OCT 20 1924
415,7
-AI
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923-1924.
MAP PROBLEM: Regimental Headquarters and Headquarters Com-
pany No. 2—4th Series.
BY ........................: 1st Section.
MAP...........: Gettysburg-Antietam Map, 1-21120, Taneytown
Sheet.
General situation:
Pennsylvania (Red) and Maryland (Blue) have recently
declared war. A Blue force of all arms has been driving a
Red invading force back toward Gettysburg. Yesterday
afternoon the fighting stopped with the forces in close con-
tact, generally along the line Taneytown-Bridgeport. Ar-
tillery and air services have been active on both sides.
Allaway Creek is not fordable.
Special situation I (Blue):
Army orders issued yesterday directed a resumption: of
the advance, along the entire line, at 6:00 AM today.
During the night the 1st Infantry occupied a position
extending from CR 476 (352.9-730.4) to RJ (351.45-
731.00). The 1st Battalion occupied the right half, the 2d
Battalion the left half of the line. The 3d Battalion was in
regimental reserve along the creek at (351.7-729.3).
Regimental zone of action:
Right boundary: RJ 507 (352.9-727.2) --CR 476–
Hill 532-RJ (353.0-736.0)-Hedgegrove (all
inclusive)..
Left boundary: Hill 476 (351.4-728.5)-Hill 524 -
Pinehill . Mill-east bank of Monocacy River
(all inclusive).
Boundary between battalions: RJ 522 (352.0-727:3),
.. . draw north of RJ 522-Woods west of Eck-
: :: hardt (all to 2d Battalion) -CR-491—CR 500-
. .. CR 452—Hill: 492 (all to 1st Battalion). :
Brigade command post: In woods at (351.9-728,6).
(1)
A howitzer platoon is attached to each of the assault bat-
talions. The howitzer company (less 2 platoons) is re-
tained under the control of the regimental commander.
No engineer troops will be available for use by the regi-,
ment.
Requirement I:
Q. Your location of the initial regimental command post
and the regimental axis of signal communications for the
attack today. Who would designate them normally?
b. At the jump-off, where was the regimental command-
er? If not at the command post, where was he? Who was
with him?
C. What officers were at the command post at the jump-
off ?
d. What provision did R2 make with his personnel for
gaining information of the enemy during the attack?
Special situation II:
By 8:00 AM the line extended in a general northwest-
southeast direction through CR 491 (352.2-732.5). At this
time a message was received by the R & P section from an
airplane, addressed to the CO, 1st Infantry. The body of
the message read: "Enemy trenches apparently strongly
held on ridges 800 yards south of Harney and 800 yards
northwest of Piney Creek Church."
Requirement 2:
a. Give the routine handling of this message in the com-
mand post from time of receipt to final disposition.
b. What action does R2 take on this message?
Special siutation III:
By 9:00 AM the assault troops have reached and are
holding the south bank of Allaway Creek. Progress has
been steady but slow because of stubborn resistance of the
enemy and the necessity for mutual assistance between
battalions. .
(2)
Requirement 3:
a. Where is the regimental command post now located
and how many times, if any, has it been moved since the
jump-off?
6. How many observation posts has R2 established with
his personnel at this time, and where?
Special situation IV:
By 12:00 noon the 1st Battalion has reached and is hold-
ing a line within its zone about 600 yards south of the
cross road in Harney. The reserve company has been put
in the assault line because of the severe losses suffered by
the assault companies.
The 2d Battalion has been unable to advance from the
woods north of Pinehill Mill.
The 3d Battalion is in the woods at (352.7-733.45).
The regiment on the right of the 1st Infantry is holding
the high ground. at Piney Creek Church road junction.
Colonel 1st Infantry is at the 2d Battalion command post.
Intelligence reports indicate that a counterattack by two
rifle companies is forming at (353.45-734.90).
Reports of line guards returning from the front indicate
the bridge at (352.5-733.6) badly damaged and impassable
for traffic other than foot troops.
Requirement 4:
Who receives these reports and what is the action taken
by the officers first receiving them?
Requirement 5:
Q. What does R Ex decide to do upon receipt of R2's
report regarding the enemy counterattack? Details not
required.
b. What does R3 do upon receiving the communications
officer's report regarding the bridge over Allaway Creek,
Special situation V:
The regimental commander, at the 2d Battalion command
post, finds the battalion unable to neutralize enemy machine
(3)
guns located at (351.6-734.5). He decides to call for ar-
tillery fire against these machine guns and to assist in
every way the immediate advance of the left assault bat-
talion.
Requirement 6:
How does he secure this artillery fire?
Special situation VI:
By 3:30 PM the assault troops have reached and are
holding a line extending through Hill 492 and RJ 395. A
telephone message from the brigade directs that a special
strength report for the regiment be submitted at once.
Requirement 7:
Who prepares the report and how is the data for it
obtained?
A SOLUTION.
a. The regimental command post is in the woods at
(351.9-730.0).
The regimental axis of signal communication is: Regi-
mental command post-Hill 524--woods west of Eckhardt
draw. east of RJ 491-stream crossing at (352.5-733.6)
Harney.
Both were designated by the brigade commander in the
attack order for today.
b. The regimental commander was several hundred yards
north of his command post, suitably located to observe as
great a part of his assault line at the jump-off as possible.
With him were R1 or R3, the RMGO, two runners from
the messenger section and a private from the visual section.
C. R Ex, R1 or R3, R2, Asst RMGO; How Co Comdr,
CO 3d Bn, Com 0, Arty Ln 0, pioneer officer, and surgeon.
d. R2 would have arranged for:
TTT
(4)
(1) Searching parties to follow each assault battalion.
(2) The establishment of an observation post.
Requirement 2:
a. The operator in charge of the panels would send the
message to the message center. Here it would be recorded
and turned over to a runner for delivery to R3 or other
staff officer designated to receive messages coming in to
the command post. The officer would initial it and check
it for circulation to R2 and final destination (R2). The
runner would then be given the message for delivery to R2.
b. R2 immediately checks the information to see if he
has any other that conflicts with it. He orders it plotted
and takes it to R Ex. He records it in the R2 Journal.
He sends it to the adjacent regiment on the right and to B2.
He would send this information to Bn 2s of the assault bat-
talions and ask them for further details.
Requirement 3:
a. The regimental command post is now in the woods
at (352.6-732.3). It has just completed a move from the
initial location, no other having been made.
b. He would have established two; one on the ridge
north of RJ 491 and one on the ridge east of the command
post.
Requirement 4:
R2 receives the reports regarding the enemy counter-
attack. After office routine he informs R Ex and R3 and
Bn 2, 1st Bn. The adjacent regiment on the right of the .
1st Infantry and B2 are also given this information.
The Com O receives the reports regarding the damage
to the bridge and immediately informs R3.
Requirement 5:
a. R Ex decides to call for artillery fire on enemy re-
ported forming for counterattack and to put the reserve
battalion in position to repel the enemy counter-attack.
(5)
b. R3 will send the pioneer platoon to put the bridge in
condition for use by wagon transportation.
Requirement 6:
The colonel telephones R Ex to request the artillery officer
to put down all available artillery on targets as located.
If there is an artillery liaison officer at the 2d Bn CP, he
would also request artillery fire through him.
Requirement 7:
R1 prepares the report from data which he has ex-
tracted from reports received at the command post and
from data which he has collected on visits to the bat-
talions. If the available data is not sufficiently recent he
would call for special strength reports from battalions.
PART II.
DISCUSSION.
S
.
.
1. This problem was prepared to show certain phases
of the functioning of a regimental headquarters and head-
quarters company in an attack. It shows the regiment
attacking with two battalions in the assault and one in
reserve. The attack is ordered resumed early in the
morning.
2. The regimental command post is shown farther for-
ward than one would find it during the progress of the
attack after the jump-off. It was moved to this location
after dark of the previous day in preparation for the re-
sumption of the attack.
3. It is most important that the higher command pre-
scribe the axis of signal communications (line of possible
locations for command posts) in order to secure the greatest
coordination of communications facilities. For this reason
the brigade commander normally designates the location
V
(6)
of the initial command posts and the axes of signal com-
munications for the regiments, after conference with his
staff and, when practicable, with his regimental com-
manders.
4. The regimental commander has made all his plans
for the attack and issued orders necessary to put them into
effect. R Ex can handle all questions that may arise during
a short period of time at the jump-off. The commanding
officer, from a point for observation reasonably near the
command post, will obtain a better idea and earlier in-
formation as to the initial stage of the attack. It is often
desirable for the regimental commander to remain for a
short time in a place for observation at the beginning of
an attack. ; In this case he would remain until the attack
got well under way when he would return to the command
post.
5. The commanding officer would not be alone in his post
of observation. He probably would have with him one or
two staff officers. It is obvious that R Ex would seldom,
if ever, leave the command post to accompany the com-
inanding officer during the progress of the battle. Unless
it is probable that data regarding the enemy situation will
be required, R2 will not accompany the commander. This
leaves R1 or R3 apparently available with the probability
that R3 will remain at 'the command post. The RMGO
possible, the results of his machine gun dispositions, his
assistant remaining at the command post. Two runners;
should be sufficient for liaison. The private of the visual
section is with the commander for the purpose of inter-
preting for him any visual signals that may be observed.
6. The field work of the regimental intelligence section
is rather limited as compared with that of the battalion
intelligence sections. R2 must be careful not to have
his men interfere with the operations of the battalion
sections, hence he covers the area in rear of the assault
battalions with searching parties which would make a more
thorough search than was made by the battalion parties.
NI
(7)
TYTT
SA
He would also establish at least one intelligence observa-
tion post for use during the early stages of the attack.
Later, when opportunity offers and the nature of the ter-
rain requires, one or more observation posts are established.
7. The problem shows the method of routing a message
received at the command post by the radio and panel section.
It is intended to stress the practice of having all messages,
even those received by a section of the commmunications
platoon, pass through the message center to an officer es-
pecially designated to receive messages. This officer then
checks and circulates the message as its contents may
require.
8. The problem indicates the routine action by R2 on
information received by him. He must check this informa-
tion to see if it is new or a duplication or if it conflicts with
information already on file. Its reliability would also re-
ceive consideration. All this is done hastily in order that
there may be no delay in getting the information to the
commanding officer (through R Ex). In sending the in-
formation to an adjacent or other unit, the message would
be signed as coming from the regimental commander.
This action is generally routine, in which case the specific
approval or direction of the commanding officer in each
case, is not required.
9. In this problem the first move of the command post
is made after the attack has progressed slowly for three
hours. The move is for a distance of about 2500 yards.
By comparison with the move of the battalion command
post in Problem No. 1, 4th Series, it will be seen that the
distance is considerably greater than in that problem, illus-
trating the principle that command posts, from front 40
rear, move longer distances and less freqeuntly.
10. Requirement 4 shows that R2 will act on enemy in-
formation coming into the command post. Other informa-
tion, such as that regarding the damaged bridge, is fur-
nished by the officer receiving it, to the staff officer most
concerned.
(8)
1
1
11. In Requirement 5 we see R Ex handling a situation
that has arisen during the absence of the regimental com-
mander. R Ex knows the plans and policies of his com-
manding officer and acts in accordance with those plans
when he orders the reserve battalion to a location best
suited to repel the threatened counter-attack. A situation
arose which required prompt action and it would have been
a mistake for the R Ex to have delayed in order that
he might get in communication with the regimental com-
mander. He would, of course, send word to the com-
mander informing him of his action. The matter of re-
pairing the bridge is a function of the pioneer platoon to
be performed on instructions from R3, who has general
supervision over the platoon for operations.
12. Requirement 6 shows the usual method of securing
artillery fire from supporting artillery. The regimental
commander is not at the command post when the questioni
of artillery support arises. The 2d Battalion has been
having difficulty in advancing. The regimental com-
mander has gone forward to straighten things out. While
there he sees that artillery support is necessary, so he ar-
ranges for it through his command post.
13. · It is brought out that special strength reports are
prepared by R1, who is located usually at the command post,
from data that he has with him. Routine strength reports
would be prepared at Ri's administrative office in the rear
echelon, from data available there.
COMMENTS.
1. A better location for the initial regimental command
post is in the woods at (351.9-730.0.) A location at Boyd
or on Hill 524 is too near the assault line for a regimental
command post. These locations are more suitable for the
battalions. A location near (351.9-730.0) has desirable
protection, is located centrally with respect to regimental
boundaries, and is sufficiently far forward. The location
TTC
(9)
111
is usually prescribed by the brigade commander in his
attack order. (Requirement 1.)
2. The axis of signal communications is a line of possible
successive locations for command posts. It is a series of
locations rather than a route over which the personnel will
go when moving the command post. This line of locations
must be within the unit zone of action. The route over
which the personnel will move and the axis of signal com-
munications may coincide. However, such coincidence will
be less frequent in the smaller units.
In units smaller than a division this axis usually is not
determined by roads but rather by draws, woods, and other
protected places suitable for command posts. It is desig-
nated by naming the possible general locations for command
posts. The regimental axis frequently will follow one of
the battalion axes and will extend that distance to the front
it is expected the command will advance. It is usually
designated, in each case, by the next higher unit com-
mander. (Requirement 1.)
3. At the jump-off the regimental commander may be at
a place for observation, at his command post or wherever
his supervision is best at the time. . He may be at a bat-
talion command post or even further to the front at this
time. If in observation it is to be assumed that he has
selected the best possible position from which to observe
the conduct of his own troops and, if possible, the enemy.
Such a location would undoubtedly be equally desirable for
the RMGO and howitzer company commander from which
to observe the action and effect of their respective weapons.
The commanding officer might, under the conditions stated,
have these two officers and, in addition, either R1 or R3
with him. The communications officer and the pioneer of-
ficer seldom would be in observation with the commanding
officer. (Requirement 1.)
4. The battalion intelligence section is employed in such
manner as to secure the most complete and accurate in-
formation possible of the enemy in its front. The methods
will include attaching scouts to patrols 'sent out by the
battalion commander, attaching scouts to front line com-
In
11
(10)
1
panies, and establishing battalion observation posts. “Ex-
cept in emergencies, reconnaissance is not a function of
the regimental intelligence platoon, the reports from the
battalions forming the basis of its information."
The regimental observers, by reason of superior equip-
ment, frequently can do good service in supplementing and
amplifying the work of the battalion observers.
Places for observation established and manned by in-
telligence personnel are termed intelligence observation
posts. In order to distinguish it from intelligence observa-
tion posts (OPs), the place selected for observation by the
commander may be termed the commander's place for ob-
servation. (Requirement 1.)
• 5. The commanding officer and the executive usually are
not included in the routine circulation of messages of this
character in the CP. The message contains enemy informa-
tion solely and, as such, should be sent promptly to R2 who
records, automatically evaluates it, and takes it to R Ex.
In the meantime he endeavors to get additional information
on this matter. Information will be taken to R Ex after
it has been evaluated by the staff officer concerned. R Ex
should not be given information that may be erroneous or
of doubtful character unless, at the same time, he is advised
as to its reliability and value. In any case, when furnished
information, he should be informed as to its dependability.
(Requirement 2).
6. The message center does not maintain a journal. Upon
receipt of the message at the message center, the necessary
entries are made on the message center register. (Re-
quirement 2.)
7. Dropped messages received from airplanes are rarely
coded. .(Requirement 2).
8. Very unusual for R2 to establish an OP in the zone
of action of an adjacent unit. (Requirement 3.)
9. A location for the command post in the vicinity of
Hill 532 or Eckhardt is too far from the assault battalions.
A location in one of the draws about 1000 yards north of
Hill 532 will be equally as suitable as regards protection
and will permit use of shorter lines of communication to
1
1
(11)
15
the assault battalions. A move to this general location
should have been the first move from the initial location. A
move prior to this would not have been advisable. (Re-
quirement 3.)
10. An OP on Hill 532 or west of Eckhardt is about 1700
yards in rear of the assault line—too far to the rear to
permit of satisfactory observation. A location on one of
the ridges extending north toward Allaway Creek within
the regimental zone of action would give better results.
(Requirement 3.)
11. R2 is the officer first to receive reports regarding
the threatened counterattack. He gives this information
to R Ex and to R3. R2 probably would not depend on R3
giving this important information to R Ex but would pre-
sent it himself. He also would notify battalions, the bri-
gade, and the adjacent (right) unit. (Requirment 4.)
12. It is a function of R3 to send the pioneer platoon or
part of it to repair the bridge without instructions from
R Ex. Of course R Ex would be notified by R3 of the action
taken by him. (No cut) (Requirements 4 and 5.)
13. The communication officer would be the officer first
to receive the report from the line guards regarding the
damaged bridge. He would take it direct to R3, under
whom he functions and whose duty it is to order the neces-
sary repairs. Inter-communication between officers within
the CP is direct and not through the message center. (Re-
quirement 4.)
14. In the absence of the commanding officer, R Ex
would take the action necessary to repel the threatened
counter-attack. This action would be expressed in the form
of orders moving the reserve battalion to a more suitable
location to resist the enemy and to make any other dis-
positions desirable under the circumstances. He may also
call for artillery fire on the enemy concentration and re-
quest assistance from the unit on the right. (Require-
ment 5.)
15. If the regimental commander secures the desired art-
illery fire through the artillery liaison officer with the 2d
Battalion, he should so notify R Ex. If action is obtained
LL
n 19
(12)
through the artillery liaison officer at the regimental CP,
the commanding officer would telephone to R Ex and direct
him to secure the desired artillery fire. Either or both
methods may be used . R Ex must be kept informed, how-
ever, of whatever action the regimental commander may
take while away from his CP (Requirement 6.)
16. R1 prepares the report and sends it from the CP.
The personnel records for the regiment are kept in the R1
office in the rear echelon. Much of the information for
these records is obtained direct from the companies and
the aid stations, usually going direct to the regimenal CP
from companies. Battalion commanders may require that
copies of such reports be furnished the battalion CP. Bn 1
is the battalion headquarters company commander and as
such will spend a great part of the time in the rear echelon.
The battalion is not an administrative unit and Bn 1 does
not have the records of the battalion personnel. Special
strengh reports are usually required on short notice which
does not warrant taking time to obtain data from the com-
panies. There usually will be strength data available at
battalion CPs (Bn3) that have been contained in messages
from companies. The special strength report does not com-
tain detailed information but is general in nature and only
approximate accuracy can be expected. It will be made up
at the CP from reports that have reached the CP and from
which R1 has extracted data required for such reports. How-
ever, this data may be augmented by securing information
regarding strength from each battalion CP. (Require
ment 7.)
197 Benning, Ga. 3-11-24–2500
(13)
и
41501
Al
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923–1924
CONFERENCE....: Messengers and Agents.
BY.
..: First Section
DATE TO CLASS..: Refresher Course, 29 Oct. 1923.
Advanced Course, 12 Feb. 1924.
National Guard & Reserve Officers
Course, 27 May 1924.
MESSENGERS, AGENTS AND LIAISON OFFICERS.
Paragraphs.
1-7
Section I. General ......
II. Battalion, regiment, and brigade messengers
section .....
..............
III. Agents and liaison officers .............
8-10
11-12
SECTION I
GENERAL
Paragraph.
nice
..............................
........................
..................
.....................
NOOTHA CONTRA
Scope of conference ..
Messengers and command
Intercommunication by messenger .
The training of messengers .
Use of messengers ......... ......................
Runners ...... ...............................
Runner organization ...
1. Scope of conference.
To avoid a repetition of the detailed subject of messengers
and agents which is covered in a pamphlet of the Infantry
School, and to emphasize the teachings as contained in this
pamphlet, the following conference concerns itself with a
broad and general discussion of messengers and agents, as
well as with a more detailed treatment of messengers as
prescribed by the present Tables of Organization- Leaven-
worth 1922-23.
2. Messengers and command.
Messengers are a fundamental means for communication
and the most dependable within the smaller units such as
(1)
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
the platoon, company, and battalion. Command is exercised
in these units, particularly in heavy engagements of modern
combat, by means of runners. It is of primary importance
in connection with the successful employment of messengers
in these units that the messengers be well trained and that
the platoon, company, and battalion commanders be con-
versant with the proper methods of employment. From
the headquarters of the battalion back to the regiment and
the brigade, the means for communications become more
numerous and messenger service more diversified.
3. Intercommunication by messenger.
Intercommunication by horse messenger, motorcycle mes.
senger, and by bicycle messenger is maintained as far for-
ward as the hostile fire and the nature of the terrain will
permit. The application of this principle requires the ex-
ercise of judgment and common sense. The use of mes-
sengers is governed by the existing conditions which favor
the employment of a particular kind. But, generally speak-
ing, the chain of liaison established by these kinds of mes-
sengers will begin and end at a message center. The local
delivery of messages is then effected generally by runners.
Mounts should not be tied in groups nor in the immediate
vicinity of the message center. They may be more accessible
and better protected when tied several hundred yards away.
Motorcycles and bicycles should be available at points
where they are convenient for use thru the message center.
The conditions of accessibility of the usual routes of approach
limit the endeavors of the motorcycle and bicycle messen-
gers. Disposition of men and means for transportation
should be specifically directed by the signal communications
officer, and not left to the chief of messengers. This is
necessary for the requirements of functioning and the pre-
servation of materiel.
4. The training of messengers.
The signal communications officers of brigade, regiment,
and battalion are responsible for the training of the mes-
senger section of their respective platoons. Within the
company, the company commander will keep his runners
7. Bennmane dopady dek.
2-11-1924
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
trained. Initial runner training is delegated to the battalion
communications officer. As an adviser, he may bring to the
attention of the battalion commander the fact that the com-
pany runners are not well trained and may suggest methods
to improve this condition. Training should be carefully
supervised and must be continuous. All messengers should
be proficient in map reading, in moving by compass, and in
the reception and transmission both of oral and written
messages. The proficiency of messengers can be determined
only by testing them under simulated battle conditions.
Messenger routes generally will parallel wire lines. This
being the case and it also being true that broken wire lines
may be the reason why messengers are being used instead
of the wire, messengers should be trained to watch for breaks
in wire lines and they should be trained to repair them
provided the delay does not interfere with their mission of
delivering a message. If time does not permit the delay for
repair, they must note the exact location of the break and
report same to the signal communications officer at the first
opportunity. They must be made to understand that the
better other means of communications operate, the less mes-
sage work they themselves will have to perform.
5. Use of messengers.
Messengers are not to be considered as linesmen or line
guards. Speed is the first requirement in the transmission
of messages and messengers must be impressed with this
fact. To go and return with the least possible delay re-
quires that a messenger be not unnecessarily fatigued. The
despatching of a tired or exhausted messenger is equivalent
to an assurance that the message will not be delivered or
that its delivery will be greatly delayed. The use of mes-
sengers in duties other than those appropriate to a mes-
senger, except on the firing line in emergencies or as guides
is prohibited.
a. Relay posts. During certain phases or periods of an
operation, there are times when it is impossible for one
runner to cover the required distance without undue fatigue
and delay. Under such circumstances relay posts should be
established at most convenient points and where the best
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
protection is afforded. The distance between posts will vary
according to the kind of messenger service, the volume of
hostile fire, the nature of the terrain, and the necessity for
rapid transmission. Relay posts are established by the
higher unit forward to the message center of the lower
unit. During the attack, relay posts are pushed forward
behind the assaulting units in successive stages as the
advance progresses.
6. Difficulties found in the use of messengers.-The chief
obstacles to successful messenger service during combat
can be overcome generally with proper organization and
direction. Messengers are not mechanical instruments of
the automatic type but must be trained and directed in the
discharge of their duties.
6. Runners.
These are a slow and yet very dependable means for
communicating. They function under the more varying
and adverse conditions-conditions which are inimical to
the use of horses, motorcycles, and bicycles. Runners under
the conditions of modern combat become men of multifarious
duties and serve with a devotion and attention to duty
which is not elsewhere surpassed. They develop such a
capacity of trust and confidence that the smaller unit com-
manders, mainly thru the necessity demanded by the natural
order of events, not only rely upon them as their means for
exercising command but also as a veritable means for ex-
istence. It follows that the requisites for messengers
should be carefully considered in the selection of the mes-
senger personnel of the messenger sections of brigade, re-
giment, and battalion, more particularly in the selection of
runners for the company and platoon.
7. Runner organization.
The following charts show the runner organization of a
rifle company, a machine gun company, and a howitzer
company:
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
or
U
a. Rifle company.
NOTE: Dotted line indicates MG liaison.
Platoon-4 Runners
MG platoon
1 2 Runners
1 Runner
1 1 Corporal—agent

Company-
( 1 Sergeant (signal)
(1 Corporal (signal)
( 6 Runners and agents
-2 Runners
2 Runners-
Battalon
Rear echelon
of company
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
6. Machine Gun Company.
Section

-Runner
signalmen
11 Corporal-agent (runners
Platoon37 Privates—miscl. agents
-1 Runner
orderlies
1 bicyclist
11 Sergeant-signal
Company, 1 Corporal-signal
1.7 Privates-miscl, same as plat.
-2 Runners
n
S
1 Runner
Bn Msg Cen
(1 Runner and agent)
RMGO
Rear echelon
of MG CO
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
C. Howitzer Company.
Platoon--3 Runners and Agents
2 Runners-
1 Runner
Company---6 Runners and Agents
2 Runners-
1 Runner
1
Battalion Regiment
NOTE: Heavy lines indicate runner exchange.
Dotted lines indicate additional runner exchange
when the company is attached to a battalion.
Platoon attached to a battalion.
Platoon----3 Runners and Agents
-2 Runners
iners
Battalion
NOTE: Normally no runners are sent by the platoon to
Howitzer Company Headquarters.
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
SECTION II
BATTALION, REGIMENTAL, AND BRIGADE
MESSENGER SECTIONS.
Paragraph.
Battalion messenger section .....
.......................
Regimental messenger section ....................
Brigade messenger section ....... ................
8. The battalion messenger section.
a. Organization. The messenger section of an infantry
battalion consists of:
1 corporal
10 privates-5 mounted on horse
3 bicyclists
2 motorcyclists.
b. Equipment and duties.-(1) Horse messengers.--The
corporal section chief is equipped with a horse, a chart or
map showing the routes of all messengers, a roster of the
section showing the duty status of each man, and a schedule
prepared by the message center for the dispatch of mes-
sengers when it is desirable or practicable to deliver some or
all messages periodically. He must know all officers of the
battalion staff, their location at all times, and the location
of all units to which messages will be sent. Horse mes-
sengers will perform three functions in accordance with the
demands of the situation and the desire of the battalion
commander:
(a) As mounted orderlies to the battalion commander and
his staff. The messenger corporal will act as orderly to the
battalion commander while the five mounted privates will
serve in a similar capacity to the excutive officer and B1,
B2, B3, and B4 respectively. Their duties will include the
care of the mounts and the transmittal of local messages
within the staff;
(b) As regular messengers acting as an integral part of
the message center. When it is not possible to use the
mounts, men who are caring for the horses, will be available
for runner duty;
(c) As mounted patrols when such duty is directed by
the battalion commander.
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
The duties set forth under (a) and (c) are allotted to the
messenger section solely because the Tables of Organiza-
tion do not provide other personnel for these necessary
functions.
(2) Bicycle messengers.--The three privates mounted on
bicycles carry messages to all units to the front, rear, and
laterally when these can be reached by passable routes.
They may be forced to abandon their bicycles. When this
is necessary they will perform duty as runners.
P
in
(3) Motorcycle messengers. The two privates mounted
on motorcycles carry messages over all passable routes to all
units when enemy observation permits and when speed of
delivery is the important factor. Motorcycle messengers
will function as runners only upon the specific orders of
the signal communications officer who will be responsible
for such employment.
C. Additional messengers. In addition to the above, each
company of the battalion details two runners to battalion
headquarters thus providing:
6 runners from the rifle companies,
2 runners from the machine gun company,
2 runners from the howitzer platoon if attached.
These men are used for communication to the units from
which they are sent and should not be employed for other
purposes except in an emergency. While at the CP they
are attached to the battalion messenger section where they
remain until needed. They are not employed to carry local
messages when this can be avoided. Additional runners
coming in from the companies will be returned immediately
to their units with a receipt for the message and not held
for future messages unless the preparation of these will
not entail too great a delay. It is the tendency for the
battalion to hold runners coming in from the smaller units
for later messages. This must be carefully controlled. Such
practice also causes unnecessary anxiety concerning delivery
of messages and duplicate messages are often sent on this
account.
10
: MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
d. When horse messengers act as orderlies or are de-
tailed for patrol duty, the motorcycle and bicycle mes-
sengers function directly under the chief of the message
center. He assumes the additional duties of the messenger
section chief.
9. Regimental messenger section.
a. Organization. The regimental messenger section con-
sists of:
1 Sergeant, chief of section
1 Corporal, assistant chief of section
11 Privates,-7 mounted on horses
2 Bicyclists
2 Motorcyclists
b. The equipment and duties.—The equipment and duties
of the regimental section are very similar to those
of the battalion section. In general, the remarks
concerning the battalion section are also applicable
to the regimental section. The sphere of activities
of this section is larger though no more im-
portant. Messenger equipment is generally more usable
owing to great accessibility and availability of routes. Enemy
observation is also more limited. The more arduous task
is the maintenance of messenger liaison with the bat-
talions. Lateral and rear liaisons are less numerous
owing to the greater reliability of wire and radio com-
munication. There is no normal exchange of messengers
between the battalions and the regiment or the regiment
and the battalions. When messenger transmissions are
necessary, the headquarters in which the message origin-
ates is responsible for its messenger service. After
delivery of a message is completed, the messenger will
return to his headquarters with a minimum of delay. In
the event that runner relays become necessary to insure
message transmission to the battalions, the duty of
establishment and operation of this service is that of the
regimental section. It has been mentioned that as a
principle the superior, unit is responsible for the estab-
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
lishment and operation of runner relay system forward
to the subordinate unit headquarters.
1
IWA
10. Brigade messenger section.
ao Organization. The brigade messenger section con-
sists of:
1 sergeant, chief of section
18 privates.
7 mounted on horses
3 runners and orderlies
4 bicyclists
4 motorcyclists.
6. Equipment and duties.The brigade section is jointly
responsible for the messenger service to the regiments,
lateral units, and the division. Regular messenger trips
become the rule and the difficulties of passable routes are
greatly obviated. Under normal conditions of combat, the
brigade messenger section will not have heavy duties as
communication with all units should be adequate generally
by means of wire and radio. There are times when this
section's most important function in addition to the opera-
tion of regular messenger routes is the establishment and
operation of relay systems to the regiments. Relay systems
to the regiments do become necessary at times. These occa-
sions cannot be predicted and messengers should be ready
for the establishment of necessary relay posts.
SECTION III.
AGENTS AND LIAISON OFFICERS.
Paragraph,
11
Liaison
........................................
officers ............ ......................
11. Agents.
a. Definition.-According to the definition given in a
pamphlet of the Infantry School, "an agent is an enlisted
man, preferably a non-commissioned officer, sent from his
command to a neighboring command to secure and transmit
information to or from his commanding officer.” This
12
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
definition brings out the fact that an agent is an enlisted
man and not an officer. If such duties are assigned to an
officer, he is then known as a liaison officer and not as an
agent. According to the duties of agents contained in the
pamphlet already referred to, it will generally be essential
and always preferable that an agent be a non-commissioned
officer of a high degree of training and possessing a degree
of intelligence which is peculiar to and essential for agent
dutý.
b. Duties of agents and their methods.--Agents will not
be charged normally with runner duty. Their means for
the transmission and reception of information will be thru
the regular and established channels. That is, the agent will
forward messages to his own commander thru the message
center of the unit to which he has been sent whether or not
he has been supplied with his own means such as runners.
This is important from the standpoint of assuring the most
appropriate means for transmission, saving delay, and pro-
viding a record both for the agent and the unit commander.
Thus all messages can be verified as to transmission and
reception thru the unit. All information prior to trans-
mission will be approved by the unit commander. This is
important and requires emphasis. When this is violated,
the functioning ability of the agent will have a tendency to
cease. The unit commander is responsible for everything
which goes on within the unit. He will know and be a com-
petent judge of what information he desires emitted from
his unit, and should furnish information voluntarily at
other times or upon request of the agent. This does not
limit the activities of agents but follows normal control
principles.
12. Liasion officers.
a. Definition. In compliance with War Department Cir-
cular No 32 published June 26, 1922, the following defini-
tion is adhered to in the use of the term liaison officer or
liaison agent. “Officers or enlisted men sent by one or-
ganization to another to secure team play. Officers and
enlisted men so employed are designated liaison officers and
MESSENGERS AND AGENTS
13
liaison agents respectively.” Within the infantry brigade
there are no officers provided for in the Tables of Organiza-
tion whose duties are strictly confined to liaison functions.
The Tables of Organizations do, however, provide for two
contact officers (lieutenants) on the staff of the brigade
commander.
6. Duties.—The duties of liaison officers are covered
generally in those specified for agents.
865—Benning, Ga., 10-16-23–3,000
415,1
Al
'
MARCHES, CAMPS,
SHELTER
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE :
BY...................:
Marches-Camps-Shelter.
1st Section.
UWOW
HA
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924
1015-Benning, Ga., 12-14-23—2750
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
Section
I Marches .........
II Halts
III Camps and shelter
IV Security
Paragraplıs.
.... 1-11
12-20
.... 21-29
coroa
-----------
30
SECTION I.
MARCHES.
Paragraphs.
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General consideration
Training -..---
Preparation for marches
March orders and march tables........
Order of marches ...........
Conduct of marches -------
Bridges, fords, ferries and defiles...............
Columns crossing and passing ...........
Care of troops and transportation ..
Types of marches.
March decision
voor A CO N honde
home toco
IL
1. General consideration.
a. Marches constitute an essential part of all military
training and are an important part of all strategical and
tactical operations. In campaign they consume more time
and make greater demand on physical endurance than all
other military activities combined. A knowledge, there-
fore, of march technique is essential to success in military
operations.
b. A successful march is one that places the troops at
the designated place, at the required time, in proper con-
dition to perform the contemplated duty. It is achieved
by careful preparation, correct disposition, strict discipline,
the observance of rules of military hygiene, and the avoid-
ance of unnecessary hardships.
2. Training.
ia. Proper training consists of systematic exercises and
of actual marching:
191
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
(1) To develop general physique, to accustom men
to the fatigue of bearing arms and equipment, and to the
observance of the rules of march decipline.
(2) To practice the unit commanders in the control
of their units, and to impress upon them great responsi-
bility in rendering loyal assistance to the commander in
enforcing rigid march discipline.
b. With new or untrained troops, the process of harden-
ing the men is gradual. Immediately after muster into the
service, the physical exercises and marching are begun.
Ten minute periods of vigorous setting-up exercise are
given several times a day to loosen and develop the muscles.
A progressive schedule of marches with full equipment
is established, beginning with a distance of 4 or 5 miles
and increasing daily as the troops become hardened, un-
til a full day's march under full equipment may be made
without exhaustion.
3. Preparation for marches.
Q. Careful preparation contributes materially to the suc-
ceşs of a march. Preliminary notice is given in a warn-
ing order or message so that preparation may be made
without haste. These preparations insure: .
(1) That men and animals are in the best condition
possible under the circumstances.
(2) That units are properly equipped..
(3) That trains accompanying the command are load-
ed as prescribed.
(4) That measures necessary for the replenishment
of supplies are inaugurated.
(5) That traffic control arrangements are perfected.
(6) That provisions are made for the care and evacu-
ation of the sick. .
b. Warning orders or warning messages are issued at
the earliest practicable moment in order that the necessary
preparations may be made thoroughly and without haste.
They should contain all positive information at hand that
will be of assistance to subordinate commanders in making
preliminary preparations for the march.
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
5
A
4. March orders and march'tables.
d. A march order prescribing the details of the march
is issued by the commander. This order gives in general:
(1) The object of the march.
(2) The distribution of troops and the order of march
of the main body.
(3) Special security measures to be taken.
(4) The initial or starting point. An initial point
is used to form the column in the regiment, brigade and
larger units. An initial point is a point selected for form-
ing a moving column by the successive arrival of the various
subdivisions thereof without interference with one another.
It is a point easily recognizable on the ground and of
easy access to the units of the command. Initial points
are selected after considering the direction of the proposed
march, the position of the troops, and the roads by which
they are to join the column.
(5) The hour at which the leading fraction starts
from or clears the initial point. This is so regulated that
daylight marches begin when practicable, as soon after sun-
rise as is consistent with allowing ample time after day-
light for the men to breakfast, animals to feed, and trans-
portion to be loaded without undue haste. Night marches
begin in time for the troops to reach their destination at
the desired hour. Subordinate commanders consider the
road space, the rate of march, the distance to be covered
by the different fractions of their command, and from these
determine the time required to reach the initial point. They
then select their own starting point, and commence their
march so as to arrive at the initial point at the proper
moment, neither too early, nor too late. In making time
calculations, the approximate road space for foot troops
and cavalry four abreast, and artillery and trains in single
column of carriages, are as follows: dismounted men, 2
men per yard; mounted men, 1 man per yard; two-line
team, 10 yards, four-line team, 20 yards; six-line team,
gun, or caisson, 25 yards; auto trucks, 27 yards.
b. A march order may be accompanied by march table
containing the names of organizations, location, time of
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
starting, routes to be followed, destination, and other per-
tinent instructions.
c. If the command consists of two or more columns, the
order of the higher commander prescribes the composition,
route of march, and commander of each column. Column
commanders issue the necessary march orders for their
columns.
LE
5. Order of march.
a. The order of march of a column is controlled mainly:
(1) By tactical considerations. These are paramount
in the presence of the enemy.
(2) By the rule requiring the hardships of troops to
be reduced to a minimum. This controls the order of march
when tactical considerations do not enter into the situation.
b. The order of the regiments in brigades, battalions in
regiments, and companies in battalions, is generally chang-
ed from day to day.
C. When troops are to march to an assigned camping or
billeting area, the location of the several elements of the
command in the area is considered in forming the column.
d. In marches in time of peace, all trains are usually as-
sembled and marched at the tail of the column. In time
of war the combat trains ordinarily accompany their orga-
nizations.
e. When the company or battalion is marching alone,
trains follow the units without distance unless otherwise
prescribed by the commander. The mess sergeants, cooks,
company mechanics and a detail for kitchen police march
with the ammunition section of the combat train to assist
in issuing ammunition.
f. In the march of the regiment the combat trains or-
dinarily follow their respective battalions without distance
unless otherwise prescribed by the commander. The field
trains of the battalion are usually consolidated under the
command of the regimental supply officer and march at
the tail of the column.
g. In the march of the brigade, the combat trains ordi-
narily follow their respective battalions as prescribed for
2
2
TY
1
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
the march of the regiment. The field trains of the regi-
ments are assembled under the command of an officer desig-
nated by the brigade commander (usually one of the regi-
mental supply officers) and march at the tail of the column.
h. It is desirable to have the field trains join their or-
ganizations at the end of the day's march, but if tactical
considerations demand, the troops can subsist for several
days without their transportation. If it becomes necessary
to separate the command from its field train for a consider-
to the troops before the separation.
11
TY
im
6. Conduct of marches.
Q. Canteens are filled, fires put out, latrines covered,
and the camp policed, before forming for a march.
6. Troops habitually march at route order. Infantry
usually marches in column of squads. It marches in column
of twos only when necessary. Cavalry habitually marches
in column of twos but may march in column of fours on good
roads, or when compact formation is desired. Artillery
marches in section column, or in double section columns
if the width of the roads permit. In marching across
country the commander adopts the most advantageous
formation. In marching over terrain subject to artillery
fire or aerial bombing, extended intervals or increased
distances are taken.
C. The distances between units prescribed in drill regu-
lations may be varied by proper authority to give more
elasticity to a long.column, or to reduce the hardships of
the march. When necessary, distances are temporarily
increased or diminished to facilitate uniform progress.
d. Troops, officers and their units, and accompanying
vehicles, keep to the right of the road, so as to leave space
for other traffic to pass freely along the column. On muddy,
sandy, or very dusty roads, troops may be directed to march
on both sides of the road. This permits the men and animals
to pick their way and at the same time leaves the middle of
the road clear for traffic.
II
111
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
e. March discipline and observance of all of the rules
of good marching are strictly enforced. These apply especi-
ally to the position of units in the column and positions
and conduct of individuals. They are of primary im-
portance. They facilitate the conduct of the march, and
are important contributing factors in reducing fatigue
and march casualties.
(1) Falling out and straggling are prohibited. No
my
of the march, unless pronounced by a medical officer to be
unfit to continue the march.
