” are used to express the notion “without.” * Generally read Šu, though a variant of this word (Sharpe, Egyptian Inscriptions II, pl. 41, line 20) in one of the chapters of the Ritual substitutes for its well-known homophene z- ?na. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. ºr 3 I ADVERBS AND CONJUNCTIONS. Most of the words which appear on the list of Egyptian Prepositions acquire an adverbial sense, either through the suppression of the noun or pronoun which they govern, or by accompanying a verb instead of a noun. In the latter case the notion is sometimes modified—a preposition of place becoming an adverb of time. |\ dºme for instance signifies “there’ in such a phrase as CŞ e * y e • , , , sº-> sº ſº ~ |\ dist með &m “every place there,' that is, ‘in it. 62% 7%. 1S c I ‘there’ or ‘where’ according to the context; \ em. Öa/. =º er hāt E---, g C. & 2 § 6 2 f ( → . 2 & 3 ( * formerly *~ Xeft \º eme xed ‘when, Ph ter since,’ ‘whilst,’ ‘as long as.’ An adverbial sense is given to adjectives by prefixing the preposition <= er, expressive of the highest degree (cf. the Hebrew Ty), as <--> | Z! | er déer exceedingly. <-T- <= s.s er ur very much. <-T- | ° er fix to how great an extent. t-º-, Other adverbial forms are made by prefixing \ to words, as \! 62% mefer ‘fortunately,’ ‘well,' \ | \ eme memz “twice.’ \ em is itself used as a relative adverb in the sense of ‘as,’ ‘like,’ attached to the predicate of a proposition, in comparisons. Twº º is $s ſº s 3 _/\ Yà -º- Yà C. âhā - ná €In Hor hemse - na em Ptah I rose up like Horus, A saf dozen /ºe Plah. 32 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. * 2. As attached to the object of a verb— ty : # Sºx– \\ IRS as in *~ <--> <--> ari-nef Xeperu - f em rerá kamu Ae made his transformation (ZS a black pig. 3. With verbs signifying ‘being' or ‘becoming’ the sense of ‘as' becomes modified into that of identity. * * * * : * ~ * au - a em. Śerå. ân atfe - a uâu I was a child, 72/6/S my father an officer. <º- | UII). Hor €In nexen - ef Xeper xeriu em netăru €IQ A/orus zeyas £n /his youth, became the cattle of the gods ||| ||| ||| §º 4- <= 4.3. âhu - f en âut - ef em reru - f /its oxen (and) Åis goats (and) his swine.” EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 33 Here 3. \ Xeper em is equivalent to the Hebrew h IT or the Greek ſylved 6at eſs Tu. | mdi ‘like,’ ‘as,' is closely akin to \ em. The drunkard is told— tº H. W. S. l. ſº sº tuk mä kara mâu netär - ef mă pa Thou (art) as a shrine without its god, as a house without bread. e <--> º Ś E---> * The compounds | ++ 7/20, €72é??, | W ma. Áet, | ſ 7%a Syerſ, Ö <> || and others, all signifying ‘like, are very frequent. From the derived noun !: māti, signifying ‘likeness,’ ‘copy,' the compound \ º e??z matz ‘likewise’ is formed, as also !!! //zatz ézzé72, Wii | \\ § 772&tº-azz, !. |. Or |TF mati-aru; the latter forms corresponding in the texts of CA CA Canopus and Rosetta to the Greek adverbs do attos and époios. eme rempit ten eme &āh pen “in this year, in 34 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. this month.” When they thought it necessary to express the conjunction, they used the prepositions IS $ Åe?" or § /end between nouns and the latter <--> * —d preposition between verbs. Here, however, the prepositional nature of § is very evident, for the second verb generally appears without suffixes, the verbal notion being expressed in substantival form. Thus in the Ritual (chapters i. 23 and lxxii. Io) it is said of the departed— |} LT) * : * ~ $ 2. *~ <-> *_- 4– *~ <--> LA ~ <--> Z! /\ au - f per - ef 6:1]] ră neb mer - ef henā āq er Be goes out every day he pleases and enters into | —h- Q —ſ a Q *~ [] AA/NAVNA 3×S *~ hat - ef àn Šenā- tu - f his house without his being repulsed. § T." is literally “avec entrée.” In another chapter (cxii. 7) Horus —D Z! _/\ Af says to Ra— .* * † Ill; a , || # e. tāk nå. Snå-à €II) pe Sná - a €II) Xen Give me my brother from Ae (and) my brother from Chen #-> A/VVVVN <-T- ‘Or’ and 'nor' are expressed by T. D Ş. 7'e-fu and \ D } eme re-pu. <-R2– <--> | <--> <--> | § § | [] | | [] Ş. ||| —D 3-2 | | | uà re0 re - pu SČn re-pu Xemt 0726 man, 07: two, 07” three. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 35 These words occur in the extradition clause of the Treaty between Rameses II. and the king of Cheta, and have reference to deserters from the land of Egypt. In another paragraph referring to deserters from the land of Cheta the expression is varied as follows:– * > . º. º " : * * au- f uā au- f €II] sen ãu - f em Xemt Ae ºf singly, be zł by £700, be ºf by three. In the inscription of Canopus |||O §ſ |# D'e .. wit enz &nter re-ſºut Xemt “a tablet of stone or brass’ corresponds to atºmu Atôivmu # XaAkfiv. <--> © cº wº I G} has also the sense of ‘alioquin,’ ‘else,’ ‘otherwise, e.g., tº ºil- X → *t → - âmmâ - petrá pa. enti au - ten er ari Ae ºf Zooked to, that z0/zch J074 s/ha/Z do ^^^^^^ --> | ~ || US ºn |& ||6 S- - || | c=> | €In Sen. re - pu tet - a semā - u to them, otherzºyzse A sha/Z fel/ their story [to the king, my master]. <--> e º <--> e g tº º | CŞ. repu is a compound expression. Tº resignifies ‘part,” “divi- sion,' hence when two or more notions excluding each other are spoken of | CŞ. ze ºu signifies “there is the alternative.” This may be placed either between or after two words or phrases opposed to each other, and it is some. times omitted altogether. ~ The relative pronoun in many languages (compare nºs, 6tt, 7uod, che, 7ue, dass, that, etc.) easily becomes a conjunction. This is the case in Egyptian as regards the relative wa em. * ‘Or’ is only a derived meaning in the Hebrew YS, a construct noun, signifying ‘will,’ ‘choice, and in the Latin vel, an old imperative of volo. 36 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. § AAAAAA —D N ~ =\ e? Yà lºs A St §§ ||| tet - tu - nã en xaä - k nău.” A have been told that thou art forsaking letters. In the following example wa em, has the sense of ‘quia,’ ‘because,’ ‘as.’ | §-s=% avvv^^^ --> *~ <--> Scº *~ ~ AAA/VV\ ~~~ <--> en merer-uá hen-ef er bak - ef neb €I). ari-tu As loved me Åis majesty above his servant every, (IS 20as done #|-º- º ºx sº lº * | * = ? -- CA ~ AA/VVVA § *~ <--> <--> heseset - ef rā neb en un-ā āmzu €In ab-ef àqer - kā xer hen-ef Åis behest day every, as I was devoted according to his heart / throve before his majesty. that is, “As his majesty loved me more than any of his servants, as his behests were accomplished every day, and as I was entirely devoted to his will, I grew in influence and power before him.” enti (like the Hebrew nºs and the relative pronoun in European c. \\ languages) gives rise to various important conjunctions by its combination with prepositions and other words, as– A/VVVVN e © | m& enti, so that, so as, c \\ @ aw tº f - \\ her enti, 8tótt, par ce que, because. <--> co }} ter enti, since that. er enti, for that. c \\ The last of these occurs very frequently in the inscription of Canopus, and there generally corresponds to the Greek étrelë, Štrei, 8tdtt, 6tros and Öate. * This form of expression frequently occurs in the letters of the first Sallier papyrus. In other copies of these letters the awa is omitted, but without a change of meaning ; the second verb being immediately subordinated to the first, as in English, “I hear you have given up literature,” or in Hebrew, see Ps. ix, 21, and xlix, I I. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 37 At the head of a narrative it is used like the Greek 6tt in quoting another person's words, e.g., \ § 3 || || | ].e. *~ f.AA/VVA | A- <--> 63 cºa c \\ AAA/NAA <-> J| | | tet - ef er enti ări - ná xeperu - a €II) temä en-Šem Ae says . . . . . . . . “A made my transformations 2n the town of Eilethyia,” &c. The construction here is like that in Apoc. iii, 17, Néyets 67, TAoûatós eiu Kai TreTAoûrmica, Thou Sayest, “I am rich,” &c.f This conjunction is sometimes found at the beginning of letters. But this is only the case in those copies of letters which suppress the preliminary formula, such as “The chief librarian Amen-em-An, of the royal white house, says to the scribe Pentáur”—. The regular place of & is after one of the veróa dicemdi. = ~\ er £eſ, “to say,’ is used constantly in the sense of ‘that.” The negative particles are \ €772, |} ôze, or J ôen, sº stem. and —ſ - (Z%. AAAAAA \ eme, is essentially prohibitive, and in its simple form is only placed before verbs in the third person. These verbs are generally (not to say invariably) tº tº © º C. to be understood in a passive sense; e.g., \ _* *— ** €772 Xé/2– ef mă-ten, “let him not be mistaken by you.’ \ +\ff- eme &m-eſ, ‘let him not be devoured.’ \ º º § \ |- à ºff- eme 6e &ó-á em żºłżat. tem, ‘let not my heart be carried off by your words.’ Before the pronominal suffixes of the second person the anlaut of the particle is phonetically strengthened, and the determinative sign of negation —n - is added; \ eme, becomes ls dºme. % * This reading is derived from the apparent phonetic variants + J à (Denkm. III, 48) = EF 2 AAA/NAA AAAA/VA (Denkm. II, I45) = \ (Žá., III, 360). But the first of these may be a “various reading,’ and the Aww.RW- Y. later form +] Ö & (Mariette, Abydos I, 46) appears to be identical with § Ö Ş. & Żeóen-mae. On the other hand the sign Ö is often wanting, as in the example given in the text, which appears quite % inconsistent with the reading heóemmu. t So in Sanskrit: Vadamti yad asmākań rôjó Áim #ariśyati, they say, “What will the king do to us?” 4 38 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. Thus \ º s= eme àa &ó ek, “non magnificetur cortuum.' —D | But |\ _ſu_e +* º * <= &m-ek áa &ó-elé, “ne magnificaveris ST26 - D cor tuum.' |\ it, ºn ...; Dºll “ T Scº c=> AAA/VV\ am – ek tet ren pui en netar aa. ADo not thout auffer that name of the great god. C. C. <--> | [X^^ lsº | #. * * | c. 1 | s= a Sºº -> § am-ten sexeper ab - ten €1]] tettu neb tu er - a AMo not ye form your heart by the zwords all evil against me, that is— “Po not form your judgment in accordance with all the malignant accusations urged against me.’ With reference to the other negative particles, it is important to observe (1), whether the negation affects a single idea or extends to the relation of the predicate to a subject; (2), whether the phrase in which the negation affects the copula is independent or subordinate. The negation of a single notion is expressed by -- &m, the first meaning of which is privation. It forms what may be considered real compounds, exactly like the Greek á privative, e.g., —ſ - <--> - e —ſus © f d” 2-ex, ignorant, unknown, {\ dm metem, unpleasant aw & A/VVVVN ... - \d &m Åame infinite, … (2) dºm-seº, never. ^ Iss- an-fu, or † Sº &n-ti, also forms compounds. These have very commonly a pro- nominal ending and a passive signification, e.g. INS-º-º- &n-ái xeseſ—eſ, irresistible. Such compounds, in which the transformation of an idea into the opposite idea is complete, may be either subjects or predicates of absolute assertions. The particle siſ \ tem, does not form real compounds with words, nor is it ever found as the negation of the copula of a proposition. The EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 39 word with which it enters into combination is always dependent upon some other word. Thus— & CA *% \\ 1 \\ || | C. | AAA/VV\ re en tem mut €II] nem em Xertinetar Chapter of not dying a second time in Afades. t º º -H- C. Z = 4. Tó s—z sº- |A \# † ar netár með ſem-ef ? emº-sa Asāri, “if there be any god who doth not come after Osiris.” sº \ also appears to be used in interrogative sentences when a negative answer is required; thus, “Do you carry, sº \s- §§ tem-eô fa (uº) dºpets), the inkstand which distinguishes you from the rower P” &c. “Are you, C. \- §§ fema-ek xeberu, under many masters, many supe- riors P” The answer in both instances is, “Far from it.” C. \- Z! awvw S-D tem-ek gent, ‘you are not angry 2’ |S ºff º all - sº, s = & Tº ce- S-tº SIET |\! I au tet-à-nek qā - f tem-ek tanre I have described to you /his picture, you do not say no [do you ?] |S. ôu, and 2. Óen, are forms of the particle which in ordinary cases is used, like the Greek ot, when the negation of the copula is absolute. I do not know any instance in which the particle affects the copula of a subordinate clause, or is attached to a verb which may not be translated in the indicative mood. The following are examples of its use – |S. iº ſº SEz őzt rex-d dist með, ‘I know not any place.' |} * %| § Išš -> m ðat &ri paid ret-ti peh-u, my feet did not reach them.’ J t=OOe=::1 º - |S. *~ <= T&T ben au-fer fesu, “he will not rise.” <-T- C. tº • © 2. § C. # <--> SPT \ 63 ðen-à ertă şem-ef er Kamit, “I shall not allow his return to Egypt.” * EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 4. I In interrogative sentences J} is used (like oi) when an affirmative answer is expected, and is often therefore to be taken as implying a strong º \\ § affirmation. Jº FFs). Scº -> ==f •º &u şem-ek er ta en Xet-ta, ‘Goest thou not to the land of Cheta ?’ : &n, corresponds in most of the instances where it occurs to the Greek pºſí. (a) The majority of these cases are petitions or wishes that something —nº X * º ..Sº. may not take place, as "" \eft \ | \ &zz muff-à eme mem2 ° ‘let me not ſº & —ſl sº f 35-5 Sk [...] C. e f * tº die a second time.’ "Q Q A §§ © s "wºw &m Šemā-uá /her sóau-fen, awa w —D l || || & y § AA/VVVN let me not be repulsed at your doors.' -- 3: Ş A sea º ; ſº Yà an # Xent-ek her heósu-nā, “do not walk upon my clothes.’f 6) In a large number of instances : is attached to a verb in a sub- * g AAAVN/VA ordinate clause. The elder brother in the tale was three years searching © º —ſus 4– g & a V W without finding, Sºlº- Aft *~ 24xax-ef (Z% #ém-ef, {mtöv kai a) Awww - - - * M. Deveria's doubts about the value nem of the sign | in the words signifying “iterare” are AAAA/VA AAA/NAVA quite untenable. The orthography | \# Demém. III, plate 18, is decisive. | \\ nem, turn back, is but another form of the notion “repetere.” § + The variant of this in the Butler Papyrus is | AAAAAVN Š A SE", from whence it follows that e awa Sºf- —ſus, F an. There are other variants showing that = din seſ, whilst AVN/VVVN the monuments and MSS. in countless instances give the equivalent of -n - with w em, and of —ſus AWNNNA (very much like TU in Bashmaric and Sahidic, see Schwartze, Kopfische Grammatié, p. 300), and it with www. en äs. But in the base periods the awa is very commonly reduplicated is chiefly on the authority of variants of these times that some very eminent scholars persist in reading _a_s men. Another very important testimony to the value of —ſ - is found in the Coptic ſ) AAAVN/VA prefix & T, which is derived from c \\ &n-ti, just as €T is derived from c \\ ent. , Already in the tomb of Seti I we find the variants C. Sº = | ãat, the n being dropped by assimila- tion with the f. f Lit. ‘the clothes to me,’ a periphasis of the possessive pronoun found-in the most ancient periods. 42 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. eipiakov. The kings are described in their triumphal inscriptions as destroying * e g gº tº » –Il-s AAA/NAVA AA/VVV\ their enemies ‘without their being able to escape, § Tºss- ||| an muha-sen. If a chapter of the Ritual be recited over the departed— *~ <-> *~ 4– wº-z <-T- º LA <> - AA/VVVA _/\ au - f per - ef CII). Xet neb ân Spru su /*e comes forth from every fire zwithout there approaching him ||| Sº, Xtu neb bān any things evil. (c) As a negation of the copula of an independent sentence, ... is chiefly used (at least in texts of the best periods) in solemn declarations, rather than in ordinary narrative. ... ºn ; ºf 's- ... ºf $ Tºº? = ||.T. & all] tet - a ker an ari - a Sexa er tettu I do not speak falsehood. I do not make myself deaf Zo the Zerord's C. ~h— § – T |x} \,\! ºff 3 ||6 || mät an Šeb-à apt her semā - s of truth. A do not alter a story in the telling of it. The so called Negative Confession in the 125th chapter of the Ritual may be considered the type of such declarations, which are very common in funereal texts. The declarations of sovereigns, e.g., that of Thothmes III, relative to the veracity of his annals, follow the same rule. “Unless’ is expressed by the compound —ſus | &n as, or as it is written in many MSS., wº | en äs : “I will not allow thee to pass,” “T | º A/VVN/VV NAA/NAA cº- S-> § &n as tet-nek ren-á, unless thou tellest my name.” A/YA/VV, I am, prefixed to the auxiliary verb |S. du, has the sense of an inter- ava/VN/VA rogative particle, EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 43 lº & = – º –?? " … ?". §§ iu - k ân ău er – 6e hâti pen en ānxiu. Art thou come fo seize this soul of the living 2 | | —D | | Ş. C. <--> co º Scº awa & awvv^ --- www. 21 A awaa AAA ||| E---> || all au àq - ek an ău - ten rex - ten Art thou entering 2 Are you aware 2 ar is used as a conditional or hypothetical particle.* <--> 1 s :- - - slº- ºr 33% 2I rex Śāt ten sura - k henā texu Af be Azzozºwſz book this. Af ſhow drinkest zººth a toper. <> awa S-II SLö <== |ll N [...] <--> Scó Scº ar un - nek sešetau en Ammahet âr tā-k her-ek Since thou hast opened the secrets of the Ammahet. Wouldst thou turn thy face # < T- | * ++ &r unem enem, As these things were being done. -ºš Áa, Oh, then partakes of the nature of an interjection as well as of an adverb. It is commonly found in the apodosis of hypothetical or conditional sentences, or at least in an equivalent position. “Oh, Ra,” says the departed in the Ritual.f * This particle has long been identified with a supposed auxiliary verb | . It is much more probably identical with the augmented form of the preposition <>. In almost every instance it may be translated like the Greek émi (with a causal meaning) followed by a genitive case, “In the case of this book being known, of thy drinking with a toper,” &c. I do not positively deny the existence of a verb l on which it is not premature to speak in the present work. The explanations hitherto given are, I tº . & º e © <--> <--> , but the evidence for it is as yet insufficient. There are also very important forms and | *— *— believe, altogether untenable. t Chapter ci, where several other examples of this particle may be found. 44 * EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. | X Ǻ AAA/VVA | | -Hº- s—º º | | * | 4– § . -'s <--> A | c \\ | | <--> ar Sua - k her entiu a.I]]ll €II] sexet ka Since thou hast crossed through the reprobate beings zºith heads reversed, oh then —D ſº." - ºff # 33 ºff Sāhā - k - uá her ret-ti-a raise me up upon my feet / Of another mysterious being it is said in the Magical Harris Papyrus”:— -\} \, º jić - ? T = e^ âr tm ren - ef her spet âtru ka Af be uttered his name on the bank of the river, oh then § ‘’i, àxmu - f it quencheſ/, / l =\} \, iſ .6 – \\ ºr ºff * > ren – €II) ta. ka 2.T tnu ess re ef Af be uttered /his name 0% land, oh then CA | ~|~ āşeſ, àri - f teku tº maketh sparks / * Pl. vii, I. The preposition 9 accidentally omitted in the MS. is here supplied. I do not agree with the learned editor and translator of this document in identifying s- \ Ş. N | with the *—D Coptic Tooxx. epoo silentium imponere. This is derived from TCURR obturare, claudere. The kindred words in old Egyptian are written with the signs e) £emed. e= \}. N *—d £mu signifies ‘sharpen, not ‘cut’ or ‘thrust” (see D'Orbiney Papyrus, V, 5), and the notion of <--> \ Sº N £mu re is 3&oropos, ŠávXáXos, just as <= \ § N § * "YY timent *— *—D awa \\ henti (Pap. Magique, II, 8) is ‘sharp-horned.’ The verb sº- \\ § μ by itself is used in the sense of “uttering sharply, as in Pap. Sallier, IV, 23, I. To be ‘silent’ is . C. \º. 6 fe?/2-7e. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 45 —"A ân, “turn back,' is used adverbially in the sense of ‘again, once AAAAAA more.’ The younger brother in the tale, after mentioning certain conditions which are to be observed by his senior, adds s=& É + $..."a £a änx-á án, Oh then, I shall live again! The accumulation of several particles at the beginning of a sentence is no unusual phenomenon in the Egyptian language. . The tale of the Two Brothers frequently begins a sentence with— * | \, . . . . . … [I]}} {} <--> <--> _/\ «Ž I G) <--> ! <--> 'Xer 2T em Xet ta. hat €In hru Xeperu . Aut zehen the dazem of day was [come]. 