(2) Compliments are not paid by troops on the march;
individuals salute when they address or are addressed by
a superior officer.
f. The rate and length of march of a mixed command is
regulated by that of the foot troops. They vary with the
size of the command, the condition of the troops, the
weather, the condition of the roads, and the nature of
the terrain. Liberal time ållowances are made for all re-
tarding conditions.
g. A uniform rate of march is maintained throughout
the column. This is of great importance. When a change
of rate is to be made, timely warning thereof is sent to all
concerned.
h. The average rate and "length of march of different
commands are as follows:
(1) Infantry of mixed commands, consisting partly
of foot troops, make from 214 to 21/2 miles an hour. Large
commands average about 12 miles a day. Small commands
average about 15 miles a day. These distances can be in-
creased with well seasoned troops marching on good roads
in favorable weather.
(2) Cavalry makes from 31/2 to 6 miles an hour. The
usual gait on fair roads is the walk and trot, about half and
half. Cavalry walks 334 miles an hour, and trots 8 miles
an hour. Except in emergencies, unseasoned mounts or
troops do not make more than 12 or 15 miles a day. Season-
ed cavalry averages 25 miles a day.
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
-
.
CAT
Dj
(3) Field artillery has the same rate as that of the
command with which it is marching. Field artillery march-
ing alone marches 312 to 6 miles an hour, and when season-
ed from 15 to 20 miles a day.
(4) Tractor artillery has an average economical speed
of about 31/2 miles an hour. In an emergency it can be forc-
ed to a rate of 7 miles an hour.
(5) The rate of march of a wagon train varies with
the classes and condition of the draft animals, the load,
the length of the column, and the condition of the road.
Long columns, under favorable conditions, make about
2 miles an hour; short columns, 21/2 miles an hour. The
average length of march is about the same as that of
infantry.
(6) Pack trains marching alone march at a rate of
41/2 to 5 miles an hour, and make from 20 to 25 miles a day.
Led pack animals march at the same rate as the command
of which they form a part.
(7) Motor columns under favorable conditions march
as follows:
(a) Light columns 8 miles an hour, and 80 miles a day.
(b) Heavy columns 31/2 miles an hour, and 35 miles a day.
i. On marches of more than one day, with unseasoned
troops the first march is not more than 8 or 10 miles. The
distance is progressively increased 1 to 2 miles a day until
the troops are accustomed to marching and carrying the
pack, when the distance may be increased to the normal
for seasoned troops.' At least one day in seven is a day
of rest.
j. Long marches with inseasored troops, and forced
marches at any time, are not undertaken unless positively
required by the situation,
k. Halts are made at regular intervals in order to rest
the men and animals and to adjust equipment. The time of
halts and the intervals between them are prescribed in the
march order, unless covered by routire instructions. Columns
halt and resume marching simultaneously, regulating the
time by the watch. Troops are informed of the length
of unscheduled halts so that they may take full advantage
thereof. The usual halts are 15 minutes at the end of
gocent
LLU
U
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
10
1
P
the first hour, and thereafter foot troops halt for 10 minutes,
cavalry for 5 minutes, and artillery for from 5 to 10 minutes
out of every hour. In very hot weather, the halts are
usually longer and more frequent. During halts the
men are allowed to fall out, but remain in the immediate
vicinity. In marches that run well into the afternoon a
halt of about one hour is made at noon, during which time
the men and animals eat their mid-day meal. Arms are
stacked, packs of foot troops are removed, and saddle cinches
are loosened.
1. In order to avoid the mid-day heat, especially in the
tropics, commands often march early in the morning and
late in the afternoon, halting for three or four hours during
the hottest part of the day.
m. In order to procure water or supplies, halts are some-
times made in or near towns or villages. Such halts are
avoided when practicable, but when made the men remain
with the column and details are sent for whatever is neces-
sary.
n. Motor vehicles are halted at predetermined points in
order to refill with water and gasoline and to make minor
repairs.
7. Bridges, fords, ferries, and defiles.
a. A careful examination is made of bridges of doubt-
ful strength, fords, boggy places, ice, or other dangerous
places before attempting a crossing. An officer is desig-
nated to superintend crossing when necessary. A bridge
guard under a suitable officer is detailed to guard and main
tain a military bridge. Cadence is broken by foot troops
when crossing a bridge.
b. Swift, deep streams are forded by foot troops on as
broad a front as possible. The men march abreast and
hold hands, looking at the opposite shore not at the water.
Delay at difficult fords may be avoided by crossing the troops
at several places at once. Fords are frequently deepened
and rendered impassable by the crossing of many animals
or wagons. The limits of road through swamps, quick-
sands, and streams with treacherous bottoms, are marked
with stakes, lanterns, or other effective means.
TT
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
11
C. When using ferries the men enter the ferries, pon-
toons, or barges, singly at one end and gradually move
toward the other. Large men retain the places assigned
them so as not to interfere with the handling of the boat.
The men stand or sit as directed. When there is danger
of the ferry capsizing or sinking, they are directed to re-
move their equipment. The men leave the ferry from the
bow in good order and without crowding. Seated men do
not rise before their turn to leave the ferry. Horses are
loaded on small boats one at a time. If there is room for
a single row only, they alternate heads and tails; if there
is room for two rows, they face inward. If a horse falls
into the water, it is turned loose. Guns, caissons, and wagons
are usually loaded on small ferries by hand. If practicable,
they are placed on the same ferry with their teams. The
center of rafts is occupied first, and then the load is uni-
formly distributed. They are unloaded in reverse order,
the center of the raft being unloaded last.
d. In passing through defiles which require a reduction
of front, an effort is made to avoid delay. At times this
may be accomplished by causing rear units to overlap and
leading units to take an increased gait in passing the defile.
8. Columns crossing and passing.
Precautions are taken to prevent crossing of columns.
If columns must cross, the senior commander determines
from the orders and the character of service which column
has the right of way. The same rule applies when a column
in march overtakes another at a halt.
9. Care of troops, animals, and transportation.
a. Special attention to the care of troops and means of
transportation is essential to successful marching. Com-
manders are responsible that measures are taken in camp
and during the training and seasoning period to put person-
nel, animals, and transportation in the best possible con-
dition, and that constant supervision is exercised while
marching to maintain them in this condition. .
b. Before beginning a march the men are carefully fitted
with socks and shoes. Until the troops are hardened to
marching, squad leaders and platoon commanders of foot
12
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
trrors personally examine the feet of all the men of their
respective units at the end of each day's march. As soon
as camp is made, feet are inspected and bathed, abrasions
and blisters dressed, and necessary changes made in foot-
wear. Similar attention is given the seats, legs, and feet
of mounted men. Higher commanders exercise such control
and supervision as necessary to insure compliance with
these regulations.
c. Detailed attention is given to the adjustment of packs
and equipment so as to avoid injury to the men or animals.
The backs and shoulders of animals are inspected at frequent
intervals during the march and immediate remedial meas-
ures taken when necessary. Upon reaching camp the care
of animals is the first consideration.
d. Transportation is kept in good condition by constant
care on the road and thorough cleaning and overhauling
when camp is reached.
. e. Care is exercised to prevent men from obtaining un-
wholesome drink, food, and frụits from local sources, and
from indulging in excessive eating and drinking of good
food and good water. The quantity of water drunk during
a march is largly a matter of habit. The men are encourag-
1
completing a march. They are trained to drink very little
water during a march. A swallow or two taken at regular
intervals of time is sufficient. The drinking of greater
quantities, especially on hot days, creates a craving for
water that cannot be satisfied during the march. The
desire for water is greatly appeased by holding a small
pebble or other similar substance in the mouth. Eating
sweets of any kind greatly increases the craving for water.
Arrangements are made when practicable to refill canteens
during a day's march. As this, however, is often impractie-
able with large commands, troops carefully preserve the
water in their canteens to make it suffice for the day.
f. Sources of water supply are examined by experts and
marked good or bad. In countries infected with water-borne
diseases this is imperative. If the water is bad or the supply
insufficient, a supply of water is carried in water carts,
T
A
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTERL
13
.
wagons, trucks, or railway cars. Each man will require
from 34 to 11/2 gallons of water per day.
g. Animals need 5 to 15 gallons of good water daily.
If insufficiently watered they quickly lose condition. The
more frequently they are watered the better, but the times
of watering are largely dependent upon march conditions
and available facilities. On the march animals are water-
ed in the morning before starting unless facilities and
time permit watering an hour or two after starting, in
which case watering may be delayed until that time. De-
lay is avoided by watering as many troops as possible at
the same time. This may be accomplished by conducting
each unit to different watering places. Artillery and wagon
trains are watered from buckets or by unhitching and rid-
ing or leading to water.
h. Hot weather is one of thte greatest sources of hard-
ship on a march. Every precaution is taken to prevent
suffering from this cause. Halting places are selected when
practicable where there is shade and free circulation of
air. The effect of the hot rays of the sun are alleviated by
placing green leaves in the hat or a moist handkerchief
around the neck. If the men are overheated, care is taken
to prevent their becoming chilled by exposure to cold winds
or drafts.
į. Packs carried by troops are lightened when transporta-
tion is available for this purpose.
j. The men are not kept in column or under arms longer
than necessary. The exercise of foresight, thoughtfulness,
and good judgement does much toward mitigating the dis-
comforts, annoyances, and hardships of marching".
10. Types of marches.
a. Training Marches Training marches form a part
jects in view: first, to harden the men and animals and
thereafter to keep them in proper physical condition; second,
to instruct officers and men in the duties incident to cam-
paign, such as marching, camping, and cooking; and third,
to practice application of the principles of tactics.
14
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
'
ILU
VIL
6. Concentration Marches.--Concentration marches are
made for the purpose of assembling bodies of troops from
diffierent locations at a certain time and place. They are
planned with great care, special consideration being given
to computation of road spaces and rates of march under
existing road and weather conditions. Special care is exer-
cised in the preparation of march tables to prevent inter-
ference of columns.
C. Night Marches. The importance of night marches
has greatly increased under the conditions of modern war-
fare. They are absolutely essential to success in many
situations. Night marches are made to avoid hostile ob-
servation, thereby permitting secret movements. They
tend to facilitate suprise and to reduce casualties. In very
hot weather they may be made to escape the heat of the
day.. Darkness, however, greatly increases the difficulties
of a march. It increases the difficulties of finding and fol-
lowing unknown roads, and retards the march on poor roads,
trails, or across country, thereby making the prompt arrival
at the proper destination uncertain. The uncertainty of
their own location and that of the enemy impairs the morale
of troops and reduces their fighting efficiency.
(1) The following measures are taken in order to
reduce the difficulty of night marches :
(a) Strict discipline is enforced.
(b) Advantage is taken of moonlight and good roads.
(c) Routes are carefully reconnoitered and marked.
(d) Guides are used when available, and men are post-
ed at road forks and in cities and towns to direct troops.
(e) Close contact between units is maintained at all
times.
(f) If the march is secret, silence is maintained, arti-
cles of equipment are secured to prevent rattling, smoking
is forbidden, no lights are permitted, and villages and farm-
houses are avoided when practicable.
:' (g) Ample time allowance is made for all night move-
ments.
d. Marches in the Presence of the Enemy.-Marches in
the presence of the enemy include all marches, the conduct
1
OP
IT
.
b
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
15
ny
of which is affected by the presence of the enemy. When
physical contact has not been gained, marches are still in
the presence of the enemy if subject to observation or inter-
ference from the air, in which case special precautions are
necessary.
(1) In marches in the presence of the enemy, the order
of march of the various elements of the command is controll-
ed by tactical considerations. Where contact with the
enemy is probable, the order is such as to facilitate deploy-
ment and contemplated employment. All impediments
not necessary in the conflict are kept in rear. Contact is
maintained between parallel columns. Unity of command
is observed and dispersion is avoided. In order to expedite
entry into action, artillery is generally near the head of
the main body. The security of its flanks and rear is in-
sured by other troops. The artillery commander usually
accompanies the commander of the column. In order
to reduce delay the artillery may march in double column
with its combat train immediately in rear of the last in-
fantry units.
(2) On marches through long defiles or dense forest,
or on night marches, it is frequently advisable to place the
artillery near the rear of the column.
(3) Field trains are guarded as far as practicable
by men on duty with the train, by convalescents and other
if these are insufficient a guard of other troops is provided.
Broken down or stalled vehicles are cleared from the road
and the load is distributed among the other vehicles. When
action is imminent, the trains are so located as to enable
them to function properly and at the same time not to inter-
fere with the movements of troops.
(4) Marches in the presence of the enemy fall into
one or another of five general groups in so far as tactical
considerations are concerned. These groups are:
(a) Marches towards the enemy.—Marches toward the
enemy are the most important. They are the marches on
which the preceding discussion is primarily based.
(b) Marches away from the enemy.--Marches away
1
16
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
jam
from the enemy are controlled by the same principles as
those toward the enemy, except that the tactical necessity
or the safety of the command sometimes dictates ignoring
some of the measures that are designed to produce good
marching conditions. The avoidance of confusion is
especially important. The order of march of the column is
practically the reverse of that in a march toward the enemy.
(c) Flank marches.-Flank marches are marches made
in a direction generally parallel to the enemy's front. For
small commands they are dangerous if made within range
of the enemy's effective available fire. For large commands
they are dangerous only when it is not known that the
movement is a flank march, when proper precautions against
surprise are not adopted, when the march is conducted
too near the enemy, when the space necessary for deploy-
ment and for obtaining proper depth of formation is not
retained, and when the roads and the terrain do not permit
maneuver and withdrawal if the latter should be necessary.
Under favorable conditions flank marches favor rapid de-
velopment for action, by simply turning elements of the
column toward the enemy. :: ::
(d) Change of direction marches. In a change of
direction of march the most important considerations are
the provision of security to cover the change, the full utiliza-
tion of the road net to facilitate the change, and the avoid-
ance of confusion by preventing all conditions that cause
it, such as crossing of columns. A change of direction causes
some delay.
(e) Marches through a defile.--A march through a de-
file occurs whenever the terrain or material conditions along
the route of march confine a column to one road or the imi-
mediate vicinity thereof. The principal danger of a march
through a defile is that the enemy may, with relatively few
men from a commanding position, check the command,
inflict heavy losses, throw it into confusion, or even destroy
it. In marches through a defile, the most important con-
siderations are, (1) to gain the exit from the defile be-
fore the main body enters it; (2) to provide close and distant
reconnaissance and security measures, in order to prevent
!
M
3
humed.
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
17
WA
i
the column or any considerable element from being sur-
prised or taken under fire while in the defile; (3) to organize
the column in such manner as to prevent delay or confusion
in case of unforeseen incident, and so as to bring about
the greatest readiness for combat, and (4) to provide for
passing the defiles in the shortest time possible. Times
of poor visibility are favorable for marches through a de-
file, if efficient reconnaissance has previously been made.
(f) Forced marches.--Forced marches are undertaken
only in cases of necessity, as they seriously impair the fight-
ing power of even the best troops. Long forced marches
can be made without injury only when the command is in
1
1
.
ment. The conduct of forced marches is controlled by the
distance to be covered and the time within which the march
rapidly increase with the size of the command and the length
of the march, but in any case the march is so conducted
that the troops are in condition to accomplish the purpose
of the march at its completion. Forced marches are conduct-
ed as follows:
(1) With foot troops :
(a) The number of marching hours is usually increased.
(b) The halt and periods for cooking and sleep are ar-
ranged so as to afford the maximum rest.
(c) The rules prescribed for the average march are fol-
lowed as closely as possible.
(d) The troops are favored in every way possible. Their
packs are lightened if transportation is available. They
are assigned the best roads and are not intermingled with
vehicles or mounted men.
(e) The maximum days march for infantry and trains
is about 20 to 30 miles. A march at this rate cannot, as
a rule, be prolonged for more than two days. If a forced
march is to continue for several days, it becomes practically
a succession of daily marches of more than average length.
TI
Y .
columns of infantry marching long distances,
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
F
...(2) With mounted troops:
(a) The gait as well as the number of marching hours
is increased. The usual halts are made. The first day's
march is not greater than 50 miles when the total distance
to be covered is less than 150 miles. For greater distances
the daily march is from 30 to 40 miles.
· (b) A daily distance of 30 to 40 miles can be maintained
for three or four days under favorable road and weather
conditions. This may be increased to 50 miles. In marches
of this kind halts of two hours are made at the end of the
first half of each day's march, during which the horses are
unsaddled and permitted to feed, lie down, and roll. The
rate of march is about five miles an hour excluding halts.
..(c) A single march of 100 miles can be made in 24 to
30 hours under very favorable conditions. On such a
march halts of 2 hours similar to that prescribed above are
made at the end of the first and second thirds of the march.
The rate is about 51/2 miles an hour, excluding halts.
f. Marches in changing station. These marches are
similar to concentration marches, but differ from them
in the following particulars:
(1) Orders may be issued from day to day or may
cover routes and camps for the entire march. Accurately
computed march tables are not necessary.
(2) Distances between the elements of a column may
be increased so as to afford greater freedom of movement.
(3) Field trains or as much thereof as are required
daily are generally placed in rear of their regiments, and
supply trains placed so as to facilitate issues.
.. (4) Supplies and equipment not actually needed on
the march are usually shipped by rail.
1
11. March decision.
a. Decisions as to the conduct of a march are based on
the usual estimate of the situation including:
(1.) The orders from higher authority or the mission.
...(2). Our own troops and the enemy situation.
(3) Number and condition of the roads.
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
19
I
(4) Facilities available for camping at the end of each
days march.
b. The decision of the commander includes:
(1) Time of starting.
(2) Number and general routes of columns.
(3) The commander and the composition of the advance
guard and its distance from the main body.
(4) Security on the flanks.
(5) Distribution of troops and trains.
(6) Functions of attached cavalry.
(7) Length of days marches or camp locations, if ap-
plicable.
c. In planning for a march, the commander, as well as
his staff, must take into consideration the character of the
weather, the temperature, the time of the year, and the
question of desirability of halting troops in the immediate
vicinity of settlements.
d. Having made the necessary decisions for the march,
the commander is then concerned in seeing that his orders
are carried out at the designated time and that march dis-
cipline is being maintained. In the course of one day's
march there is little he can do to correct faulty march dis-
cipline, but in a march of several days, a personal conference
with subordinate commanders whose troops are not main-
taining proper discipline should have the desired effect.
SECTION II.
HALTS.
Paragraph.
12
14
General discussion ...
Halts on the march .....
Halts for the night!.......
Halts when not in the presence of the enemy ......
Halts in the presence of the enemy ....
Halts after contact has been gained
Outposts
Establishing the main body ............
Halt orders ........
12. General discussion.
d. Factors involved in halts.-Halts are an integral part
20
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
UL
AII
of marches. They cover those periods during active march
operations when troops stop for the night, for rest, or for
any other reason. They provide the time and opportunity
for rest, sleep, personal hygiene, necessary to good health,
morale, and general effectiveness of a command. These
requirements are attained by the exercise of good judgement
and forethought in preparation and conduct of marches.
In large commands watches are synchronized or signals
prearranged to insure halting and starting of the columns
simultaneously.
b. Halts during a day's march provide opportunity for
short rests, for answering calls of nature, and for the adjust-
ment of equipment. Night halts, in addition, form a link
between the march of one day and the operations of the
following day. In a way, the encampment of troops for a
night may be considered as the beginning of the operations
for the next day. Therefore, the military situation forms
the controlling element in the decision, plan, and preparation
thereof.
1
13. Halts on the march.
a. Periodic rest halts.--On the march, periodic rest halts.
are prescribed and regulated by column commanders. Fre-
quency and length of halts are primary factors in the suc-
cessful conduct of a march. They require intelligent and
careful estimations of the psychology of the march as
affected by the physical condition of troops, nature of the
weather, condition of road, length of march, and loads
carried by the men. The correct understanding of these
factors assists commanders in conserving the endurance
of the men, and is an essential factor in building and main-
taining the spirit and morale cheerfully to meet and over-
come the hardships and fatigue incident to all marches.
0. Localities selected for halts.- The place and method
of halting in long rest halts, especially when the troops are
to be supplied a meal from the rolling kitchens, are largely
decided by the availability of water and in hot weather, by
shade. In large commands, in order to obtain uniformity
PS
TY.
1
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
21
R
11
LUI
of rest and to prevent overcrowding, it is desirable that
the halt be made where the available water supply lies
generally parallel to the line of march, or, in an area where
several small streams cross the route of march, within the
space occupied by the column. .
- C. Unscheduled halts.--When halts are caused by un-
expected interruptions or orders, information as to the
probable duration of the halt, and other necessary instruct-
ions, should be promptly and rapidly transmitted to sub-
ordinate commanders, in order that the troops may be
disposed in the best manner for the rest and for the resumpt-
ion of the march" when ordered. In addition, when a long
halt is involved, a staff officer should be sent to orient the
principal subordinate commanders on the situation. :
d. Security during the halt is provided by the establish-
ment of a march outpost.
14. Halts for the night.
A halt upon the conclusion of a day's march, or what is
commonly known as a halt for the night, involves placing
the command in camp, bivouacs, or billets. It is here
that the commander can and should exercise his greatest
influence for the comfort of his troops. He and his staff,
by timely forethought and directions, make all preparations
necessary to enable the troops to reach their respective
camp sites and go into camp with the least possible incon-
venience or delay. Special care is exercised to insure the
troops being able to move directly from their places in the
column to their respective encamping areas, without counter
marching, crossing columns, or unnecessary detours. The
halting of columns to wait camping instructions or inform-
ation is most irritating to troops, and indicates lack of
proper preparation on the part of a commander and his
staff.
ar
LES
15. Halts when not in the presence of the enemy.
a. The underlying principle to be followed, in the absence
of any tactical requirements, is careful provision for the
22
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
good health and comfort of the troops, hence, to this end,
all other matters are made subservient. When the distance
to be covered involves several days' march, and conditions
are such that routes can be reconnoitered and halting places
selected some time in advance, the orders for the march
should provide regulations for routine administration and
the conduct of troops during halts. Such regulations, or
standing orders, should cover necessary provisions for
quartering parties to precede the command each day, hours
of service calls, and general arrangements governing supply,
Under such conditions, formal field orders are necessary,
as the instructions for the march state the destination and
general location of encamping areas.
b. Measures to be taken before dismissing troops. --Be-
fore troops are allowed to break formation and disperse
it is important that all duties incident to going into camp
shall have been completed, instructions, not covered in
standing orders, governing the conduct of the troops dur-
ing the period of the halts, published and understood by
all, and guard and other necessary details made. Rolling
kitchens should arrive promptly and the evening meal
served very shortly after the command goes into camp.
16. Halts in the presence of the enemy.
a. Governing principle. From the moment a command
enters the zone of hostile influence, its readiness for maneuv-
er into line of battle is the underlying principle governing
its disposition and formation at all times.
b. Comfort and health of troops.-At halts for the night,
a command is required to regulate its mode of encampment
according to the degree of precaution which the information
of the enemy may impose. The comfort of the troops, though
important, must be made subservient to tactical require-
ments. Military necessity may leave little choice in the
selection of camp sites, but in any situation, the basic re-
quirements of sanitation should receive every consideration
consistent with the tactical situation.
c. Necessary plan for future tactical employment.--The
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
23
principle that a definite plan of action is the first essential
to the solution of a tactical problem applies to halts as well
as to all other military operations. The commander who
encamps his command in the presence of the enemy, with-
out reference to a definite plan for its future tactical employ-
ment, is playing into his opponent's hands, and inviting
disaster.
17. Halts after contact has been gained.
a. Disposition of the troops. In the immediate presence
of the enemy, the troops, however encamped, must be
placed and disposed so as to favor a prompt advance in
battle formation to meet any probable action of the enemy.
The relative position of the larger combat elements must
be such as to offer mutual protection and support. Support-
ing arms, especially artillery and tanks must be located
with special reference to the troops supported. Necessary
lateral movement, in development for battle, must be fore-
seen and provided for in the initial dispositions for the
halt. Reconnoitering cavalry should be required to continue
its functions during daylight of providing security and of
gaining information, especially during the establshment
of the outpost. Upon the approach of darkness, the bulk
of the cavalry engaged in local reconnaissance is withdrawn
to a position by the outpost, where it should be given every
opportunity for rest and recuperation preparatory to prompt
resumption of its duties at daylight.
6. The time and place of halting.-The most important
decision imposed upon the commander of an independent
force in contact with the enemy, is the selection of the
time and place of halting. Questions of further endurance
and continued fitness of his troops, as affected by weather
considerations and necessity for extending the march, are
vital considerations. Many important tactical principles
are involved, the application of which varies with the mis-
sion of the force, the character of the terrain, and the com-
mander's knowledge of the position, strength, and inten-
tion of the enemy.
C
24
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
7
AU
A
P
17
C. Location should be tactically advantageous.-(1) The
decision as to location should always be such as to gain
for the command some important tactical advantage. The
character of the terrain should be favorable to battle. Care
must be taken that the camp is not commanded by higher
ground that may be occupied by the enemy, and that, with-
in the position, no serious obstacle exists to tactical maneuv-
er, unity of action, or freedom of communication.
(2) On arriving in close proximity to an unfordable
stream or difficult mountain pass, the question of when
and where to halt becomes of paramount tactical importance.
When the mission is aggressive, gaining the far side of the
obstacle may easily prove of decisive importance; but, when
the mission is of a defensive or delaying nature, the utiliza-
tion of the obstacle as a protective measure, may be an
important consideration. Under no condition should the
halt find the main body astride the obstacle.
d. Development for battle. ---When combat is imminent,
the development for battle should occur simultaneously
with the halt. The formation at such a halt is generally
a position in readiness, possessing depth and flexibility.
The chief factor to be guarded against is over extension
laterally. A development for the halt with regiments a.
breast is based on a predetermined plan and direction of
attack and should be considered permissible only when the
commander's knowledge of the position and movements of
the enemy is definite and absolute. In war, this condition
should not be expected to obtain immediately upon gain-
ing contact with the enemy, hence the principle of greater
depth and flexibility of formation is the one usually followed.
e. The issue of the halt order.-In accordance with the
principle that the disposition of troops at a halt should be
such as to facilitate resumption of the inarch or prepared-
ness for combat, it is important that the commander delay
his halt order until definite information of the enemy is
at hand. This information may be wholly positive or chiefly
negative, but, in any event, it should be such as to enable
the commander to make his decision and to order his dis-
TTTT
85
1
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
.
25
positions, with confidence that the preparation and arrange-
ments, as affecting the main body of the command, will
not require changes as a result of information received later
in the day. It is important, however, that the order for
the halt be issued at the earliest hour possible, in order
that the maximum preparation and arrangements may be
made for the reception of the troops, consistent with the
tactical situation and the proximity of the enemy,
· f. Special considerations. Considerations must be given
to concealment from air observation afforded by wooded
areas, and the influence of the tactical situation on the
disposition and formation of the command. The depth of
the camping area is dependent entirely upon tactical re-
grirements; uniformity of rest and comfort of troops are
of secondary importance. It frequently occurs that quarter-
ing parties are able to precede the command by very short
distances only; the degree of preparation they are able to
effect, under these conditions, is directly proportional to
their previous training and the amount of confidence im-
posed in them by their commanders.
1
18. Outposts.
The advance guard takes over the duties of security at
a halt. The halt order generally should direct the advance
guard commander to establish the outpost, prescribe the
general line to be held in case of attack, and the location of
the reserve. In forces the size of a brigade or smaller,
the outpost frequently comprises the entire advance guard,
and the advance guard commander becomes the outpost com-
mander and issues his orders accordingly.
19. Establishing the main body.
a. In carrying out the dispositions prescribed for the
halt, and establishing the main body, the minds of all com-
manders should be centered on quiet and orderly procedure,
certainty of action, and avoidance of lost motion. It is
of utmost importance that command posts and channels
of communication be established with least practicable de-
26
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
lay. The period during which a command is dispersed
between routes of march and encamping areas frequently
involves moments of anxiety for the commander. It there
fore becomes the duty of every subordinate to reduce this
time to a minimum by avoiding delays, crossing of columns,
confusion and loss of direction.
b. Certain commanders to precede troops to camp sites.-
All commanders, down to include battalions, should arrive
on the ground sufficiently in advance of their troops to
become acquainted with local conditions and receive the
orders of their immediate superiors. Upon arrival of their
units, they should be prepared immediately to issue all
1
regards precautions necessary for the protection of the com-
mand, restrictions as regard the use of lights and fires,
degree of readiness to be maintained, places of assembly,
and conduct of troops in case of attack. As an important
precaution against possible confusion at night, troops should
be required to occupy their designated assembly places
at least once before dark.
20. Halt orders.
Halt orders should orient subordinates on the enemy
situation, prescribe the general area to be occupied by the
larger elements of the command, measures for security,
degree of readiness to be maintained and general disposition
and use of trains, when necessary. For units the size of a
battalion or smaller assembly points should be designated.
SECTION III.
21
22.
23
CAMPS AND SHELTER.
Paragraph.
Types of stations
Military camps ....
Character of shelter
Classes of shelter ..........
Location of camps
Quartering parties
Camp routine
Camp sanitation ...
Approximate areas required for semipermanent camps
and for bivouacs
24
---........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
27
21. Types of stations.
There are two general types of military stations, (1)
military posts, and (2) military camps. Military posts
are permanent military stations in which troops are quarter-
ed both in peace and war. Military camps are temporary
or semi-permanent military stations.
22. Military camps.
(1) Mobilization camps.—Mobolization camps are
camps used for the reception of all unorganized personnel,
and for the mobilization of all organized units not specifically
assigned and directed to join designated higher units. They
are generally located in the territory from which the troops
are drawn.
(2) Concentration camps.-Concentration camps are
camps located near the scene of intended opérations, where
troops are assembled preparatory to immediate use against
the enemy.
(3) Embarkation camps.-Embarkation camps are
camps located near a port of embarkation, where troops
are sheltered, fed, and administered, while waiting embark-
ation,
(4) Debarkation camps.--Debarkation camps are
camps located near a port of debarkation, where troops are
sheltered, fed, and administered while waiting further
transportation.
(5) Rest camps.-Rest camps are located in rear areas
in a theatre of operations, where troops are assembled for
rest, recreation, replacement and refitting.
(6) Training camps.-Training camps are camps where
troops are assembled for training either in peace or time
of war.
(7) Manuever camps.-Manuever camps are camps
where troops are assembled for combined training for field
manuevers.
TY
1
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
semi-permanent, or temporary, depending on the length
of the period of contemplated occupancy.
23. Character of shelier.
a. The character of shelter in each camp is determined
by the special conditions existing in each situation. The
underlying principle is to provide the best shelter and
camp facilities permitted by the military situation. To
this end, whenever the situation permits, tents, baggage,
and other equipment are provided, and the camp made as
comfortable as practicable. Whenever practicable camps
are improved by utilization of temporary structures, local
buildings, and facilities.
b. The character of shelter is dictated by:
(1) The tactical considerations. These are paramount
at all times.
(2) The purpose for which the camp is established.
(3) The location and probable period of occupation
of the camp.
(4) The practicability of transporting and utilizing
camp facilities, conveniences, and equipment.
(5) Camp equipment, available or obtainable.
24. Classes of shel'er.
There are five general classes of shelter. They are:
a. Bivouacs.—Troops are in bivouac when resting on
the round. covered only by shelter tents, hastily improvised
shelter, or no she'ter at all. From a tactical viewpoint,
bivouacs are very convenient, but from a viewpoint of com-
fort, rest, and freedom from exposure, they are undesirable.
They are used only when required by tactical or training
conditions. Bivolac is the normal type of shelter used in
the presence of the enemy, and the type frequently used
on marches in time of peace..
b. Tent camps..—Troops are in tent camps when sheltered
by tentage, other than shelter tents. Tents may be the
shelter provided at the establishment of a camp, or a tent
camp may develop from a bivouac. Tent camps provide
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
shelter for short periods of time when better shelter is not
available or practicable. They are used in peace when troops
are in camp in the field; in forward areas in war when
practicable, and no better shelter is available; and, in both
peace and war, at all semipermanent camps, when necessary
to supplement other shelter.
C. Billets. Troops are in billet when occupying private
or public buildings.
(1) Billeting in dwellings in the United Sattes and
its possessions is limited by the 3rd Amendment to the
Constitution which provides that "no soldier shall, in time
of peace, be quartered in any house without consent of the
owner; nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed
by law.” Billeting in occupied dwelling houses is rarely
if ever used in the United States under any consideration.
In enemy territory it is resorted to at the will of the com-
mander when shelter of this character is the most advantage-
ous in the particular situation. It is not convenient
from an administrative standpoint and, is inadvisable from
a tactical viewpoint when there is danger of a hostile surprise
attack. Careful inspections and strict enforcement of
sanitary rules are necessary in order to protect the health
of the troops. Families are not removed from their dwell-
ings if it can be avoided .
(2) Billeting in large private or public buildings pro-
vides many comforts, and is convenient; but unless the
force is small, it is often difficult to find sufficient buildings
to supply shelter for all troops. In the United States,
public buildings may be requisitioned during domestic dis-
turbances or in war when other shelter is not avail-
able, especially when desired to house sick and wounded,
or to provide cover for perishable supplies. So long, how-
ever, as buildings are proffered or they can be rented at
reasonable rates, seizure is avoided. In enemy territory,
public and private buildings may be used to shelter troops
and for other military purposes. When such buildings
are required, demand for their possession is made on the
ciyil authorities.
7
YY
1
30
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
i
.
:d. Cantonments.- Troops are in cantonment when living
in specially improvised huts or buildings. The type of
structure is usually determined by the materials immediately
available, although portable buildings of special design may
be used. Cantonments may be originally constructed as
such, or may řesult from improvement of bivouacs and
tent camps. They provide few if any of the usual con-
veniences and comfort provided in barracks and are often
inadequate for the size of the command. Cantonments are
employed when permanent construction is impracticable;
when it is desired to provide better protection against.
the weather than that afforded by tentage, or when tentage
is not available. Cantonments are often used in the com-
munications zone. They may be used in combat zones
during periods of stabilization. They may be used in the
zone of the interior to supplement the housing facilities
provided by permanent and temporary barracks.
e. Barracks.—Troops are in barracks when living in
buildings specially constructed or remodeled for their use:
Permanent barracks are the normal peace time shelter.
They provide necessary facilities, utilities and comforts.
Temporary barracks, approximating the comforts and con-
veniences of permanent structures, are provided in war,
or under special demands in peace, at the more permanent
camps, both in the zone of the interior and in the com-
munications zone.
.
25. Location of camps.
a. Camps are located primarily to meet service require-
ments. These requirements may be strategical or tactical,
or may be those of mobilization, training, or supply. Further
important considerations are those of transportation and
communication facilities, sanitation, comfort, service facili-
ties and utilities, and wholesome sources of recreation and
diversion.
b. Sanitary considerations are given all the weight
possible consistent with the primary requirements. Un-
sanitary sites may cause greater losses than battle. When
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
31.
YS
the service requirements do not prevent, especially when
the camp is to be occupied for some time, great care is
exercised in selecting camp sites. The advice of a medical
officer is always required. The following sanitary con-
siderations are important:
: (1) Healthful areas, easily drained, and as far as possi-
ble from stagnant water. Closely cropped turf with
sandy or gravelly subsoil is desirable. Marshy ground is
objectionable. Ground near the floor of a range of hills
generally has a damp subsoil and remains muddy for a
long time. Thick forests, dense vegetation, made ground,
alluvial soil, and punchbowl depressions are unfavorable.
(2) Sufficient water supply, easily accessible, pure,
and not liable to contamination from any source. If from
small streams the supply may be increased by building
dams. If from springs the supply may be increased by dig-
ging out and lining with stone, brick, or empty barrels.
Barrels sunk below the spring to catch the overflow in-
creases the supply. Surface drainage is kept off by a
curb of clay.
C. Considerations of comfort and convenience contribute
directly to the efficiency of the command. The following
are important:
(1) That the area be large enough for the encamp-
ment of troops without crowding.
(2) That there be good roads to the camp and good
interior communications.
(3) That supplies be at hand or obtainable.
(4) That the camps be laid out, when practicable, so
as to preserve the integrity of units. The headquarters
of each unit, is centrally or conveniently located with
respect to its troops, and, when practicable, is connected
by wire with subordinate and service headquarters. Unit
trains are placed so as to interfere as little as possible with
the comfort and cleanliness of the troops.
(5) That in hot weather the camps, if practicable, be
high, free from underbrush, and shaded with trees. In
cold weather, ground sloping to the south, with woods to
S
1
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
break the north wind is desirable. Old camp grounds, in-
closed ravines, and dry stream beds are undesirable.
(6) That wood, grass, forage, and supplies, be at hand
or readily obtainable. Towns and large farms often afford
facilities, such as water supply, bakeries, blacksmith
shops, material for repairs, fuel and forage, which contribute
to the comfort of the troops.
(7) That, when practicable, the form of the camp be
such as to facilitate the prompt encampment of troops
after a march, and their prompt departure when camp
is broken, without passing through the camp of other units.
The forms of camps depend upon the tactical situation
and the amount and nature of ground available. In certain
cases it may be necessary for troops in small groups, pay-
ing great attention to 'concealment while in other cases,
where a more extended halt is contemplated, and where
tactical conditions permit, better camp sanitation may be
secured and more comfortable arrangements made by the
expansion of camp areas. Undue dispersion is avoided.
(8) That, in addition to the above, camps of some
duration have ample space for exercise and instruction,
facilities for the comfort and health of the troops, and ample
railroad facilities with suitable arrangements for loading
and unloading troops and supplies.
(a) When practicable all accommodations are complet-
ed before the arrival of the troops, and all supplies are pro-
vided by permanent camp personnel belonging to the camp,
or by personnel sent ahead for the purpose. :
(b) Messing facilities, baths, and latrines are pro-
vided and arrangements made for telegraph, telephone, and
light service. Hospitals are established at convenient points
away from the noise and dust of traffic. Depots and store-
houses are placed near railroad sidings.
; (c) Troops temporarily present are held in constant
readiness to move. Individuals, troops, or trains, of these
organizations are not attached to the permanent camp
personnel or utilized to perform camp routine, except for
training purposes, if it can be avoided. It is the function
of the permanent camp personnel to operate depots and
IT
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
33
LL
hospitals, and to maintain camp signal lines and other
camp utilities.
26. Quartering parties.
a. In establishing temporary camp or billets, or on arriv-
ing near an area where quarters are provided, commands
send forward a quartering party, consisting of one or more
staff officers, a medical officer, and represenatives of the
several units, for the purpose of selecting areas for the
larger fractions of the command. The officer in charge
of the party selects the camp site, or in case of billets or
camps, confers with the district or town commander, or
if none, with the civil authorities or the camp commander,
makes an equitable division of the available area into
distinct sections, and assigns a section to the representative
of each large unit of the command. The latter distributes
the area, billets, or quarters, to the troops of his unit, and
conducts them to their places upon arrival. In special
cases the quartering officer secures supplies.
b. The quartering party of a regiment on the march
usually consists of:
A line or staff officer (quartering officer),
A supply officer,
A medical officer,
The battalion sergeant major, or other representative
from each battalion,
A supply sergeant of each company,
In addition, the quartering party should include the
officer of the day, a detail of the guard, and two men of each
company for fatigue.
1
27. Camp routine.
a. In camps of some duration, guard and other routine
duties follow closely the custom in garrison.
b. In temporary camps the following routine measures
are adopted:
(1) On the arrival of troops, guards are posted to
enforce the proper use of water supply. Places are designat-
31
LV
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
1
ed for obtaining drinking and cooking water, for watering
animals, for bathing and for washing clothes. If the water
supply is from a small stream, the above places are designat-
ed in order named from upstream down. Troops pitch tents
and care for animals and equipment. Kitchens are establish-
ed, and details are made to procure water, fuel, and forage,
and to prepare latrines and kitchen pits. If necessary,
tents, company streets, and picket lines, are ditched. In
the presence of the enemy, places of assembly for the troops
are designated and directions are given for their conduct
in case of attack. Liaison is established with the outpost.
(2) Arms and personal equipment are kept in the
tents of the men. In the cavalry, horse equipment is usually
kept in the tents, but in camps of some duration it may
be placed on racks outside and covered with slickers. In
the artillery, horse equipment and harness are placed on
the poles of the carriages and covered with paulins.
(3) When troops are to remain in camp for some
time, all underbrush is cleared away and the camp made
as comfortable as possible. If practicable watering troughs
and shelter are provided for the animals.
T
TA
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28. Camp sanitation.
a. Officers and soldiers of all arms are required to have
a knowledge of sanitation and its importance, to the end
that no depletion of the fighting force may occur through
avoidable causes. The importance of adopting and carry-
ing out proper sanitary measures cannot be over estimat-
ed.
b. Commanders of all grades are responsible for the
sanitary conditions of the quarters or localities occupied
by their commands, and for the enforcement of all sanitary
regulations.
C. The sanitary inspector of each unit or camp is. charg-
ed with investigating the sanitary conditions of the unit
to which he is attached, and with reporting thereon to
the surgeon and to commanders of subordinate units.
d. At permanent stations and semi-permanent camps,
sanitary regulations are issued for each camp. At temporary
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
35
YU
camps, standing or special orders are enforced. The follow-
ing provisions for the health of the command are observed
(1) Men are not permitted to lie on damp ground
when it can be avoided. In temporary camps, beds are
raised by utilizing straw, leaves, or other suitable material.
In cold weather, when fuel is plentiful, the ground on which
the beds are to be placed may be warmed by fires.
(2) When there is doubt as to its purity, the water
is chlorinated or boiled twenty minutes, then cooled and
aerated.
. (3) Camps are kept in thorough police at all times.
They are policed daily after breakfast and all refuse matter
is burned or buried. Tent walls are raised, and the bedding
and clothing are aired daily, weather permitting.
(4) Latrines for the men are always located on the
opposite side of the camp from the kitchens, generally one
for each company and one for the officers of a battalion.
They are so placed that the drainage or overflow cannot
pollute the water supply or camp grounds. When the camp
is for one night only, straddle trenches suffice. In camps,
of longer duration, and when it is not possible to provide
latrine boxes, as for permanent camps, deeper trenches are
dug. These may be used as straddle trenches, or seats may
be improvised. When open trenches are used, the excrement
is kept covered at all times with a layer of earth. In more:
permanent camps, the trenches are suitably screened, and
are not over two feet wide, six feet deep, and in length
proportionate to the strength of the organization using them.
The number of seats, when practicable, is one-tenth of that
of the strength of the command. At least twenty inches of
running trench is allowed for each seat.
(5) When practicable, seats with lids are provided
and covered to keep flies from reaching the deposits; urinal
troughs discharging into trenches are provided. Each day
the latrine boxes are thoroughly cleaned outside by scrub-
bing and inside by applying, when necessary, a coat of oil.
The pit is sprayed with oil or burned out daily. When
filled to within two feet of the surface, latrines are dis-
carded, filled with earth, and their position marked. All
TE
.
. 36
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
36
latrinės and kitchen pits are filled in before camp is broken.
In permanent camps and cantonments, urine tubs may be
placed in the company streets at night and emptied after
reveille.
29. Approximate areas required for semipermanent
camps and for bivouacs.
:...
-..

.
W
:.
-
.-
- -
-
.-
-
-
-
-
Bivouac
Semi-
permanent
camp.
Dimensions, .
yards.
Dimensions,
Yards:
Unit.

depth
breadth
Acres
depth
breadth
Acres :
Infantry brigade head-
quarters and headqrs.
company ...........
Infantry regiment .......
Infantry brigade .........-----
Field artillery regiment
(75-mm gun) ............
435
435
435
1 25 | 2.3
1 540 148.5
1135 1102
]
. 10
20
285
600
440
21
435
1 500
ſ 45
19.1
(1) The dimensions and areas in the foregoing table
serve only as a guide, in the selection of camp sites.
Tactical and terrain considerations determine the actual
dimensions and areas.
(2) Areas are computed on the basis of war strength
organization.
(3) One yard per animal on picket line and a width
of ten feet per vehicle is allowed in both semi-permanent
camps and bivouacs.
b. In semi-permanent camps the computed areas are based
on:
(1) The use of large pyramidal tents for enlisted
men at the rate of 8 men per tent.
(2) The use of small wall tents for officers.
(3) A distance of 8 yards between centers of adjacent
MARCHES-CAMPS--SHELTER.
37
pyramidal tents and a width of 20 yards for company streets
between centers of tents on opposite sides of street.
(4) A distance of 20 yards between adjacent picket
lires, rows of guns, or carraiges in park.
.. (5) In semi-permanent camps, the areas given provide
for comfort and convenience, except under unusual con-
ditions. These areas can be reduced 20% by narrowing
company streets and using the space between company
latrines and the organization tents for carraige parks and
picket lines. No parade or drill grounds or athletic fields
are included.
C. In bivouacs the computed areas are based on:
(1) The use of single shelter tents in one row, with
10 yards distance between rows, center to center.
(2) A distance of 12 yards between adjacent picket
lines, except when picket lines are formed between guns,
gun carriages, or wagons.
(3) A distance of 20 yards, center to center, between
rows of guns, carriages, or wagons.
d. The bivouac areas represent minimum requirements
under favorable conditions of terrain. A slight contrac-
tion of area can be effected by using double shelter tents
or double rows of shelter tents. These bivouac areas are
increased whenever practicable, particularly for sanitary
reasons and where the camp is to be occupied for more
than one night.
e. The number of acres in a rectangular tract equals
the product of one-seventieth of the length in yards by
one-seventieth of the breadth in yards. One acre = 4840
square yards.
1
SECTION IV.
SECURITY
Paragraph
The security of a command is insured by covering de-
tachments
......
30. The security of a command is insured by covering
detachments.
During an advance, these comprise advance guards; dur-
MARCHES-CAMPS-SHELTER.
ing a retreat, rear guards; in camp or cantonment, out-
posts. The security of the flanks of a marching command
is, when necessary, afforded by flank guards. The detail
of a rear guard during an advance and of an advance guard
during a retreat may sometimes be necessary. The sub-
ject of security is covered in detail in other conferences.
41501
U
A!
THE REGIMENT, REGIMENTAL
HEADQUARTERS, AND
HEADQUARTERS COMPANY
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE:
The Regiment, Regimental Headquarters
and Headquarters Company.
First Section.
BY:
DATE TO CLASS:
Refresher Course 31 Oct. 23.
Advanced Course 25 Feb. 24.
Company Officers' Course 28 Apr. 24.
N. G. & R. 0. Course, 27 May, 24.
FOLLOW
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA.
1923-1924.
23__Benning, Ga., 1-10-24—2750
THE REGIMENT, REGIMENTAL HEADQUARTERS,
AND HEADQUARTERS COMPANY.
TIIUIVUUCLIQI wenn...-..
Paragraphs.
SECTION 1. Introduction
· II. The regiment (organization)..
III Regimental headquarters (mission, organiza-
tion and duties) ...........
IV. Regimental headquarters company (organiza-
tion)
6-10
---- ....... 3-5
SECTION I.
INTRODUCTION.
Paragraph.
Scope -------
.............
----.....
1
LL
1. Scope.
a. This conference contains a discussion of the organiza-
tion of the infantry regiment, of the mission, organization,
and duties of the regimental headquarters, and of the
organization of the regimental headquarters company.
b. A detailed discussion of the organization of the units
comprising the regiment other than the headquarters and
the headquarters company will be covered in other con-
ferences on organization.
C. A detailed discussion of the mission, functioning, and
duties of the headquarters company and subdivisions there-
of is contained in the pamphlet “Combat Principles, the In-
fantry Regimental Headquarters Company' and will not
be given in this conference.
1
.
SECTION II.
THE REGIMENT.
Organization ...----
Paragrap!ı.
............ 2
THE REGT.; REGTLMT
TIL
. HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
7
2. Organization.
The infantry regiment consists of a headquarters, a head-
quarters company, a service company, a howitzer company,
and three battalions with a detachment of the medical
department (11 officers and 87 enlisted men) and two chap-
lains, attached, making a total of 116 officers, 1 warrant
officer and 3,037 enlisted men or an aggregate of 3,154
for the regiment.
.
SECTION III.
REGIMENTAL HEADQUARTERS.
Paragraph.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
*
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
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-
-
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4
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4
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· Mission
Organization
Duties
Go To
3. Mission.
Regimental headquarters provides personnel to command
the regiment with attached units and to perform the regi-
mental staff functions of coordination, direction, super-
vision, and operation.
LU
4. Organization.
The regimental headquarters consists of the following
personnel :
a. 1 colonel-regimental commander--CO.
b. 1 lieutenant colonel-regimental executive (second in
command)-R Ex.
C. The executive staff.
1 captain-the adjutant ....................R1
1 captain-the intelligence officer ...........R2
1 captain--the plans and training officer......
1 captain—the supply officer ..............R4
d. In addition to the officers enumerated in the preceding
subparagraph, there are other officers who are a part of
headquarters and members of the regimental commander's
technical staff. They are:
R3
THE REGT., REGTL, HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
5
1 major-the machine gun officer............RMGO
- 1 first lieutenant—the munitions officer ....... Mun 0
1 second lieutenant-assistant to the machine gun
officer.
e. Certain other officers may be on duty at regimental
headquarters who are members of the commanding officer's
technical staff, but, strictly speaking, are not a component
of the headquarters. These officers, varying in number,
are the technical advisers of the commanding officer
and staff in the use of their particular weapon, branch or
service such as communications, pioneer work, howitzers,
artillery (attached), chemical warfare (attached). The
first three referred to are always present in the regiment,
the others may or may not be present. Their duties are
discussed in other conferences.
f. There is sometimes present at the command post anoth-
er class of officers, composed of those who are not members
of the regiment or attached units. These officers represent-
ing adjacent or supporting units or higher headquarters
are present as liaison officers. The officers referred to in
this subparagraph will not be discussed in this conference.
IS,
1
5. Duties.
d. Colonel-commanding officer-CO.
(1) Like most other commanding officers, the regi-
mental commander is personally responsible for the train-
ing, administration, supply, tactical efficiency, and employ-
ment of his regiment and for the effective and proper use
of attached units.
(2) To enable him properly to perform these functions,
he is provided with an executive officer and a staff. It is
thru these and the unit commanders that the commanding
officer controls the regiment. While the staff will relieve
him from many details pertaining to his duties, it does not
in any way relieve him from any of the responsibilities of
command nor does it transfer any of the power to com-
mand to a staff officer. The staff may and undoubtedly
will issue orders in the name of the commanding officer
S
THE REGT., REGTL. HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
VV
AI
but this in no way relieves the latter from any of the re-
sponsibility of command which is vested in him.
(3) He maintains contact with the situation and his
command by means of his staff and by personal reconnais-
sance. In combat the latter means is resorted to only
when his presence is more necessary elsewhere than at the
command post. It is at the command post that he can control
the regiment to best advantage and it is here that he usually
will be found.
(4) While away from his command post he is generally
accompanied by sufficient personnel to enable him to com-
municate with every unit for which he is responsible. This
party, known as the regimental commander's reconnais-
sance party, will also contain such commissioned officers
as the situation may require.
(5) He utilizes his executive officer as an intermediary
between himself and his staff.
b. Lieutenant colonel-executive-second-in-command-
R Ex.
(1) The lieutenant colonel is the executive officer and
second in command of the regiment.
(2) He co-ordinates and supervises the activities of
the units of the regiment and of the staff and the command
post.
(3) He must be in possession of all information re-
garding the position, strength, and movement of the units
in his command.
(4) He must know the status of supplies, casualties,
replacements, morale, training, etc., within the regiment.
(5) He must keep fully informed of all enemy activities.
(6) He must keep constantly in mind an estimate of
the current situation and an outline of a plan of action
based on that estimate and the plans and policies of the
commanding officer.
(7) He relieves the commanding officer of all details
and routine matters possible.
(8) He is the intermediary between the commander
and his staff and troops.
THE REGT., REGTL. HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
5
.
.
mm
.
-
* *.-
.
VE
(9) He is responsible for the proper functioning of
the staff. In this duty he functions as a chief of staff, the
officers comprising the staff being his advisers as to the
details of operations, enemy information, supply, and ad-
ministration.
(10) The executive, working so intimately with the
regimental commander will occupy the same office at the
command post as the latter.
(11) He will be a close confidant of the commanding
officer, have a full knowledge of the latter's plans and policies,
and must always act in accordance with them.
(12) As second-in-command his principal duty is to
represent the commander during the latter's absence from
the command post. This is a most important duty that
must be assumed and never evaded.
(13) The second-in-command remains at the command
post during the commander's absence therefrom because
it is at that place that he can represent the commander
and perform his other duties to best advantage.
(14) Should the regimental commander become a cas-
ualty, the second-in-command becomes the commander and
assumes full responsibility for the control of the regiment.
(15) He designates the time for opening and clos-
ing the command post.
C. Captain-adjutant-R1.
(1) He is in charge of the personnel administrative
work of the regiment and is located in the forward echelon.
To assist him in this work he is provided with a first lieuten-
ant from the staff section, headquarters platoon of the
service company. This latter officer is located at the person-
nel office in the rear echelon.
(2) The administrative and personnel reports are sub- ·
· mitted by all units to R1 who sends them to the assistant
adjutant in the rear echelon where all such records and files
for the regiment are kept and routine administrative work
performed.
(3) He is responsible for the regimental personnel
administrative details. In this capacity he compiles the
1
8
THE REGT., REGTL, HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
1
17
a
OP
special and periodic casualty and strength reports for the
regiment.
(4) R1 keeps extracts of personnel and other reports
at the command post with him. They contain data usually
required by the regimental or higher commanders and are
kept constantly up to date by reports from his assistant,
the staff, by personal reconnaissance, and from other sources.
(5) He is responsible for collecting and forwarding
stragglers, securing replacements.
(6) He is the billeting officer for the regiment.
d. Captain-intelligence officer-R2.
(1). His post is at the command post.
(2) He commands the intelligence platoon of regi-
mental headquarters company in combat and is responsible
for its technical training.
(3) He is responsible for supervising and co-ordinat-
ing the training and functioning of the battalion intelligence
sections.
(4) He is responsible for the collection of enemy in-
formation in the regiment. He is responsible for the in-
terpretation, evaluation, formulation, and dissemination
of all enemy information received at the command post.
(5) He will be prepared at all times to submit to the
commander timely and accurate information of the enemy
and to offer sound tactical conclusions based thereon.
(6) He keeps the regimental commander constantly
informed of the latest reliable enemy information.
(7) He is responsible for making a hurried exami-
nation of prisoners and enemy documents reaching the com-
mand post and for sending them back in accordance with
existing instructions. The examination is very brief and
is usually confined to matters that are of immediate interest
and which pertain to the front of the regiment.
(8) He is responsible for the procurement and dis-
tribution of maps essential to the training and operation
of the regiment.
(9) He supervises the maintenance of the enemy situa-
tion map and intelligence journal.
r
0-
THE REGT., REGTL. HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
P
111
L
V
11I
bond
P
(10) He prepares and sends out such special and
periodic intelligence reports, intelligence estimates of the
situation, and intelligence annexes as may be required.
(11) He distributes the information received by him
as its character and orders may require.
e. Captain—plans and training officer--R3.
(1) His post is at the command post.
(2) He is charged with the execution of the details
pertaining to operations and training and is the advisor
to the regimental commander in these matters.
(3) He is charged with the preparation and distri-
bution of orders, messages, operation and training reports
and training schedules,
(4) He is responsible for and supervises keeping the
R3 situation map and is responsible for the maintenance
of the diary and journal of operations (R3 Journal).
(5) He keeps the commanding officer informed as
to the tactical situation of the regiment and adjacent
units and all matters affecting it.
(6) He supervises the establishment and movement
of the command post and, in general, all operations of the
communications platoon. In a contemplated move of the
command post, he designates the general location for the
communications platoon and for the other groups at the
command post.
(7) He maintains close liaison with the other staff
officers of the regiment, the battalion, and adjacent and
supporting units.
f. Captain--supply officer-R4.
(1) As the duties of this officer generally requires his.
presence in the rear echelon, his post is located there. He
will, however, go wherever his duties require.
(2) He is responsible for procuring, caring for (until
issued), distributing, issuing, and salvaging all supplies and
equipment for the regiment.
(3) He is responsible for the obligation bf funds
for the maintenance of the regiment (does not include pay
of troops and organization funds).
.
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THE REGT., REGTL. HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
RY
Om
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· (4) He is responsible for the operation of the plan
of supply adopted by the commanding officer.
(5) He is assisted by the battalion supply officers in
supervising, coordinating, and controlling the system of
supply in their respective battalions.
(6) He is also assisted by the following commissioned
personnel :
1 first lieutenant at the regimental distributing point.
1 second lieutenant at the same point to receive, store,
and distribute supplies.
1 first lieutenant at the division distributing point to
receive supplies from G4.
1 captain-munitions officer. (See paragraph g.)
(7) He consolidates requisitions for supplies received
from the companies.
(8) He will be prepared to recommend to the command-
ing officer a plan of supply or changes in the system of
supply.
g. Captain-munitions officer-Mun 0.
(1) His post is in the rear echelon with R4 to whom
he is an assistant.
(2) He is responsible for procuring, distributing, and
issuing munitions in the regiment.
(3) He establishes and commands the regimental muni-
tions distributing point and commands the munitions sec-
tion of the combat train.
(4) He consolidates requisitions for munitions re-
ceived from the companies and makes issues in accordance
therewith.
h. Major-machine gun officer-RMGO.
(1) His post is at the command post.
(2) He is the technical adviser to the commanding
officer on all matters relating to machine guns.
(3) He keeps the commander informed at all times
as to the training, efficiency, and tactical use of the machine
gun companies in the regiment.
(4) He is an adviser to the regimental commander
in the matter of co-ordination of machine guns in the plans
for attack or defense.
UL
THE REGT., REGTL. HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
TA
VI
(5) He makes such reports and recommendations as
will insure uniformity of training within the regiment,
correct deficiencies, or prepare units for special operations.
(6) He makes recommendations as to the tactical em-
ployment of machine guns.
(7) With the authority of the regimental commander
he makes such inspections and conducts such tests of the
machine gun companies as will keep him informed of their
condition, state of equipment, discipline, mobility, etc.
(8) He co-operates fully with the division machine
gun and howitzer officer in carrying out the policy and plans
of that officer.
(9) In attack and defense he keeps informed of the
situation, especially as concerns the progress and location
of machine guns. In defense his duties of co-ordinating
the machine gun locations is important. He forwards to the
division machine gun and howitzer officer a sketch show-
ing machine gun locations for the regimental sub-sector.
(10) His duties require personal reconnaissance to
enable him to keep informed as to the machine gun situation
and be in a position to make recommendations for any
necessary changes.
- (11) He commands the provisional machine gun bat-
talion, when formed.
nnn
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h. 2d lieutenant-assistant machine gun officer.
(1) He is in charge of the routine reports, corres-
pondence, records, etc., pertaining to the office of the machine
gun officer.
(2) He assists in the preparation of maps. (Showing
location of machine guns in the defense scheme).
· (3) When occasion demands, he assists the machine
gun officer in making reconnaissance. He is at the com-
mand post during the absence of the machine gun officer.
(4) When a provisional machine gun battalion is form-
ed he is the adjutant.
. (5) He may be used to assist other staff officers as
directed.
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THE REGT., REGTL. HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
SECTION IV.
REGIMENTAL HEADQUARTERS COMPANY.
(ORGANIZATION)
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Company headquarters ----
Intelligence section.
Pioneer platoon
Communications platoon
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6. General.
The general organization of the company is as follows:
a.~ Personnel.
Company headquarters— 1 officer 17 enlisted men
Intelligence section- .
18 enlisted men
Pioneer platoon-
1 officer 33 enlisted men
Communications platoon— 1 officer 53 enlisted men
Total-
3 officers 121 enlisted men
b. Transportation.
Horses, riding
Bicycles
Motorcars
Motorcycles
2
Trailor radio
Truck cargo, 11/2 or 2 ton
Field and combat trains are furnished by the Service
Company
C. Equipment.--The equipment is as prescribed in Tables
of Basic Allowances (Cir. 176, W.D. 1921, and Cir. 58, W.
D. 1923). There are 96 pistols and 28 rifles in the company,
3
7. Company headquarters.
1 captain, company commander, horse, pistol.
1 master sergeant, sergeant major, horse, pistol.
1 technical sergeant, first sergeant, pistol.
1 sergeant, assistant to munitions officer, pistol.
1 sergeant, mess sergeant, pistol.
1 sergeant, supply sergeant, pistol.
1 corporal, company clerk, pistol.
1 private, barber, rifle.
THE REGT., REGTL. HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
2 privates, chauffeurs, pistol.
1 private, cobbler, rifle.
3 private, cooks (first), pistol.
2 privates, cooks (assistants); pistol.
1 private, tailor, rifle.
1 private, miscellaneous, pistol.
Total:
1 officer.
17 enlisted men.
2 horses.
15 pistols.
3 rifles.
8. Intelligence section.
1 sergeant, interpreter, pistol.
1 sergeant, in charge of office, topographer, clerk, pistol.
1 sergeant, in charge of field force, rifle.
2 corporals, miscellaneous, rifle.
1 private, messenger, bicycle, pistol.
2 privates, observers, rifle.
10 privates, miscellaneous, rifles.
Total:
18 enlisted men.
1 bicycle
3 pistols.
15 rifles.
9. Pioneer platoon.
1 2d lieutenant, pistol.
1 sergeant, platoon sergeant, pistol.
4 corporals, squad leaders, pistol.
4 privates, carpenters, pistol.
4 privates, mechanics, pistol.
20 privates, miscellaneous, pistol.
Total:
1 officer.
33 enlisted men
34 pistols.
14
THE REGT., REGTL. HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
10. Communications platoon.
a. Platoon headquarters.
1 1st lieutenant-platoon commander, horse, pistol.
1 technical sergeant, assistant to platoon commander,
horse, pistol.
2 privates, mechanics, pistol.
b. Message center,
1 sergeant, section chief, pistol.
1 corporal, assistant to section chief, pistol.
4 privates, miscellaneous, pistol.
c. Messenger section.
1 sergeant, section chief, horse, pistol.
1 corporal, miscellaneous, horse, pistol.
7 privates, messengers, horse, rifle.
2 privates, messengers, bicycle, pistok:
2 privates, messengers, motorcycle, pistol.
d. Wire section.
1 sergeant, section chief, pistol.
1 corporal, construction, pistol.
1 corporal, operator, pistol.
8 privates, line guard, pistol.
2 privates, operators, pistol.
1 private, miscellaneous, pistol.
e. Radio and panel section.
1 sergeant, section chief, pistol.
2 corporals, operators, pistol.
3 privates, operators, pistol.
3 privates, miscellaneous, pistol.
f. Visual section.
1 sergeant, section chief, pistol.
1 corporal, operator, pistol.
3 privates, operators, 1 rifle, 2 pistol.
3 privates, miscellaneous, 1 riflė, 2 pistol.
THE REGT., REGTL, HDQ., AND HDQ. CO.
15
g. Total in platoon.
1 officer.
53 enlisted men.
2 bicycles.
11 horses.
2 motorcycles.
1 trailor, radio.
1 truck, cargo, 11/2 or 2 ton.
45 pistols.
9 rifles.
Note: The term private as used in this section includes
the term private, first class.
U
AIS
P7
OUTPOSTS
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Conference-: Outposts.
By ---- 1st Section.
Date to class: Advanced Course, 14 Apr. 24.
Refresher Course, 3 Dec. 23.
Company Officers Course,6 May 24.
N. G. & Res. Officers Course, 27 May 24.
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA.
1923-1924.
939_Benning, Ga., 11-12-23–3000
OUTPOSTS.
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Section 1. Introduction ............
Strength, composition and duties ...
III. The outpost position .......
IV. Distribution of troops .....
V. Orders for the outpost
VI. Establishing the outpost
Paragraph.
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4-10
11-15
16-22
23-25
26-32
SECTION I
INTRODUCTION.
Paragraph,
Definition ..............
Mission
General
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1. Definition.
An outpost is a covering detachment thrown out by
a command when halted, for the purpose of protection
against hostile enterprises.
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2. Mission.
a. The general misson of the outpost is the security of
the command. The accomplishment of this mission in-
volves reconnaissance, and it may involve defensive and
delaying actions.
b. It is charged with observation and resistance. It
observes the enemy within the limits of its area of opera-
tions, making such reconnaissance as may be required
for this purpose.
C. When practicable it gains and maintains contact
with the enemy.
TY
(3)
OUTPOST
d. It prevents hostile reconnoitering parties, raids, and
local attacks from approaching the camp or position of
the main body and develops and delays a general at-
tack for such time as may be required for the main body
to form and prepare for action.
3. General.
· The size, composition, disposition and conduct of the
outpost depends upon the following principal factors:
a. The special duties assigned the outpost.
b. The tactical disposition and mission of the main
body.
C. The proximity, activity and strength of the enemy.
d. The size and composition of the whole command.
e. The front to be covered, and the distance of the
outpost line of resistance from the position of the main
body.
f. The nature of the terrain, especially the road net.
g. The length of the opposing forces are expected to
be in contact.
SECTION II
STRENGTH, COMPOSITION, TROOP DUTIES.
Paragraph.
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Strength .
Troops ............
Composition
Infantry ..
Cavalry ....
Artillery
Engineers ....
CO @
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4. Strength.
The strength of the outpost is sufficient to accomplish
its mission, but is not greater than necessary for this pur-
pose. The proportionate strength may vary from a small
fraction up to a third of the command. The principles
OUTPOST
of maintaining the integrity of units is observed when
practicable. For forces larger than a brigade marching
toward the enemy, the outpost is usually composed of a
fraction of the advance guard; for smaller forces the
outpost frequently consists of the entire advance guard.
5. Troops.
The outpost for large forces, covering an extensive
front, is, usually furnished by the troops assigned to each
of the sectors into which the front is divided. In this
case, detailed instructions are required to properly co-
ordinate their action. In a retreat the outpost is usually
furnished from the main body.
6. Composition.
The outpost is composed of those troops most suitable
for the execution of its mission. In large commands it is
usually composed of all arms.
7. Infantry.'
Infantry, with its machine guns, constitutes the primary
element of the outpost. In the usual case, the special
weapons, which form an organic part of the units, or are
normally attached thereto, are sufficient. When requir-
ed additional special troops may be attached.
8. Cavalry.
Cavalry may be attached to the outpost. No more,
however, is attached than required to perform necessary
cavalry functions. When the enemy is distant, cavalry
attached to the outpost normally operates between the
outpost position and the enemy, when necessary remain-
ing out overnight, providing its own security. When the
forces approach each other, it withdraws at night behind
the outpost line, leaving small patrols on important dis-
tant roads and other avenues of approach to maintain
touch with the enemy and give warning of his movements,
OUTPOST
When the forces are in close contact, it normally pro-
vides the flank security.
1
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Artillery is attached to an outpost, or is held in position
to be immediately available for its support. In the event
that there is attached artillery with the outpost, it will
habitually be with the reserve so located as to cover sen--
sitive points in the front.
10. Engineers.
Engineers may be attached to the outpost when required
to perform enginer duties, which usually consist in assist-
ing in constructing the intrenchments, clearing the field
of fire, and opening communications laterally and to
the rear.
SECTION III
THE OUTPOST POSITION
Paragraph.
11
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Location and extent .........
Distance from the main body ...........
Depth ..............
Frontage ....................
Organization ...........
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11. Location and extent.
The location and extent of the outpost position depends
upon:
a. The strentgh and mission of the command; inten-
tions of the commander; tactical situation; terrain; loca-
tion, strength, and activity of the enemy.
b. If the outpost is not intended to be held, its location
is selected principally with reference to facilities for ob-
servation.
C. If the outpost line is to be held, its location is selected
with reference primarily to its defense.
OUTPOST
12. Distance from the main body,
The distance of the outpost from the main body de-
pends upon the size of the whole force, the terrain, and
the hostile situation.
A. The line of resistance of the outpost for the camp
or bivouac of a small independent force is located far
enough from the camp, or bivouac, to protect it from
hostile rifle fire and machine gun fire.
b. The line of resistance of the outpost for the camp or
bivouac of a force of all arms is located far enough from
the camp or bivouac, to protect it from effective hostile
artillery fire from light guns.
c. In any event, the distance depends, to a great ex-
tent, upon the terrain, and upon observation which the
enemy may obtain.
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13. Depth.
An outpost position normally contains a line of ob-
servation and a line of resistance. The distance be-
tween the line of observation and the line of resistance
depends upon the terrain and the hostile situation. It
may vary widely on different parts of the same outpost,
vation is often nearer the line of resistance than it is
during the day.
14. Frontage.
The front which an outpost may cover will depend upon
the size of the main body; the road net; the character,
strength, proximity, and probable intentions of the
enemy; and the terrain. Other considerations which
enter into the determination of frontage are whether in
friendly or hostile territory and weather conditions.
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15. Organization.
do Positions held by subdivisions of the outpost are
generally prepared for defense, but at times the situation
OUTPOST
or the mission assigned the outpost. renders this imprac-
ticable or unnecessary. The line of resistance is ordinari-
ly too extensive to be uniformly occupied throughout.
For this reason outpost troops concentrate their main
efforts on the most important part, or parts, of the front,
I
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mainly, with observing the important roads and avenues
of approach. In case of a surprise attack, an outpost
holds at all costs the important part, or parts, of its line of
resistance.
b. The outpost may be required to hold a designated
position on which the main body is to form for action,
or to hold a designed position while the hostile attack
is being developed and while the main body is being
assembled and prepared for action, or to develop and
delay a hostile general attack for such time as may be
required for the main body to prepare for action on a
position in rear. . Against surprise attacks the outpost is
often required to hold at all costs until the main body is
assembled and prepared for action. As soon as it has
accomplished its mission, the outpost falls back, uncover-
ing the main position, and generally joins the reserves.
As it falls back, the security functions are taken up by
local security detachments:of the main body. Decisive
action in advance of the position selected for combat bý
the main body is avoided.
um
DISTRIBUTION OF TROOPS.
Paragraph.
16
Subdivisions .............
Reserve
Supports ...................
Outguards ...
Patrols ............
Detached posts
Examining posts .....
en
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OUTPOST
16. Subdivisions.
A. An outpost composed of a battalion or larger unii
T
named, from rear to front:
(1) Reserve.
(2) Supports.
(3) Outguards.
(4) Cavalry (when a part of the outpost).
b. Patrols, detached posts, and examining posts treated
separately in this section, supplement the work of the
outguards or cavalry.
C. In case of attack, the primary duty of each subdivis-
ion of the outpost, in front of the outpost line of resist-
ance, is to gain time for the next subdivision to prepare
for action. This duty performed, the subdivision grad-
ually retires, fighting, to the outpost line of resistance.
TYYN
17. Reserve.
d. The reserve constitutes the main force of the out-
post and is held at some central point from which it can
readily support the troops in front and hold positions on
which they may retire. When the outpost covers a wide
front, or when routes of communication are poor, it is
sometimes advisable to divide the reserve into two parts,
b. The reserve consists of from one-fourth to two-
thirds of the strength of the outpost.
.c. The reserve may be omitted when the outpost is
less than a battalion.
18. Supports.
Q. Supports constitute a line of supporting and resist-
ing detachments, varying in size from a platoon to a bat-
talion. (A support consisting of a battalion would be ex-
ceptional.)
b. The supports are placed at the more important
points on the outpost line, usually along lines of resist-
ance. They are numbered consecutively from right to
left in each separate outpost.
C. Each support is assigned a sector, which is clearly
10
OUTPOST
w
TITY
defined by means of tangible lines on the ground such as
fences, creeks, swampy meadows, marshes, etc. The
responsibility for covering roads and sensitive points
should not be divided. The support is so located, when
practicable, as to enable it to cover its sector from a
central point.
d. Each support covers its front with outguards and
patrols.
19. Outguards.
A. Outguards are the detachments sent out by the
supports to occupy the vantage points of the line of obser-
vation. They are charged with observation for security.
They vary in size from one man to a company, the
latter being unusual. Outguards of more than two men
cover themselves with single or double sentinels, or
patrols. At night it is usually advisable to place some
of the outguards, or their sentinels, in positions different
from those occupied in the daytime. Outguards are
consisting of more than one squad may employ more
than one sentinel post, in which event, the sentinel posts
are numbered from right to left in each outguard.
b. Sentinels are generally used singly in daytime, but
at night double sentinels will be required in most cases.
They should be able to communicate readily with the
groups to which they belong. Those from small out-
guards should be kept near their group. In larger out-
guards sentinel posts may be pushed further out, usually
not more than 400 to 500 yards, in such cases a sentinel
will be posted at the bivouac of the outguard for local
security.
C. For convenience outguards are classified as pickets,
sentry squads, and cossack posts. The composition of
these being as follows:
(1) A picket consists of two or more squads, ordi-
narily not less than a section or more than a platoon.
It furnishes patrols and one or more sentinels,double sen-
tinels, or sentinel posts, for observation.
OUTPOST
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Picket are placed at the more important points in the
line of outguards, such as road forks. The strength of
each depends upon the number of small groups required
to observe properly its sector.
(2) A sentry squad is a squad posted as an out-
guard. It posts a double sentinel in observation, the re-
maining men resting near by and furnishing the reliefs of
sentinels.
(3) A cossack post is a group of four men posted
as an outguard. It employs a single sentry.
20. Patrols.
Patrols are used in the outpost for communication be-
tween elements, for security, and for reconnaissance.
d. Communication is maintained by patrols from rear
to front at intervals varying from 30 minutes to two
hours, depending upon the enemy activity, nature of the
terrain, weather conditions, etc.
(1) Patrols from the reserve, or main body where
there is no reserve, connect with the supports.
(2) Patrols from the supports connect each support
with its outguards.
(3) Patrols from the outguards connect each out-
guard with its sentinel posts.
(4) Where strength permits, patrols from every
element of the outpost establishes connection with ad-
jacent elements. In any event, unless mutually visible,
all elements of the outpost system locate adjacent groups.
b. (1) Patrols are employed to cover sections of the
outpost front which are difficult of observation by the
outguards, or are too distant to be covered by them, or
can be better covered by patrols. Such patrols are sent
out by the supports, detached posts, and the larger out-
guards.
(2) Patrols are used to reconnoiter the front and
flanks of the outpost position. Such patrols should be
sent out at irregular intervals, and their routes changed
from time to time so that the enemy may not be able to
anticipate their movements and so elude or capture
them. The patrols are pushed out a mile or a mile and
12
OUTPOST
a half, the distance being governed by the effective
range of enemy machine gun fire. The responsibility
for this class of patrolling rests with the supports, de-
tached posts, and larger outguards commanders, unless,
as will often be the case, the duty is performed by patrols
sent from the reserve or main body.
€. Distant patrolling, i.e., patrolling beyond the effec-
tive range of machine gun fire is done by outpost troops
only in accordance with orders from the commander of
the main body.
d. As small patrols travel faster and farther and are
less likely to be observed, as well as economize man
power, they should generally be used. Two, three, or
four men will usually suffice for an outpost patrol.
21. Detached posts.
a. In addition to ordinary outguards, the outpost com-
mander may detail from the reserve one or more de-
tached posts to cover roads or areas not in the general
line assigned to the supports.
b. In like manner the commander of the whole force
may order detached posts to be sent from the main body
to cover important roads or localities not included in
the oupost line.
C. The number and strength of detached posts are re-
duced to the absolute needs of the situation,
A
22. Examining posts.
An examining post is a small detachment, under the
command of an officer or a noncommissioned officer,
stationed at some convenient point to examine strangers
and to receive bearers of flags of truce brought by the
outguards or patrols. Though the employment of
examining posts is not general in field operations, there
are many occasions when their use is important; for
example, when the outguards do not speak the language
of the country or of the enemy; when preparations are
being made for a movement and strict scrutiny at the
YA
OUTPOST
13
outguards is ordered. When such posts are used, stran-
gers approaching the line of observation are passed along
the line to the examining post. No one except the com-
mander is allowed to speak to persons brought to an
examining post. Prisoners and deserters are at once
sent under guard to the rear.
SECTION V.
ORDERS FOR THE OUTPOST.
Paragraph.
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Small independent commands ............
Large commands .............
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The outpost commander ......
23. Small independent commands.
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In small independent commands the halt order will
contain:
Q. Assignment of camp sites to elements of the com-
mand.
b. Detail of troops to constitute the outpost.
C. Assignment of outpost commander.
d. Designation of the outpost line of resistance.
e. Designation of the position to be held in case of
attack.
f. Detail of troops for such detached posts as may not
be placed under the outpost commander.
24. Large commands.
d. In large commands, where separate outposts are
furnished from different tactical units of the command,
the commander will prescribe in his halt order:
(1) The general line of resistance.
(2) The important areas to be held.
(3) The strength of the outposts.
(4) The artillery support if necessary.
(5) The conduct of the outpost in case of various
kinds of attack.
b. The commanders of the tactical units furnish the
outpost troops for their respective sections and issue the
14
OUTPOST
.
necessary detailed instructions therefor.
25. The outpost commander.
The outpost commander,upon receipt of orders, issues
the outpost order with the least practicable delay. In
large commands it is often necessary to give the order
from the map, but, when practicable, preliminary recon-
naissance is made. The following will be covered in the
outpost order:
A. In general the instructions received from the higher
commander.
b. Designation in detail of the outpost line of resist-
ance, and the position or area to be held.
c. Designation of troops to constitute the supports.
d. Assignment of sector each support is to cover; the
location of the support therein.
e. Provision for the necessary detached posts.
f. Directions for any special reconnaissance that is to
be made.
g. Location and disposition of the reserves.
h. Conduct in case of attack.
¿ Disposition of the trains, if they are ordered to
join the outpost.
j. Location of the command post of the outpost.
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SECTION VI.
ESTABLISHING THE OUTPOST.
Paragraph.
March outpost .........
26
Outpost commander .............
Reserve commander ...
Support commander
Outguard commander .....
Special precautions ....
Reliefs ............................................------------ ..............
........................................................
26. March outpost.
The outpost is established at the end of each day's
march, as quickly as possible. Until the outpost troops
are able to assume their duties, march outposts are pro-
vided by the advance or rear guard.
27. Outpost commander.
a. The outpost for divisions and smaller units acting
independently, is usually placed under a single comman-
OUTPOST
der. The conduct of the outpost is covered by general
missions assigned by the commander of the whole force.
b. After issuing his initial orders, the outpost
commander inspects the position and troops, completes
his dispositions by more detailed orders where necessary,
and sends his superior a report of his dispositions.
28. Reserve commander.
Upon receipt of orders the reserve commander marches
the reserve to its post. He sends out such detachments
as have been ordered, and places the rest in bivouac. At
least one sentinel is posted at the post of the reserve.
Connection is maintained with the main body, with the
support, and with nearby detached posts.
29. Support commander.
d. Upon receipt of orders, the support commanders
march the support to their posts, using the necessary
covering detachments when in advance of the march
outpost. A support commander's order explains fully
the situation to subordinates, or to the entire command
if it be small. It details the troops for the different
outguards and designates the sector each is to cover.
It provides for necessary sentinels at the post of the
support and for the patrols to be sent therefrom, and
arranges for necessary intrenching. Connection is main-
tained with adjoining supports and with outguards furn-
ished by the support.
b. The support commander, in posting his command,
seeks to cover his sector in such a manner that the enemy
cannot reach or pass through the position of the support
unobserved. On the other hand, he economizes in the
number of men used on observation and patrol duty, not
more than one half the entire support should be assigned
as outguards.
C. As soon as the posting of the support is completed,
its commander carefully inspects the dispositions, cor-
rects defects, and reports the disposition of the support
and the system of patroling to the outpost commander.
This report is preferably made by means of a sketch.
ny
16
OUTPOST
30. Outguard commander.
The commander of each outguard, marches the out-
guard, covered by patrols required to prevent surprise,
to its assigned station. Having reached the position, the
commander explains the situation to the men, and estab-
lishes reliefs for each sentinel and, if possible, for each
patrol. The commander then posts the necessary single
or double sentinels, and points out to them the principal
terrain features, such as towns, roads, and streams, giv-
ing the names of each. He gives the direction and loca-
tion of the enemy and of adjoining parts of the outpost.
He gives patrols the same information, and also the neces-
sary orders as to their routes and the frequency with
which they shall cover them. Each patrol, when practic-
able, goes over its route once before dark. Each com-
mander takes precautions to conceal his outguards, and
generally strengthens his position by intrenching.
31. Special precautions.
Late afternoon and daybreak are hours of special dan-
ger. The enemy may attack late in the day, in order to
establish himself on captured ground by intrenching dur-
ing the night; or he may send troops forward under
cover of darkness, in order to make a strong attack at
early dawn. Special precaution, therefore, is taken at
these hours. The outpost is held in readiness, and pa-
trols cover the front of the line of observation.