46 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. INTERJECTIONS. The usual interjections are |É à and Tºllā Aai, the various determinatives of which are frequently omitted. The latter is very frequently used in funeral texts in addressing the departed. |É is often represented by the ideograph § as in the 126th chapter of the Ritual. % × . Hºº lº * † is ºf Sºlº Ul ââniu apu hemsu _em hät uà Oh ye four døés, £hose sitting at the head of the back • T CI). Ră of the sun god. Even without the interjection the demonstrative pronoun % pa has in invocations like this a sort of vocative force. |ó à admits of pronominal suffixes in |É º iſ a-men, literally OA to us / but used very like our interjectional come / ſº º É hana, Mºff Åa, and ~); ſ muti, are also found in the sense of Oh! come ! f Other interjectional expressions will be noticed in the section treating of the verb. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 47 VERBS. The Egyptian verb expresses being or action without any reference to time or to the conception of the speaker. It has no tenses, moods, voices, or conjugations. Even the personal endings, so indispensable to the Indo- European and even to the Semitic verbs, are foreign to it. The pronominal suffixes, indeed, when appended to the verb have the appearance of personal endings. They differ from these, however, in some essential respects. 1. The suffixes stand for pronouns, and as such take the place of the subject when the latter is not expressed. When the subject is expressed -H- the suffix may be omitted. We say # e i ānx-sen they live, but # TT ānx netáru the gods live. th # , ºr metaru änx-sen would signify ‘the gods, they live.” In this construction the noun is not the grammatical subject of the verb, but what grammarians call the “nominative absolute.” 2. The suffixes are not necessarily appended to the verb itself, but may, like nouns, be united to it or separated from it by particles; e.g., > AVN/VN/VA § 2 <^ —CP- <--> like <º avvvvv^ ſ s A * ~ A º sper nef Sper €In Asäri accedit z//e y accedit Osiris. 3. The suffixes appended to the verbs, either directly or with the inter- 48 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. vention of particles, may represent the object as well as the subject of a verb. Thus— - A - - D ### * &m āz-mes metár ii. w => /\ ~In 2, non accedunt ad eam dii —fx- |: ić ... I §ſ más-sen metá?" Aft as, superat eos deus ille venerabilis. #|2, † § Åeseg-set Tahuţă, occidit eos Thoth. |} = . . . § - || JA iſ $$ Q'º - HF is a ân §em ertä - nã re - a er tetet ret-ui-à er ANamtur mihi os meum ad loquendum (ef) pedes me; ad ambulandum. t-coax, NMVVVN a-> C. [] *~ —h- *- Scº §§ || || tes - nek tfe - k Tnu mahu pfi nefer AVectif fibz pater futus Tum CO/0% (Z% Aamc mobilem en mäxeru justificationis. ...}rº, Šºć sºº § - |RS e | ANNN/VN | |- *—ſ 2.5 | <º- | anhu - uá rext €1] heträu Circumdaffat %6. multitudo C2/???Z2/7/2. ET, tes-neſſ by itself might signify “thou hast woven "just as well as “weaves for thee.” It may be added that the presence of a suffix determines the person spoken about, but does not necessarily imply a personal verb. It is consistent with a participial sense. |}- au-f |S – &u-s, like the Coptic ecſ, ec, signify he being,’ ‘she being,’ as well as “he is,’ ‘she is.’ EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. The true sense has in every case to be gathered from the context or the syntax of the sentence. The same laws of human thought regulate all languages, and Egyptian sentences are in general very short and easy of analysis. One of the chief differences between the Egyptian language, on the one hand, and the Indo-European and Semitic, on the other, is that the distinction between roots, stems, and words can hardly be said to exist at all in the latter. The bare root, which in the other families of languages lies, as it were, below the surface, and is only revealed by its developments to scientific enquiry, is almost invariably identical in Egyptian with the word in actual use. From one Indo-European or Semitic root, which is itself no part of speech and has but an abstract existence, verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and other parts of speech are derived. The actual Egyptian word taken by itself is no part of speech, but within the limits of the notion which it represents is potentially noun, verb, adjective, adverb, &c. Thus T.'s âa is commonly an adjective in the sense of ‘great,’ but it often signifies ‘a great one,’ magnas. It is an adverb when it qualifies an adjective, and it is a verb in the sentence se I's |* , dºme-ek áa. ažek ‘do not magnify thy heart.” The notion expressed by an Egyptian word is only determined as that of a verb in the strict sense (verbum finitum) by the presence of a subject. When no subject (noun or pronoun) is expressed we may indeed have a ‘verbum infinitum,' but this is grammatically either a noun or an adjective (participle). In the invocation of the Ritual beginning |É Jilºt,\\ 4. 2– “”% à Mauá per eme muſt Håºt ‘O hawk, rising from the heavenly abyss,' or when the deceased says Ö f J% 29, 2– 29- § muž sesſm? &ó per eme sexet A'd 29. scº \\ awa /\ a Y —D _/\ per is proved by the absence of suffixes not to be a personal verb. What is said at Karnak of a victorious king "T #~. =ºx– &n ähä AA/NAVVA er-hāt-ef (There is) no standing before him,' would rightly be rendered in Latin by the impersonal gerundive construction. The verb is connected with its subject either immediately or through the intervention of the particle was em, or its augmented form | &n, as lºft 5O EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. f º < T- f * <--> f • tºº cº fet-d, lºnzº G) § £et en Rä, lºul o: £et &m Râ. In Egyptian as in other languages a whole sentence may be the subject of a verb, and one or more verbs may be grammatically subordinated to another. The three different forms just mentioned are wholly irrespective of time and mood. The chief perceptible difference between them is that * always immediately follows the verb, whilst | as invariably precedes the subject or agent, however distant the latter may be from the verb. The Egyptian verb is often accompanied by an auxiliary verb, and is grammatically subordinate to it. The chief auxiliary verbs are |S. &z, be, * ºn be, * dri do, /\/\/\/\/\/\ #~. âââ stand, A D £d = , ertà give, make. These words, together with the demonstrative pronoun CŞ. fu and the prepositions º Aer and <= er, play a great part in the construction of Egyptian sentences. The combinations formed by these auxiliary words with the principal verbal notion will be best understood from the following examples — |Sºx– == &ztºf Żer, he goes Out. |Sºſe º |\º- du-set meh ām-ef, she seizes upon him. -- |Sºft |-- an &u-ā āhā, I will not stay. |Sºx– ; cº eşll- Yeº au-f her Áem taif hemet, he found his wife. |Sºx– ? §§ -ºllº— sº - X*...