32. Reliefs.
a. The outpost, in a small force, is as a rule, relieved
daily. In a large command the outpost is, as a rule, re-
lieved at intervals of several days. Care is exercised in
selecting the time for the relief so as to avoid the pro-
bability of the new outpost being in the act of relieving
the old outpost when an enemy attack is launched.
b. The outpost for brigades and smaller units acting
independently, stand relieved when a new advance guard
crosses the line of observation of the outpost. In a re-
treat the rear guard usually furnishes or constitutes the
outpost.
u
415,1
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924
CONFERENCE......: Brigade in attack with Artillery attached.
BY
; First Section.
DATE TO CLASSES..: Refresher Course, 23 Nov. 1923.
Advanced Course, 2 April 1924.
BRIGADE IN ATTACK WITH
ARTILLERY ATTACHED.
Section 1.
II.
Introduction ..............................
The Brigade in Combat ...................
Paragraphs.
1-4
5-12
SECTION I.
INTRODUCTION.
Paragraph.
.............................
General considerations ..
Composition ......................
The staff ...............
...........................................
1. General considerations.
a. The combat principles of the infantry brigade, when
considered solely as a grouping of infantry units, and de-
pending solely upon infantry weapons for its combat
strength are analogous to those of the regiment.
b. A brigade of infantry, fighting with regiments abreast,
in equal zones of action and without supporting or attached
artillery, is capable of no deeper penetration in the brigade
zone of action, than is an interior regiment fighting alone
in half that zone of action.
c. Likewise, a brigade fighting alone with regiments in
.. column would achieve only the results expected from the
(1)
coordinated effort of the two regiments,—the second giving
added impetus to the limit of its strength, after the first
has been exhausted.
d. Therefore, the combat principles of the infantry bri-
gade as discussed herein contemplate supplementing the fire
power of the component infantry regiments, primarily by
supporting or attached artillery.
5
2. Composition.
a. The infantry brigade is a purely tactical unit. It
consists solely of infantry regiments, but the combat efforts
of its component regiments are normally supplemented by
supporting or attached artillery or by other arms or services.
b. To increase its fighting effectiveness when acting in-
dependently, or for the accomplishment of a particular mis-
sion, when fighting as part of a larger force, the brigade
may have temporarily attached to it, artillery and varying
quotas of other arms and services.
c. Supporting artillery remains under the control of the
next higher unit of which the brigade is a part, and the
maintenance of this unity of artillery command facilitates
the action of the brigade by timely maximum concentrations
on the most serious enemy obstacles.
3. The staff.
a. To assist him in the execution of the decision and other
tasks, the brigade commander is provided with a tactical
staff, whose components, organization and detailed duties
are prescribed in T.R. No. 420–190.
b. When action is contemplated and while the brigade
commander is formulating his plans, the staff and sub-
ordinate commanders should relieve him of the necessity for
personal supervision of routine details.
C. The advance of the brigade in route column, through
development and approach march, to deployment is a concern
of the brigade commander. The deployment of regiments,
advance to and departure from the designated line of de-
parture are concerns of the regimental commanders, sub-
ject to staff coordination. The advance of the regiments ..
Y
(2)
Ft. Rursuing duetusatius dek.
92 - 11-1924
U
'from line of departure to first firing position is a concern
of the regimental commanders. The subsequent advance,
by fire and movement against the enemy is a concern of
commanders of tactical units of the assault echelon, subject
to coordination, by regimental commanders. Keeping
the brigade commander informed as to progress and the
situation at the front, is a responsibility of staff, com-
manders concerned and liaison officers.
d. When artillery is attached to the brigade, the artillery
commander acts as the chief of artillery on the staff of the
brigade commander. Whether or not the artillery is sup-
porting or attached, the command post of the artillery should
be established in such close proximity to the command post
of the brigade commander, as the tactical and technical con-
siderations of control, command, and communications per-
mit. In either case the artillery commander is the technical
advisor on artillery matters, and it is primarily through
him that artillery fire is shifted, concentrated or lifted to
meet the combat requirements of the brigade.
e. If the exigencies of the situation prevent this intimate
relationship of infantry and artillery command posts, an
artillery officer is sent to the brigade headquarters to re-
present the artillery commander, and he becomes the con-
necting link in liaison between the two headquarters for the
accomplishment of the duties set forth in the preceding sub-
paragraph. However, he exercises no command functions,
except by special arrangement with the commander of the
artillery unit concerned.
f. In a tactical enterprise involving larger units, it is
essential that brigade commanders have constant know-
ledge of the movements, location and plans of the brigades
on their immediate right and left. This is accomplished by
sending to the neighboring brigades a liaison officer and a
group of enlisted men sufficient to maintain communication
between the two headquarters. It is desirable that the officer
commanding the liaison group submit periodic reports to
his brigade commander; the staff of the brigade to which
the liaison group is sent, should give the liaison officer
access to all information that might be of benefit to his bri-
gadé commander.
(3)
4. Orders.
WY
a. When acting as part of a larger unit, the orders given
to the brigade commander will clearly describe the plan and
picture of the enemy situation as vividly as intelligence
agencies permit. In addition they should assign the brigade
a route of advance, a zone of action or a sector and a mission.
b. When acting alone, the orders given the brigade, com-
mander will contain primarily the mission, and such infor-
mation regarding the plan and enemy situation as to enable
him, after considering later information gained through
personal reconnaissance and through his own intelligence
agencies, to formulate a definite plan for the accomplishment
of his mission. .
C. Orders issued by the brigade commander will be clear
and comprehensive, so that each subordinate commander will
throughly understand the general plan, the part he has to
play and the scheme of maneuver outlining the manner in
which he is to cooperate with other troops.
d. Brigade orders for the defense of a sector must be
especially clear, and given in such detail as will insure com-
plete coordination between regiments in their defensive
measures.
SECTION II.
THE BRIGADE IN ATTACK.
Paragraph.
Advance into action .............
Deployment ......................
Methods of deployment .............
Position of the brigade commander .................
Communications ...
The attack .....
The pursuit .........
Reserve brigade ..
.....................
...................
5. Advance into action.
d. Upon receipt of orders the brigade commander is imme-
diately concerned with the location of the definite combat
objective within his zone of action, against which he will
(4)
allot his troops and with the selection of protected forward
areas, in which his regiments can deploy and prepare for
combat.
b. The brigade commander makes the necessary provisions
for reconnaissance of terrain, routes of advance, and the
enemy. He puts his brigade in march to deployment posi-
tions in one or more columns, depending upon local condi-
and his long range artillery fire. He precedes his command
as far as possible in order to make as extended a personal
reconnaissance as time and conditions permit, preparatory
to formulating his plan of attack.
C. It is important that the brigade commander reach an
early decision as to the direction of attack, the form of attack,
the zones of action of and the boundaries between his regi-
ments, the size of the reserve, the line of departure and the
hour of attack. He should transmit this information prompt-
ly to subordinate commanders to permit of their timely
reconnaissance within their zones of action to determine
the most important combat objectives therein, with re-
ference to opposing forces, terrain features, hostile de-
fenses, etc.
6. Deployment.
a. Preliminary reconnaissances having been completed,
complete or fragmentary orders for the attack are issued,
involving the advance from a designated line of departure
at a specified hour. The brigade in column, or with regi-
ments abreast is enroute to deployment positions. The
deployment of the brigade is then effected by the regimental
commanders, each making dispositions to overcome enemy
obstacles in his zone of action, keeping in mind particular
combat objectives, with reference to which he evolves his
plan of maneuver.
. b. To be prepared to apply the principles of cooperation
and mutual support, the brigade commander at this time
provides for additional close tactical liaison with adjacent
brigades by the detail of connecting groups from his reserve.
(5)
C. The deployment of attached arms and services is made
in accordance with the missions assigned them in the brigade
orders. Machine guns and howitzers are deployed to give
adequate covering fire to the units they support.
7. Methods of deployment.
a. The brigade may be deployed with its regiments abreast
or in column.
6. When the brigades of a division are deployed abreast,
with regiments abreast one battalion of one regiment will
usually constitute the brigade reserve, and one battalion of
the other regiment will usually be in division reserve.
C. When the division is deployed in column of brigades,
the brigade reserve is furnshed by one or both of the front
line regiments, or it may be omitted entirely depending upon
the local situation, and upon the facility with which the
brigade commander can control the action by the influence
he exerts over supporting artillery. The rear brigade con-
stitutes the division reserve.
d. When artillery or other arms and services are attached
to the brigade, the brigade commander can usually better
support the combat echelons by retaining all such attached
units under his control. However, when warranted by the
rapidity of the advance or other local requirements, the
brigade commander may attach accompanying artillery and
auxiliary arms and services to one or both of the attacking
infantry regiments.
S
8. Position of the brigade commander.
Cl. During the route march, the approach march, and the
deployment, the brigade commander is engaged in personal
reconnaissance of the enemy and study of the situation,
He is therefore well forward.
6. The brigade commander assembles his regimental and
attached unit commanders for instruction covering his plan
of action and for the issuance of his orders in fragmentary
or final form. This conference is held either at the forward
(6)
observation post or the command post and in such time'as
to enable subordinate commanders to make their personal
reconnaissance. (See par. 5 c)
c. While the regimental and attached unit commanders
are conducting their personal reconnaissance the brigade ·
commander may station himself at points, from which he
can personally observe and supervise the advance and later
the deployment of his units.
d. During the progress of the action, the brigade com-
mander's station is normally at his command post, which
should be located well forward, and in the vicinity of his
regimental command posts.
e. The brigade commander keeps in touch with the situa-
tion in his front, and on his flanks by means of reports from
his assaulting regiments, connecting groups, special patrols,
liasion officers, and observation posts. He leaves his com-
mand post for a definite purpose only, such as for additional
personal reconnaissance or for consultation with a superior
or subordinate commander or the commander of an ad-
jacent brigade.
9. Communications.
a. To enable regimental commanders to describe promptly
and accurately the targets, upon which artillery fire would
better facilitate the advance of their assaulting troops, it is
absolutely essential that uninterrupted signal communica-
tion be maintained with attacking regiments and with sup-
porting or attached artillery.
b. Contemplated forward movement of the brigade com-
mand post should be communicated early to the commander
of supporting or attached artillery, to enable the latter to
complete the establishment of new lines of signal communi-
cation, so that in making the change in command posts,
liaison will remain uninterrupted.
C. Communications throughout the brigade is a matter
that should receive the careful personal attention of the
brigade commander in training as well as in action.
(7)
10. The attack.
STT
1
.
Y
a, The important role of attached artillery in the prepar-
ation for the attack, and the attack proper, whether it be
in open warfare or from a condition of stabilization is com-
· pletely described in T.R. No. 430_105.
6. Even with regard to supporting artillery, it is the duty
of the brigade commander to discuss its use and to make
known his wishes relative to the support allotted his attack-
ing regiments. After making his personal reconnaissance
preliminary to the attack, he studies the artillery annex
and by arrangement makes sure that new enemy obstacles
revealed by his reconnaissance will be properly dealt with
by supporting artillery. The brigade commander gives
special consideration to the plans for displacement forward
of the supporting artillery, and by arrangement with the
commander thereof insures adequate support for attacking
troops while the displacement is in progress.
c. Except when following a rolling barrage of effective
density the assault echelons of the regiments do not progress
uniformly nor in general alignment. One regiment readily
overcoming enemy resistance moves forward steadily, the
other encountering greater resistance progresses more slowly
or is definitely stopped. The principles of cooperation and
mutual support may be applied by the forward regiment
to assist the advance of the slower. However, with two
flanks exposed and a threatened counter-attack to consider,
the forward regiment may not be able to apply this prin-
ciple. Before considering the use of his reserve in this most
usual situation the brigade commander has the following
options:
(1) To support the attack of troops held up, by machine
guns and special weapons pertaining to the brigade reserve.
(2) To give the artillery more definite enemy targets in
front of the troops held up and to arrange for a heavy con-
centration to begin at a specified time and to continue for a
definite short period of time, sufficient only for the troops
held up to close on the enemy during this concentration and
assault his position when it lifts. The necessity for giving
(8)
.
the commander of troops held up ample advance notice of
this arrangement is of prime importance.
(3) To authorize the regimental commander, whose
assaulting troops have been stopped, to maneuver local
reserves within the zone of action of the forward regiment
for the purpose of attacking the enemy in flank, care being
exercised that the commander of the forward regiment is
advised of this arrangement.
(4) To direct the commander of the forward regiment
to use his local reserves to attack the flank or rear of the
enemy holding up the rear most regiment. This procedure
should not be resorted to, if the forward regiment has both
flanks exposed, unless it is desired to halt and organize the
ground on the line gained by the forward regiment.
d. The brigade commander advances his reserve from
position to position as required by the tactical situation and
engages it, when local efforts fail; to check a counter-attack,
to envelope enemy resistance or to take it in flank by operat-
ing through a gap between regiments or between his own
and adjacent brigades.
e. The brigade commander keeps the division commander
advised at all times of the progress of the attack, the situa-
tion of his own and neighboring troops and of the enemy
in his front. When the situation necessitates the employ-
ment of the brigade reserve, the division commander is
promptly informed.
f. Upon driving the enemy from his final defensive posi-
tion, the brigade commander either institutes the pursuit or
organizes the ground, as may be directed in orders or con-
templated in the plan of the division commander.
.
11. The pursuit.
: a. The attack though victorious has occasioned losses in
men, losses in leaders and great expenditure of ammunition.
Therefore, the assaulting troops pursue only by fire to the
limit of the ranges of their weapons, while reserves or other
formed troops are being pushed forward to follow the enemy
in organized pursuit.
( 9.)
1
b. An exception to the procedure announced in the preced-
ing sub-paragraph is made when the position of the enemy
covering force is so close, that the assaulting echelons can
overrun it by continuing the rush that carried the last
enemy position, or that they can reach a position, from
which they can contain the enemy covering force while the
troops in organized pursuit pass by its flank.
c. Troops in pursuit will not be drawn into serious en-
gagement with the enemy covering force. They seek only to
contain the latter, while maneuvering to pass its flank in
order to interrupt the assembly of enemy units or otherwise
hamper his orderly retrograde movement.
d. The artillery pursues by fire to the limit of its effective
range. A portion is allotted for counter battery action
against the artillery of the enemy's covering force. Artillery
is likewise attached to the pursuing force for whatever
action the local tactical situation may require.
e. As soon as the pursuit is launched, the assaulting units
are promptly reorganized and made available for such fur-
ther action as the local situation may suggest.
12
12. Reserve brigade.
a. When the division is deployed in column of brigades,
troops of the reserve brigade are held, available for use,
in covered positions in rear. The brigade commander esta-
blishes his command post near division headquarters.
b. The commander of the reserve brigade maintains cons-
tant touch with the situation by means of a liaison officer
at the headquarters of the front line brigade, by personal
reconnaissance, by observation posts and by special patrols.
He must be prepared at any time to order units from his
own brigade to reinforce the front line brigade, or to effect
a relief or a passage of lines, when the attacking brigade
has become exhausted. He may be required to make a flank
attack, or to hold a defensive position on a flank or his
brigade may become the covering force for troops with-
drawing.
D
( 10 )
898 Benning, Ga. 10-27-23 2500
u
4:5,
Al
DEMONSTRATION
PLATOON IN
APPROACH MARCH AND ATTACK
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923–1924
DATE TO CLASSES :
Refresher Course-15 Oct 23
Advanced Course-15 Nov 23
Company Officers Course—4 Dec 23
DEMONSTRATION.: The Rifle Platoon in Approach March
and Attack.
BY
...: First Section.
DATE TO CLASSES: Refresher Course 15 Oct. 23.
Advanced Course 15 Nov. 23..
Company Officers Course, 4 Dec. 23.
N. G. & Res. Officers Course, 29 Apr. 24.
MAP ...............: Fire Control, Fort Benning, Ga., Sheet 1.
PURPOSE:
This demonstration is designed to illustrate the forma-
tion, control, conduct and employment of an interior
assault platoon during an approach march and in the
attack.
PRINCIPLES EMPHASIZED :
(1) During the approach through the zone of effective
hostile artilery fire the platoon should be in section or
squad columns.
1
(1)
(2) When an area in or near its zone of action is being
shelled the platoon passes around rather than through
the fire.
(3) Section leaders vary their formations to meet con-
ditions. The platoon leader prescribes formations only
when the section leaders have failed to make essential
changes.
(4) Woods subject to effective fire in the zone of ac-
tion are reconnoitered by scouts before the platoon enters
same.
(5) In woods intervals and distances are decreased.
(6) Before leaving woods, in the zone of hostile fire,
the platoon leader verifies his direction of advance.
(7) The platoon leader controls his platoon through
proper use of his:
(a) Platoon sergeant.
(b) Section leaders.
(c) Platoon runners.
(8) The platoon leader maintains constant communi-
cation with, and observation of, flank units by means
of runners who remain within calling distance of the pla-
toon leader and observe to the flanks.
(9) During the approach march the platoon leader is be-
tween the scouts and leading section. He reconnoiters
continually to the front and flanks. In the attack he
moves to points from which he can secure best observa-
tion, and maintain control through subordinates.
of 125-250 yards.
(11) Once the fire fight commences the attack is a
combination of fire and movement, one element moving,
supported by the other which is firing.
(12) Whenever the terrain admits, enemy resistance
to the front is overcome by maneuver of a supporting
element to the flank.
GENERAL SITUATION:
The Upatoi Creek divides hostile state, Blues north,
Reds south. Blues have penetrated Red territory and
(2)
Ft. Ben sang Dufan tsey del
2-11-1924
are now
are now on the general line B.M. No. 15-Riche Hill-
Houston Hill. Reds are retiring to the line Davidson
Hill–Riley Ridge-Cook Ridge- Maxey Ridge.
SPECIAL SITUATION (BLUE)
The 1st Platoon of Company “A”, 1st Inf., an interior
assault platoon, has been attacking in the direction of
Maxey Ridge and last night halted along the southern
edge of the 60th Inf.-Woods with its right at 16.4-20.7-
its left at 16.6-20.75.
During the night Captain..... -------, Company “A”
issued the following verbal instructions to his platoon
leaders:
“Our patrols report that the enemy has withdrawn
to the high ground Maxey Ridge—Cook Ridge—Riley
Ridge. Our regiment resumes the attack at daylight
tomorrow morning; Co. “A” will attack with the 1st and 2d
Platoons in assault, the 3d platoon in support. The 1st
Platoon will attack from its present position on a front
of 200 yards. Direction of attack 170 degrees magnetic
azimuth. Boundary between platoons will remain the
same."
NOTES: 1. All troops other than the demonstration
platoon are imaginary.
2. It is assumed to be ten minutes after day-
light.
DEMONSTRATION.
THE APPROACH
The 1st Platoon formed for the advance under cover
of the woods southwest of Riche Hill.
It is now broad daylight. The signal has been given
to resume the advance.
The scouts of the leading section (3 pairs) emerge
from the woods, each pair deployed at intervals of fifty
yards. They advance to the vicinity of the 1st Division
road at (16.7-20.3) where they halt under cover and
observe to the front.
(3)
II
The scouts signal "all clear” to the platoon leader, and
continue their advance in pairs.
The platoon emerges from the woods in an approach
march formation, each section is in section column, the
rear section to the right rear of the leading section at an
interval of forty yards and distance of fifty yards. The
platoon leader with his headquarters group is about mid-
way between his leading section and line of scouts observ-
ing the conduct of the scouts and indications of the
enemy.
As the platoon approaches the road junction at (16.8-
19.8) enemy artillery begins to shell the area in the vici-
nity of the junction. The platoon deploys into two lines
of squad columns, forty yards interval between each squad
column, fifty yards distance between the two lines.
The platoon shifts its direction of advance and passes
around the area being shelled. As soon as the area has
been passed the platoon resumes the original direction.
The platoon reaches the 60 c.m. railroad south of the
First Division Road where it is assumed to be entering
the zone of hostile small arms fire and may expect ef-
fective fire from units larger than patrols. The scouts ap-
proach the woods ahead by bounds. The platoon is halt-
ed and takes cover a waiting a report from the scouts in
the woods.
The scouts signal “all clear” and the platoon resumes
the advance. On approaching the woods section leaders
close their squads in toward the center and the platoon
leader reduces the distance between the sections.
The platoon passes through the woods with decreased
intervals and distances. Squad and section leaders regu-
late the rate of march and direction prescribed by the
platoon leader so as to remain within visibility of units
on their imediate flanks. The platoon leader is in such
position as to be able to see the scouts and leading section
leader. As the platoon approaches the far edge of the
woods it is halted. The platoon leader by means of the
compass verifies his assigned direction of advance. The
platoon remains under cover of the woods while the scouts
n
I
(4)
move to the crest beyond to reconnoiter. At the signal
"all clear” from the scouts the platoon resumes the ad-
vance. Platoons on the flanks are abreast.
Y
THE ATTACK:
As the scouts approach the unimproved road 100 yards
south of the crest they receive fire from the wooded
ridge to their front. They take cover and return the fire
with tracer bullets. The platoon leader orders the leader
of the leading section to build up the line of scouts. The
leading section moves onto the line of scouts by infiltra-
tion of each squad, the automatic rifles and substitute
auto riflemen arriving first followed by the corporals and
the remainder of the squads. The support section is
under cover of the southern edge of the Bois de Tanks,
(150 yards to the rear) in squad columns.
The platoon advances by squad rushes until definitely
stopped by heavy automatic fire from the right front.
The platoon leader from a covered position makes a hasty
reconnaissance, observes that the platoon on the right
holds the woods on the western slope of Maxey Ridge.
Accordingly he sends for the leader of the rear section
and directs him to maneuver his section through the
wooded approach to the right, to outflank and silence the
automatic fire to the right front.
The section leader returns to his section, assembles
his squad leaders, guide and scouts and briefly outlines
the situation to them. Under cover of the woods the
section moves rapidly to the west slope of Maxey Ridge
and then into the wooded approach on the right flank;
in squad columns, covered to the front and flanks by the
scouts. Thus the section gains a position from which it
can outflank the enemy position. This movement of the
section is assisted by the fire of the assault section which
has increased its rate of fire. This increased fire together
with the flank attack of the section has neutralized the
enemy fire to the front and the leading section is enabled
to move forward by squad rushes. Enemy resistance to
(5)
the front breaks down and the platoon moves forward
onto the ground evacuated by the enemy. Platoons on
the flanks arrive abreast.
Upon arriving at the new position the platoon leader
orders the scouts of the leading section to move forward
to cover the reorganization of the platoon He directs
the leaders of sections to reorganize their sections, and
sends a runner to company headquarters with informa-
tion of the situation. He prepares to resume the advance
with the least possible delay.
(6)
825 Benning, Ga. 10-6-23 3000
Alsil
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923-1924
DEMONSTRATION..: Tanks, Fire Power of, Tactical Contrel
of and Observation from.
BY....................: First Section.
DATE TO CLASSES.: Refresher Course, 25 Oct 23.
Advanced Course, 8 Feb 24.
Advanced Course, 11 Feb 24.
The purpose of this demonstration is to bring out the
following points:
11
1. Fire power.
a. The tank combines fire power; movement and security.
b. The tank economizes in the number of men per weapon.
2. Tactical control. ·
a. Tank units entering an action remain under the direct
control of their commanders up to the instant of "jump
off”.
b. Tank units engaged in combat are, temporarily, out
of the control of their commanders.
c. When practicable tank units engaged in combat com-
municate from tank to tank by means of visual signals
(flags) and by runners who take advantage of covered
routes.
d. Control of the unit is regained, by the commander,
when the individual tanks assemble, after the action, at
previously designated rallying points.
3. Observation.
Observation from within the tanks is very limited. The
mission of each tank should be stated in as great detail as
it is possible to give at the time. Even when this is done
tanks are likely to run by their targets without seeing them.
DETAILED PROGRAM.
30 Minutes-2 groups. One group will assemble around
platoon of light tanks, one group around two heavy
TE
Ft. Benring Infantry kih,
·
2
?!1:1,
1
:..*.'
2-11-1991
tanks. At end of 15 minutes groups will be inter-
changed. (Short talk by the instructor on armament
of, and visibility from tanks.)
20 Minutes-Instructor explains problem to be carried out.
action to their tank commanders."
Heavy tanks move on objectives and engage machine
gun nests in immediate front.
Light tanks move out in column, form line and move
on objectives assigned them.
Moving targets representing enemy tanks appear.
Heavy tanks abandon machine gun nest and move di-
rectly on enemy tanks.
Light tanks engage machine gun nests and mop up in
rear of heavy tanks.
Heavy tanks. destroy enemy tanks, take final objective
and on arrival of light tanks move off to rallying
point.
Light tanks move on to final objective, patrol it until
relieved by riflemen, and then move to rallying
point.
Light and heavy tanks return to starting point in
column.
EXAMINATION OF TARGETS.
862—Benning, Ga., 10-16-2343000
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
4150
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924
S
Notes on: Scouting and Patrolling.
By : First Section.
The following notes are given as an aid to instruction
given in the field.
1. In teaching individual movements the instructors
should divide the members of the class into pairs; one
'man of each pair executing the movement while the other
acts as a coach helping the instructor to see and correct
mistakes.
2. In the advance the platoon leader keeps in touch
with his scouts by means of runners; it must be remem-
bered, however, that the platoon leader always precedes
his platoon making that amount of personal reconnais-
sance which is in keeping with good leadership. How-
ever, where the situation is such that the scouts are about
to disappear at a distance of from 250 to 300 yards to the
front, and the ground is open, it will usually be found
better for the platoon leader to connect himself up with
his scouts through a chain of runners. This method will
give better control and prevent the platoon leader from
becoming pinned to the ground at a distance beyond
control of his platoon..
3. The scouts in front of the assault platoon should be
taught that they have a mission to perform. This mission
is to advance so as to cause the enemy to become nervous
and open fire, either with his M. G's. or rifles, thus dis-
closing his position before the platoon is allowed to come
into an area where it might be pinned to the ground by
enemy fire.
4. When scouts preceding the assault platoon are fired
on, or discover the enemy, they drop to the ground, locate
the target, move to a good firing position near by, and
open fire with tracer ammunition; if no tracers are avail-
able one scout returns to the platoon leader so as to point
out the target.
(1)
5. When a platoon, or section, is to go out as a flanking
party, five or six scouts move out as a patrol in front of
the flanking party to protect it and guide it into position.
6. In a night attack the scouts are used to form a patrol
to the front. This group protects the assaulting troops
and is the first element to encounter the enemy.
7. Scouts in front of an assault platoon or scouts group-
ed in a patrol never approach any obstacle which offers
natural cover of the enemy, such as a house, old ruin
trench, brush, woods, etc., without one man going for-
ward and reconnoitering under the protection of the
remaining rifles which are covering the object.
8. Scouts use Infantry arm signals to signal back the
result of their reconnaissance to their platoon leader,
"Dangerous ground" is signalled by giving double time
march, and pointing in the direction of the dangerous
area. “More time needed for reconnaissance" by signal-
ing halt.
9. Before debouching from woods scouts signal halt at
the edge, here they await the arrival of the platoon
leader who checks up on his direction, announces a dis-
tant guiding point and orders his scouts out.
10. In broken country generally it will be found that
the platoon will be able to halt under cover of one patch
of woods while the scouts move into the next patch of
woods to the front.
11. When a pair of scouts are 50 or 75 yards from woods
they are to reconnoiter, one takes a covering position,
while the other scout moves into the woods, making his
reconnaissance to the limit of visibility, finding no enemy
he signals all clear (forward) which is repeated by the cov-
ering scout. Both scouts now enter the woods, hault at the
limit of visibility and await the arrival of the platoon.
When the platoon arrives in the woods, all distances
and intervals are closed up to limit of visibility. The
platoon leader commands forward, and the advance
is resumed, with the platoon leader and his runners con-
nected up at the limit of visibility behind his scouts; the
(2)
7
y
TY
leader of the first section follows at the same distance
behind his platoon leader, while the squads connect to
the section guide at the limit of visibility.
12. Scouts of a support platoon and scouts of reserve
companies are sent forward to observe the progress of
the assault units and enemy activities. They also report
the progress of units on the flank.
13. When a gap is located in the enemy line, scouts are
moved into it by infiltration. They take up a position
from which enfilading fire may be delivered upon the
enemy position. Scouts of a support and scouts of re-
serves should look for such positions and notify iheir
respective commanders.
14. Silence is the secret of success in all military night
operations. Movement at night or in heavy fog and
smoke, requires special practice.
Silence, control and skill in maintaining direction are
the principal requisites of night operations.
15. Most movements at night are 'controlled by sound
signals. Such signals should simulate ordinary noises of
the night. Care should be exercised to employ normal
noises and to avoid piercing or startling sounds.
16. When inspecting or cutting gaps in enemy wire, two
men go through the gap, while the remainder of the
patrol lie in a protective formation.
17. When inspecting our own wire one man moves
along the parapet. The leader with the rest of the
patrol moves along the outside of the wire, inspecting
it and plotting such gaps as are found. When a gap is
found the man on the parapet places a stake opposite
the gap. The rest of the patrol furnishes protection.
18. To walk silently on hard ground, move by tip-toe.
To walk silently in grass, raise the foot, then planting
the heel first, slowly lower the toe and thereby avoid
snapping grass or twigs.
19. To cut wire silently, first make a nick in the wire
at desired spot with wire cutters, a file or pocket knife.
In doing this the bend should be kept pointed towards
(3)
1
the body. If one strand breaks ahead of the other the
ends should be pushed aside with the thumbs so there
will be no audible sound or rubbing. Then bend the wire
back and forth with the nick between the thumbs.
20. The successful ambush of a hostile patrol is predi-
cated upon a knowledge of the habits of such patrol,
such as its size, the route over which it operates and its
usual formation. Our patrol in carrying out the ambush
ordinarily should be twice the size of the patrol to be
ambushed. In addition to this strength there should be
automatic rifles for flank defense.
21. To capture a prisoner in a silent raid certain pre-
liminary actions usually must be taken. These are to
locate:
a. A gap in your own wire.
6. An enemy outguard.
C. A gap in enemy wire.
From this information plotted on the map necessary
instructions can be given to the patrol to lead it to the
enemy gap. Usually a preparation extending over three
nights is necessary.
The cuts on pages 115-116 (Scouting and Patrolling)
indicate in general the method of conducting a raid of
this kind.
22. To locate enemy outguards listening patrols are
sent out at intervals along the front. The battalion in-
telligence officer coordinates the work of these patrols.
.
1
along the front and on given azimuths. When they
have secured a position about 50 yards from the enemy
wire they listen carefully for sounds which indicate enemy
outguards. Having located what appears to be an outguard
the azimuth from their position is set on the compass
and the distance estimated. Upon the return of the
patrol this information is plotted on the map. From
repeated reports or intersections of reading the location
of the outguards is determined.
(4)
The following notes may be of value in connetcion
with the formation and conduct of patrols:
23. There are a few well defined principles which gov-
ern formation and conduct of patrols. While a patrol
will in a general way select its route, from a map, before
starting on its mission, it cannot select the formation.
The formation will vary with the terrain over which the
patrol moves.
24. The fundamental principle governing the formation
of a patrol is "all around protection, that is, patrols, are
1
There must always be such a formation that one man at
least will be able to avoid capture; when a fight start the
man farthest away from the engagement automatically
becomes charged with the function of avoiding capture.
He does not enter the fight.
25. A patrol going through a village takes up a stag-
gered formation; one column of files on each side of the
street with each column close to the houses. Each mem-
ber of the patrol watches the windows and doors on
the opposite side of the street. Side streets are not
patrolled, but are observed. The patrol follows one
street through the town.
26. Upon coming to a bridge or ford the patrol is
crossed one man at a time under the protection of the
remaining rifles.
27. A patrol approaching a sky line in the vicinity of
the enemy has one man move up to the skyline, while
the remaining rifles cover his advance.
28. When a patrol takes up an observing position, it
should be in an all around protective formation.
29. A patrol crosses the open by bounds one man at
mand, each man who is to make a bound.
30. A patrol going through a ravine, railroad cut, etc.,
takes a staggered formation, one half of the patrol on
each side. Each member of the patrol watches the sky-
(5)
-
line on the oppsite side of the cut from him. Surprise
or ambush from the flank is prevented by occasionally
halting the patrol, while one man from each side climbs
the bank and observes over the skyline.
31. A patrol approaches a house by sending one man
forward, while the remaining rifles cover his advance.
However, if a reconnaissance is to be made of the upstairs
and attic, two men should be sent forward to the house.
This will insure a more thorough reconnaissance.
32. When a patrol uses a woods to cover its advance,
the members keep together with all around protection.
They use as small a portion of the woods as possible.
33. A patrol which is trying to determine whether or
not a woods is occupied sends a thin skirmish line of
scouts to procede the body of the patrol. The body of
the patrol follows in single or double column of files,
depending on the size of patrol. If the patrol is a pla-
toon or large unit then it will proceed according to com-
bat principles laid down for that unit.
When resistance is encountered ambush is prevented
by part of the column moving rapidly to the right and
part to the left; such portions being thrown into the fight
as are deemed necessary.
34. A patrol going through a cane brake or along a path
or road should not be exposed until the reconnaisance
to the front is sufficient to insure protection to the patrol.
The patrol should be in double or single column files. If
resistance is encountered in double column of files, all
men on the right rush to the right, all men on the left
rush to the left. If in single column of files, instructions
and training should be such that all even numbers will
move rapidly to the right and all odd numbers move to
the left. Groups, when thrown into the fight make wide
circling movement so to come in on the flanks of the re-
sistance.
35. An observation post is manned by reliefs of two
men. Each relief is on duty for two hours. One man
observes with a pair of field glasses or telescope; the
other man acts as the recorder. When an object is dis-
(6)
covered by the observer, he announces that object, say
“Machine gun." He next takes an azimuth reading and
announces the same, for instance "120 degrees." He
then estimates and announces the range, say “400 yards."
He next gives a reference point or coordinate, such as
"Edge of wood,” or “20 yards right of house." He then
adds any pertinent remark, as “Firing on our troops on
Maxey Ridge." All of this information is put down on
the observer's report, the observer then adds the time.
In order to prevent eye strain the two men on duty alter-
nate in these duties every fifteen minutes. In open
warfare enough runners should be furnish each post to
insure information getting back in time to be of value.
OPs of Bns and larger units, especially in stabalized
positions, may be connected with the CP by wire. In a
stabalized position the post makes its normal report at
the end of the tour of duty.
36. A sniping post is manned by reliefs of two men.
One man with the rifle (equipped preferably with tele-
ped with field glasses or telescope searches for targets.
The group takes a position covering an assigned sector.
Before starting to work they divide their sector into sub-
sectors, usually about three subsectors. Upon seeing a
target the observer gets the sniper on it by announcing
the subsector number (subsectors are numbered from
right to left.) He next announces the range, and then
the fractional part of the subsector in which the target
has been located - such as “One half left”, or “one fourth
right”. He then announces the target and in this way the
sniper's eye is directed to the target. To prevent eye
strain the men alternate in their work every 15 minutes.
37. Most sniping will be done at ranges - less than 600
yards, in which case a mean range of about 400 yards
will allow the sniper to get off a quick shot without ser-
iously affecting his accuracy.
38. A more careful study of a particular piece of ter-
rain in front of a sniper's post will indicate very closely
(7)
the mean range at which the sniper's sight may be set
to advantage.
39. Snipers are of great value in a withdrawal. They
should be trained to fall back to successive positions about
200 yards apart from which they will fire upon the
enemy's leading elements; if possible on the leaders.
40. Special selection of a small number of men and a
long course of, training for these men are not absolute
essentials for satisfactory sniping. A man who is a
sharp shooter, or better is good material for a sniper, pro-
vided he is given sound training. Marksmen often make
good snipers.
971--Benning Ga., 11-6-23--2500
(8)
AT THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
u
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924
Demonstration: Support platoon in attack.
By:
First Section.
MAP:
Fire Control Map, Fort Benning, Georgia—Sheet
No. 1.
1. Purpose:
This demonstration is designed to illustrate the forma-
tion, control, conduct, and employment of a support platoon
in the approach march and attack.
.
.-
-
2. Principles emphasized:
a. The support platoon may march in squad columns
or sections. The formation used depends upon the nature
of the country and effect of hostile fire. That formation
is proper which reduces casualties to a minimum and per-
mits of effective control.
b. The distance that the support platoon follows the as-
sault platoon will vary from one hundred to four hundred
yards. These limits are guides only. It should be close
enough to the assault echelon to lend timely aid and yet
not so close that hostile fire will neutralize its action.
C. In avoiding areas dangerous because of probabie hos-
tile fire or observation the platoon must not maneuver so
far from the general axis of advance that runners from
company headquarters will have difficulty in locating it.
d. The platoon moves by bounds from cover to cover,
leaving cover only after the assault echelon is in possession
of the cover ahead.
e. The platoon leader remains with his platoon to be ready
for instant action to the front or flanks. He maintains
constant observation and sends scouts ahead to keep himself
informed of the situation. He is responsible at all times
for the protection of his flanks.
f. Usual missions for a support platoon will be to act
as maneuvering unit, to reinforce the assault echelon, to
occupy gaps in the line, to furnish security to the flank of
an assault platoon, and to assist adjacent units which are
held up.
g. Except under exceptional circumstances the support
platoon is held as a unit in readiness and awaits orders
from the company commander before undertaking any
O
It. Benning Infantry, seh.
17 - 11-1924
7
platoon reforms under cover of the south slope of Smyth
Hill. Casualties in leaders and specialists are replaced and
the sections are reorganized and placed in squad columns.
The platoon leader notifies the company commander of his
strength and moves to a position from which he can observe
to the front and flanks.
The attack continues against stubborn enemy resistance.
The company on the right has been driven back and is
generally abreast of our assault company. The left of our
line has withdrawn slightly and now rests on the First
Division Road at (17.25-19.85). The company on the left
is along the south edge of the Bois de Tanks and apparently
unable to move forward. The platoon leader has selected
a position which particularly favors observation of the left
flank. During his observation he notices increased enemy
movement in the ravine to the left front at (17.00-19.60)
followed by heavy fire from the same direction and estimates
it to be a counter attack directed toward the exposed flank
of our company. Without waiting for orders he decides to
repulse this counter attack and sends for his section leaders
and in company with the platoon sergeant, outlines the
situation to them. He designates one section to constitute
the assault and the other as the support and indicates the
position to be occupied by the firing line. The section
leaders return to their sections and issue their orders. The
platoon leader sends a runner to the company commander
notifying him of his action.
The scouts of the assault section move forward by bounds
and establish the firing line. The remainder of the section
builds on the line of scouts by infiltration within each
squad. The rear section follows in close support. The as-
sault section advances its attack by four-men rushes from
the right. The enemy counter attack breaks in disorder
and withdraws. The action of the support platoon neutral-
against the company on the left and it now arrives abreast.
The assault platoons are advancing down the north slope
of Smyth Hill. The support platoon is reformed into squad
columns and the attack is resumed.
929—Benning, Ga., 11-8-23—2500
.
AISI
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924
BY
CONFERENCE....: Deployment prior to attack.
.........: 1st Section.
DATE TO CLASS..: Refresher Course, 7 Nov. 23.
Advanced Course, 7 Mar. 24.
Company Officers Course; 8 Apr. 24
DEPLOYMENT PRIOR TO ATTACK.
...........................
Paragraphs.
1-2
- 3-7
8-12
13-18
Section I. General ......
II. Development ...........................
III. Approach march ......
IV. Deployment for the attack ....
V. Principles .......
1
SECTION I.
GENERAL.
Paragraph.
.......................................
Object ..
Definition .......
1. Object.
The object of this conference is to bring out certain gen-
eral principles of deployment which apply to all infantry
units no matter what their size. It is not for the purpose
of showing how any particular unit is deployed for combat.
1
2. Definition.
X. Deploy as defined in Infantry Drill Regulations is:
To extend the front. In general to change from column to
line or from close order to extended order.
(1)
6. The deployment of a unit starts with the develop-
ment, strictly speaking, but ordinarily', the advance to
battle is divided into three stages: Development (action
of large units), Approach March and Deployment.
C. The distinction between extention and deployment is
not clear and strictly speaking the extension as 'referred to
in regulations is a deployment.
SECTION II..
DEVELOPMENT..
Paragraph.
General acccri...;
Reconnaissance and security ......