* au/ her unk taif ateſ erpa aufen, he set down his load upon the ground. |Sºft <--> HF's a <--> e's lº ES) &u-á er Šeme er da &nt Ża as, I shall go to the mountain of the cedar. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 5 I |S. |} § |Sºl lº <--> * º * = $o; du äu Xeffer Xeruzzº er dut sem er he/, there shall not be hostilities between them ever. § D C. cº-> C. |S. S. <- ); # ~ 34.JA = }; i. z \;=}o; du äu ári fa ura àa em Xeta teſ, er pa ta en Aamit er Áeſ, the great king of Chetta shall never make an inroad upon the land of Egypt. * …, § – #". =}o; wn en 6a–f anx er he/h, his soul liveth for AAAAAAA ever. * | }; - Sºsº | *. - % slº– III'sle ºn an Ža äfetu Aer & er faif &/ºad, the youth entered into his stable. *1%|No-eſº-Jen, 8 ºn 3 Sºº-3 |||}|T ſun an Ža sti en to meðt sent; her Xeperu em na en heasu, the smell of the lock of hair grew into the clothes. * Aa. º - % i & - SH ã4& en Za metaz ča /*en er ura ura,” the AA/VN/VN ~D <--> \\ e great god assented very strongly. # - " … }<} ~~ * . . . . … aka en za ura en Bºxten ster her sam-ef, the king of Bachtan was lying on his couch.f —D C. \\ * * * - # AAA/NAVN Ağ. Jº-> un xer - a her Šes ati ă. u. s.” her ret - ti - a emxet But (whilst) / was following the king 07? my feef during * anx, tata, senö, ‘life, safety, health,’ words constantly added after the mention of the king. 5 54 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. SeeSee ſº- *ść – |S – 6 * * =}| Sutut - ef her urit - ef àu hemse - her temä Åis yourneys 0.72 /his chariot, 0% sat dozen before the town” [...] 63 en Hat - uârt of Awaris. * * | * : * = 33 & F \{i :- - $ A/VVVVN <--> I \tſ l e= I * & AA/VN/\/\ Ul Il Xer-à her qentu her ret - ti - a em bah hen - ef āhā - ná (And as) A zwas fighting on 2ny feet before his majesty I was <=> 2. D 2 R Łuth * tehen - kuà er xã €1]] Mennefer promoted fo the ‘crown of Memphis.’t + eş -ó, ſº s ſº ''' AAAAAAA AAAAAAA | -Hº- | *E* I wa DYY1 | ll Il ân tu her hemse - tu her Šarhena €1]] renpit V (When) we laid siege to Sharuhem in the 5th year + – , , ,— ... j. Sº ſº, in lºs AAAAAAA AAAAAAA { *—d AA/VVVM Afaa AAA *—d llll ân hen - ef her hak - es āhā €In ân - ná haketu III am (and when) Ais majesty took ºf I carried off three captives there, CŞ C. c. 1 set hemet II tet I. two women (and) one hand. It would be easy to multiply parallel instances from the same inscription and from other long texts. The clause beginning with * unas an auxiliary is NA/VN/VA not necessarily followed by another clause mentioning a second action performed during the time of the first ; but in either case it may be rendered by the imperfect tense of the classical languages, e.g., |-- <ºc- |S-6ſ- avvvvv, , <--> | * s alm &m-ef er dáu-set er ager ager, ‘Amabat ille eam vehe- mentissime.’ * That is, ‘we laid siege to the town.” + Name of a ship. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 55 Our pluperfect, expressing action past in a time itself past, is rendered in Egyptian by a combined use of the demonstrative pronoun CŞ. pu with the auxiliary verb zº- &ri, ‘do,' after the principal verbal notion of the clause, e.g., < T- * * = - XIl-2 º f = }- _/\ *Le- sper āri-nef er paif pa. her Xatbu (When) he had come fo Az's Åouse /he sleze, a slº- ſº |}~ ; lºsº" ||= 0) ºf C. ſ A @ || taif hemet au - f her Xaä Set ăuu Az's wife (and) he threw /her to the dogs. [] C. AWA/NAVA FF's ea Gº -- ~ *š º – lº. § o – Šem - tu pu àri €In sexti pen er Suten-se - nen er fo Sufensemen fo (When) the field labourer had come TÉ “ sº Sºw...ſº cºs |S sper en mer pa Meruitnes kem - nef her appeal to major domo Meruitmes, /he found Aim £n L- L- L- # N ||x\\ = [[iºs], - c. A AAA/VNA *~ _/\ pertu elm sba en pa-f er ha-tu er the act of going out from the door of Az's house fo géf into AºA's Sºsa's ºr Qaqau - f /his boat. | There are no special forms for expressing the imperative, optative, or subjunctive moods. The same forms which express the indicative may by their position in a text acquire a different sense. Thus A—D *R* § à-É per-à, ‘grant that I may come forth,’ \& |A <--> Sºlºs. *— emz-entuá i er uxax-ef, ‘do thou thyself go to search for it,' or ‘thou must thyself go.” 56 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. The crude form of the verb appears sometimes to be used interjectionally, like the Hebrew infinitive,” expressive of absolute command, as ºl{ 235– petra, behold ! Other interjectional forms, such as |É à, §§ 772ā, $ºll mzāi, |\º: dmmä, are prefixed to verbs used in an imperative sense. The three last have themselves as verbs the sense of “come.” The interjectional form of the verb is sometimes followed by the pronominal suffix of the second g © º - <-> person, accompanied by the preposition <= er, to ; as \{^ mā-erek, come ! º _/\ ãhā-rek, stop ! This reminds us of the Hebrew +. which is used in much the same way. The prohibitive Nem is, frequently placed before the crude and, therefore, impersonal form of the verb, as in \ }~" em. Åſſ, as in Italian, ‘non far resistenza.' In an infinitive sense the crude form of the verb is generally preceded by One of the prepositions <= er, º Aer, or \ em. The usual sense, however, of the verb preceded by s em is participial, or gerundive. There is no special form for the passive signification, though the addition of e? £ut to the verb is very frequently, though by no means always, coincident with a passive sense, and it is certainly from this ancient form that the Coptic has derived the passive participial termination own. The ending | i has often a passive participial sense, as in the common expression ill “lº- mer: en affe-ſ, ‘beloved of his father.’ A causative sense is given to a verb by prefixing the letter | to it, as |+". se-ānx, “making to live.” This letter s has become hardened to a t in Coptic derivatives. * Gesenius, Lehrgebäude, § 209. Ewald, Ausführlicher Lehrbuch, § 328. + The original form of this is | £d, which never became obsolete. The vowel d was weakened into u, according to a well known law. The change from tu to ut in the development of language cannot appear strange to those who know the origin of English and Germanic participial endings in ed and #. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 57 It must not be forgotten that the whole theory of the verbs, like other portions of the Egyptian Grammar, is susceptible of considerable modification through the discovery of fresh evidence. The order of the words in an Egyptian sentence is constant. When the verb is expressed it precedes its subject. The verb “to be" is very commonly omitted, and it is not needed when the independent pronouns ** nué, e entué, &c., occur. Their place is consequently at the beginning of a sentence which consists of two terms, the copula to which is understood. Thus— # * = \ º :-} Scº <-T- <--> *L– | *~ I | _/\ * o I C. | nuk Ră per em. Xut er Xeftu - f I (am) the Sun-god coming forth from the horizon against Ais foes, A word following one of these personal pronouns is not to be considered as its verb, but as a noun or part of a noun-term. If, for instance, º Were omitted in the sentence just quoted the sense would be “I (am) he who cometh forth from the horizon,” &c., not “I come forth from the horizon.” A noun at the beginning of a sentence implies the ellipsis of the verb “to be,” either as the so-called “verbum substantivum ” or as an auxiliary to another verb. If both the nearer and the remoter objects of a verb are nouns the former is placed after the subject and the latter comes last. is . . . g.: “ $* @# 3 × ||% âb ertä - nef ta. en heqer mä €In Åe hath given bread fo the hungry, 70/afer fo the thirsty, - \ | 's Q | AAVN/VN/\ } ||9|| Mºsjöğ hebsiu €11 hauu clothes fo the naked. 58 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. This order remains the same whether the subject be a noun or a pronominal suffix; but the object of the verb, whether in an objective or in a receptive relation, may also be represented by a suffix. Three suffixes are therefore possible” in a sentence when the verb has both a nearer and a remote object, and the question is where light syllables of the nature of suffixes can be placed without creating confusion. When a suffix representing the remoter object is attached to a strong preposition such as |\ º * &c., the support is a sufficient one, and the entire group is placed last. But the support of the prepositions • em, = er, and even l dr is insufficient, and they require to be placed as near as possible to the verb. If there be only one it comes next to the verb; if there be more than one they hang upon each other in the following order : I subject, 2 nearer object, 3 remoter object, except when the suffix of the second person plural is the subject of the verb. In this case it is placed last of the three. In the following examples the complement of an intransitive verb is treated in the same way as the remoter object of a transitive verbſ— —H- AAA/N/\/\ ||| más-sen netar, vincit eos deus. -n a º |} º maa sat Æð, videt eum Sol deus. º *~ |} maaf su, videt ille eum. /NAVN/VVN * • ey \º §§ neheme-ten uð, defendite vos me. *\ ſº. *—i. aft s *: Aem-of-es, &em-nefes, captavit ille eam, invenit ille eam. * More than three suffixes may of course occur in a sentence. I am here speaking only of those representing the subject and the two objects. + The order of the words cannot always be shown in English as well as in a Latin version of these examples, EGYPT[AN GRAMMAR. 59 AAAAAA AAAAAA º g ſe |A Yà du-na-nek, venio ego ad te. AAAA/VA ſº $ tº e |A Yà TH zzº-ſed metazz, veniunt ad me dii. - 3–5%. | º T 4– <- + hā-ānef netaru em Xesefu, applaudunt ei dii ad occursum ejus. ºl. Til Ys ºff ºf ji had aref netaru em xes/u Asari, applaudunt ei dii ad occursum Osiridis. *- | lºs. ſº âââ &r-ef Xačesu, adstant ei Decani. <--> —H- n -ZOD- § | tº * gº - 2. . * LA Sº lº 3,2] ſi = *- % |- iu-ār-ef Zahuti semi-xeru Asari er Xeftuſ, there cometh towards it Thoth, justifying Osiris against his foes. == il A Scº Sºft |† 6es-Éud &r-eſ, I raise myself upon it. # | s= } § |- ânx-kuà &z-eſ, (that) I may live upon it. i.Jº'S ºff lºft adā-ā-ār-eſten, dirigite me ad illud, <-T- * e & © º tº wº º Ş. § * th maa-zaa-ár-eſ-Éen metáriº, spectate me in illo, vos, dii. —ºff = \ff lº-3 ºr a dºll “ i amam a ar-ef hemmu pui em Rā, devoratur enim in illo membrum Dei Solis.” * A careful study of the nine examples, of which this is the last cited (they are taken from the Ritual, cxxxvi, 9; CXliv, 16; cxxx, 21 ; xviii, 37; Xxvi, 4 ; lxxxii, 2 ; xcix, 28; xcvii, 2 ; xciii, 3), is sufficient to clear up the true meaning of < Tº &r-eſ. It is merely the augmented form of the preposition = followed by a suffix. In this last example the antecedent referred to is “the feast of demons.” In the - example before this the antecedent is set, “an alley, here probably the Milky Way. The word is CŞ masculine (see c. xcviii, I and 5, where the same idea is developed). At c. xcix, 28, the antecedent referred to is e= ta, the earth, cf. c. lxxii, I, 2. At C. lxxxii, 2, the abominable thing which the deceased will not eat is meant. e 3 6O EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. ~ awva G) D. Q. C. —D | —D \\ ejus. <-- ertà-ná Ră tet”-ui 'f, praestitit mihi Sol deus manus <-- YYYYY AAAAAA — " ~ * tº e tº = n :# 3% + \e ertà-mâ mad &m-á, detur mihi aqua quae est in te. =º ºil. Tilº ºff seen, sº era maru artia, expandit mihi Seb deus, dux deorum, fauces meos. (The words of men) | \ºſe AAAAAAA in memº-nd-set en metaru, I repeat them to the gods. a wºº ºva g ! ſº-ca/-na tº ſº tº * : * > e ‘in ſº Yà \ | §§ tetu-set-na na nau, dixerunt ea mihi scribae. The subject connected with the verb by means of an is sometimes placed at a considerable distance from the verb, and at the end of a sentence. ~ and <= are sometimes treated as strong prepositions. The place of adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions necessarily depends upon that of the words to which they have reference. The names of gods, particularly in the earlier inscriptions, are often made to precede words which would actually come before them. “The successors of Horus” are, for instance, called s }|A A/or sesat, instead of }|A Şs Šesu Hor. There is no inversion of 2- " Xax tet, ‘swift-handed,” in such expressions as =\}~ §§ £mu henti, “sharp-horned,’ for the *—d ŽS w \\ g first word plays the part of an adverb, and qualifies the following word as if it were an adjective. Ś —n g § --> * The phonetic value of —D is tet (cf. lº. | Todt. cxlv, 57, with lºs. c. 1 cxlvi, h). Like the later Coptic TOT it signifies “hand,’ not ‘arm.’ One opens the – of the god (Todt. cliii, 8), persons carry rods or vases in their —” &c. EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 61 FORMS. Egyptian words independently of the suffixes attached to them rarely exceed three syllables. They may consist entirely of vowels. The distinctions between root, stem, and complete word it has been said hardly exists in ancient Egyptian. The complete word is in most cases the ultimate fact attainable. This is not, however, always the case. There are manifest links of relationship between the particles \ e???, |\ &m, | med, and * 772&; between lº tefet, a storehouse, and Jºn's Sºº-ji. deſau, provisions, and between the verbs +\ff dºme, —ºff &772, —yºff âmame, all signifying “eat,’ and Itſ tº āmāmz, ‘devourer.’ Some of these cognate forms are simpler than others. The less simple forms differ from these either by the lengthening of the written vowels or by the reduplication of syllables. Many words of the Egyptian vocabulary are reduplicated forms. The reduplication consists in the repetition of the entire primitive form, if this is monosyllabic, or in the addition of a syllable containing one of the principal letters of the primitive form. If the primitive form is dissyllabic the reduplication of it admits of only one additional syllable, which may be a repetition of one of the original syllables, or it may be formed by the repetition of one of the consonants. The following are specimens of the reduplication of monosyllabic forms, or of dissyllabics with one consonant — ã6, — — SS âûâû, — ` âûâ. dx, le | sº I axâx, | := dxex. 62 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. ôen, | ~ | AAAAAA M Čeněen, | 3. ôemen. 7'e???, - \= \\ 7"eſ/27′e/72, \\ 2^ezºeme, \* Zºe?"eme, <-T- <--> <-T- \ſſ 7%%62/72. A/VVVVA Sé/2, |< ſ ~xº Sé/2Sé72, |*|| 4? Sé72éS, | a sesen. Æes, = `-N Aeshes, e s Áekes. SéX, ſo ſe Š SéXSéX, ſe | A SéXéS. à772, —º É à/20, —º \ @ à &/20/224. 7é/72, a y hº ge/2a, a y & \ Ş. lº gemamzzt. Sé/72, | & º Sé772&, ſy s \ Sº º Sé%(2%%. Dissyllabic forms with three consonants are reduplicated as in the following examples:— Öeteå, e e A 6etekteå. peher, D §I A ſekerer. meset', ſ ſº mesetet'. Stezze???, | ſ – \\ StezzStezze/2, | \\ A Steſze??!é/2. Reduplicated forms do not exceed three syllables. The simple form of =; =3 A. is .# = tem/, which, like the cognate Coptic Tertg, is monosyllabic. Such a word as J | Ş. IS Ş. $4's .. 6āakaðaga, imitative of the noise or confusion produced by upsetting, is no example of reduplication in the true sense of the word, but of that tendency in language which produces such forms as ‘topsy-turvy,’ ‘higgledy-piggledy.’ EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 63 Most of the words ending with the letter a t are feminine, but some masculine words have this termination, e.g., == tet, a hand, eşeſ tºtt, an image, -º-; Xeft, face, * }; Xeft, an enemy, -*. test, a hilly region, Šet, an alley. Even in masculine nouns the 2 is sometimes an addition to a simpler cognate form, e.g., Tee Ääffet, compared with § s Aóż. The letter w m at the end of a word has a strong tendency to redupli- cation before the letter Sº 24; 6...g., J. º. Öemenzº, a phoenix, ... 6 <> Ö 2–0 <--> | <--> Xer-hru, the daily round, from tº Xert, and º hºu. +\"I <-- dºmi-ren-eſ, a list, literally “that on which his name is.” * This group being masculine (cf. Todt, xcix, lines I and 2), cannot possibly be the phonetic variant of the feminine | ? the true reading of which is set. <> 64 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. Words like 3's. ~6 tan-re, deny, st-sº tem-re, be silent, =\}. jº. 6 £mu-re, utter sharply, ºffſ \|T Áem-re, find speech. Similarly formed are º sen-ta, adoration, literally “breathing the ground,’ and |\, . sam-ta, burial. Many names of plants appear to be compound words. |EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. 65 .* CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS. IT would be absurd to suppose that the Egyptian language was at any time of its existence exempt from the operations of those physiological laws, now so familiar to students of comparative philology, through which in the course of ages the entire aspect of a language is gradually and insensibly altered and destroyed. The Egyptian language was not more stationary than any other living tongue. It is true that the language of the inscriptions of the Roman period is, in spite of its corrupt and barbarous style of orthography, identical in vocabulary and grammar with that of the earliest periods: but at the Roman period the Egyptian was a dead language, like the Latin of modern inscriptions, and it had been so for many centuries. There is evidence which proves that even as early as the time of Seti I, in the XIXth Dynasty, phonetic decay had profoundly modified the language.” The progress of this decay is concealed from us, as it always is in such cases, by the absence of a series of documents representing the living speech as contrasted with erudite composition. Ancient orthography is adhered to, as modern English and French writing testify, for centuries after it has ceased to represent the true pronunciation; and even the old language itself, however extinct it may otherwise be, continues to be used in writing until the new one which has been gradually generated from it has become conscious of its strength. Latin had long been dead before documents were written in Italian, French, and Spanish.; and we may be quite sure that the old classical Egyptian utterly perished as a living language long before documents were drawn up in Demotic. The later Egyptian inscriptions, those of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, are, therefore, of very inferior authority to those of the older times. Their authority reposes in great * I have given some instances of this in an article published in the Zeitschrift für Aegyptische Sørache, 1874, “on the so-called ‘enigmatical writing.’” 66 EGYPTIAN GRAMMAR. measure on a living learned tradition, and is so far of immense value; but there are undoubtedly cases in which the absence of living tradition has been supplied by speculation or unauthorised inventions. The rage for novelties which prevailed among the writers of the later inscriptions seriously detracts from the credit which might otherwise be granted to their evidence. Even for documents of the best periods a certain amount of criticism is indispensable. The concurrent evidence drawn from public inscriptions is an authority not to be set aside : but accidental errors are occasionally found on the finest monuments. The error of one monument may be checked by the authority of other monuments. Manuscripts in the cursive or, as it is commonly called, hieratic character, have two important advantages over monumental inscriptions. Letters are written in their exact order without the regard which the lapidary style so often pays to notions of artistic symmetry; and evidence as to vowels, which are commonly omitted in the severe style of the inscriptions, is often supplied by the manuscripts. On the other hand, the funereal papyri, which were not expected to be seen by any mortal eye after they were deposited in tombs, are often most carelessly written and full of the most evident blunders. The collation of many MSS. is indispensable for the right understanding of these texts. It is quite certain