Orders ..............
......................................
SS .............................
Morera como
Time
......................................
..
S
3. General.
When a large command gets near the enemy it is ordinar-
ily developed for combat by first forming into line of
columns to facilitate the extension of the front prior to de-
ploying. For instance a division might march in two or
three columns on parallel roads with heads of columns
abreast. This not only allows units to be brought nearer
the front, but if necessary the deployment may be made to
a flank which would let one or more columns be in reserve,
or proper position for combat.
US
4. Reconnaissance and security.
a. Before and after the development it is necessary that
reconnaissance. be continuous. At this time, more than
almost any other, reconnaissance is very important as de-
ployment on wrong lines, or in wrong direction, and sur-
prises may generally be prevented. Troops deployed and
under fire suffer greatly when enfiladed. Troops in close-
crder formation may suffer heavy losses in a short time if
subjected to hostile fire. In both formations troops must be
protected by proper reconnaissance and security.
· (2)
It. Bensing Infruntung bike
**17*
b. Each separate column moving forward to deploy must
reconnoiter to its front and flanks and keep in touch with
adjoining colums. The extent of reconaissansce to the
flank depends upon the isolation of the columns, and direc-
tion of enemy troops.
5. Orders.
The orders at this time will probably not contain more
than an ordinary march order.
6. Position in readiness.
It might be necessary for a command to take up a posi-
tion in readiness until more information is obtained of the
enemy.
7. Time.
The command is not developed until necessary, unless
comfort of troops or other conditions direct it.
SECTION III.
APPROACH MARCH.
Paragraph.
Formation .......
.......................................
nce ..................................
........................................
U
Orders
lders ..................................
.............
Time
..........................................
10
12
8. Formation.
a. When the infantry comes under fire of enemy artillery
it is necessary for it to break up into smaller columns to
continue to advance with a minimum loss of life. This
is known as the approach march and the formation is some-
times referred to as artillery formation. The formation
might be necessary for protection from straffing by hostile
airplanes.
b. The troops march in section or squad columns and
they may be on line or echeloned.
(3)
C. The approach march is the first formation from route
march taken by small units, taking the place of the develop-
ment.
9. Reconnaissance.
ja. During this stage it is necessary for the commanders
to make personal reconnaissance to direct the advance of
their command; to locate shelled areas, which are avoided.
Often a mistake is made by marching troops across country
to avoid some area, when careful observation would have
disclosed the fact that it was as safe as any other area.
b. Reconnaissance must be made to determine the enemy's
position, location of his flanks, character of the terrain, na-
ture of hostile field works, etc., in order to prevent pre-
mature deployment and the resulting fatigue and loss of
time,
C. It will frequently be necessary to send forward a thin
skirmish line in order to induce the enemy to open fire and
reveal his position.
d. In some cases reconnaissance must be hasty and super-
ficial depending upon the nature of the attack and the
necessity for promptness.
e. Troops once deployed are practically committed to
action and superior commanders have, to a large extent,
lost control of them, due to the fact that control has been
largely delegated to commanders of smaller units.
10. Security.
a. During the approach march covered lines of advance
should be utilized to the fullest extent to prevent observa-
tion by the enemy and resulting artillery fire. Formation,
distances and intervals are varied to accomplish this. Open
areas must be crossed rapidly and is usually accomplished
by rushes.
b. Troops must take necessary steps to prevent surprise
by the enemy. Scouts precede the leading elements to de-
velop the enemy. Connecting groups are sent out by the
reserve units to maintain contact with units to the flanks,
reporting their location and movement to headquarters.
It is frequently necessary to send out combat groups from
.
T
IT
(4)
L
reserve units: to cover an interval to the flank, to protect
the flanks and to assist neighboring units by fire power.
c. Supports and reserves must be prepared to assist
their own assaulting troops, or neighboring troops which
are held up in their advance. Their formation, and dis-
tances from troops ahead, must be such that they may be
deployed in any direction. If part of a flank unit they may
be echeloned towards the exposed flank.
d. Protection against low-flying airplanes is assured by
assignment of machine guns to anti-aircraft missions.
11. Orders.
d. If the unit takes up the approach march in com-
pliance with orders the orders will usually assign the direc-
tion of advance, designate a base unit, and prescribe the
formation. In some cases the enemy might force troops
to take up the approach march in which case orders are
issued covering the above mentioned points.
b. In prescribing the formation it is advisable to place
units in the same relative positions they will occupy when
deployed for the attack. If sufficient information of the
enemy is not at hand to make such dispositions, then the
formation affording maximum security against loss and
adapted to forming for attack in any direction should be
ordered.
12. Time.
Enemy artillery fire generally decides the time at which
the approach formation is taken up. Troops take up the
formation before reaching a shelled area or an area likely
to be shelled. It should not be taken up prematurely as it
slows up the advance of the troops and makes marching
more difficult for them. This is especially true at night.
91
SECTION IV.
DEPLOYMENT FOR THE ATTACK.
Generation
Paragraph
Hormation recensernrinnerinen
General
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13
14
Norma
lion
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(5)
Reconnaissance ..
nice ...............................
Security .................
Orders ......
..........................................
13. General.
a. Units are deployed in depth and frontage.
6. Depth is required for an attack which seeks a decision.
The depth of deployment will vary greatly along the front
of an attacking force. The point of the enemy's front which
favors an advance will generally be selected for penetra-
tion, and where a considerable penetration is required the
troops will be deployed in great depth. If the maneuver be
one of envelopment, the greatest depth will exist on the
flank in extension of which the envelopment is to take place.
This is not only because of the driving power but because
troops which are to make the main effort are usually de-
ployed in depth. In defense the troops are deployed in
great depth.
C. Fronts which have only a holding or supporting mis-
sion are generally deployed with great frontage and rela-
tively slight depth. Also troops which are to advance only
a short distance are similarly deployed.
d. The platoon is the smallest infantry unit which is
habitually deployed in depth and endowed with indepen-
dent power of maneuver.
e. When the deployment can be made deliberately under
the protection of troops already in position, units are con-
ducted to predetermined places of deployment and formed
for attack, usually under the cover of darkness. Silence
and order in forming up are indispensable.
14. Formation.
a. When infantry units come under or expect to come
under effective rifle or machine gun fire they must be de-
ployed as skirmishers. This formation permits the assault
wave to return the fire to advance rapidly by rushing or by
infiltration and it does not present as good a target as in
approach formation.
(6)
6. The normal interval between skirmishers is five yards.
However, distances and intervals are increased or decreased
according to circumstances.
. c. In each unit larger than a company a reserve is held
out. The strength of the reserve held out will depend upon
the amount of information of the enemy and the mission
assigned the unit. Reserves are used to outflank points of
resistance developed by assaulting echelons, to continue
by a passage of lines the action of assaulting echelons when
these become exhausted, and the taking in flank of re-
sistances holding out in front of adjacent units. Reserves
must be moved so that they may quickly deploy in any di-
rection,
· d. In an attack against an organized position the deploy-
ment is in depth. The reserves however of the smaller units
move out from the line of departure close in rear of assault
echelon in order to avoid the enemy barrage. Distances are
gained during the advance. Reserves should be close enough
to prevent the enemy from coming out of dug-outs and
other concealed places after the assaulting echelon has
passed, and holding them back. This is also provided for
by having certain units to clean up the enemy position after
the assault waves pass.
15. Reconnaissanse.
Commanders should make a careful reconnaisance to
insure deployment in the right direction. After deploy-
ment reconaissance is continued with all available means,
observation posts, air service, cavalry where praticable,
patrols, etc. In making the reconaissance care must be
taken that it does not delay the action so that the enemy
will secure the advantage.
16. Security.
The security measures adopted for the approach march
continue, the security detachments being even more active.
The place chosen for formation of assaulting units should
afford cover from view, and, if possible, from aerial obser-
vation.
(7)
17. Orders.
Orders for the attack after deployment should be clear
and comprehensive, giving each subordinate a clear mental
picture of what is expected of him and a complete under-
standing of what the higher unit is endeavoring to accom-
plish. The formation for attack is prescribed. The form-
ation of subordinate units is not usually prescribed. This
is necessary, because after deployment control is difficult
and unless each unit is well informed the result is apt to be
disastrous. The control passes down to smaller unit com-
manders until, when the ability of platoon and section leaders
to control the action of their units ceases, squad leaders lead
their squads on their own initiative, lending each other
mutual support. And even after this it might be necessary.
to advance individuals by infiltration.
18. Time.
a. Unless the organization is deployed along certain lines
preparatory to attacking it will have to deploy when it
comes under effective rifle or machine gun fire.
b. The deployment must not be made until necessary as a
premature deployment into combat formation causes un-
necessary fatigue and loss of time and may result in a faulty
direction being taken. Troops once deployed make even
minor changes with difficulty, and this difficulty in-
creases with the frontage of the echelons. In larger units
when deployed in wrong direction it is usually necessary
to deploy reserves on the correct front, withdraw and
assemble the leading echelon.
SECTION V.
PRINCIPLES.
Summarized ......
Paragraph
19
(8)
19. Summarized.
The following might therefore be stated as principles of
deployment.
A. Reconnaissance should never cease.
b. Security must be maintained at all times.
c. Mutual support is necessary.
d. Deployment must not be premature.
e. Thorough instruction is absolutely necessary for
success.
f. Deployment in frontage is employed by troops for
holding or supporting missions and for short advances.
g. Deployment in depth is necessary when a decision is
sought, for deep penetrations.
NOTE: The Deployment in Defense is the subject for
another conference.
(9)
905–Benning, Ga., 10-30-23-2500
41511
u
OFFENSIVE
COMBAT
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE:
Offensive Combat.
BY:
First Section.
DATE TO CLASS:
Refresher Course, 7 Nov. 23.
Advanced Course, 7 Mar. 24.
Company Officers' Course 8 Apr. 24.

VOLLOW
*
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924.
934–Benning, Ga., 11-9-23-3000
OFFENSIVE COMBAT.
Section
----
Paragraph.
1-2
...... 3-17
I General
II Principles ----
III Historical data .........
IV Procedure in offensive combat ............
...---------- 18
kad foto
microres
SECTION I.
GENERAL
Object of conference .........
Training
Paragraph.
--------... 1
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1. Object of Conference
The object of this conference is to bring out the principles
of offensive combat and to point out certain courses to
follow in order to apply them. It will touch upon the sub-
ject in general terms; other conferences will cover it in
detail. However, there will necessarily be some overlapping
in the conferences.
TYT)
2. Training.
a. Success in battle is the ultimate object of all military
training; success may be looked for only when the training
is intelligent and thorough. The first thing to consider
in training is descipline for without it you will not get the
desired results. Therefore, in all training for combat it
is absolutely necessary that commands and orders be given
with force; and that they be strictly enforced in order to
insure success in battle.
b. Officers and non-commissioned officers must be so
trained that they can apply suitable means and methods
to each case as it arises. Study and practice are necessary
to acquire proper facility in this respect. Theoretical in-
struction cannot replace practical instruction; the former
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
supplies correct ideas and gives to practical work an interest,
purpose, and definiteness not otherwise obtainable.
C. All training should be directed towards producing
self reliance in leaders and in the individual skirmishers.
d. After the mechanism of extended order drill has been
learned with precision in the platoon, every exercise should
be, as far as practicable, in the nature of a maneuver (com-
bat exercise) against an imaginary, outlined, or represent-
ed enemy.
SECTION II.
PRINCIPLES.
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Principles outlined
The offensive ............
Security
Reconnaissance
Mutual support ...
Reserves
Surprise ...........
Fire and movement....
Advantage gained .
Endurance and tenacity of purpose............
Plans.............
Unity of command......
Maintenance of direction..........
Liaison......
Information ......................................................................................
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3. Principles outlined.
The basic principles of combat may be stated as follows:
1. Only the offensive produces decisive results. -
2. Security is necessary at all times.
3. Reconnaissance should be continuous.
4. Mutual support between units increases the chances
of success.
5. A reserve should be withheld during the initial
stage of the attack.
6. Surprise is an essential element of a successful at-
tack.
7. Combat is conducted by a combination of fire and
movement.
WI1
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
8. An advantage gained should never be relinquished.
9. Endurance and tenacity of purpose are essential to
success.
10. Simple and direct methods have the best chance of
succeeding.
11. Unity of command must be maintained.
12. Maintenance of direction in attack is necessary.
13. Liaison with adjacent units must be continuous.
14. Commanders must be kept informed as to the situa-
tion.
nn
4. The offensive.
d. There are two general types of combat; Offensive and
Defensive. Infantry Drill Regulations 1919 state: “An
infantry that knows how to attack will know how to de-
fend, because it is easier to defend than to attack.” The de-
fensive is covered in other conferences and therefore it
is the endeavor to bring out in this conference important
points to be considered in the offensive.
b. The offensive spirit must be inculcated into every-
one. The infantry must take the offensive to gain decisive
results. The Army that abandons the offensive and loses
its aggressive spirit is already beaten. Expressing it differ-
ently, an army that takes up and retains the defensive is
already beaten.
C. While training in the duties of covering detachments
and in defensive measures generally will not be neglected,
such training must not be emphasized at the expense of
more important combat training. The basis of training
will be the attack.
d. The infantry attack has as its basis the fighting spirit
and aggressiveness of officers and non-commissioned officers
with fearless, intelligent leading on their part, and the in-
dividual initiative of the private soldier himself. It is
the special duty of all leaders to stimulate and cultivate
these qualities and to develop discipline and self confidence,
individual vigor, and fighting capacity, in order to establish
and maintain the moral value of the infantry.
7
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
e. Training in bayonet fighting has its chief value as a
factor in the development of the offensive spirit. Every
infantryman must be trained to such a point that he has
full confidence in his ability personally to overcome his
adversary in hand-to-hand combat.
. f. In the World War a great many activities were carried
on at night and in future wars the chances are strong that
there will be more fighting at night or during foggy or
stormy weather. So our efforts should be devoted to some
extent to night operations. .
'g. Remember that in taking the offensive one has the ad-
vantage over his enemy in that he can plan his attack, con-
centrate his forces at some point in the enemy's line strik-
ing him with a superior force; while the enemy on the de-
fensive must be prepared to defend at any point.
h. A coordinated attack is more likely to succeed than
one where troops are thrown in by dribblets.
i. The task of the infantry on the offensive is to capture
and occupy the enemy's position and to hold it against coun-
ter-attacks; and on the defensive to hold its own lines. The
accomplishment of this task is a visible proof of victory
in combat.
j. After a successful assault the situation will determine
whether to follow up the enemy in pursuit or organize the
position for defense against counter-attack. Rapid fire
should be opened on the retreating enemy if he is in sight.
It is not generally advisible for units mixed and disorganiz-
ed by the assault to follow the enemy. The pursuit should
be immediately undertaken by the nearest organized echelons
and the assaulting troops reorganized and placed in support.
k. The defense is accepted only to prepare for a future
offensive. If a first class power had invaded this country
in 1917 we would have been compelled to assume the de-
fensive until preparations had been made to drive the enemy
out.
5. Security.
A. A commander should never be surprised by the enemy.
To be surprised by an enemy at short range is an unpardon-
YIT
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
able offense. To prevent such a thing reconnaissance and
security are necessary at all times.
b. The flanks of a unit are its most vulnerable part. There-
fore, it is necessary to send out security detachments and
connecting groups to its front and flanks. The moral effect
of flanking fire is as great as the physical effect. ;
c. The commander of a unit on a flank of a general line
invariably provides for the necessary reconnaissance and
security on that flank unless higher authority has specifi-
cally ordered it. In any event he sends out combat patrols
as needed. Where the unit is on a flank of one section of the
line and a considerable interval lies between the unit and
the next section, he makes similar provisions. In antici-
pation of the occurence of gaps between attacking units,
strong combat patrols are usually detailed by battalion and
larger units, prior to engagement, for the purpose of filling
the gaps and maintaining tàctical contact with adjacent
units. These patrols should not be mixed with those from
adjacent units and placed under one commander.
d. At long range the best protection of advancing troops
against loss consists in their own movement and the utiliza-
tion of cover from view.
e. The fact that cavalry patrols are known to be posted
in certain directions does not relieve infantry commanders
of the responsibility for reconnaissance and security. The
same applies where infantry troops are in advance. In the
World War troops were ordered forward to certain points
to relieve friendly troops only to find that enemy troops
occupied the position.
O
6. Reconnaissance.
a. There is no situation which can justify a commander
for remaining in ignorance of the situation on his front.
He must not let anything prevent him from keeping in touch
with the situation by personal reconnaissance.
b. In addition to personal reconnaissance, reconnoitering
parties are sent out. Combat reconnaissance is of vital
important and must not be neglected. By proper prelim-
inary reconnaissance deployments on wrong lines or in a
wrong direction, and surprises may generally be prevented.
PE
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
C. The difficulty of reconnaissance increases in propor-
tion to the measures adopted by the enemy to screen him-
self.
d. Reconnoitering patrols must remember that their
mission is to obtain information and must guard against
being drawn into a fight and failing to obtain the desired
information.
e. A large reconnoitering party is conducted so as to
open the way for small patrols, to serve as a supporting force
or rallying point for them, and to receive and transmit
information.
f. Before an attack a reconnaissance must be made to
determine the enemy's position, the location of his flanks,
the character of the terrain, the nature of the hostile field
works, etc., in order to prevent permature and faulty de-
ployment and the resulting fatigue and loss of time.
g. Frequently it will be necessary to send forward a thin
skirmish line in order to induce the enemy to open fire and
reveal his position.
thi. Commanders of supports and reserves must keep in
touch with the situation on their front and flanks by constant
reconnaissance, and be ready to act on their own in-
iniative in the execution of the various missions which the
situation may impose.
į. Some persons delay the action too much by going
forward for the slightest reason to make a personal recon-
naissance which often gives the enemy the advantage.
Therefore, in many cases it will be necessary to push for-
ward with very little reconnaissance in order to secure the
advantage.
j. Another thing which we should have learned from the
World War is that we cannot expect large reconnaissance
O
shot up. One or two men often brought heavy fire upon
themselves when they exposed themselves to enemy observ-
ation..
S
7. Mutual support.
a. The success of any operation undertaken by a unit
depends in a large measure on the degree to which sub-
I
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
51
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ordinate units lend each other mutual support. While for
the purposes of the orderly detelopment of an operation,
it is necessary to assign zones of action to units, such assign-
ment must in no sense be construed as preventing them
from operating outside the limits of such zones for the
purpose of supporting the action of adjacent units when
this can be done without abandoning their primary mission,
and the tactical situation requires it.
b. The attack will not generally encounter a uniformly
held, continuous line of defense. It will have to overcome
a defense disposed in depth and a series of centers of resist-
ance or strong points covering the main routes of advance
with relatively lightly held intervening intervals.' By a
stubborn defense of these strong points the defense will
seek to limit the penetrating action of the attack and over-
whelm by counter-attack the assaulting elements 'which
succeed in penetrating its front.
C. There will consequently be inequalities in the resist-
ance encountered on the front of attack. Certain units
of considerable size will be held up in front of the stronger
centers of resistance. Others, which encounter only minor
resistances, press forward as rapidly as possible without
regard to the progress of units on their flanks and attempt
to outflank the main hostile resistances. The battle thus
becomes a series of local combats carried on by units of
varying importance. The combat is not carried on by con-
tinuous lines, but by groups disposed in depth and capable
of acting in any direction. There is no excuse, however,
for a unit to push so far forward that it cannot be supported
by adjacent units.
d. Greatest care should be taken to prevent a dispersion
of the forces. An over extension of an attacking force
weakens the attack. Piecemeal action leads to defeat in
detail. Therefore, an essential requisite for success is the
concentration of enough troops at a critical point to insure
the success of a decisive blow. A safe rule to follow where
an envelopment is to be made is: The distance between
the force making the holding attack and the one making
the envelopment should be less than the distance from either
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
of these forces to the enemy's position. If the distance be-
tween the forces is too great they will not be able to support
each other, and each, or both, might be defeated in detail.
e. The principle of mutual support is of especial appli-
cation to units in support and reserve which have not yet
beon committed to action. It is the special duty of supports
and reserves during the advance to take timely measures
in anticipation of hostile counter-attack. They utilize all
lulls in the action to occupy the natural strong points of the
terrain and dispose machine guns and accompanying weap-
ons so as to check any hostile reaction.
f. Everyolie should bear in mind that each unit in combat
has its particular part to play in order that the higher
commander may carry out his mission. Therefore, if
each of the units will consider itself as a part of a large
team, assisting its team mates whenever possible, victory
is apt to be the reward; whereas, independent action is
likely to spell ia.lure.
TT
8. Reserves,
Reserves are the means utilized by a commander to force
a victorious decision or to insure the safety of the command
in event of defeat. They are utilized to maintain superiority
in the assault, to shift the direction of a decisive blow, to
pursue, to hold captured positions, to counter-attack, to
protect the flanks, to meet the crisis of an attack, to fill gaps
in the line, and to cover a withdrawal. Adequate reserves
are withheld during the initial stages of combat in order
to provide means for influencing the later course of an
action. They are held out of action only until a favorable
opportunity for their use is presented. They are maneuver
forces. They are so located as to facilitate movement to
critical points in time to accomplish the desired results.
If too far away, valuable time is lost; if too close, they suffer
unnecessary casualties, become involved in local actions,
and lack maneuver space. The size of the reserve is in-
fluenced by the plan of action, the information of the enemy,
and the size of the forces engaged. On the defense, the in-
tention to pass to the offensive requires a large reserve.
Great contingencies tend to increase the reserve required
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
11
to meet them, and only when there are no contingencies can
a reserve be dispensed with entirely. Prolonged battle re-
quires a larger reserve than a short combat. Contingencies
increase with the lapse of time. Thorough intelligence
tends to decrease the size of reserves and reduces the liability
of employing them in piecemeal. .
9. Surprise.
a. Surprise is an essential element of a successful attack.
In small, as well as large operations, the effect of suprise
should constantly be striven for. This effect is attained
by concealment of the place or time of attack, coupled with
rapidity of maneuver. Concealment of the point of attack
permits the offence to concentrate superior forces and gain
the time required for the prosecution of a sustained offensive
before its action can be countered by a hostile concentration.
Concealment of the time of attack favors the moral effect
which is the essence of all offensive action and prevents
the defense from taking timely counter measures.
b. The effect of surprise must be reinforced and exploit-
ed by fire superiority. The advance can dispense with fire
protection only when covered by darkness, fog or smoke.
C. In order to launch an attack as a surprise to the enemy
it is generally accepted that the artillery bombardment im.
mediately preceding the attack will be of short duration.
10. Fire and movement.
a. Infantry has two general methods of action: fire and
movement.
b. Fire must be used to cover all movement in the
presence of the enemy, not masked by cover, darkness or
fog.
S. Movement has as its object the gaining of such a posi-
tion relative to the enemy as will permit of the development
of a fire superior to that of the enemy, either by: virtue
of its direction (flanking or from the rear) or its volume
(enveloping action).
d. The movement of units in the advance to the attack
should be by bounds, and every feature of the terrain should
be utilized to cover the advance and diminish losses, i. e,
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
successive positions along the axis of movement are selected
as intermediate objectives and reconnoitered prior to occupa-
tion. The objects of the advance by bounds are:
(1) To preserve the direction of the advance. .
(2) To gain possession of the points of the terrain
which will constitute supporting points for a
further advance. .
(3) To locate positions affording cover and determine
the most suitable routes of advance thereto.
e. At the first firing position, attacking units seek to
gain fire superiority over the opposing resistances. This
may necessitate a steady, accurate fire for a long time.
The object is to subdue the enemy's fire and keep it subdued
so that the attacking troops may advance from this point
to a favorable place near the enemy from which the assault
may be delivered.
f. Assaulting units advance from one cover or firing
position to another by successive rushes, the movement of
advancing fractions being covered by the fire of those re-
maining in position. Diminution of the enemy's fire and
a pronounced loss in effectiveness are the surest signs that
fire superiority has been gained and that a part of the
attacking groups can advance. Enough rifles must be
continued in action to keep down the enemy's fire; this de-
termines the size of the fraction rushing. Once fire superior-
ity has been gained it should never be lost. .
9. Sections of the assaulting echelon held up are not
reinforced when the resistance in their front can be out-
flanked. By their own fire and that of the accompanying
weapons they attempt to neutralize or mask the opposing
resistances and prevent them from enfilading the attacking
elements advancing on their flanks.
h. In principle, assaulting units endeavor to obtain super-
iority of fire over the defensive elements into which the
hostile dispositions are broken up by enveloping action.
While the assault echelon seeks to approach as closely as
possible to the hostile position and immobilize the enemy
with its fire and that of the accompanying weapons and
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
13
MITTA
ni1T
11
machine guns, additional forces are brought up on the
flanks to envelop the enemy or gain his rear.
i. The advantage of the enveloping action consists in
the longer line with consequent superiority in the number
of weapons in action and in convergent fire as opposed to
the enemy's divergent fire. In many cases, however, the
mutual flanking of hostile centers of resistance will be un-
favorable to enveloping action. In such case frontal attack
will be necessary.
j. When the fire of artillery, machine guns, and accomp-
anying weapons is lifted from the enemy's front line be-
cause of its being masked by advancing troops, there is a
short period, during which the troops are closing on the
enemy, when there is no supporting fire on the enemy's
front line. During this period the assault fire (or march-
ing fire as known by some) should be used to maintain the
superiority of fire which had been gained.
11. Advantages gained.
a. The infantry must have the tenacity to hold every ad-
vantage gained, the individual and collective discipline and
skill needed to master the enemy's fire, and the determina-
tion to close with the enemy in attack and to meet him with
the bayonet in defense.
. b. When their troops 'are victorious, all commanders
should press forward to clinch the advantage gained and
to use their reserves to the best advantage.
c. If the assault fails, the assaulting troops must dig
in and hold their ground. To attempt to withdraw would
result in annihilation.
NIC!
LIT
111
12. Endurance and tenacity of purpose.
a. The engagement of numerically superior forces does
not in itself insure victory. Discipline, leadership, skill
in use of weapons and ground, and above all, superior re-
solution are the conditions essential to success.
b. The success of the infantry spells the success of a
battle, a campaign or a war. Therefore, infantry must
be trained to bear the heaviest burdens and losses, both of
لما
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
HA
TYY
it must have complete confidence in itself; it must know that
it can and will fight until overcome only by death. The
spirit of a young infantryman in the World War, who was
mortally wounded in action but who pushed forward until
death claimed him should be the spirit of all infantrymen.
Modern war requires but one kind of infantry—good in-
fantry.
1
13. Plans.
a. Simple movements and elastic formations are essential
to correct training for battle. Complicated maneuvers are
impracticable, efficient leadership and a determination to
win by simple and direct methods must be depended upon
for success. And so it is in combat complicated plans
are sure to fail, whereas the simple plans being easier to
remember and to execute will be carried out to the letter
by the troops and success will follow. Again a simple
plan will make it easier to frame a clear and concise order.
14. Unity of command.
a. It has been clearly proven that no man can serve two
masters at one time. This is applicable in combat. There
is no doubt in our minds that there must be one command-
er, and one only, for the different sub-divisions of troops;
of each sector or area in combat. We must have orders
issued by one commander and where two separate units are
in the same area, the senior will command or the commander
will be designated by higher authority.. Also units should
be kept intact as far as possible.
15. Maintenance of direction.
a. One of the primary duties of infantry commanders
in combat it to maintain direction on their objectives. When
practicable, direction lines should be maintained by compass
bearings. Where landmarks only are assigned, misunder-
standings will frequently arise, and units will be found
attacking obliquely across the line of advance of other troops.
This results in troops being crowded in some areas while
others remain vacant.
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
15
b. With the use of the compass, no difficulty will be en-
countered either in wooded or open country in the main-
tenance of proper lines of advance. Painstaking training
is required for both officers and men in marching across
country and through timber by compass direction. This
is especially true as the chances are that in a future war
we will have to resort to night operations more than in
the past.
16. Liaison.
Another primary duty of infantry commanders is to
establish and maintain contact with the units on their
flanks. In order to get the mutual support, intelligent
action, and to have perfect team work all units must know
the plans of the superior commander and of neighboring
units. Commanders should be careful to let the neighbor-
ing units know about their actions, they should work to-
gether and, therefore, must be in constant contact.
17. Information.
. Still another primary duty of infantry commanders
is to keep the higher command informed as to the situation.
The higher commander should also keep subordinate com-
mands posted as to the situation. This is a very
important duty and one which is every often for-
gotten or not attended to in combat. To get the perfect
team work required information must be freely given be-
tween commanders.
SECTION III.
HISTORICAL DATA.
Paragraph.
Historical data..
.
.
.
.
.
.
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-.
.
.
--
-
-
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-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
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--
-
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-
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-
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-
.
.
18. Historical data.
a. The foregoing principles are often very difficult to
apply. It might therefore be interesting to know results
i
16
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
XT1
in the World War. The following data was gotten from
answers to questionnaires sent out by the Historical Branch,
G. S.
(1) Orders for combat were not gotten to infantry
battalions and supporting units in due time to permit them
to properly carry out same. This was the case in almost
one-fourth of the participations studied.
(2) In most cases (5 out of 6) leaders of small infantry
units in battle were properly oriented by maps.
(3). In most instances small infantry units were given
an opportunity to make a reconnaissance before engaging
in battle and actually did make such reconnaissance. In
some 3 cases out of 10 no reconnaissance was made, but
in such cases conditions almost always prevented the mak-
ing of one.
(4) Where morale was not good the men appeared to
be disgusted and exhausted by hardship rather than afraid
of the enemy. In almost 40% of cases the command was
not properly rested before it entered into battle. In about
30% of cases the men had been without hot food a long
time or otherwise improperly fed just before entering
into battle. When halted for the night only about 35%
of the time was hot food supplied.
(5) Advance rarely halted by men stopping to fire.
The offensive spirit prevented utilization of fire action.
(6) In only about 1/2 the cases reported was the com-
mand in complete liaison on the resumption of the advance
during the day. However, it was almost always establish-
ed at nightfall.
(7) The bayonet was reported as having been used in
approximately 35% of the instances covered.
i
SECTION IV.
PROCEDURE IN OFFENSIVE COMBAT.
Paragraph.
Successive steps in offensive combat
19
OFFENSIVE COMBAT
17
19. Successive steps in offensive combat.
The following successive steps are taken by units about
to engage in combat:
(1) Reconnaissance and security (continuous).
(2) Development (large units).
(3) Approach march.
(4) Deployment.
(5) Attack..
(6) Assault.
(7) Pursuit or organization for defense..
41511
ANIMAL DRAWN
TRANSPORTATION
DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL SUBJECTS
1.
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA
1923-1924.
852---Benning, Ga., 10-10-23—2,000
Fot. Bezriing Infantry śck.
2.-11-1924
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION.
Paragraph.
.........
Section 1. Bits and bitting ......
II. Harness and harness fitting ..
Dilung ::..cccccccccc.
111. Wagon transport
IV. Transport of animals ..
..............
V. Saddles and saddle fitting ...
2-12
13-18
19-22
23-25
SECTION I
BITS AND BITTING.
Paragraph.
General description ........
1. General description :
a. There are many varieties of bits made for different
kinds of riding and driving. They are used singly or in
conbination. The common varieties are the curb, the
snaffle, the bar and the pelham. They vary widely in
principle and effect, but there is one essential principle
common to all, that of having a mouth piece to bear
upon the bars of the mouth by which pressure from the
rider's or driver's hands through the medium of the
reins is transmitted to the mouth. This pressure causes
pain, more or less severe, depending upon the type of
bit used, the amount of force applied, and the sensitive-
ness of the mouth. Much unnecessary and harmful pain
to mouths can be saved by proper bitting and riding or
driving. The best rule is to use the mildest bit and the
least amount of force which will accomplish the object
of controlling and directing the animal. The snaffle,
plain bar, and pelham are the bits generally found on
driving animals.
(1) The snaffle is a mild bit, though not so mild as the
plain bar. It has a pincer action on the bars of the
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
mouth due to the joint in the middle of the mouth piece.
Its effect is a direct pressure on the bars, though at an
upward angle. It should be selected to fit the mouth,
without pinching or having much play outside the mouth;
and it should be adjusted as high up as possible without
drawing up the corners of the mouth. It is the regulation
driving bit in our service, and is the proper bit to use
in riding, in training remounts, in training recruits to ride,
and for nervous or excitable horses. . .
(2) The pelham has a straight or slightly curved mouth-
piece with branches and rings for the attachment of reins
at the ends of the mouthpiece and on the lower branches.
Hence it can be used either as a plain bar bit or a curb, and
is very commonly used for both riding and driving. For
many reasons it is an excellent bit, though not issued to our
service. It is fitted and adjusted similarly to the curb.
(3) The bar bit is adjusted to the mouth as the mouth-
piece of the curb. It has the mildest action of any bit and
is recommended either for driving or riding whenever its
use is possible.
b. The bridle should fit the head comfortably and be cap-
able of the adjustment necessary to proper bitting. The
throat-latch should never be buckled tightly; there should
always be room to thrust the whole hand between it and
the throat.

SECTION II.
HARNESS AND HARNESS FITTING.
Paragraph.
S
...............................,
.. ..........................
OTA CON
General provisions ......
: The hame collar .....
Fitting the hame collar
Breaking in the new collar
The breast collar .i. ..........................
The breeching.
..........................
The bridle and bridle reins ...
The lines .......
Trace loops and belly bands, backstrap and crupper ..
Care of leather ................
.............
Care of metal ......
2000 -
......
I
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
2. General provisions.
a. Harness and its proper adjustment are most impor-
tant matters in relation to draft animals. Harness im-
properly adjusted invariably results in injuries, thus pro-
ducing inefficiency of service. In the use of draft harness
it must be regarded as a mechanical appliance through
which is transmitted the power from the animal to the
object to be moved. When the pressure, which is known as
draft, is applied, there should be as nearly as possible a
direct, uninterrupted pull from the proper region of the
body of the animal to the point of attachment to the wagon
or other object to be moved. The animals must be attached
as close as freedom of movement will permit. This pull
or power can be applied to but one part of the body, and
that is the shoulder; no other part is adapted for the pur-
pose.
b. The object sought is to have that part of the harness
receiving the load in draft (the collar) of such type and
fit as to permit the least possible oscillating or sliding move-
ment. If oscillation is not overcome, serious injury will
result.
C. For military service there are two general classes of
harness to be considered, namely, the hame and the breast-
collar, each having its special advantages, but neither
combining the necessary qualifications to meet all condi-
tions of draft.
d. In the study of harness and harness fitting, considera-
tion must be given to the elementary problems of draft and
its relation to the different kinds of harness. The first and
most important point is the collar and its relation to the
horse's shoulder.
e. It is well known that the shoulders are constantly mov-
iný backward and forward, 'one passing forward as the
other moves backward. At no time, except instantaneously
as 'the shoulders, pass, does the collar rest on a surface
perpendicular to the line of draft, as represented by the
shoulder at rest, but on an oblique one. This backward and
forward movement produces a considerable oscillation in
2
ANIMAL -
DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
the hame collar, which may be seen by leading a horse with
the collar lying loosely on the shoulders.
3. The hame collar.
a. A horse with an upright shoulder is comparatively
easy to fit with the hame collar, whereas an oblique shoulder
is more difficult, since in the latter case there is a tendency
for the collar to rise when bearing weight.
b. Necks and shoulders vary greatly in size and shape.
They also vary in the same animal according to his condi-
tion, making the fitting of hame collars most difficult.
C. The weight imparted to the animal's shoulder should
be evenly distributed over the forward surface of the shoul-
der blade. Owing to the movement of the shoulders the
collar should be fitted so closely as to permit only the least
possible oscillation between it and the underlying parts,
the object being to reduce friction to the minimum.
4. Fitting hame collars..
a.. The points to be observed in fitting hame collars are
. as follows:
(1) The collar is first placed upon the animal, without
attachment, for observation.
(2) The collar must' lie easily on the shoulders from top
to bottom.
(3) It must bear evenly upon the shoulder blades.
(4) The space between the inside of the body of the
collar and neck should admit the fingers and nothing more.
(5) There should be only sufficient space at the bottom
of the collar to admit the hand and wrist.
b. New collars never fit so well as old ones, since it takes
a considerable time for a collar to mould itself to the shape
of the shoulders. For this reason animals should not be
expected to do hard work before breaking in the collar at
light work. If necessary to use a new collar for immediate
hard work, the best method is to wet the collar thoroughly
by soaking in water for an hour or two and then putting it
on the animal at work until thoroughly dry. This will
mould the collar to the shape of the shoulder, and a better
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
fit is insured. If taken off before it is thoroughly dry, it
should be buckled together and laid on a flat surface.
Under no consideration should collars be wet for any other
purpose.
C. Collars should, when in use, be supplied with a neck
pad of leather or metal. The latter made of zinc is by far
the most satisfactory as a preventive of sore necks.
d. When collars are removed they should be thoroughly
cleaned of sweat and dirt as prescribed in the CARE OF
LEATHER.
5. Breaking in the new collar.
a. The harness should be fitted to the collar so as to
insure a perfect contact of its outline with the shoulder.
The trace attachment should be in a position one third of
the distance between the point of the shoulder and upper
border of the shoulder blade, which is the point of least
motion. This allows as nearly as possible the line of trac-
tion to be at a right angle with the slope of the shoulder,
which is most important in draft. If it is below this point,
the tendency is to lift the collär up and tilt it to the front.
If higher than this the traction is placed above the desired
point and there is a tendency to lift the load as well as
pull it, which is entirely wrong.
b. The sizes of collars supplied the service vary from 18
to 24 inches in length each size differing by one inch.
C. The larger the body of the collar, the greater the sur-
face receiving the distribution of the weight, and for this
reason collars with a large body surface are the most
desirable.
d. It is a bad practice in fitting collars to use the sweat
pads of various materials, since it is impossible to keep
them in place and they soon become worn and filled with
sweat and filth which is productive of injuries.
e. Alteration can often be made in collars by a good
saddler. These should be made if the desired sizes are not
otherwise obtainable. It is not difficult to shorten a collar
which is too long, but in sở doing it must be remembered
that the animal's condition will change. If thin in flesh at
size din nor the greand for the
1
8
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
1
time of fitting, the subsequent: gain of flesh might cause
the hame collar to be too small. If collars are too narrow
at a given point, it is possible to remove some of the filling
at this point, and if too wide they may likewise be stuffed.
This is most delicate work and can only be trusted to an
expert.
6. The breast collar.
a. The simplest collar which can be worn is that which
passes around the shoulders. It is known as the breast
collar or breast harness. This collar, unlike the hame
collar, which has an oscillating movement, has a sawing one,
and for that reason must have a perfectly smooth surface
next the animal's skin. The slightest uneveness, if it be
only an exposed stitch, is capable of doing harm. A well
made breast collar must be wide, the lining being wider
than the leather work on which the draft comes. It should
be of one whole piece of soft folded leather without stitch
or seam, the inside fold placed next to the shoulder.
b. The collar ise supported on the neck by either a single
or double strap which shouïd be covered with a metal pad
of zinc for "preventing injury by friction at this point.
The artillery harness is provided with two straps, one for
supporting the collar and one for the pole.
c. The adjustment.of the collax with the neck and pole
strap is important. They should be of such lengths as to
permit the lower edge of the 'breast collar to rest one inch
above the point of the shoulder when in draft. The great
tendency is to allow the collar to hang below the point
mentioned, thus, interfering with the movements of the
shoulders. If adjusted too low the result is severe injury
from the sliding movement. The amount of shoulder sur-;
face receiving the load when in draft, is much more limited,
with the breast collar than with the hame collar, and this
is further increased by the movement of the shoulders back-,
ward and forward, since it naturally follows that when
one is advanced, the pressure on the opposite onę must be.
lessened.

ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
9
7. The breeching.
The fit of the breeching in either kind of harness is next
in importance to that of the collar. This is accomplished
through changes of the side,'quarters, and choke straps.
The hip straps should be so adjusted as to allow the rear
part of the breeching to rest on the buttocks approximately
seven or eight inches below the point. The side and choke
straps should be adjusted so that the breeching will not
fall more than two inches away from the animal when
pulling. If so fitted, the pull will be in a direct line from
rear center point of the breeching, to the pole cap through
the side and choke straps. In this manner there is but
little lost motion when the animal's weight is thrown back-
ward in stopping or holding back in going down grade.
In order to accomplish the adjustment mentioned, the rear
hip strap should be shorter than the front, the outside
strap longer than the inside (to equalize the pull on each
side), and the choke strap placed on the outside of the
inside foreleg and attached directly to the pole cap. It
should never pass between the foreleg nor be attached at
any point other than that mentioned. If necessary to hold
up the choke strap, keepers may be used by suspending
them from the choke strap, care being exercised that they
are not so short as to permit pull upon the collar when
backing.
8. The bridle and bridle reins.
The bridle should fit the head moderately close, but not
tight enough to cause any tension upon the poll nor upon
the corners of the mouth by the bit. The blinders, if
used, should be turned well out so as not to interfere with
the vision. (With most animals these are unnecessary).
The bridle rein should always be loose and fastened over
the hames or to a hook in the backband. The throat latch
should always be buckled loosely enough to pass the flat
hand between it and the throat. Curb chains, if used,
should be carefully adjusted.
LI
DU
10
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
9. The lines.
The outside line is attached to the outside ring of the bit,
mis
ed to the inside bit ring of the opposite animal. The inside
reins must be so adjusted that the animals' heads when
pulling are held straight to the front. There is a tendency
for drivers purposely to adjust the lines so as to spread
the team apart which is a very bad practice and should be
prohibited.
10. Trace loops and belly bands, backstrap and crupper.
a. Trace loops will be so adjusted that no pull is trans-
mitted to the back band when the animal is in draft. There
should be sufficient space between the belly band and the
body to admit the hand freely.
b. Back straps should be adjusted so that the saddle to
which they are attached at the back will rest just back of
the point of the croup. Care must be exercised that it is
not tight enough to produce an appreciable pull upon the
collar or crupper. The crupper should be of such length
as to fit snugly but not tightly under the dock.
111 Care of leather.
a. Leather equipment should always be kept in the best
Fossible condition in order to obtain the greatest amount of
service from it. When leather is in proper condition it is
clean, soft and pliable, and will stand severe strain. It can
only be kept in that condition by constant care.
b. New leather is usually stiff, dry, and hard, and re-
quires frequent dressings of neatsfoot or other oil to make
it pliable. After it has been put in proper condition, oiling
once a week will ordinarily suffice to keep it so.
c. Before oiling leather equipment it should be taken
apart and each piece thoroughly cleaned.
d. The proper method of cleaning and oiling new leather
is as follows: Take a bucket of clean warm water, a sponge
and a can of saddle soap. There should be a rack of some
sort, to hang leather parts on. In the field the wagon pole
water, and work up a lather with the saddle soap. Now
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
11
1
squeeze all the water possible from the sponge and proceed
to work on a piece of leather, cleaning it thoroughly, both
sides. Clean the sponge and make a fresh lather as often
as may be necessary. Change the water in the bucket
frequently. Having cleaned a piece of leather, work in
the remaining lather with the hands until it is all absorbed.
The piece is now ready for oiling. Put a little oil (neats
foot preferably) on a rag and apply it to the flesh side of
the leather, rubbing quickly over the whole surface so that
it will be evenly distributed ard too much will not be absord-
ed in any one place. The piece is again worked with the
hand until no oil remains on the surface. This hand work-
ing is most beneficial as it insures even distribution of the
oil and makes the leather soft and pliable. Light applica-
tions of oil are much preferable to heavy, and they are
absorbed more evenly and gradually, and men's clothing
is not ruined.
e. If the oil is applied to dry leather, it is absorbed
almost as if by blotting paper, and it is impossible to
make an even distribution. The presence of the saddle
soap and moisture in the leather partially fills up the
pores and thus makes absorbtion slower and more even.
f. If oil is applied to the hair side of the leather it is
certain to leave spots, and even-colored leather cannot
be had.
g. Those parts which have collected an unusual
amount of dirt, such as in and around buckles and keep-
ers, may be best cleaned with a soft smooth stick of
wood, used when the dirt has been softened by soap.
h. The inside faces of collars must never be washed as
it will make them harden and wrinkle, which would
tend to produce injuries to the neck and shoulders. They
can be kept clean by thorough rubbing with the hand.
If additional cleaning is found necessary, it can be accom-
plished with the sponge and saddle soap. A paddle of
coft wood may be used to remove excess sweat and dirt.
Particular care must be taken to squeeze all the water
out of the sponge when using it for this purpose.
m
T
.
12
IN
. 2. For use on black leather add one teaspoonful of lamp
black to a pint of oil, and mix thoroughly.
1. Each piece of leather, excepting the collar, should be
treated as above and hung up to dry. . The parts are
then assembled and put away in their proper places.
k. This operation should be repeated daily until the
leather is in shape, after which it should be cleaned thor-
oughly and oiled lightly at least once a week. All leather
must be wiped off with sponge and saddle soap after
each use. Leather equipment when not in use should
be kept hung on pegs or racks. It should never be allowed
to lie on the floor or ground. When 'leather is to be stored
or shipped, it should be thoroughly cleaned and lightly
oiled on both sides.
1
.
12. Care of metal.
A. The metal parts of horse equipment should be kept
clean and free from rust. The manner of cleaning and
removing the rust depends upon the metal and the finish.
b. Bronzed metal should not have its finish disturbed.
Any cleaning material such as emery, sand or brick
dust, which cuts the surface will destroy the bronze finish
and hence should not be used. A soft pine stick and
cosmoline will remove rust without damaging the finish,
C. White metals are generally corrosive or non-corrosive.
The non-corrosives are easily cleaned and kept clean, but do
not take so high a polish as do the corrosives. The cor-
rosives, such as steel and nickel plate are freed from rust in
various ways. The simplest way is by hand with emery
cloth or powder, or with oil and fine sand or brick dust, then
burnished with the chain burnisher to remove scratches
and restore the smooth polished surface. This, however,
is not recommended for nickel plate as the plating will
soon be worn off. It is best to treat it in the same way
as bronze.
d. Other methods of removing rust may be used when
such metal has to be cleaned. A number of pieces can be
fastened together in a bunch and dragged through sand, or
they may be placed in a sack and simply shaken, the differ-
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
13
ent pieces cleaning each other. An excellent device for this
is à barrel or keg mounted on an eccentric axle,
with crank handle on the end of the axle to revolve it. As
the barrel revolves the ends are raised and lowered altern-
ately and the metal within is constantly churning about.
Fine sand or brick dust in the barrel will greatly hasten
cleaning. All the harness chains of a section of a battery of
Field Artillery can be freed from rust in this manner within
from a quarter to half an hour. The same means can be
used to burnish and polish, if soft material such as leather
scraps, sawdust, or small pieces of paper are used in place
of sand. If there is much cleaning to be done it is prefer-
able to have two barrels, one for cleaning and one for polish-
ing. Brass is treated in a manner similar to white metal. It
can be given a high finish by the use of almost any kind
of polish.
· e. Painted metal requires occasional removal of the old
paint, and repainting. The paint can be removed by the
same means as rust and requires less labor. All metal
should be cleaned after use and then wiped off with an
oily rag.
SECTION III.
WAGON TRANSPORT.
Paragraph.
13
Appearance ......
Teamsters ...........
Driving .........
Care of wagons .....
Adjustment of wagons
agons .............................
Loading of wagons ..
ons ...............................
OTA
13. Appearance.
The efficiency of an organization can be fairly judged
by its neatness and military appearance. This is especially
applicable to its transportation, since no matter how good
an appearance the men make, the effect will be spoiled if
the transport is not kept in a clean and orderly manner.
In addition to the general appearance, it is an economic
measure to give the best possible care and attention to
the transport. A neglected transport equipment does not
Y
14
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
compare in its life and usefulness with one well kept.
There are many details which must be looked after very
.carefully in order to attain the greatest efficiency, such
as care of animals, proper fitting and care of harness, train-
ing and selection of teamsters, and general cleanliness and
upkeep of the wagons. The details of the greater part of
these have been previously considered and need only to.be
mentioned in connection with this subject.
1
14. Teamsters.
a. The importance of proper selection of teamsters can-
not be overestimated, since they are entrusted with impor-
tant work, are directly responsible for government prop-
erty representing a large monetary value, and are usually
on duty where they must depend upon their own initiative.
Such men should have the following qualifications: knowl-
edge and experience in handling and caring for animals,
as well as aptitude and desire to work with them. In
addition they must possess the physical ability to sustain
hardship and long hours. They should be impressed with
the importance of their duties and thoroughly trained in
carrying them out. Their instruction should consist of noi
only that pertaining to their work as wagoners, but also
of subjects of a military nature, such as courtesies and
personal appearance.
b. The teamster is responsible for the condition, care and
operation of his team and wagon, and must be thoroughly
instructed in the proper manner to keep them in the best
possible condition. He must have the ability to train
animals and be of such disposition as to treat them kindly
at all times. It is necessary that he be proficient in driving
both single and four line teams, and this must be learned
with a single team under the supervision of a trained
driver.
7
S
15. Driving.
a. In driving, the lines should be held firmly but without
undue force, sızfficient only for the driver to feel contact
with the animals' mouths. When driven in this manner
the team will, if lines are properly adjusted, work together,
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
15
preserve equal draft, and always be under control.. In start-
ing, but slight pressure on the reins is necessary in con-
nection with the starting word from the driver, spoken in
a firm and audible tone. Shouting or yelling is forbidden,
since it tends only to excite the animals and will often pro-
duce the habit of balking. In starting the load, it should
be done slowly and with brakes released. Once in motion
the team should be given their head, and the lines held
only tightly enough to maintain moderate pressure on the
bits.
b. In slowing or stopping, the teams should always be
spoken to quietly, the lines tightened and the brakes applied.
By the proper use of the brakes the animals are saved con-
siderable energy both in stopping and going down grade,
and for this reason the brakes should always be kept in
working order.
C. Backing should be avoided whenever possible because
the whole effort is performed by the wheel team only, and
with a heavy load it means greater exertion.
d. In case of runaway teams, drivers should always keep
their heads and stay by their teams. The brakes should be
applied, and an effort made to keep the teams in the road
or else guide them into an open area of sufficient size to
let them run in a circle until exhausted. If a team becomes
confirmed in running away, it should be broken up and
the animals driven with others which are manageable. If
this is impracticable, some form of bit especially designed
for the purpose should be provided.
e. The driver should be held accountable for his team,
wagon and equipment. He should be given enough time
and the proper facilities to attain the standard demanded.
This can be done by allowing each driver a certain amount
of "free time" each day, in which to do this work, or by
requiring each driver to report his equipment for inspec-
tion by the stable sergeant each evening before leaving the
stables.
f. Every driver should be impressed with the fact that
he is not only responsible for the cleanliness and good
appearance of his team and equipment, but that he also has
16
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
a moral responsibility to his animals; that the animals are
his command for safety and training; and that their ac-
tions and disposition will reflect the treatment which they
receive, be it harsh and rough or kind and gentle.
g. Teamsters are responsible that their animals are propi
erly groomed. They should clean and inspect the feet
of their animals each morning before harnessing and each
evening before unharnessing, and report loose shoes to the
stable sergeant at once.
h. In pulling heavy loads, or over difficult ground, if there
is any likelihood of the team's stopping, the driver should
stop them before they become stalled, This is because
many animals will not try to pull again after they have
met resistance which seems to them unsurmountable.
Should the wagon become stuck it is well to turn the tongue
slightly to one side and get the animals off together...
i. In starting a team with a heavy load, the driver should
hold the reins fairly tight in order that the team may feel
the guidance and assistance of the driver.
j. Teams are either two, four, or six line. If four line,
one pair is the wheel and the other the lead; if six, the
middle pair is the swing. The heaviest and slowest pair
work best at the pole.
k. In matching teams the animals should as far as possi-
ble be of similar weight and conformation, have the same
gait and the same color and markings.
l. When once matched they should not be broken up
except for good reasons. Teamsters once assigned should
not be changed if avoidable.
16. Care of wagons.
d. Mud and dirt should not be allowed to accumulate on
wagons and carts. They should be washed at least once a
week, or more often if necessary. In washing, avoid rubb-
ing the paint while mud covered; this scratches and re-
moves it. Clean by using hose or throwing water on the
muddy parts. Grease should not be allowed to accumulate
around the axles and hub caps. Washing is best done on
a platform or concrete floor provided with proper drainage.
The luster of the paint can be restored by applying a mix- .
ON
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
17
ture composed of linseed oil, 3 parts; turpentine, 1 part.
This should not be used oftener than once a week as the
oil tends to soften the paint.
6. Nuts and bolts should be tightened frequently, and
wagons kept under cover when possible. They should be
repainted as often as necessary.
C. Wagons should be greased at least twice a week in
garrison, and daily on a march. The parts to be greased
are the axles and fifth wheel. In replacing wheels lift
them up, so as not to push the grease off the axle.
17. Adjustment of wagons.
a. Poles should always have 14 inch play in the hounds to
take up sudden jerks and prevent breaking, False bolsters
should be provided of 11/2 inch material so as to pre-
vent the king bolt working into and injuring the wood
work of the floor of the wagon. A metal piece attached to
the bottom of the floor where it comes in contact with the
b. Wagon bows will be secured firmly in the bow staples
and joined with the ridge pole. Covers should be secured
firmly in the rings, all wrinkles smoothed out, and placed
neatly in the rear. The bows and wagon cover should not
be used to secure or hold any part of the load.
c. The portable link which is the connection of the hound
with the wagon bed should be fastened at all times.
d. The tail gate of the wagon should be kept closed and
pinned except when loading and unloading, and the cross
rod securely fastened. Brake blocks should be lined with
hard wood, never with metal, as this wears the tires.
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18. Loading of wagons.
a. The cargo load of an escort wagon weighs 2765 pounds
net; with driver and spare parts 3000; the ration cart 1000
pounds. Wagons and carts should not be loaded in excess
except in case of great emergency. The tendency, especially
on short pulls, is to overload, which causes unnecessary
strain and shortens the serviceability of the vehicle.
.b. The wagoner. is the one to supervise the loading and
18
· ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION:
should see that the heavy pieces are placed at the bottom
and that the center of weight is one third of the distance
from the front of the wagon. To prevent shifting, the
load should be compact and rest against the sides and ends
of the wagon. Loads should be evenly distributed be-
tween wagons. Such articles of supply as will first be
needed are placed in the rear, where they will be easily
accessible.
.
TT1
1
SECTION IV.
TRANSPORT OF ANIMALS.
Paragraph.
19
Transport by rail .....
Care el route ............
Transport by water
.............................
Transport by road
20
21
19. Transport by rail.
ail.
a. The tranport of animals by rail in the military service
is an important subject to be considered in the care of
animals. Experience has demonstrated that considerable
ployed in transit, such as long periods without water, feed
or rest; and lack of proper supervision of feeding enroute,
or on arrival at destination. Animals to be shipped must
be given a careful physical inspection by a veterinary officer
for communicable or other diseases, and tested with mallein
to insure against glandors.
b. If animals are to be worked immediately upon arrival
at destination they should be newly shod without calks.
Remounts or other animals not for immediate use should
have the shoes removed and the feet trimmed on the day
before loading.
C. Before loading, cars must be carefully inspected; all
loose and projecting nails removed; broken slats, doors and
floors repaired; and thoroughly disinfected with some re-
liable agent such as creosol solution, creolin 8 per cent or
chloride of lime, 4 ounces to a gallon of water. Floors
should be bedded down with sand, cinders or straw, de-
Q
.
1
.
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
19
pending upon the available material and kind of cars to be
used. The type of car to be employed varies with condi-
tions. Those most commonly used for troop shipment
are stock cars. Occasionally-Palace stock cars or ex-
press horse cars are provided. The latter are far more
satisfactory, considering the comfort of the animals. For
shipping in small lots (4 to 8), an excellent method is to
utilize a box car, partitioning off space for the animals.
d. Loading animals is an art only perfected by practice,
and instruction in it should be given at every opportunity.
In loading stock cars, horses should be led in one at a time,
alternately to each end, placed alternately head and tail
in each end, and held there by an attendant until the
capacity of the car is reached.
e. Mules are loaded by leading the first one and herding
the others, closely following one another. The tighter
animals are loaded in stock, cars, the better and safer they
are conveyed.
f. Cattle cars will hold from 18 to 24 animals, depending
on their size and dimensions. As a guide the following is
the usual number to be placed in 36 and 40 foot earse
g. 36 foot cars.
Heavy draft ..
Light draft ......
Riding horses ....
Draft mules ......
Pack mules .....
40 foot cars.
Heavy draft
Light draft ......
Riding horses ...
Draft mules ..
Pack mules ............................ 24
h. The above may be varied according to the size of the
animals; and if the weather is warm it is better to reduce the
number in each case by two.
2. Halters should be left on and shanks removed and
carried in sacks. If the weather is severe, one side and
20
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
the ends of the car, if open, should be protected by means
of old canvas or heavy paper. The use of blankets is per-
missable only in exceptional cases, as they invariably be-
come misplaced or torn, and are liable to get under the feet
of the animals. Bandaging the root of the tail with burlap
often prevents the hair from becoming broken and rubbed
off.
j. Loading and unloading should always be from a suit-
able platform. If these are unobtainable, it will be neces-
sary to construct portable ramps for this purpose.
20. Care en route.
a. All shipments will be accompanied by sufficient per-
sonnel to attend the animals (one man for each express car,
and three for each ten or twelve stock cars). Attendants
must carry lanterns, buckets, hatchets, extra rope, hammer
and nails. An officer should accompany a shipment of ten
or more cars. Whenever it is practicable this duty should
be performed by a veterinarian who will be able to care
properly for the sick and injured.
5. Shipments will be so handled that the animals are not
kept on cars for a longer period than 28 hours. This is
a government requirement, which should not be exceeded
except in extreme cases, such as unavoidable delays, or
military necessity. In no case should the time exceed 36
hours. Rather than exceed the 28 hours limit, animals
should be unloaded for feed, water and rest after 20 hours,
or even less, if facilities are offered. On unloading, hay
may be given, but water withheld for an hour or two and
then given only in moderate quantities, followed by grain
feed, care being exercised not to overfeed.
C. When animals are unloaded for feed and rest, the time
of actual rest should be not less than five hours if practic-
able. Unloading and loading should be accomplished in the
same sequence so that all animals will have approximately
the same amount of time for rest.
d. The shipping officer or person in charge should ascer-
tain in advance from the railroad authorities over whose
- ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
21
lines the shipment is to be made, the location along the
route of the available feed and rest stations of sufficient
capacity to care for the number of animals in transit, so as
to arrange for unloading at intervals not to exceed 28
hours.
e. The officer or man in charge of the shipment should
be thoroughly informed as to the above stations, and in the
care to be exercised in feeding and watering together with
any available information as to the sanitary conditions of
the probable unloading yards. In choice of routes the
available feed and rest stations to meet the requirements
of the 28 hour law should be considered.
f. A single shipment should not exceed twenty cars, since
there are few rest stations sufficient to care for more than
that number.
g. In shipments other than by the Remount Service, pro-
vision should be made for both hay and grain, the ration
of the latter to be reduced one half and the bran substituted.
h. The Bureau of Animal Industry and railroad officials
at points of feed and rest stations, should be notified in
advance as to the probable hour of arriyal and number of
animals in shipment, so that pens and yards may be cleaned
and disinfected, and placed in a sanitary condition..
į. The attendant in charge of public animals, upon arrival
at a rest station, should make a careful inspection of all
mangers and watering troughs before unloading, and if
found to be unsanitary, he should, if practicable, have them
cleaned and disinfected by the railroad. If this is impos-
sible it is better to feed in feed bags, or on the ground, than
to risk chances of contracting disease from infected man-
gers. Watering troughs must always be drained, cleaned
and disinfected before using. A well instructed guard
should be kept during the whole period of the stop.
j. In the shipment of remounts the general principles
are the same but special instructions are issued from the
Remount Service.
O
21. Transport by water.
d. After landing from a long sea voyage, animals
should not be required to do active duty for at least three
22
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
weeks, and should be gradually put in condition accord-
ing to the system previously considered. In case of short-
er trips the period required for rest and conditioning can
be greatly lessened..
b. When military necessity demands, and when the
voyage has been short, it is often necessary to work animals
immediately after disembarkation..
c. Upon landing, animals should be unloaded as soon
as practicable. Stalls nearest the hatches are emptied
first, removing all side boards and other material from
the passageways.
d. Unloading is accomplished in several ways, namely,
by the use of slings; by platforms or bridges; by slings
to flat boats; or by pushing the animals into the sea and
allowing them to swim ashore. The method used will
depend upon the circumstances in each case.
1
In
1V
22. Transport by road.
a. By road is, at times, the only means of transport.
This will be the case when railroads are lacking, or when
traffic is so congested that cars are not available. This
system is also used for deliveries of remounts from rail
heads to troops, and in , evacuating individual animals
from troops to rail heads.
b. To overcome a shortage of personnel, use is made of
an exercise or lead line much longer than the one employ-
ed for ordinary exercise. Fifty and sixty animal lines
were common in the A. E, F., for deliveries of remounts,
and even as many as one hundred and fifty animals were
occasionally marched on one line. In lines of over fifty or
sixty animals the work on the hind animals will be too
great, and a hitched escort wagon should be used. For
the longest lines there should be a wagon in the lead, center
and rear.
C. In transporting by road without the lead line, more
men are required, as three animals is the maximum that
one man should be allowed to handle, one to ride and two
to lead.
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
23
d. All details for such movements must be carefully
planned in advance. Convoys should start out thoroughly
equipped, with all animals and men in fit condition. Camp
sites must be selected and prepared, and forage laid down
in advance. The personnel of these convoys is so limited
that it will be insufficient for the proper care of the animals
if it is required to perform much other work.
.e. The care of the feet is one of the most difficult features.
In spite of all precautions, many shoes will be lost. All
animals must start out freshly shod and each convoy must
have a horseshoer with shoeing equipment. On arrival in
camp the feet must be immediately inspected and all ani-
mals in need of shoeing, separated and shod with the least
possible delay.
f. Marches should be short, seldom over fifteen miles,
and the first and second day not over ten or twelve miles,
unless the animals are as hard and fit as seasoned troop
horses.
g. In case the convoy is composed of invalid animals, the
marches should be regulated by their condition; but in all
cases the distance covered should be shorter than that for
fit animals.
SECTION V.
SADDLE AND SADDLE FITTING
The back of the horse ...
Construction and fitting of saddles .....
Six rules of saddle fitting ..
........................
Paragraph.
23
24
25
23. The back of the horse.
d. Probably the greatest cause of inefficiency among
saddle animals is due to saddle injuries. This can be
ascribed to the fact that insufficient attention is paid to
fitting or improperly adjusted saddles are not generally
understood.
b. It is necessary to know something of the construction
of a saddle and the structure of a horse's back in order
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
that saddles may be properly fitted and adjusted, anů
unnecessary injuries to the horse prevented.
C. The spinal column itself is not near the surface of
the back, but slopes downward from the hind quarters,
where it is about two inches below the surface, to the
root of the neck, where it is from 12 to 16 inches below
the top of the withers. The spine is composed of a chain
of bones, each link moving on the one in front and in
rear of it, the movement of the spinal column being up-
ward, downward and to each side.
d. Throughout the entire length of the spine there is
a bony process growing upward from each bone, in the
manner of the teeth of a garden rake. These processes
in front are very long and form the withers, while those
behind are short and broad. The top of these processes is
covered only by the skin and forms the ridge of the
backbone. As the spine itself is deeply seated, the top
of the bony process is the source of all bone trouble that
is found in a sore back.
e. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the bony
processes are not meant to carry weight and that if they
are exposed to even a very slight pressure the surface
may become inflamed, resulting in serious injury.
f. The ribs are constructed to carry weight, and any
load on a horse's back should be placed on them. . This
fact should be kept in mind, as it is the basis of all
saddle fitting.
g. The head of each rib is let into a joint formed be-
tween the links of the spinal column itself. The ribs in
front are fastened to the breastbone, while those behind
have no anchorage at the bottom, but are merely lashed
to each other by cartilage. The latter are the false ribs,
and due to their construction are not meant to withstand
pressure from the sides. Those in front, which are at-
tached to the breast bone, are the true ribs. These are
stout and straight while the false ribs are thinner and
curved. The curving and arching of the ribs increase
from front to rear, so that the chest is narrowest between
the two front ribs and widest behind the last two. Looking
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
25
at the skeleton of a horse from above the ribs appear to
be in the form of a V, the point being in front.
h. The true ribs, having less movement and being
straighter, stronger and secured to the breast bone, can
bear heavy pressure not only from above but also from the
sides. For this reason saddles are constructed so that
all downward and lateral pressure comes on the ribs
and not on the backbone. For the same reason the false
ribs support only downward pressure, while all lateral
pressure is placed on the true ribs.
i. As has been stated the actual spinal column is deeply
seated, and the ridge of the backbone is formed by the
bone processes thrusting upward from the spinal column.
Remembering also that the tops of the ribs are fastened
to the spinal column, it can be seen that there is a triangle
on each side of the backbone, between the backbone and
the surface of the ribs. This triangle or trough is filled
with a large heavy muscle which begins at the loins and
runs the entire length of the back. From the standpoint
of saddling this is the most important muscle in the body
of the horse. It is on this that the saddle actually rests,
the muscle acting as a pad and springy cushion between
the saddle and the ribs to which the weight is transmitt-
ed..
.). The foreleg, unlike the hind leg, is not attached to
the trunk by means of a cup and ball joint. The shoulder
blade bone is a broad, flat, fan-shaped bone which is
fastened to the trunk by means of large masses of muscle.
The muscles which fix the forelegs are plastered over
the ribs, to which they are firmly attached.
:: k. The movement of the blade bone, which can readily
be seen by watching a horse in motion, is forward and
"backward. When the lower part, or handle, is moving
forward, the wide upper part is moving backward, and
vice-versa, in the manner of a see-saw. Due to the fact
that the blade bone does not work in a socket joint, but
is merely bound in place by muscles, it is obvious that,
: nothing should be allowed to press against it and hinder
its movement. Any pressure on the back which impedes
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26
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
the backward movement of the top of the blade bone will
cause the horse to shorten his stride, stumble, and tire
very quickly in the forelegs.
24. Construction and fitting of saddles.
a. Since the invention of saddles there have been cer-
tain principles used in their construction that are still
employed in all types. All saddles have a front and
rear arch and side-bars on each side, to which the arches
are attached, and through which the rider's weight is
transmitted to the horse. The purpose of the arches,
both front and rear, is to prevent the backbone from
being pressed by the saddle. A military saddle must
be strong and durable and capable of withstanding long,
hard strain. For this reason both the front or pommel,
arch and the rear, or cantell, arch are made of metal.
b. The front arch must be high enough so that it will
not under any circumstances touch the withers, and
broad enough so that it will not pinch the withers.
Practically all injuries to the withers in the service are
due to one or both of the above evils. The fault is rarely in
the manufacture of the saddle, but in the fit, adjustment,
loss of condition, and the like.
C. The tendency of the front arch is to spread, but
the rear arch usually sinks under the weight of the rider.
As a consequence, the rear arches of military saddles
are ordinarily supported by backstraps to prevent this
sinking.
d. The sidebars are the portion of a saddle to which
the front and rear arches are attached, and which rest
on the horse's back. They are usually made of tough
wood which is twisted to allow them to fit the curve of
the back.
e. Bearing in mind the fact that the weight bearing
surface of a horse's back is from the play of the shoulder
to the last rib, it is evident that the pressure from the sides
bars should be evenly distributed over the entire surface
The pressure from the front part of the side bars is both
downward and inward, but in the rear, where the saddle
:
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
27
rests on the false ribs, there is only downward pressure.
f. The projections of the side bars in front of the
sommel and in rear of the cantell will cause much
trouble if the back of the horse is not protected from
them.
6. The bare frame, or saddletree, as above described
is of course covered by leather and padding, but the
latter is insufficient and will not allow the saddle to
conform to the varying conditions of the back.
h. Due to the change in condition of a horse's back
from losing or gaining flesh, and due to the fact that
the same saddle must often be used on different animals,
it is impracticable to alter the saddle itself to secure a
proper fit. Change of condition must be met by folding the
blanket in such a way as to protect any point that is
subject to injury. When an injury actually exists, the
blanket should be folded so as to relieve pressure from
that spot, by making the padding thinner over the in- '
jured area and thicker in front and behind it. Care
must be exercised, however, that new injuries are not
caused by this procedure.
i. Great pains should be taken that the saddle blanket
is folded properly in order to give maximum protection
to the back. Quite often some foreign substance, such as
2 small twig, or a burr, or even sand, adheres to the
underside of the blanket, causing the skin underneath
to become inflamed. This trouble is encountered especi-
ally in the field and is one of the most frequent sources
of sore backs. For this reason all blamkets should be
shaken out and brushed before being placed on the back
of the horse.
j. In the field every saddle should be inspected daily.
This inspection should be made with the rider mounted
and all equipment on the saddle. Any defect in the fit
of the saddle should be corrected at once. This is the
only way in which saddle horses can perform hard work
for long periods of time without heavy losses from in-
viries.
28
ANIMAL DRAWN TRANSPORTATION
25. Six rules of saddle fitting.
a. Bearing in mind the fact that excessive friction
will cause chafing of the skin and saddle sores, and that
continuous pressure sufficient to stop the flow of the blood
in the skin will eventually wear holes in the back, it may
be said that the following six rules govern correct saddle
fitting and adjustment. The observance of these princi-
ples will preclude saddle injuries. They constitute the
essence of saddle fitting and should be known prefectly
by all persons who handle saddle animals :
(1) The withers must not be pressed upon from the
top or pinched from the sides.
(2) There must be absolutely no pressure on the back-
bone.
(3) The shoulder blade must have free and unhamper-
ed movement.
(4) The loins are not intended to carry weight.
(5) All weight must be carried on the ribs through
the medium of the muscles covering them.
(6) The weight must be evenly distributed from the
play of the shoulder to the last rib.
SZY
ni
CARE OF ANIMALS
and
STABLE MANAGEMENT
DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL SUBJECTS
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
1923-1924
FOLLOW
TIN
.
T
NOTE: This pamphlet is compiled from selected extracts
from the Cavalry Drill Regulations and the Manual for
Stable Sergeants.
778–Benning, Ga., 9-18-23--2000
Iti Bening Infanting SOL
Sen.
2-ft-nga
CARE OF ANIMALS AND STABLE MANAGEMENT.
Ses
.
.
.
..
.
..
.
..
.
.
..
.
.
..
.
..
.
Section 1. Care of horses.
II. Stables and stable management
III. Stable duty ........
Watering .........
Feeding and feeds ..
Exercising ........ ......................
VII. Miscellaneous .......
VIII. Care of saddlery ....
IX. Fitting the saddle ...............
ܝܓܕܠܠ
Paragraphs.
1-2
3-9
10-19
20
21-37
38
39.
40-44
45
SECTION I.
CARE OF HORSES.
Paragraphs.
... .. ........................
Rules for care of horses ..........................
1. General provisions.
a. A most important duty of the officer in charge of
animals is keeping his horses in such training and health
as will enable them to do their work to the best advantage.
The proper performance of this duty requires careful
instruction of the men in the treatment, stabling, man-
agement, watering, feeding, grooming, and exercising of the
horses, and such continuous supervision and inspection by
officers as will insure that instructions are understood and
are being carried out.
b. Officers in charge of animals should make themselves
thoroughly acquainted with the natural history and phy-
siology of the horse, and with the effects of different meth-
ods of treatment, changes of diet, etc., upon his system
and powers of endurance. They should know the symptoms
and methods of treatment of diseases common to horses,
the measures required in emergencies, the effects of the
medicines supplied to the troops. They should also be
practically familiar with the principles of horseshoeing.
( 3 )
CARE OF ANIMALS.
c. Sore backs are as a rule the result of carelessness or
neglect; the immediate cause may be faulty adjustment of
the saddle or equipment or bad riding.
d. At each halt officers and noncommissioned officers
should inspect the adjustment of saddles and equipment of
their men and should at no time tolerate lounging in the
saddle. The men at each halt should be required to inspect
and, if necessary, clean out their horses' feet.
e. Animals when received in the regiment are branded
on the hoof of the right fore foot with the regimental
number and company of that regiment to which assigned,
2. e., 29th Infantry, Co. H, would be “29 H”.
A number is assigned to the horse by the organization
commander which he keeps permanently and said number
is entered on the descriptive list of the animal. This num-
ber is branded on the hoof of the left fore foot, i. e., No. 10
would be “10”.
f. Captains make permanent assignments of horses;
after a horse is so assigned his rider will not exchange
him nor allow him to be used by any other person without
permission.
2. Rules for the care of horses.
a. All troopers must be taught and must thoroughly
understand the following rules for the care of horses:
b. Horses require gentle treatment. Docile but bold
horses are apt to retaliate upon those who abuse them,
while persistent kindness often reclaims vicious animals.
c. Before entering a horse's stall and when coming up
behind him, speak to him gently, then approach quietly.
d. Never kick a horse, strike him about the head, or
otherwise abuse him.
e. Never punish a horse except at the time he commits
an offense, and then only in a proper manner-never in
anger.
f. Give the horse an opportunity to drink before leaving
the picket line or stable and before putting the bit in his
mouth. In cold weather warm the bit before putting it in
the horse's mouth.
CARE OF ANIMALS.
g. Never take a rapid gait until the horse has been
warmed by gentle exercise.
h. When a horse is brought to the stable or picket line
in a heated condition, never allow him to stand uncovered;
put a blanket on him and rub his legs or walk him until
he is cool. If he is wet, put him under shelter, not in a
draft, and rub him with a wisp until dry.
į. Never feed grain or fresh grass to a horse when
heated. Hay will not hurt a horse however heated he may
be.
j. Never water a horse when heated unless the exercise
or march is to be immediately resumed. Sponging out the
mouth and nostrils is refreshing to the heated horse and
will not hurt him.
k. Never throw water on any part of a horse when
heated.
l. Never allow a horse's back to be cooled suddenly. To
cool the back gradually, remove the pack and equipment
from the saddle, loosen the girth, remove the blanket and
replace it with the dry side next to the horse, replace the
saddle, girthing it loosely.
m. Never put the horse up for night until he is thoroughly
clean, especially around his legs, pasterns, and feet.
n. Individual men returning from mounted duty or pass
will report their return to the noncommissioned officer in
charge of stables, who will inspect each horse and see
that he is properly cared for.
................................
.......
........................
SECTION II.
STABLES AND STABLE MANAGEMENT.
Paragraphs.
Foul air ..
Ventilation ..........
Picket lines and corrals ...
Cleaning stables ..
................................
Care of stalls and floors.
Water troughs ............................
Bedding ..........................................
3. Foul air.
Foul air and dampness are the causes of many diseases
of the horse, hence the importance and economy of spacious,
clean, dry, and well-ventilated stables.
60.00 OOTA
..............
CARE OF ANIMALS.
4. Ventilation.
a. The object of ventilation is to supply pure air to the
lungs, to dilute and remove the products of respiration,
and the odor and gases arising from the fluid and solid
excrements which have been evacuated by the occupants
of the building.
Composition of air.—Pure air consists of:
Parts.
Oxygen ............ ............
2,096
Nitrogen .........
7,900
Carbonic acid ......
Total ...
Total .......................... 10.000
It also contains a small quantity of watery vapor.
b. Oxygen is the chief useful part of the air for purifying
the blood. Nitrogen dilutes the oxygen and renders it re-
spirable. The amount of carbonic acid is very small, but if
it rises beyond 6 parts in 10,000 the air is impure and unfit
to breathe.
C. Air is rendered impure by the respiration of men and
animals, its carbonic acid and watery vapor are increased,
its oxygen diminishes, and a proportion of organic matter is
added to it. So long as respiration is occurring in the open
air these impurities are gotten rid of as fast as they are
formed, but in the air of buildings it is different, for here
they accumulate unless means are at hand for, getting rid
of them. The employment of such means is known as ven-
tilation. I
d. The proper time to test the ventilation is in the
morning before the doors are opened. If on entering the
stable a sense of stuffiness is detected, the ventilation is
defective, and more air must be supplied.
e. A draft is a current of air passing through a con-
fined space, such as a window or door, at such a rate as to
produce a feeling of cold when it strikes the skin. The
effect of such a draft on a warm skin is to drive the blood
into the internal organs and produce chill and shivering.
Tying animals in a draft must therefore be carefully
avoided.
1
CARE: OF ANIMALS.
f. In calm, weather the windows and ventilators should
always be kept open. During storms they should be closed
on the windward side only. When the storm ceases they
should all be opened again. In warm weather the doors
should also be kept open.
g. Horses suffer:very little from cold; they stand changes
of temperature remarkably well, and chills from standing
in a draft when heated and tired are the only changes of
temperature which are likely to produce sickness. Stables
are therefore not intended to keep animals warm, but to
protect them from draft and storm.
h. Hot stables produce a fine glossy coat, cause the ani-
mals to put on fat, but also lower their vitality and in-
crease their susceptibility to disease. Cold stables produce
a rough heavy coat, there is not much tendency to put on
fat, and the animals require more to eat, owing to the
increased demand on the heat-producing function. They
are healthier, however, and are better able to stand exposure:
and hardships, such as animals of the military service may
at any time be called upon to do.
2. When new. horses are put for the first time in the
stable, or when older horses return from maneuvers or
duty in the field, the greatest care should be taken with
regard to ventilation. Every door and every window should
be left open or for a certainty they will contract a catarrh.
5. Picket lines and corrals.
a. The picket line should be established in the immediate
vincinity of the stable. The floor of the picket line should
be raised and trenches to carry off the rain should be provid-
ed so that the ground upon which the horses stand may be
kept dry.
b. Paddocks, with shade and water, should be provided
near the stables; if there is no shade, shelter from the sun
should be extemporized. The picket line and paddock
should be sprinkled to keep down the dust; crude oil may
be used to advantage. Bedding racks should be provided
near each stable...; int
c. The corral should be cleaned twice a day, once at
CARE OF ANIMALS.
morning stables and again in the evening after the horses
have been tied in for the night.
d. Thorough drainage should be provided, and all depres-
sions kept filled, so that after rains no pools of standing
water may remain.
e. The picket line should be drawn tight and raised high
enough so that horses can not rub themselves on it. Seven
feet from the ground is about the proper height. The
fastenings at the end of the line should be outside the cor-
ral.
f. The floor of the picket line should be raised and
trenches to carry off the rain should be provided so that the
ground on which the horses stand may be kept dry.
P
6. Cleaning stables.
a. Sufficient men are detailed as stable police to perform
the general police and, except at night, to collect promptly
all manure either in the stables, on the picket line, or in
the paddocks. The stable police also assist in the feeding,
watering and bedding of the horses.
b. Manure and foul litter must not be allowed to accu-
mulate in or near the stable, but must be carried to the
manure heap daily. In the morning stalls are cleaned and
the stables policed under direction of the stable sergeant.
mi
1
1
.
1
7. Care of stalls and floors.
A. As soon as the horses are through feeding in the
morning they should be removed from the stable and the
stalls thoroughly cleaned. At the same time the doors and
windows should be opened to thoroughly air and dry the
building.
b. Mangers and feed boxes must be kept clean. Hay
and grain that have been left in them should be removed
and the boxes washed at least once a week with diluted
vinegar, and always after bran mashes have been fed.
c. If practicable, all woodwork within reach of the horses
should be protected with sheet metal or painted with a
thin coat of gas tar, other woodwork and brick should be
painted a light shade and then kept clean and free from
dust.
CARE OF ANIMALS.
d. Cement, brick, and stone floors, during warm weather
and in the tropics, are best cleaned by scrubbing with
water, using the hose and stable brooms where available,
the floors being allowed to dry before putting down the
bedding. In cold weather this is not practicable, and the
cleaning should be done by scraping with a hoe or shovel
and sweeping with a stable broom.
e. If the floors become slippery from ice, sand or sifted
ashes should be put on them before the bedding is put
down; this to prevent injury to the horses from slipping.
f. Should the floors wear smooth and become slippery,
the surface should be roughened by chipping with a stone
or cold chisel and mallet. The chisel can be made by the
troop blacksmith.
g. When for any purpose the horses are tied in during
the day, the stalls should be cleaned again as soon as the
horses are turned out.
h. Dirt floors require continual work to keep them in
good condition. As soon as wet spots or depressions form
they should be dug out and filled with fresh clay well wet
and tamped in. The front of the stall floor should be two
inches higher than the floor at the rear.