that they were often written by persons who did not understand them. But many of the manuscripts which we possess are full of blunders which have a different origin from that of incorrect copying. The most rapid means of multiplying manuscripts is dictation. A careless or unintelligent listener will produce much more incredible nonsense from dictation than the idlest and most ignorant copyist would be capable of. We must beware of erecting the blunders of ignorant and idle scribes into a system which could not fail to prove ruinous in the end to any scientific inquiry which allowed itself to be mastered by it. MESSRS, BAGSTERS LIST OF ASSYRIAN AND EGYPTIAN LITERATURE. THE SERIES OF ARCHAIC CLASSICS. Asºº GRAMMAR. An Elementary Grammar and Reading Book of the Assyrian Language, in the Cuneiform Character: containing the most complete Syllabary yet extant, and which will serve also as a Vocabulary of both Accadian and Assyrian. By Rev. A. H. SAYCE, M.A., Deputy Professor of Comparative Philology, Oxford. (Second Edition, Revised and Corrected.) Quarto, Cloth, 7s. 6d. ECTURES UPON THE ASSYRIAN LANGUAGE AND SYLLABARY. By the Rev. A. H. SAYCE, M.A., Deputy Professor of Comparative Philology, Oxford. Quarto, Cloth extra, 9s. 6d. Asºº TEXTS, selected and arranged with Philological Notes. By ERNEST A. BUDGE, M.R.A.S., Assyrian Exhibitioner, Christ's College, Cambridge, etc. New Volume of the Archaic Classics. GYPTIAN GRAMMAR. AN ELEMENTARY MANUAL OF THE EGyPTIAN LANGUAGE ; with an interlineary READING BOOK. By P. LE PAGE RENOUF, F.R.S.L. Price 5s. 6d. N GYPTIAN TEXTS. For the Use of Students. Part I. : Text, Transliteration, and Translation. Part II. : Text and Transliteration, Part III. : Texts Dissected for Analysis. Part IV. : Determinatives; with List of Syllabic Signs, and List of Egyptian Sovereigns. Selected and Edited by S. BIRCH, LL.D. Quarto, Cloth, 12s. Exºls; SHEETS. These sheets have been prepared to enable the Student to test his progress, by translating a short passage from some well-known Text. In Sheet No. 1 of each series, Assyrian and Egyptian, will be given an interlineated Text, with space left between the lines for the translation. And the following Sheets will contain another portion of Text, for translation, and also the correct rendering of the passage given in the preceding sheet. On Writing Paper, 2d. each. BABYEONIAN LITERATURE : Lectures delivered at the Royal In- stitution. By Rev. A. H. SAYCE, M.A., Deputy Professor of Comparative Philology, Oxford. Author of “An Assyrian Grammar;” “The Principles of Comparative Philology;” &c. Demy 8vo, Cloth, 4s. HE MONUMENTAL HISTORY OF EGYPT. Rede Lecture, delivered in the Senate House of the University of Cambridge, on the 26th May, 1876. By S. BIRCH, LL.D., &c. Paper Wrapper, Is. 6d. ECORDS OF THE PAST: being English Translations of the Assyrian and Egyptian Monuments. Published under the sanction of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. I 2 volumes, Crown octavo, Cloth extra. Cloth, 3s. 6d, each volume. AN ARCHAIC DICTIONARY, Biographical, Historical, and Mytho- logical; from the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Etruscan Monuments and Papyri. By W. R. COOPER, F.R.A.S., M.R.A.S., Secretary of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. Cloth extra, 15s. LEOPATRA'S NEEDLE. Translation of the Inscriptions. See “HISTORY OF EGYPTIAN OBELISKS,” by W. R. CoopFR, M.R.A.S., F.R.A.S., Secretary of the Society of Biblical Archaeology. Second Edition. Price 2s. 6d. “Mr. COOPER'S little book is well timed, and contains all and more than most people want to know on the subject. It is well adapted for a book of reference.”—Morning Post. TUDIES ON THE TIMES OF ABRAHAM. By the REv. HENRy GEORGE TOMKINS, Member of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, etc. Profusely Illustrated in Chromo- lithography and Phototint. Quarto, Cloth extra, 16s. This work is not a new biography of Abraham, but gives an account of the civilised world in which he lived, from Elam on the East to Egypt on the West, drawn from the existing results of Egyptological and Assyriological research, and elucidates the true position and character of the patriarch. The illustrations are chosen from an ethnographic point of view, as specimens of the leading races of the early world. “The style is careful, and often rises into eloquence; the materials admirably arranged and of historical interest.”—Academy. “This is a book of very considerable value.”—Spectator. “Mr. Tomkins, himself an excellent draughtsman, has added much to the value of the book by heliotype plates, representing various ethnic types, and interesting Babylonian seal-cylinders.”— Theological Review. “Of great value to Bible-students, preachers, and teachers.”—The Christian. “A highly interesting and indeed important book."—Literary Chaerchmazz. “This erudite and beautiful book is a book for scholars."—The Expositor. HE UTRECHT PSALTER. The History, Art, and Palaeography of the Manuscript commonly styled the Utrecht Psalter, with three Facsimile Plates. By WALTER DE GRAY BIRCH, F.R.S.L., Senior Assistant of the Department of Manuscripts in the British Museum ; Honorary Secretary to the British Archaeological Association, etc. Cloth extra, I2s. ARLY DRAWINGS AND ILLUMINATIONS. An Introduction to the Study of Illustrated Manuscripts : with a dictionary of Subjects in the British Museum. By WALTER DE GRAY BIRCH, F.R.S.L., Senior Assistant of the Manuscript Department in the British Museum ; and HENRY JENNER, Senior Assistant in the Manuscript Department in the British Museum. With Illustrations in Autotype Photography. Cloth extra, I6s. EWISH ARTISAN LIFE in the Time of Our Lord. Translated from the German of Dr. FRANZ DELITZSCH. Crown 8vo, Cloth, 2s. 6d. HE BIBLE OF EVERY LAND. A History of the Sacred Scriptures in every Language and Dialect into which Translations have been made. Illustrated by Specimen Portions in Native Characters, Series of Alphabets, Coloured Ethnographical Maps, Tables, Indexes, etc. A few copies of this valuable work, which has been out of print for some years, have come into our hands. Cloth, IZ. II.s. 6d. ; half-morocco, 2/. 25. * RIENTAL RECORDS. Monumental. Confirmatory of the Old Testa- ment Scriptures. A Collection of the most important recent Discoveries, especially in Western Asia and Egypt, derived from the highest attainable antiquity; confirmatory and illustrative of the Statements of Holy Scripture. Illustrated. By WILLIAM HARRIS RULE, D.D. Crown 8vo, Cloth extra, 5s. s ORIENTAL RECORDS, A/istorica/. Crown 8vo, Cloth extra, 5s. SAMUEL EAGSTER AND SONS, 15, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. 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