8. Water troughs.
a. Water troughs should be emptied and throughly clean-
ed each morning. Under no circumstances should strange:
animals be permitted to drink at the water trough or be:
fed in the stable, as one animal with contagious disease:
may infect all the animals of the organization,
9. Bedding. .
a. The monthly allowance of bedding is 100 pounds of
straw or hay for each horse, or 3 1/3 pounds daily. To give
animals a good bed, this must be used as economically as
possible.
b. During pleasant weather -all parts of the bedding
which can be used again are taken out and spread on the
bedding racks to dry. In the event it is returned to the
stalls, enough fresh straw or będding is added to make
a comfortable bed. The bed must be soft and even with:
1
10
CARE OF ANIMALS.
the thickest part towards the manger. Habitually the bed-
ding should be put down just before the horses are tied in
for the night. Putting it down in the morning prevents
the stalls from drying out and allows the stable police to
conceal the fact that they have neglected to clean the stables
properly.
c. The horses are assigned stalls and places on the picket
line by platoons. The name and hoof number of each horse
with the name of the rider is placed over the stall.
6. The stable sergeant takes immediate charge of the
stables, picket line, and paddock, forage, and stable property
in general.
e. The stable sergeant is responsible that the stables and
their surroundings are kept at all times thoroughly policed.
Smoking in or near stables is prohibited.
SECTION III.
STABLE DUTY.
Paragraphs.
10
11
12
Responsibility of company officers ....
Grooming ..........................
To groom a horse ....
Grooming wet and sweaty horses ...,
co mm..................
General provisions in grooming .....
Cleaning the sheath ......
..............................
Washing horses .............
Clipping ........................................
Care of feet .......
BUBB9
10. Responsibility of company officers.
a. Captains are responsible for the proper performance
of stable duty. In addition to the grooming, they will
require such other duty as may be necessary to keep the
stables, horses, and equipment in proper condition.
b. Mounted work must be followed immediately by
"stables”; the horses are then thoroughly groomed, and
the saddlery cleaned and put away in perfect order.
C. All company officers will be present at this time, the
platoon leaders superintending the work of their platoons.
11. Grooming.
do Grooming is essential to the health and appearance of
1
CARE OF ANIMALS.
11
1
the domesticated horse. Its objects are cleanliness, pre-
vention of disease, particularly of the skin, and the im-
provement of the animal's general condition. While many
diseases are not the direct result of dirt, it is nevertheless
true that they are most frequently found where dirty con-
ditions prevail.
b. Horses should be thoroughly groomed at least once a
day, and this should be immediately after exercise or work,
They should also be brushed off before going to drill or
exercise.
c. Mud should be wiped off with hay or straw, or it should
be allowed to dry, then removed with a brush.
d. Horses improperly groomed, with ragged manes, un-
kept pasterns, and feet improperly looked after, are an in-
dication of an inefficient organization. Clean horses, pro-
perly equipped and smartly turned out, add to the esprit
of an organization and give a fair indication of its discip-
line and efficiency.
€. The grooming is done by platoon, under the supervi-
sion of the platoon commander. The platoon file closer and
the other noncommissioned officers of the platoon assist in
such supervision after grooming their own mounts. When
a trooper has finished his work and it has been inspected
he may be allowed to attend to other duties or be dismissed.
f. On returning from drill or exercise, and usually in the
field, the horses are unbridled and girths loosened. Any
necessary precautions are then taken with horses that
appear to be too warm to be watered at once. The other
horses are watered and fed hay when the latter is available,
Grains must not be fed or placed in the boxes until it is
certain that the horses are thoroughly cool. The men
are then given opportunity to relieve themselves, put on
their stable clothes, care for their equipment, and pre-
pare for the work of grooming, thus beginning their
stable work comfortably and without unnecessary hurry.
g. The captain or the officer in charge supervises gen-
erally the grooming and care of saddlery of the pla-
toons, holding the platoon commander responsible and
calling his attention to any deficiencies or neglects.
1
12
CARE OF ANIMALS.
h. The horses of the officers and of the sergeants are
groomed by designated troopers. All other noncommis-
sioned officers and men groom their own mounts. The
first sergeant assigns men for grooming any extra horses
and those whose riders are absent.
i. The currycomb should never be used on the legs
from the knees and hocks downward, nor about the head,
and when occasionally required to loosen dried mud or
applied gently.
12. To groom a horse.
a. To groom a horse take the currycomb in the right
hand, fingers over the back of comb and brush in the
left hand; first use currycomb an near side of the horse,
beginning at neck, then chest, shoulders, near forelegs
down to knee, then back, flank, belly, loins, and rump,
the near hind legs down to hock.
b. Change curry comb to left hand, brush in right
and proceed in a similar manner on the off side of horse.
C. Strike currycomb against heel frequently to free it
from dirt.
d. Take brush in left hand, currycomb in right, and
brush entire near side of horse in same order as when
currycomb was used except that in brushing legs down
to the hoof. Take brush in right hand, currycomb in
left, and proceed in similar manner on the left side.
After every few strokes clean the brush from dust with
the currycomb.
e. In using the brush the man should stand well away
from the horse, should keep his arm stiff, and should
throw the weight of the body against the brush.
f. Having done with the brush, rub.or dust off the
horse with the groom-cloth, wipe about the face, eyes,
and nostrils, arrange the mane and tail, and clean the
dock. Finally go over the legs once more and clean out
the hoofs. In cleaning the mane and tail begin brushing
at the end of the hair and gradually work up to the roots,
separating the locks with the fingers so as to get out all
scurf and dirt. Tails require frequent washing with
I
CARE OF ANIMALS.
13
warm water and soap. The skin under the flank and
between the hind quarters must be soft, clean and free
from dust.
13. Grooming wet and sweaty horses.
a. Wet horses should be dried before being groonied
or left tied up to the line or in the stalls. If wet from
rain or by wash'ing, wiping with loose straw and lively
rubbing with grooming rags or pieces of gunny sacking
is a good method of making them dry and warm.
b. Sweating horses should be blanketed and walked
about until cool, then rubbed and wiped until dry. Re-
turning horses from work wet with sweat may be avoided
by allowing them to walk the last half mile or so of the
return journey.
C. The wisp is used when the horse comes in wet, and
also for stimulating the coat. It is made by twisting or
plaiting straw into a rope. The ends are then bent to-
gether, cut off square, and rubbed on a board until they
form a soft, even straw brush.
d. The wisp should be worked forward and backward
well into the coat, so that full advantage may be ob-
tained from friction. After finishing with the wisp the
coat should be laid flat.
A
14. Hand rubbing.
a. Hand rubbing is most soothing and restful to tired
muscles and limbs. It also removes the loose hair and
produces a smooth, glossy coat.
b. To remove hair and stimulate the skin, the hands
are slapped down briskly on the coat one after the other,
the weight of the body is thrown against them, while
both are moved over the skin with firm pressure.
C. The legs should be rubbed briskly with the fingers
and palms in the direction of the hair. After rubbing,
the legs should be carefully bandaged, taking care that
the bandages are not too tight.
15. General provisions in grooming.
Q. The value of grooming is dependent upon the force
14
CARE OF ANIMALS.
LL
In
.
with which the brush is used and the thoroughness of the
work.
b. Officers and noncommissioned officers should, by
continual personal supervison, see that the grooming is
properly done.
C. No horse should be considered in order until he is
thoroughly clean; his mane and tail brushed out and
laid fiat; his eyes and nostrils wiped or washed, and
hoofs put in order.
d. The pasterns and that part of the mane where the
crown piece of the bridle rests should be neatly trimmed,
and the mane and tail plucked.
e. At each “stables” the horses' feet and shoeing are
carefully examined. Horses requiring shoeing are report-
ed to the stable sergeant.
f. Each horse should be inspected by an officer before
the man who has groomed him is permitted to leave.
16. Cleaning the sheath.
a. The sheath should be cleaned occasionally by wash-
ing. Some horses require it more often than others,
and especially is it required during hot and dusty weath-
er. In the tropics and during certain seasons of the year,
the presence of screw worms and maggots from the at- *
tacks of flies renders close attention to this detail very
necessary. In some, horses a thick cheesy-like substance
accumulates at the end of the penis on either side of the
urethra forming the so-called bean, which may interfere
with urination.
; b. The bean should be carefully removed and the penis
and inside of the sheath well cleaned with warm water
and castile soap. When the parts are thoroughly cleaned,
rinse with a warm creoline solution (1-100) and dry.
In cold weather drying must be done with great care in
order to prevent chilling. To avoid injuring the sheath
· and penis, the finger nails of the man doing the washing
must be cut short and made smooth.
17. Washing horses.
a. As a general practice this would not be allowd ex-
cept in warm climates, and then only when the tempera-
7
W
CARE OF ANIMALS.
15
TY
ture of the air and the water used is approximately the
same as that of the body. In cold and changeable cli-
mates washing may cause chilling and lead to sickness,
usually respiratory diseases and chapping of the skin,
b. When horses are washed, great care must be taken
that they are thoroughly' dried by wisping and rubbing
and that they are not exposed to drafts before being
dried. Washing mud off the legs and belly often results
in such diseases as scratches, grease heel, and mud fever.
These conditions are not caused by mud, but are the re-
sult of improperly drying the legs after washing. When
mud cannot be wiped off with hay or straw it should be
allowed to dry, then removed with a brush. If for any
reason the legs must be washed they should be dried
and bandaged loosely with flannel bandages. When the
bandages are removed the legs should be hand rubbed
thoroughly.
c. Soap should not be used on the legs, as this removes.
the natural greasiness of the coat and irritates the skin.
18. Clipping.
a. Clipping in the spring is especially advisable, and
in individual cases and under certain circumstances it
may become a necessity, but no horse should be clipped
without authority from the organization commander. In
winter a clipped horse should be provided with a blanket
at all times when not working. Under no circumstances
should a horse be blanketed while at work. Horses
taken from cold regions to the tropics still develop their
winter coats. Under such conditions clipping is a ne-
cessity.
b. Should it become necessary to keep horses clipped,
they should be clipped at least three times a year; the
first time in October or November, again in January,
and a third time in March or April, or just before the
spring shedding of the coat. Better still, the clippers
should be run over the coat every time it appears at all
long.
C. In clipping the legs, care should be taken not to cut
the short hairs at the back of the pasterns or in the
.
n
III
1
16
CARE OF ANIMALS.
hollows of the heels. These hairs when clipped irritate
A
.
of temperature and inclement weather remarkably well.
Blankets therefore are not absolutely essential to the
animal's health.
d. In garrison and camp, except in extremely cold
climates, the use of blankets should be limited to animals
that have been clipped, and to those that have become
chilled, wet or heated. They should be worn in the stable
or camp only, and should never be permitted while horses
are at exercise or work.
e. All blankets should be shaken daily and aired.
19. Care of the feet.
a. The healthy foot requires only to be kept clean.
In cold climates the feet need be cleaned but once a day;
but in hot, damp climates, where there is a great amount
of decomposed matter in the soil, they should be well
cleaned out both morning and evening. The evening
cleaning should be done after the horses are tied in for
the night.
6. The cleaning is done with the hoof-hook, the point
of which should be blunted so as not to tear the horn of
Q
SECTION IV.
WATERING.
When and how to water ......
Paragraphs.
20
.
...........
.............
7
20. When and how to water.
. a. Except when they are heated, it is desirable that
horses should have free access to water at all times. As
this is usually impossible, it becomes necessary to water
at stated times, usually morning, noon and evening.
b. Horses should, if possible, be watered before feed-
ing, or not until two hours after feeding. As horses
rarely drink in the early morning, the first watering
must follow the feeding, but after the proper interval,
CARE OF ANIMALS.
17
if practicable. They may be watered while at work,
but, if hot, they should be kept moving until cooled off.
C. A horse requires from 5 to 15 gallons of water daily,
depending upon the temperature and upon the work he
is doing. Except in very cold weather, horses should be
watered at least three times daily—in the morning,
before the noon feeding, and before the evening feeding.
In warm weather, water drawn from a cold well or
spring should be allowed to stand long enough for the
chill' to pass off before the horse is allowed to drink,
d. On the march the oftener the horses are watered
the better, especially as it is not usually known when
another watering place will be reached. By watering
from buckets many watering places not otherwise avail-
able may be utilized.
e. If a mounted command has to march a long dis-
tance without water, so that it will be necessary to en-
camp en route, the animals are fed, but denied water
until just before starting, when they are permitted to
drink freely. The command marches in the afternoon
and does not encamp until it has accomplished at least
half of the distance; it moves early the next morning to
reach water.
f. Horses must be watered quietly, and without con-
fusion; the manner in which the duty is performed is a
good test of the discipline of a mounted command.
g. In camp, where water is obtained from a river or
a stream, horses must be watered above the place desig-
nated for bathing and for washing clothes.
h. In watering from streams whose bottoms are of
mud and of fine sand, causing the water to become roily,
buckets or improvised troughs should be used.
į. The horses are led or ridden at a walk to and from
the watering place. No crowding will be allowed, nor
will any horse be hurried or have his head jerked up
from the water.
j. The horses are watered under the immediate direc-
tion of the senior officer or noncommissioned officer pres-
ent at stables or at any other time of watering; an
17
Us
er.
, 18
CARE OF ANIMALS.
officer should always be present when the horses of
other commands are liable to be met at the watering
places.
SECTION V.
:: FEEDING AND FEEDS.
Paragraphs.
21
Feeding .............
Hay ..............
..........................................
Straw ......
Green forage
ge ....................................
Grazing ..... ....................................
Grains
Oats
1.................................
Corn
............................................
......
Kafir corn-milo maize ...........................
Rye ..
Wheat ....
Flour.
Rice
Linseed meal ...
Bran ................
Salting .........
.........................
i
21. Feeding.
A. Forage is any food suitable for horses, and can be
divided into two general classes, hay and grain. - The
ration must be sufficiently bulky to keep the stomach
and intestines partially filled at all times, as the process
of digestion is best carried out in this state. Without
sufficient bulk, conditions cannot be maintained, no mat-
ter how nourishing the food.
b. The capacity of the horse's stomach is small in
comparison to his size. He therefore requires to be fed
frequently.
C. Horses should be fed three times a day—at reveille,
in the middle of the day and at night. This rule must
be rigidly enforced on the march, the noon grain feed
being carried on the horse. A desirable distribution of
the grain ration is, for a horse which is getting 12 pounds
per day, 3 pounds in the morning, 3 or 4 pounds at noon,
and the rest at night. Hay, as a rule, is not fed in the
morning; about one-third of the ration should be fed
at noon, except on the march, and the remainder at night.
CARE OF ANIMALS.
19
d. The use of bran once or twice a week is important
for stabled horses. In spring or early summer they should
be grazed. A lump of rock salt should be kept in each
manger.
e. Before feeding hay it should be thoroughly shaken
out with a fork so as to get rid of dust and seed: it is also
advisable to moisten the hay before giving it to the horse.
The grain, if possible, should be run over wire screens or
allowed to fall through the air so as to remove dust.
f. In the morning the horses are usually fed at or before
reveille. The noon feed of hay is usually placed in the
manger while the organization is at drill, but the grain is
not fed until the horses are thoroughly cool. The evening
feed is placed in the manger after the stables have been
throughly policed for the night.
g. It is advisable that the horses eat at least a portion
of the allowance of hay before the grain is fed to them.
h. All horses do not require the same amount of forage;
the amount given each horse must be based, therefore,
upon his individual requirements, which should be closely
watched by the stable sergeant. When a horse leaves
some of his grain, his ration should be reduced that
amount. The amount to be fed each horse each meal
.
IT
to be easily seen by the men distributing the grain.
A convenient arrangement is a board about 12 inches
high by 4 inches wide divided by two horizontal lines into
three 4-inch squares. In the uppermost square should
be marked in pounds the morning feed of grain, in
the center square the noon feed, and in the bottom square
the night feed. When a horse is sick or injured his grain
ration should be reduced to between 6 and 9 pounds per
day, depending upon the horse.
¿. When forage cannot be obtained grazing should
be required at every spare moment, especially early in
the morning when dew is on the grass.
j. All forage received by an organization should be
checked for weight and to see that it is up to contract
specifications. All officers should be familiar with the
20
CARE OF ANIMALS.
ILI
1
characteristics of good forage and the manner in which
it is commercially graded for contract specifications. To
obtain this knowledge officers should be encouraged to
visit large commercial stables.
k. The daily allowance of oats, barley, or corn is 12
pounds for each horse; that of hay, 14 pounds. The
allowance of straw for bedding is 100 pounds per month
for each animal.
l. Good qats weigh about 40 pounds to the bushel;
barley, about 48 pounds; corn, about 56 pounds. Pressed
hay weighs about 11 pounds per cubic foot,
m. The standard bushel of the United States contains
2,150.4 cubic inches. A cubic yard contains 21.69
bushels. A box 16 by 16.8 by 8 inches holds 1 bushel; a box
12 by 11.2 by 8 inches hold half a bushel; a box 8 by 8.4 by 8
inches holds 1 peck; a box 8 by 4.2 by 8 inches holds one-half
peck, or 4 quarts.
n. Exhausting work has a temporary weakening effect
on the digestion, and tired horses should be allowed to
recover from its effect before they are given heavy feed of.
grain. Give such animals plenty of tepid water, a few
pounds of hay, and good care until the system has re-
covered from exhaustion.
0. Animals that have been kept from food for a long
time should first be watered and given a small feed of
hay to partially fill the stomach before feeding grain.
p. It is best not to give any hay at the feed immediately
preceding the time at which the animals are to be re-
quired to work, especially work at the fast gaits. When
the work is done mostly in the morning, 3 or 4 pounds
of hay may be fed to advantage with the noon feed of
grain, the remainder of the hay ration being given with
the evening feed.
q. Grain should be fed three times daily, giving the
largest feed at night. Should it become necessary to
change the grain ration, as from oats to corn, the allow-
ance of grain should be cut down to one-half, and the
amount gradually increased until the animals become ac-
customed to it. When two different grains, such as corn
CARE OF ANIMALS.
21
and oats are issued, they should be fed separately, feed-
ing the corn at night, as it takes longer to thoroughly mas-
ticate and digest it. If corn and oats are fed together, the
corn being harder will not be properly masticated, and a
portion of its nutriment will be lost. To get the best
results, horses should be fed at regular hours, and it is
absolutely necessary that the food be pure, clean, and
sound.
7. It takes a horse from 5 to 10 minutes to eat a pound
of grain, and from 15 to 20 minutes to eat a pound of hay.
s. The forage ration for a horse is 12 pounds of hay
and 10 pounds of oats, corn, or barley; for a field artillery
horse of the heavy draft type weighing 1,300 pounds or
over, 15 pounds of hay and 12 pounds of oats, corn, or
barley; for a mule 14 pounds of hay and 9 pounds of oats,
corn, or barley. To each animal 3 pounds of bran may
be issued in lieu of that quantity of grain.
II.
Y
22. Hay.
a. Hay is any good grass cut at the proper time and
well cured.
b. Good hay should be moderately fine, somewhat hard
to the touch, sound, sweet smelling, well cured, and free
from weeds. The color should be a bright natural green,
and should give an idea of newness. The flowering heads
of the grasses ought to be present and should not shell
out when rubbed. When chewed, it should have a mild,
pleasant taste.
C. Hay may be badly cured, overripe, mow burned,
caked in the biale, dusty, musty, or moldy. All such hay
is unfit for use and should be put aside and reported to
the organization commander.
d. Badly saved hay is such as results from getting
wet while being cured. If not dusty or moldy, it may
be fed, but does not have the full nutritive value.
e. Overripe hay is yellow, dry, and hard, with the
leaves broken off and the heads shelled out. Such hay.
is of no more value than straw.
22
CARE OF ANIMALS.
f. Mow-burned hay is the result of overheating in the
stjack, due to being stored away while damp. Such liay
varies in color from light brown to dark, or almost black.
The stalk is dry and brittle with a bitter, pungent odor
and taste. Such hay should not be used as it may pro-
duce digestive derangements and kidney diseases.
· g. Baled hay that externally has a good appearance
but does not spring apart when the wires are taken off
has been baled wet, and presents the same appearance
as mow-burned hay. Such hay is unfit for use.
h. Dusty hay, due to gradual dry decay from long ex-
posure to the sun or attacks of insects, produces dry
coughs and digestive derangements and should not be
-
TY
Y
11
used.
į. Musty or moldy hay is readily recognized by the
presence of white mold on the leaves and stalks; when
shaken, it gives off a very irritating dust. This hay is
bitter to the taste and its use is dangerous. Where no
other hay or roughage is available, it may be used, but it
must be opened out and dried, well shaken to get rid
of the mold, and wet with salt water, a tablespoonful
of salt to a bucket of water. Its effect must be carefully
watched and it should be fed only when no other hay can
be obtained.
j. Horses can not be fed on grain alone, so if hay is
not obtainable a substitute must be found.
k. Hay made from oats, wheat, and barley, cut before it
is matured is frequently used. Such hay shows a por-
tion of grain which reduces the bulk of the ration. To
allow for this the grain ration should be reduced about 3
pounds and the hay increased the same amount.
23. Straw.
a. Clean straw of oats, wheat, barley, and rye, and, in
the tropics, rice straw may be fed when hay can not be
obtained, but it must be clean, sound, and free from dirt
and weeds. Dried corn fodder may also be used as a substi-
tute for hay.
CARE OF ANIMALS.
24. Green forage.
a. When green grass or green corn fodder is fed in
lieu of hay, the average proportion allowed is 3 pounds
of green food to 1 pound of hay, or 42 pounds of green food
daily. Care must be taken that green foods are not piled
up and allowed to heat before feeding, for this causes
scouring and colic.
25. Grazing.
a. Grazing is very beneficial and advantage should be
taken of every opportunity to give the horses a bite of
grass. In turning horses out for the first time to graze,
care must be taken that they do not overeat.
b. Grazing on wet or frosted alfalfa or clover must not
be permitted, as flatulent colic is almost sure to result.
26. Grains.
a. Grains are not the natural food of the horse, but they
are necessary to obtain from horses the maximum amount
of energy they are capable of yielding. All grains do
not have the same feeding value; oats, corn, and barley
have been found to give the best results.
27. Oats.
a. Oats are the best and most valuable grain for horses.
The best is composed of two parts, the hull or husk and
the kernel. The larger the kernel, in proportion to the
hull, the better the oat. The husk is thinner in white oats
than in the red and black varieties. The short plump oat
is a heavy one, while the longer and more bearded the oat,
the lighter it is.
b. The legal weight of a bushel of oats is 32 pounds,
but northern oats often weigh as much as 45 pounds to the
bushel.
d. Oats may be clipped, foxy, bleached or sulphured,
to the feel, rattling when poured out on a solid surface,
without smell, breaking across when bitten, and having
the taste of good oatmeal. They should also be free from
dirt, stalks, stems, and seeds of other plants.
d. Oats may be clipped. foxy, bleached or sulphured,
damp, sprouting, musty, or moldy. All defective grain
should be put aside and reported at once.
24
CARE OF ANIMALS.
e. Clipped oats are oats from which the beards have been
removed by passing them over a revolving screen. This
process produces a shorter, plumper looking grain, which
packs better and weighs more to the bushel. The cut
ends may be seen, and if the hand is put deep into the
sack the clipped beard may be found adhered to it on re-
moval. If such oats are clean and sound, the process does
not detract from their value as a food.
f. When oats are stored before they are sufficiently dried,
they become heated, their color is changed to a deep yellow
or brown, both the husk and the kernel, and they acquire
a peculiar bitter odor and taste. Such oats are termed
foxy. They are unfit for food. .
g. Foxy oats are sometimes bleached with the fumes of
sulphur to destroy their color and smell, but the process
does not remove the stain or bitter taste from the kernel.
To detect this fraud, rub a small quantity of the suspected
oats between the palms of the hands until they become
warm, or heat over a fire, when warmed they give off
the characteristic odor of sulphur. Such oats are not fit.
: to use.
h. When oats have been wet and sufficient time has not
elapsed to allow of their heating and spoiling, they may be
fed, even though soft.
2. Sprouting oats are unfit for food.
j. Mustiness is a condition resulting from dampness.
Musty oats are easily recognized by their softened, dis-
colored kernel and hull, and their bitter and musty taste
and smell. They are unfit for food, and are sometimes
poisonous, producing diseases of the digestive organs and
kidneys.
k. Moldy oats are in a state of positive decay, and are
absolutely unfit for food. They are recognized by their
softened, rotten condition, and by the presence of the
mold on the hull.
n
28. Corn.
Qi Corn is a very good substitute for oats, but is less :
desirable by reason of its tendency to produce heat and
fat. It is therefore most useful in cold climates where
CARE OF ANIMALS.
25
more than the usual amount of animal heat is required.
b. Corn may be fed whole, either shelled or on the cob,
or it may be crushed. It is usually given as a part ration
only.
C. Corn should be dry, hard, of bright color, and free
from dirt; when bitten into it should taste sweet and
have no distinctive smell.
d. Heated, discolored, or moldy corn is unfit to use.
e. Seventy pounds of corn on the cob should make 1
bushel or 56 pounds of shelled corn.
29. Kafir corn. Milo maize.
a. In emergencies, both these grains may be fed the
same as corn. Weight, 56 pounds to the bushel.
30. Barley.
a. Barley is a very good horse feed, and may be used
as a substitute for oats. It may be fed whole, but is
better crushed or soaked in water for two or three hours
before feeding. Weight, 48 pounds to the bushel.
6. Barley should be plump and short, hard, with a
thin wrinkled skin and small, fine, but not shrunken
ends. It should be of a pale golden color, and free from
odor, dirt, and discolored grains.
31. Rye.
Rye may be fed in emergencies in quantities not ex-
ceeding 8 to 10 pounds a day.
Wheat is not a satisfactory food for horses, and should
be used only in cases of emergency. It is fed in quan-
tities not exceeding 6 pounds. daily.
33. Flour.
Flour may be fed to horses, but it should be made into
a sloppy gruel before giving.
34. Rice.
Unhusked rice, after the horses become accustomed
to it, is a useful grain, and as much as 14 pounds may
26
CARE OF ANIMALS.
.
;
V
be fed daily. Only unhusked or unthrashed rice should
be used.
35. Linseed meal. (Flaxseed meal, oil meal).
An excellent food for horses that have become run
down in condition. It has a slightly laxative action,
produces an oily skin and a sleek glossy.coat, and may
be given with other feed in quantities of from 1/2 to 1
pound daily.
36. Bran.
a. Bran is an excellent food for the horse. Fed once
or twice a week in the form of a mash it proves a mild,
beneficial laxative. When used continuously, the animal
system becomes accustomed to it and the laxative
property is less marked. Dry bran in small quantities is
said to have a constipating effect.
b. Bran should be light in weight, dry, sweet, flaky,
free from lumps and dirt, and sweet to the taste.
C. A bran mash is made by pouring boiling water on
2 or 3 pounds of bran in a bucket. A tablespoonful of
salt may be added, and the whole covered up and set
aside until sufficiently cool.
37. Salting.
a. A lump should be kept in each feed box. If salt
is kept in the corral, it should be in a waterproof box
protected from rain, for if exposed to moisture it will
melt and run on the ground. The ground, becoming salty
around the box, the horses acquire the habit of licking it
and eating dirt. '
6. Loose salt only should be given in the field.
C. The daily allowance of salt for each public animal
is 0.8 ounce.
SECTION VI.
EXERCISING.
Paragraphs.
Method and time ......
38. Method and time.
a. To keep a horse in good condition he should have
CARE OF ANIMALS.
27
two hours exercise daily. This exercise should be under
the saddle, or, if that is impracticable, it should be given
by leading beside another horse.
b. In leading care must be taken to lead as much on
the left as on the more convenient right side. This can
be automatically regulated by having the leading done
on the right side on the odd-numbered days of the month
and on the left on the even-numbered days.
C. In special cases exercise may be given on the longe,
but this must be done under proper supervision or in-
jury may result.
d. Turning a horse loose in a paddock does not give
him proper exercise, and if the paddock is a large one
where he can get up speed, it results in giving him a
taste for freedom which inspires a high-spirited animal
to try to get rid of his rider when he feels like having a
run.
e. It is objectionable for one man to lead more than
one extra horse for exercise, as the gaits must then be
more restricted and on ordinary roads the footing for
some of the horses will be poor.
f. If a large space is available for paddock purposes,
it should be divided into several inclosures, giving space
for a part of the animals to move about quietly in each,
but not enough to encourage them to gallop.
Paragraphs.
39
SECTION VII.
MISCELLANEOUS.
Stable vices and corrective feeding ............
39. Stable vices and corrective feeding.
a. Horses that eat rapidly and greedily are said to
bolt their feed. To compel such animals to eat more
slowly, let 1 pound of dry bran form a part of each feed, or
place several large round stones in the feed box among
the grain.
b. Horses which for any reason are compelled to
stand idle for a day or more should have their grain
ration reduced to 6 or 7 pounds a day, depending upon
28
CARE OF ANIMALS.
the condition of the horse, and 2 pounds of bran in the
form of a mash should form a part of each daily ration.
C. Thin horses and delicate feeders should be kept by
themselves and fed a little at a time and often. The
diet should be changed frequently, and should consist of
grass, alfalfa, bran, either dry or in the form of a mash,
linseed meal, steamed oats, and hay slightly damp and
sprinkled with salt. A supply of fresh water should be
kept constantly within reach.
d. Halter pullers may be secured by fastening ropes
or chains across the stall behind them or they may be
turned loose in a box stall. The habit may be broken in
the earlier stages by a slip noose about the flank, the
rope being carried forward between the front legs,
through the halter ring, and fastened securely to the
manger or a post. To prevent injury, a folded sack or
piece of cloth should be secured beneath the rope at the
point where it passes over the back.
e. Windsucking and crib biting are incurable vices
which usually increase with age. Causes unknown.
They are thought, however, to be a result of idleness,
and to be learned by imitation. Keep such horses by
themselves to prevent others from learning the habit.
Place them in smoothly finished stalls without mangers
or racks and feed off the floor.
. f. Condition is fitness for work. Horses that have been
idle from injury or disease are not in condition, and
should not be put to hard or fast work until they have
received from one to three weeks preparation in the way
of gradually increasing exercise. Walking is the exer-
cise which develops the muscles; walking alternated
with steady short trots, is the best method of getting
horses in shape.
g. Exhausted horses should receive a good stimulant
(aromatic spirits of ammonia, nitrous ether, etc.), and
their legs and body should be well rubbed and mas-
saged. They should also be provided with a good bed.
If on the march they should be unsaddled or unharnessed,
a rest should be permitted and a drink of water pro-
CARE OF ANIMALS.
29
vided, after which they may be taken slowly to camp.
In hot weather put the animal in the shade and apply
ice or cold water to the head. In cold weather blanket
the body and bandage the legs. When rested, feed bran
mashes, grass, hay, and steamed oats.
SECTION VIII.
CARE OF SADDLERY.
Paragraphs.
40
..............
.....
Newly issued leather equipment .....
Daily care of leather .........
Dirty equipment ........
Bridles, bits and stirrups .........
Saddle blanket ....
H&S
..............................
40. Newly issued leather equipment.
With a damp sponge go over the entire leather surface.
With a sponge dipped in neats-foot oil apply with quick
light strokes to the flesh side of leather. Allow to dry
in shade, and repeat the application of oil. Allow to
dry and then apply a stiff lather of saddle soap free
from excess water to entire surface, rubbing in with the
finger tips. Repeat the application of saddle soap until
leather becomes “alive," i. e., soft and pliable.
41. Daily care of leather.
Each day and always after use the leather must be
cared for by sponging off the dirt with a damp sponge
(warm water in winter) and applying a stiff lather of
saddle soap to the leather surface (both flesh and hair
side) worked in with the fingers.
It is necessary to apply saddle soap to the seats
of the saddles only every few days, as they become too
oily and soil the clothing.
42. Dirty equipment.
When the leather becomes too oily or dirty it is well
to give it a thorough cleaning by washing with castile
7 lather, allowing it to dry in shade and treat again
as new leather, reducing the oil application as needed.
30
CARE OF ANIMALS.
43. Bridles, bits and stirrups.
a. Bridles require more soap than saddles, as the reins
and check pieces must be very pliable.
b. Bits should be sponged off each day and always
after use to remove dirt and slobber and a thin coating
of sperm oil applied. This denies the action of rusting.
C. Stirrups are also sponged off and oiled with sperm
oil.
44. Saddle blanket.
a. The saddle blanket must be kept clean and soft
and free from wrinkles. After use it must be dried and
then well shaken (unfolded). It must never be folded
wet and left thus with the saddle. Provision will be
made in the saddle room or stables for hanging it up
to dry.
b. When necessary the blanket should be thoroughly
cleansed by repeated immersions in tepid soapsuds and
hung over a pole or line to dry without wringing or press-
ing it.,
SECTION IX.
FITTING THE SADDLE.
Paragraphs.
General principles
45
UUT
0
45. General principles.
a. The withers must not be pinched or pressed upon.
b. The central line of the back must have no pressure
put upon it.
C. The shoulder blades must have full and unham-
pered movement.
d. The loins must not carry weight.
e. The weight must be put upon the ribs through the
medium of the muscles covering them.
f. The weight must be evenly distributed over a sur-
face which extends from the play of the shoulders to the
last true rib.
g. The above principles must be applied whatever the
type of saddle that may be used.
415,1.
THE BATTALION, BATTALION
HEADQUARTERS, AND
HEADQUARTERS COMPANY
(CONFERENCE)
Conference :
The Battalion, Battalion Htadquarters, and Head-
quarters Company.
First Section,
By:
Date to Classes:
Refresher Course, 16 and 19 October, 1923.
Advanced Course, 11 January, 5 February 1924.
Conipany Officers' Course, 22 March 1924.
N. G and Reserve Officers Course, 14 May, 1924.
Orick
.
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL.
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924.
1003—Benning, Ga., 12-7-23—2750
HRRI A SHEAT
THE BATTALION, BATTALION HEADQUARTIERS, AND HBADQUARIERS MOIPANY.
(Conforonco)
Pago 11
* Under MESSENGER SECTION change figuro ivo(s) b02070
Bivates Motorcycle to read two (2).
H. Beruning .
..
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derfor try koke
econn....
Paragraphs.
Section 1. Introduction
................................... 1
II. The Battalion (Organization) ................
III. Battalion Headquarters (Mission Organization,
and Duties) ....
IV. Battalion Headquarters Company (Organization).. 6-9
3-5
tim.
SECTION I.
INTRODUCTION.
Paragraph.
Scope .......
1. Scope.
a. This conference contains a discussion of the organiza-
tion of the infantry battalion, of the mission, organization,
and duties of the battalion headquarters, and of the or-
ganization of the battalion headquarters company.
b. A detailed discussion of the organization of the units
comprising the battalion, other than the headquarters and
the headquarters company, will be covered in other con-
ferences on organization.
C. A detailed discussion of the mission, functioning, and
duties of the company, platoon, sections, and individuals
of the battalion headquarters company is contained in the
pamphlet “COMBAT PRINCIPLES, THE INFANTRY
BATTALION HEADQUARTERS COMPANY” and will
not be given in this conference.
SECTION II.
THE BATTALION.
Paragraph.
Organization ....
2. Organization.
The battalion, the small basic combat unit, comprises a
headquarters, a headquarters company, three rifle com-
BN, BN HQ AND HQ CO.
panies, and a machine gun company. It contains a total
of 27 officers and 817 enlisted men. The rifle and machine
gun companies are designated by letters and are referred
to as infantry companies. The battalion is the smallest
unit that contains a staff and a headquarters company.
· SECTION III.
BATTALION HEADQUARTERS.
Paragraph.
Mission ...........
Organization ...........
Duties
A co
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3. Mission.
Battalion headquarters provides commissioned personnel
to command the battalion with attached units and to per-
form the battalion staff functions of coordination, direction,
supervision, and operation.
-
T
4. Organization.
d. Battalion headquarters consists of the following per-
sonnel :
(1) 1 Lieutenant Colonel-Battalion Commander.
(2) Major-Battalion Executive (Second-in-Com-
mand) -Bn Ex.
(3) The battalion staff (generally refered to as execut-
ive staff):
1 1st Lieutenant-The Adjutant ................ Bn1
1 1st Lieutenant-The Intelligence Officer ........Bn2
1 1st Lieutenant-The Plans and Training Officer...Bn3
1 1st Lieutenant-The Supply Officer .............Bn4
b. Certain other officers who may be on duty at battalion
headquarters comprise what is refered to as the technical
staff of the battalion commander. They may be grouped
as follows:
(1) The communications officer, who is a member of the
headquarters company and who commands the communi-
BN, BN HQ AND HQ CO.
cations platoon, is the technical adviser of the commanding
officer on communications.
(2) Other officers who are primarily commanders of
troops and who function in a tactical capacity may, in addi-
tion, be the technical advisers of the battalion commander
and his staff in the use of their particular weapon, branch,
or service when their organizations are attached to the bat-
talion for operations. Attached howitzers, artillery, tanks,
etc., would, in this way, usually be represented on the tech-
nical staff of the commander.
(3) There is sometimes present at the command post
another class of officers who are neither members of the
battalion nor of attached units. Such officers come from
adjacent or supporting units or higher headquarters and
represent their commanders in the capacity of liaison of-
ficers.
C. Strictly speaking, none of the officers referred to in
b above are members of battalion headquarters and will
not be discussed in this conference.
5. Duties.
A. Lieutenant Colonel-Battalion Commander.
(1) The battalion commander is personally responsible
for the training, administration, supply, tactical efficiency,
and employment of his battalion and for the effective and
proper use of attached units. He is responsible to his prop-
er superior for everything his command, individually and
collectively, does or fails to do.
(2) He controls the battalion thru his executive officer,
staff, and unit commanders but this in no way relieves him
from the personal responsibility vested in him as a com-
mander.
(3) In combat the battalion commander makes his de-
cisions and issues his orders in accordance with the situa-
tion and with orders received from higher authority. He
maintains contact with the situation and his command by
means of his staff and through personal reconnaissance. Be-
fore leaving his command post on personal reconnaissance
BN, BN HQ AND HQ CO.
TS
he anticipates, as far as possible, the calls for means of
communication and usually will take sufficient personnel
to enable him to keep in touch with his command. He will
keep in constant communication with his command post as
far as conditions permit. In any case he will be careful
not to permit the reconnaissance party to usurp the func-
tions of the command post. To illustrate: while on recon-
naissance, the battalion commander may intercept, read,
and initial messages intended for his headquarters but he
should send the runner on to the command post with the
message. Normally, whatever action the battalion com-
mander takes on such messages should be taken through
the command post. If the message requires immediate
action by the battalion commander he will immediately
furnish a copy of his orders to the command post. In addi-
tion to the necessary enlisted personnel, the reconnaissance
party will contain such commissioned officers as the com-
manding officer may desire and the situation appears to
require.
b. Major-Executive-Second-in-Command-Bn Ex.
(1) The major is the executive officer and second-in-com-
mand of the battalion.
(2) He coordinates and supervises the activities of the
staff as well as the activities of the units of the battalion.
(3) He must keep fully informed of the status of all units
in the battalion with regard to supply, equipment, morale,
effectives, etc.
(4) He must keep fully informed as to all friendly and
enemy activities, keeping constantly in mind an estimate of
the current situation and an outline of a plan of action based
on that estimate and the plans and policies of the battalion
commander.
(5) He handles all routine matters for the battalion
commander and is generally the intermediary between the
commander and his staff and troops.
(6) As a second-in-command his principal duty is to re-
present the commander and to exercise command during the
latter's absence from the command post.
L
7
BN, BN HQ .
AND HQ CO.
109
.
(7) The executive works in such intimate relation with
the battalion commander that these two officers will occupy
the same office at the command post.
(8) He should have full and complete knowledge of the
battalion commander's plans and policies and must always
act in accordance with them.
(9) The second-in-command remains at the command
post during the commander's absence therefrom. because
it is from this place that he can represent the commander
and perform his other duties to best advantage.
(10) Should the battalion commander become a cas-
ualty, the second-in-command immediately becomes the com-
mander and assumes full responsibility for the control of
the battalion.
(11) He designates the time for closing and opening the
command post when it is moved.
C. First lieutenant-Adjutant-Bni.
(1) Although not a member of the battalion headquar-
ters company, his principal duties are those of a company
commander. He commands the headquarters company and
is responsible for its administration, supply, discipline, and
general training. In this capacity he will usually function
in the rear echelon of the headquarters. However, his
duties may require his presence at the command post.
(2) He is in charge of the entire rear echelon of the
headquarters. However, his duties may require his pres-
ence at the command post.
(2) He is in charge of the entire rear echelon of the
battalion and exercises command in the name of the bat-
talioni comamnder for change of location and for collect-
ing and forwarding stragglers and replacements.
(3) He is responsible for battalion personnel adminis-
- trative details. In this capacity he compiles the special
and periodic casualty and strength reports when required
to be submitted by the battalion. Usually these reports
are made up by the regiment from records available in the
personnel office.
(4) He is the billeting officer for the battalion.
ARA
M
LV
BN, BN HQ. AND HQ CO.
17
d. First lieutenant--Intelligence Officer-Bn2.
(1) He commands the intelligence section of the bat-
talion headquarters company in combat and is responsible
for its special training.
(2) As his duties require close contact with the bat-
talion commander and staff and the frequent use of
signal communications, his post is at the command post.
(3) He is responsible for the collection of enemy in-
formation in the battalion. He is responsible for the in-
terpretation, formulation, evaluation, and dissemination of
"all enemy information received at the command post.
(4) For the proper performance of the duties enum-
erated in the preceding sub-paragraphs, he disposes of his
section into an office and a field force.
(5) He makes a hasty examination of prisoners before
sending them to the rear. The examination is very brief
and is confined to matters that are of immediate interest
and which pertain to the front of the battalion.
(6) He supervises the keeping of the Bn2 situation
map and the Bn2 journal and procures maps and dis-
tributes them to the battalion as required.
(7) He prepares and sends out such special and periodic
. Bn2 reports and prepares Bn2 annexes as may be required.
(8) He distributes the information reecived by him as
its character and orders may require.
(9) He evaluates the information as it comes in and
will be prepared to submit sound tactical conclusions based
thereon.
(10) He keeps the battalion commander and his staff
constantly informed of the enemy situation.
e. First lieutenant-Plans and Training Officer-Bn3.
(1) The post of the plans and training officer is at the
command post.
(2) He is charged with the execution of the details per-
taining to operations and training and is the adviser to
the commanding officer in these matters.
BN, BN HQ AND HQ CO.
(3) He is charged with the preparation and distribu-
tion of training programs and schedules, orders, messages,
and operations and training reports.
(4) He supervises keeping the Bn 3 situation map
posted and is responsible for the maintenance of the diary.
(5) He keeps the commanding officer informed as to the
tactical situation in the battalion and adjacent units and
all matters affecting it.
(6) He supervises the establishment and movement of
the command post and, in general, all operations of the
communications. platoon. Preparatory to a move of the
command post, he designates the general location for the
communications platoon and for the other groups at the
command post.
(7) In conjunction with the battalion surgeon, he lo-
cates the battalion aid station.
f. First lieutenant-Supply OfficerBn4.
(1) As the duties of this officer generally require his
presence in the rear echelon, his post is located there. He
will, however, go wherever his duties demand.
(2) He assures himself that the battalion is properly
supplied.
(3) In as much as supply is usually direct from regi-
ment to company, Bn4's duties in this connection are of
a supervisory nature when the battalion is operating as
part of the regiment.
(4) He designates the battalion distributing points when
necessary.
(5) When the battalion is functioning alone he is re-
sponsible for the transportation.
(6) He is in charge of the ammunition section of the
battalion combat train when the combat trains are not
consolidated and is responsible for the distribution of mu-
nitions to companies.
(7) He works in conjunction with the surgeon in the
evacuation of the wounded in so far as transportation is
concerned.
10
BN, BN HQ AND HQ.CO.
SECTION IV.
BATTALION HEADQUARTERS COMPANY.
Paragraph.
.........
General .......
Company headquarters .........
Intelligence section ..............
Communications platoon ..........
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6. General.
The general organization of the company is as follows:
a. Personnel.
Company headquarters .............13 enlisted men
Intelligence section ................27 enlisted men
Communications platoon–1 officer ...36 enlisted men
Total .............1 officer
76 enlisted men
........
osoo
b. Transportation.
Horses, riding --..
Bicycles
Motorcycles ............................. 2
Field and combat trains are from the service company.
C. Equipment.
The equipment is as prescribed in the Tables of Basic
Allowances (Circular 276, War Department, 1921, and
Circular 58, War Department, 1923).
7. Company headquarters.
1 staff sergeant-sergeant major-horse-pistol.
1 sergeant-acting 1st sergeant-pistol.
1 sergeant-mess and supply-pistol.
1 private-barber-rifle
1 private chauffeur-pistol.
1 private-clerk—pistol
1 private-cobbler-rifle
2 privates-1st cooks—pistol
1 private-assistant cook-pistol
1 private-tailor-rifle
2 privates—miscellaneous—rifle
Total -13 enlisted men
BN, BN HQ AND HQ CO.
1 horse
8 pistols
5 rifles
8. Intelligence section.
5 corporals—3 scouts and 2 observers-rifle
20 privates—8 observers and 12 scouts—rifle
Total-27 enlisted men.
2 pistols
25 rifles
9. Communications platoon.
a. Platoon headquarters.
1 1st Lieutenant-platoon commander-horse-pistol.
1 sergeant-signal electrician,
assistant to platoon commander-horse-pistol.
b. Message center.
1 sergeant-section chief-pistol
1 corporal-assistant to section chief-rifle.
3 privates-clerks and orderlies-rifle.
C. Messenger section.
1 corporal-section chief-horse-rifle.
5 privates-messengers-horse-rifle.
3 privates—messengers—bicycle-pistol.
5 privates—messengers-motorcycle-pistol.
d. Wire section.
1 sergeant-section chief-pistol.
2 corporals-construction and operatorrifle.
3 privates-line guards-rifle.
1 private-operator-rifle.
1 private—miscellaneous-rifle.
e. Radio and panel section.
1 corporal-operator-section chief-rifle.
3 privates-operators, radio-rifle.
2 privates—operators, panel-rifle.
-
12
BN, BN HQ AND HQ CO.
f. Visual section.
1 corporal-operator, section chief-rifle.
2 privates-operators—rifle.
2 privates-operators, orderlies-rifle.
g. Total in platoon.
1 officer.
36 enlisted men.
8 horses.
9 pistols.
28 rifles.
3 bicycles.
2 motorcycles.
NOTE: The term private as used in this section includes
the term private 1st class.
415:1
IAI
TACTICAL USE OF
TANKS
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE......... Tactical Use of Tanks.
BY
........... First Section..
DATE TO CLASS : Refresher Course, 22 Oct., 23.
Advance Course, 7 Feb., 24.
Company Officers Course, 25 Mar., 24.
.

FOLLOW
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924
1004--Benning, Ga., 12-7-23—2000
Ft. Bemang ES
.1.
lebar itu bebe
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS.
Paragraph.
Section 1. Tank Characteristics ...
............
1-2
II. Divisional tank companies ......
3-4
III. Allotment of tank units by G. H. Q.
Army, corps and division
IV. General principles of tank combat ........
9-10
V. Cooperation .with other infantry weapons ............
VI. Organization of the rear
12-14
5-8
11
SECTION I.
TANK CHARACTERISTICS.
Paragraph,
General role of tanks
Capabilities and limitations ....
1. General role of tanks.
a. In order to secure the greatest benefit from tanks
in combat, their functions must be definitely understood.
The general role of the tank is to assist the riflemen, in
battle, by overcoming machine guns, flattening wire en-
tanglements, and reducing other obstructions blocking
the advance of the infantry. It crosses difficult and ob-
structed terrain, carrying effective fire power into the
enemy's lines, at critical points, so that the attacking in-
fantry can reach him.
b. The power of infantry is effected through a com-
bination of fire and movement. Without either of these
factors, infantry is unbalanced. The modern tank was
built to maintain the balance between fire power and
mobility which is essential to victory in war. The tank
bears a relation to the rifle of the infantryman similar to
that which the artillery, machine guns and other weap-
ons, bear to the infantryman, i. e., it assists him to move
forward effectively.
2. Capabilities and limitations:
a. Tanks are offensive weapons used to reenforce the
efforts of the assaulting man power to which they are
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS.
TY
TT
VV
assigned. They have the following general capabilities
and limitations:
(1) Capabilities.
(a) They can cross ordinary trenches and shell
pitted ground.
(6) They can demolish entanglements and make
lanes through wire.
(c) They destroy by gun fire, or by their own
weight, such elements as machine gun nests.and pill boxes.
(d) By fire they force opposing infantry to seek
shelter, thus permitting the assaulting infantry to ad-
vance under diminished resistance.
(e) They provide complete protection for their
own crews from small arms fire, shrapnel, shell frag-
ments and grenades.
(2) Limitations. .
(a) The present type can not cross deep unbridged
bodies of water or deep bogs.
(d) They cannot penetrate deep forests of large
trees.
(c) _They have no power to hold positions they
have taken.
(d) Their radius of action is limited by the amount
of fuel they can carry.
(e) Mechanical deterioration is rapid when they
are in use.
b. In general sense, tanks have the following variable
characteristics : Mobility, firepower, and protection (to
its crew). It is apparent that in any special type of tank
one of these characteristics must be partially sacrificed to
secure desired results as far as other requirements are
concerned. The use proposed for the tank determines
which of the desired qualities are most important.
.
SECTION II.
DIVISIONAL TANKS COMPANIES.
Paragraph.
Introduction .......
Missions assignable to divisional tank companies ...........
6000
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS.
T7
3. Introduction.
As has been previously stated, the divisional tank com-
pany is a permanent part of the infantry division. As
such, it is employed at will by the division commander.
When divisional tanks are not sufficient, G.H.Q. reserve
tanks are assigned to selected higher units for a general
attack against a defensive position, whose strength is
such that tanks are considered essential to bring about
its reduction.
.
T
4. Missions assignable to the division tank company.
This company may be assigned the following missions,
in accordance with its functions as an integral part of the
division.
d. To accompany the advance guard when the situation
indicates clearly that tanks may be needed.
6. To reenforce the riflemen in the assault of any po-
sition at critical stages of the action.
C. To assist in breaking up hostile counter attacks.
d. To assist in making counter attacks. --
e. To aid in covering a withdrawal from action.
f. Action against unorganized mobs, or in any type of
street fighting.
.
SECTION III.
ALLOTMENT OF TANK UNITS BY; G.H.Q. ARMY.
CORPS AND DIVISION.
Paragraph.
Allotment by G. H. Q. .
Allotment by Army
Allotment by corps
Allotment by division
w
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TTT
5. Allotment by G.H.Q.
Elo General headquarters decides whether or not an
army in carrying out a particular mission is to be reenforc-
ed by tanks from G.H.Q. reserve.
TOT
'
i
:
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS...
b. The tanks may be attached at the initiative of gen-
eral headquarters or in response to a request from the
army concerned. The type of tank and the number to be
employed having been determined, the tank units are
then placed under the orders of the army headquarters.
Tanks allotted to an army from G.H.Q. are in addition to
the light tank companies forming an organic part of the
divisions.
C. The proposed number of tanks per army, to be avail-
able in G.H.Q. reserve is about 300. With the present
types of light and heavy tanks, this will provide one
heavy battalion, 49 tanks (4 with radio) and three light
battalions, 228 tanks (12 with radio), exclusive of the
divisional companies.
d. Tanks are allotted from G.H.Q. reserve when a
general attack is to be made against a defensive position,
or when the divisional tank companies are not sufficient
for the task at hand.
d. Tanks are allotted from G. H. Q. reserve when a
general attack is to be made against a defensive position,
or when the divisional tank companies are not sufficient
for the task at hand.
6. Allotment by Army.
d. Part or all of the tank units allotted to an army may
be held in army reserve under the following conditions:
(1) When the situation on the army front is obscure.
(2) When it can be foreseen that the army may be en-
gaged in combat for a more or less extended period of time
In such situations continuity of tank action will only be
obtained by holding out an army reserve of tanks.
b. Tanks in army reserve are never employed in action
under the direct control of army headquarters, but will
· be:
(1) Allotted direct to divisions (upon request of
corps).
(2) Allotted to corps.
(3) Allotted to army cavalry. (Tanks should be
· allotted only to those cavalry units charged with a miss-
ion requiring serious dismounted fighting. The mission
ni
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS.
7
iii.
must be one that has an important bearing upon the suc-
cess of the operation as a whole.
7. Allotment by corps.
Tanks allotted to a corps by the army may be employed
as follows:
a. All reallotted to divisions. .
b. Part allotted to divisions and part held in corps re-
serve.
C. All held in corps reserve.
8. . Allotment by Division.
When tanks are allotted to a division by a corps, it is
for the reason that the light tank company of the division
is not considered adequate for the operation to be under-
taken by the division. The division commander co-ordi-
nates the employment of the divisional tank company
and additional tank units attached to his division. All
tanks operating with the division are under the tactical
control of the division commander. The usual allotment
of G.H.Q. tanks to a division consists of one battalion of
light tanks and the number of heavy tanks considered
necessary. When tanks are assigned to attacking in-
fantry, the usual allotment is a tank platoon to an infantry
battalion.
TYT
SECTION IV.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF TANK COMBAT.
Paragraph.
General discussion of tank employment............
Important principles of tank combat..
9. General discussion of tank employment.
· a. The introduction of tanks has added compli-
cations to the technique of combat. Their employment
does not, however, complicate the principles which have
always governed tactics. The advent of tanks, as an in-
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS.
1
fantry weapon, facilitates, rather than hinders the attain-
ment of simple solutions. Simplicity governs the decisions
in regard to the employment of tanks,
b. In the approach or "feeling out” stage at the out
set of a campaign, the essential requirements are obser-
vation, security and disposition in readiness for action in
any direction. Tanks, typifying concentration, have no
part in security or observation. Looked at from the view-
point of corps or higher commanders, tanks are allotted
to units only when the latter have missions which justify
the immediate use of tanks, and then only to reenforce
such units. Economic considerations demand that they
be conserved; tactical considerations demand that they
be concealed; therefore their normal disposition, before
contact between forces is gained, is in general reserve.
The above does not apply to divisional tank companies
as they always accompany their divisions.
C. Contact having been established, the mass of tanks
(all tanks except divisional companies) is retained in re-
serve until the situation has been developed sufficiently
to permit a decision as to where, how and when the tanks
will be employed. Such decisions accord with the basic
tactical requirements, and a predominant influence, in
these decisions, will be the suitability of the terrain for
tank actions. The sectors chosen for the main attacks
are generally those suitable for the employment of tanks
in large numbers.
d. The decision may be to make attacks in several sec-
tors of the front of an army. The general rule for the
employment of tanks, in this connection, is that the num-
ber of attacks involving tanks should be limited so that
the attacks, which use tanks, will be of overwhelming
power. These attacks are prepared, when possible, so
that the tanks may attack in mass with depth organiza-
tion.
e. It is the infantry battalion commander who directs
the tanks against their objectives. He employs the tanks
as a powerful reenforcement for his rifles, automatic
rifles and machine guns, when these weapons are con-
1
YYIT
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS.
sidered insufficient. He co-ordinates the action, so, that
when the tanks are thrown in, their effect is to carry along
the assaulting elements.
10. Important principles of tank combat.
SI
A. Viewed from the standpoint of tactics, the tank is
purely an offensive weapon, that is it must be employed
while advancing on the enemy. Hence where the situa-
tion demands a defensive attitude, the tank, if used, must
be used in counter-strokes. A passive attitude will nullify
its greatest asset its mobility. The tank is primarily an
aid to the advance of the infantry, engaged in a vigorous
offensive, either in the assault of works or in open warfare
situations.
b. The closest liaison must exist between tanks and in-
fantry. Tanks can take many things, but they can by them-
selves hold nothing. Hence there must be the most ini-
mate relations and mutual understanding between them
and the infantry, so that the objectives which the tanks
have helped to take, the infantry will hold. Tanks, sepa-
rated from their command, must operate with the nearest
infantry. This close co-operation of the tanks and in-
fantry necessitates on the part of the the latter a deter-
mination to advance without waiting for the tanks to re-
duce all difficulties encountered, and on the part of the
tanks a determination to become acquainted with the
needs of the infantry, and to satisfy these needs.
c (1) Every fight, great or small, is based on a de-
cisive element which in most cases can be foreseen. The
scheme of maneuver is based on either securing, or se-
curing the advantage of, the decisive element. As a
part of the scheme of maneuver a main blow is prepared
in which is concentrated the main strength of the attack.
(2) The general principles underlying the employ-
ment of tanks is that they should be used to reinforce
the main blow in the attack. The particular time at
10
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'
..
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS.
which the main blow should be reinforced by tanks is
1
KU
veloped.
d. The underlying principle governing the employ-
ment of tanks in combat can be expressed in a single
phrase as follows: Tanks should be used in quantity,
echeloned in depth, and the nature of each attack should
contain the element of suprise. This deployment in
depth is absolutely essential to maintain the continuity of
an attack by insuring the continual supporting of the
front line. At the same time it makes possible destruc-
tion of machine guns and points of resistance, overlooked
by the front line, makes possible the successful resisting
of counter attacks from front or flank, or the exploitation
of successes in either of these directions.
e. Tanks can not fight to advantage in the dark, hence
night operations are impracticable except over favor-
able terrain and in strong moonlight.
. f. In an attack tanks should direct their fire on the ele-
ments which are most dangerous to the infantry, except
that whenever anti-tank guns are located, all tanks with-
in range must concentrate their fire on the guns. Other-
wise, the tanks will be quickly put out of action.
g. Tank company commanders should be well forward
in order to see and comunicate with their tanks. The
tank company commander must also retain close touch
with the infantry commander to whom he is attached.
Since directing tanks in battle is extremely difficult, the
crews must be so trained that they will be able to obtain,
by themselves, the end sought.
h. Tanks massed near the front line must be carefully
concealed from enemy ground and air observation, other-
wise their discovery will result in the disclosure of the
point of attack, drawing artillery fire on the tanks, and
other units, and the probable destruction of the tanks,
before they have accomplished their mission.
i. Light tanks are more suitable than heavy tanks be-
cause of their greater mobility and smaller target offered,
.
11
.
..
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS.
'
for all action except that against solidly constructed works,
the breach of which requires the weight of the heavy tank,
or the trenches of which are, too wide for the light tank
to cross. The following principles, governing all classes
of tanks, are applied according to the situation:
(1) Tanks should not be deployed prematurely,
Once deployed the difficulty of control and co-ordination
is increased.
(2) Tanks should not be used until they are actual-
ly needed. They are emergency weapons and should
be used as such.
(3) Tanks, upon being committed to action, are
given well defined missions, objectives and rallying points.
A tank unit, upon entering an action, passes temporarily
beyond the control of the commander on the field. Con-
trol is regained when individual tanks assemble at the
rallying point.
In
SECTION V.
COOPERATION WITH OTHER INFANTRY WEAPONS
Paragraph.
11
Principles l'ound to be sound
...........
11. Principles found to be sound.
TY
2
In the use of tanks the following general principles
governing the cooperation of tanks with other infantry
weapons have been found to be sound.
al. Tanks should be used only when the other infantry
weapons would not be able to accomplish their mission with-
out undue delay or sacrifice of troops. When used they
must be assigned a definite mission, and must remain on
that mission until released by the infantry commander
to whom they are assigned.
b. Riflemen, in all respects, fight their way forward as
if the tanks were not present, but must be constantly on
the alert to take advantage of all opportunities of ad-
vance created by the tanks.
12
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS.
MYY
T
C. Tanks on an advance regulate their movements on
the needs of the riflemen..
d. Tanks in reserve, like all other infantry, should ad-
vance by bounds.
€. Riflemen and machine gunners should unhesitat-
ingly open fire on an enemy regardless of the position of
the tanks, as rifle and machine gun fire will not damage
the tanks.
f. Riflemen must avoid grouping behind tanks, as the
tanks are sure to draw concentrated machine gun fire.
g. Riflemen must hold what tanks have taken. Upon
reaching the objective tanks should patrol the vicinity
until the position is occupied by other infantry units.
The infantry commander should then release the tanks.
h. Communication between the infantry commander
and his attached tanks must be thorough and workable.
1. Rallying points of tank units must be designated in
combat orders.
j. Above all the infantry commander must avoid assign-
ing a definite and fixed formation for his tanks, except
that he may prescribe a general alignment and interval
at the jump off. The orders of the infantry commander
may properly prescribe a distance at which the tanks
shall precede the infantry. This distance is general be-
cause the tanks must take advantage of the terrain for
their own protection, and like infantry will maneuver,
within the zone of advance, against enemy objectives.
1
O
SECTION VI.
ORGANIZATION OF THE REAR.
Paragraph.
Progressive stages of the approach march. ----------.......
Reconnaissance
Cooperation ........
------------------...--------------------
12
Aco
12. Progressive stages of the approach march.
The organization of the rear for supply and mainten-
ance is a real difficulty to overcome, but it is a problem
for tank unit commanders, and not for the infantry com-
manders. Briefly the progressive stages are:
TACTICAL USE OF TANKS.
13
a. Detraining point should be located as near the front
as possible, with cover from observation. It should be
near water.
b. Tank park should be near the detraining point (6-12
miles in rear of front line is satisfactory) and near a main
road for transportation of supplies.
c. Intermediate position is used when the distance from
the tank park to the point of deployment is too great to
be covered in one night. Same requirements as tank park.
d. Point of deployment should be as far forward as
possible with concealment. Tanks are here but a short
• time to refill with gasoline, oil, and water.
e. Assault position is just in rear of the front lines, and
should be reached just prior to H hour.
IV
13. Reconnaissance.
& Getting the tanks up requres careful and thorough
reconnaissance, personal supervision, and close co-opera-
tion to prevent traffic jams and delays.
C
14. Co-operation.
The securing of road priority, selection of the sites
mentioned above, securing and moving up of supplies,
all require close cooperation with the division staff.
OCT 23 1924
+15.1
home
THE MESSAGE CENTER
.
NFERENCE)
CONFERENCE ........... The Message Center.
BY .............. ......... : First Section.
FOLLOW
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA.
1923-1924.
.
184Benning, Ga., 3-7-24-2500
Infantry SelectC
.
, Wis. Cieneg
0,65
THE MESSAGE CENTER.
1-6
Section I. General
II. Registration and files
III. Organization, duties and personnel
IV. Example of the operation of the message center....
7-8
9-23
24-27
SECTION 1.
GENERAL.
Paragraph.
Definition of message center ............
Functions of message center ..............
Transmitting agencies of message center ..........
Fundamental rule to be followed
Equipment ......
Class of message
CY
1. Definition of message center.
The message center is the agency at a headquarters or
command post whose function is to insure the accurate
and expeditious transmission and delivery of all incoming
and outgoing communications of that headquarters or com-
mand post. The following are excepted:
a. Mail.
b. Direct telephone communications.
C. Communications carried personally by officers (usually
secret or confidential).
d. Communications passing directly between offices, or
officers of the same headquarters, when they are near
enough together not to require the services of the message
center to effect prompt delivery, or to insure receipt or
acknowledgement.
2. Functions of message center. '
a. The message center receives and transmits only of-
N
(3)
THE MESSAGE CENTER
ficial communications. The handling of official mail is not
a formal function of the message center, nor does it per-
form stenographic or clerical work pertaining to the dif-
ferent sections of the staff. Although the message center
is not strictly an office of record, yet it keeps a separate
file of all messages in clear and a separate file of
all messages in code or cipher, both arranged ac-
cording to the registry number of the message center.
Message centers do not make copies of messages for the
specific purpose of obtaining copies for their files, but when
making a copy of a message for any other reason, in clear
or in code, an extra copy is made for file. When messages
are not transmitted by messenger, the original is filed at
the message center.
6. The message center serves the commanding officer, the
staffs and all staff sections and services located at a head-
quarters or command post. It is in continuous operation
for 24 hours of the day.
3. Transmitting agencies for message center.
The transmitting agencies for the message center are:
a. Telephone.
Telegraph,
Radio system,
Visual system.
Pigeons,
Messenger system,
b. These means of communications should be grouped as
near to the message center as the tactical situation permits,
so that the messages may be distributed by it to any of the
above agencies for transmission.
C. The actual dispatching of messages by homing pigeons
is the special task of the recording personnel of the message
center. Messengers working from a message center are.
under its direct control. The other methods of communi-
cation give service to the message center though their tech-
nical control is not vested in the message center.
THE MESSAGE CENTER
4. Fundamental rule to be followed.
All messages, unless specifically excepted, will be deliv-
ered to the message center and that body will determine
the method of transmission. In case the writer has speci-
fied a particular means of transmission the message center
will comply with each request if possible. The importance of
centralization is obvious, it assures expeditious handling of
business and prevents congestion of one agency, while the
others remain idle.
NYTT
1
5. Equipment. .
The equipment required for the message center is very
simple; very much simpler than that required for any of
the other sections of a signal communications platoon.
a. The articles required by a message center are: ..
(1) Blank delivery lists.
(2) Blank message center registers.
(3) Field message blanks.
(4) Radio message blanks.
(5) Supply of carbon paper, pencils.
(6) Cipher device, code books-sufficient for new com-
mand post also.
(7) A simple means of filing separately the retained
copies of communications in code and cipher, com-
munications in clear, delivery lists, and message
center register sheets.
(8) A chart, or map kept up to date, showing the loca-
tion of headquarters, offices or officers to whom
messengers might be sent.
(9) Ink pad.
(10) Registration stamp.
(11) Lantern.
(12) Flashlights.
(13) Timepiece.
(14) A message center desk (field desk).
(15) Message center guide signs.
(16) Waterproof cover for message center.
THE MESSAGE CENTER
b. Additional equipment which is much needed in large
message centers is:
(1) A small typewriter.
(2) Spring clip boards and spindles.
(3) Date, rush and priority stamps.
c. To take the place of the field desk, which is too heavy
and bulký, it has been recommended that a message center
chest be designed to hold the message center equipment and
an additional smaller chest or despatch case developed to
contain necessary equipment to be taken forward by the
forward echelon of the command post during establishment
of the new command post.
6. Class of message.
Messages are of four types :
a. Ordinary,
Rush,
Priority,
Signal service.
6. An ordinary message, designated (D) is one which is
handled as a usual routine administrative or tactical mes-
sage, being dispatched in the order in which it is received
with other messages.
C. A “Rush” message designated (OD) is one which is
of such importance that it is given preference over all other
ordinary or signal service messages to be sent.
d. A “Priority” message, designated (P) is one of such
importance that it takes preference over all other messages,
even “Rush” messages and is sent immediately upon receipt,
even if an operator has to interrupt the sending or for-
warding of an “Ordinary” or “Rush” message to do so. An
example of such a message would be an S. O. S. call for
barrage. “Rush” and “Priority” messages are required to
be signed by an officer.
e. A “Signal Service” message, designated (S) is one
relating to the functioning of the various systems of signal
THE MESSAGE CENTER
communications, and is encoded in the radio service code,
if practicable, or else the field code or cipher.
SECTION II.
REGISTRATION AND FILES.
Registration ..................
Files kept .........
Paragraph. o
......
..................
7. Registration.
All messages passing through the message center are
registered. The registration record is kept on the pre-
scribed message center register form.
8. Files kept.
Each message center possesses a "file of messages in code
or' cipher” and a separate “file of messages in clear.” The
"file of messages in code or cipher” is kept by the code
clerk. The "file of messages in clear” is kept by the dis-
patch clerk. The "file in clear” contains a copy of all
messages, of which there is an available copy for file. Ex-
cept in exceptional cases, the message center does not take
the time to make a copy, solely for the purpose of the
message center file. A "file of message center registers”
is preserved, also a "file of delivery lists."
SECTION III.
------...
10
11
ORGANIZATION, DUTIES AND PERSONNEL.
Paragraph.
Officer or non-commissioned officer in charge ....
Personnel authorized in communication platoon
Fundamental principle ....
Receiving clerk ..
Procedure on receipt of message
Registry numbers. ....................................---
The "In Register” ..........
Dispatch clerk ...
The “Out Register”
Code clerk
..............
.......
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ver" .......
THE MESSAGE CENTER
Paragraphs.
20
Delivery list
Telephone orderly ......
Pigeons ........
Message center chief ....
General duties
21
9. Officer or noncommissioned officer in charge.
An officer, or noncommissioned officer called the message
center chief is in charge of the message center. He is
responsible for the proper functioning of the receiving
clerk, the dispatch clerk, code clerk, telephone orderly, pig-
eons and messengers.
10. Personnel authorized in communications platoon.
The personnel required for a message center is furnished
from the message center section of the signal communica-
tions platoon and varies with the size of the unit served.
In large units individual duties are specialized, and require
niore personnel, but in smaller units, the volume of message
traffic being less, the several special duties may be com-
bined and assigned to one man. The entire message center
of a company may, during combat, consist of one noncom-
missioned officer in charge of the necessary messengers.
His file of messages going out may be, and probably will
be, his carbon copies in his field message book.
11. Fundamental principle.
There shall be one agency charged with the receiving
and dispatching of official communications, in all units
down to include the company.
12. Receiving clerk.
He will register all communications coming into the mes-
sage center and will open all closed or sealed communica-
tions coming into the message center except the following:
A. Those marked for delivery by messenger or special
messenger.
b. Those brought to the message center by messenger
for devilery to officers or offices reached from the message
center.
THE MESSAGE CENTER
C. A communication such as a bundle of maps, which can
be delivered only by a messenger.
13. Procedure on receipt of message.
Communications which he opens, or which arrive un-
sealed, will be read carefully by him to see that the address,
body, signature, transmission instructions and all charac-
ters, if in code or cipher, are legible. He will then stamp
the communication with his registration stamp.
14. Registry numbers.
Each message center will have its own series of registry
numbers for entry in column 1 of the message center regis-
ter. In large message centers this series may begin anew
each day, in which case care must be exercised to have each
day's record correctly dated to avoid confusion when looking
up a record in the file. In smaller message centers, the
series may begin monthly.
15. The "In Register.”
a. This "In Register" is that part of the blank form
(message center register) on which the receiving clerk
enters the necessary registration data from the communica-
tion passing through his message center. He will, after
stamping the communication received, with his registration
stamp, and numbering and dating same, fill in the first
seven and fourteenth columns of the message center regis-
ter. He then turns over to the dispatch clerk this com-
munication.
b. "Rush" and "Priority” messages will be turned over
to the dispatch clerk with the utmost speed. He is further
charged with the follow-up of a message until the dispatch
clerk receives it.
I11
A
yat
iny
TY
1.
16. Dispatch clerk.
He will immediately, upon receipt of a communication
from the receiving clerk, refer it to the message center
chief, to find out how the latter desires the communication
10
THE MESSAGE CENTER
to be transmitted. On receipt of this information, he will
immediately take the necessary steps to forward the com-
munication as directed.
II
YITY
17. The "Out Register."
Having received the instruction from the message center
chief as to the method of dispatching a communication, the
dispatch clerk will make entries in that part of the message
center register called the “Out Register" which he is ac-
countable for. The columns he fills in are columns 1, and
7 to 14 inclusive. The dispatch clerk is responsible for a
communication from the time he receives it from the re-
ceiving clerk to the time it has been transmitted to a person
or agency, and receipt acknowledged therefor. All mes-
sages received in clear and to be sent by radio, and such
others as the message center chief has determined are to
be encoded in the field code or radio service code, or en-
ciphered, are turned over to the code clerk, for necessary
action. A model message center register is attached to
this conference.
18. Code clerk.
The code clerk must be a specially selected man, for to
him are entrusted the current code and ciphers for which
the officer in charge of the message center is accountable.
He is also responsible for the encoding and decoding, en-
ciphering and deciphering. Time and careful training can
cnly produce well trained code clerks, whose errors in en-
coding, decoding, enciphering and deciphering will be a
minimum. After encoding or enciphering a message, the
code clerk will return to the dispatch clerk the message in
clear received from him and the original encoded copy onto
which he has copied the forwarding directions, number,
'date, etc. The carbon copy of the encoded message he will
file. The message in clear returned to the dispatch clerk
will be filed. The original coded message will be sent
forward by the dispatch clerk. After decoding or decipher-
ing a message, he will return two copies in clear of the
II
THE MESSAGE CENTER
message to the receiving clerk and file the coded or en-
ciphered message in his "file in code and cipher.", The
receiving clerk will copy the necessary data from the mes-
sages returned onto his "In Register" and turn both copies
over to the dispatch clerk, who will file one copy and send
the other copy forward.
19. Delivery list.
When the communication is ready for dispatch by any
means available, the delivery list accompanies the communi-
cation. The person receiving the communication signs in
the column provided for signature, his name and follows
this with the time. A model delivery list is attached to
this conference.
20. Telephone orderly.
a. The telephone orderly transmits by telephone all mes-
sages from his message center so designated and records
incoming telephone messages for that message center. He
employs the telephone code in calling or referring to any
organization, but transmits the message with its headings,
exactly as written.
b. Certain procedure in receiving and transmitting mes-
sages by this telephone orderly is prescribed, and signal
communications officers will do well to stress the training
of their operators to insure rapid and accurate transmis-
sion and reception of the messages.
T
21. Pigeons.
a. Pigeons are one of the means of communications and
are placed directly under the message center chief. The
army pigeon company furnishes pigeons for all the various
units of any army needing them, and provides the personnel
for their care, breeding and training to include a division
headquarters. Within the division, the division signal
officer is responsible for the proper distribution of pigeons
during operations.
12
THE MESSAGE CENTER
6. The message center personnel have complete control
of the pigeons assigned to a headquarters. They need only
know how to care for the birds during the short time they
keep them, how and when to release them, and how to
fasten messages. Communication by pigeons is very de-
pendable; however pigeons are used for emergency needs
only.
22. Message center chief.
The message center chief, who in lower units is a non-
commissioned officer, is responsible for the efficient opera-
tion of his message center and included messenger system.
He is under the immediate supervision of the signal com-
miunications officer.
23. General duties.
a. The duties of the message center chief are in general:
(1) Training of personnel in their duties.
(2) Records of the message center.
(3) Official time and meteorological data.
(4) Pigeons.
(5) The handling of communications proper.
b. In training the personnel, he must aim to make the
personnel interchangeable in event of casualties. He must
see to it that records are kept in strict compliance with
existing regulations. He will check the time daily
and will distribute it by radio to lower units. Meteoro-
logical data will be promptly distributed to the air service,
artillery, chemical warfare service, etc. He will assign a
member of his personnel to have complete charge of the
pigeons. He will train his men to insure prompt and
accurate transmission of all incoming messages.
C. Attached to this conference is a chart showing the
personnel of the brigade, regimental and battalion message
centers and their duties.
Y
THE MESSAGE CENTER
13
SECTION IV.
EXAMPLE OF THE OPERATION OF THE MESSAGE
CENTER.
Paragraph.
Importance of ..........
24
Advantages of ...
Duties of message center personnel in advance of com-
mand post by echelon .......
Example of operation of message center ............
------.
25
..
27
24. Importance of message centers.
The message centers are very important in the signal
communications system within a unit. They insure ex-
peditious and accurate transmission and delivery of all
messages passing through them for other headquarters, or
terminating at that headquarters.
25. Advantages of message center.
A. The message center registers, delivery lists, and files
in clear and code, contain all the necessary data to trace
or verify the transmission or reception of a message up
to the time of its delivery. Each communication is fol-
lowed up to insure against delay or loss.
b. The message center keeps in close touch with all of-
ficers, offices and headquarters within the unit.
C. Messages for a specified officer delivered at his mes-
sage center by messengers from another unit or the same
unit, are quickly delivered, because the message center
knows his location and has messengers who are familiar
with the shortest route to reach him. Formerly, in many
cases, a messenger from an adjacent unit, or the same unit
attempting to find a certain officer, would consume hours
in searching for him before delivery.
d. The functioning of the message center is simple, the
blank forms, which seem difficult to master at first, become
very simple after practice in their use, and the enlisted
men become skilled in their use in a short time.
D
14
THE MESSAGE CENTER
e. Within the battalion, regiment and brigade, the mes-
sage center is organized to function by echelon. This
means that personnel is sufficient to establish a forward
message center at the site of the new command post, and
be ready to function when the old command post closes.
By this means the receipt, registration and transmission
of communications is continuous.
f. The records of the message center assist materially in
the preparation of diaries and furnishes valuable authentic
historical data from its files.
26. Duties of message center personnel in advance of
message center by echelon.
a. The general principle in the establishment of the
brigade advance command post is: the new command post
should have, with the exception of radio, a duplicate means
of signal communications established at the command post.
The new command post must be functioning successfully
before the old command post closes.
b. In the brigade message center the corporal is usually
in charge of the new command post when first established.
He has with him the necessary recording material. He has
2 privates with him; one has an EE-4 telephone and the
other has the pigeons. This leaves the sergeant and 2 men
to carry on the duties of the old command post.
C. In the regimental message center the corporal is
usually in charge of the new command post until the old
command post closes. He has with him the necessary re-
cording material. Two privates accompany him. One of
these, the general utility clerk, assists the corporal in any
duty specified. The other private has the pigeons. This
leaves the sergeant, the telephone orderly and clerk at the
old command post until it closes.
d. In the battalion message center the corporal and the
Figeoneer go forward to establish the new message center
during a move forward. The corporal takes with him
sufficient recording material. The pigeoneer has the pig-
eons and helps the corporal in any duties specified. This
THE MESSAGE CENTER
15
leaves the sergeant, the telephone orderly and utility man
in the old command post.
27. A complete example of the operation of the message
center.
a. A message, written on the field message blank, comes
by runner to the message center of the regiment. The re-
ceiving clerk, after stamping the message with his regis-
tration stamp, fills in the spaces of the registration stamp
for serial number, date and hour. He then fills in the first
seven and fourteenth columns of the message center reg-
ister on the lines assigned to that message and turns same
over to the dispatch clerk. If the message is in code or
cipher the data to be put in columns 3 and 7 will be filled
in after the message has been decoded or deciphered. If
the message is to be decoded or deciphered, the receiving
clerk turns same over to the code clerk. The code clerk
will, after decoding or deciphering, turn two copies of the
message in clear (original and carbon) over to the re-
ceiving clerk and keep for his "file of messages in code or
cipher” the encoded or enciphered message. The receiving
clerk will copy from the message in clear the necessary
data for columns 3 and 7. He will then turn both copies
of the message in clear over to the dispatch clerk. The
dispatch clerk will then consult the message center chief
as to the means desired by him for delivery. Having re-
ceived this information, he will fill in columns 1 and 7 to 14
inclusive and cause the message to be delivered as directed.
He will file the carbon copy of the message in clear in his
"file of messages in clear.” He will fill out a delivery list
to accompany the message and on which will be secured
the name of the person receiving same. On return of the
delivery list to him, he will file same in the "file of delivery
lists."
b. In case the message center chief designates a message
to be sent by radio or for some other reason desires it to be
encoded, the dispatch clerk will turn over to the code clerk,
the message in clear. The code clerk will, after encoding
1
y
16
THE MESSAGE CENTER
the message, return to the dispatch clerk the message in
clear and the original encoded message. The carbon en-
coded message he will file in his "file of encoded or en-
ciphered messages.” The dispatch clerk will file the mes-
Sage in clear in his "file of messages in clear“ and send
forward the original encoded message.
2
Message center (brigade personnel and duties) -
Personnel
Duties
1 Sergeant
Chief of section; in charge of .
message center
1 Corporal
Assistant to chief.
2 Privates
Telephone orderlies and clerks,
.(1 code clerk)
2 Privates
Pigeoneers and clerks.
Message center (regimental personnel and duties)-
Personnel
Duties
1 Sergeant
Chief of section, chief clerk.
1 Corporal
Assistant to chief.
1 Private
Code clerk.
1 Private
Clerk, telephone orderly.
1 Private
Pigeoneer and orderly.
1 Private
Clerk, general utility,
telephone orderly.
Message center (battalion personnel and duties)
Personnel
• Duties
1 Sergeant
Section chief; in charge of
message center
1 Corporal
Assistant to section chief.
1 Private
Telephone orderly and clerk.
1 Private
Code clerk.
1 Private
General utility duties.
OCT 29 1924
41517
WIRE
COMMUNICATIONS
.
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE : Wire Communication.
BY .........: First Section.

THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923-1924.
233–Benning, Ga., 3-27-24–2500
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS.
................................
Paragraph.
Section 1. General ......
1-2
11. Telephony ................................................................
3-12
III. Wire systems ............
13-16
IV. Principles governing tactical employment of ....
wire lines......
17-29
V. Normal development brigade wire system 30-32
..VI. Chart and diagrams .....
33-35
VII. Functions and duties of personnel of wire sections 36-39
VIII. Telephone systems
....... 40-41
SECTION 1.
GENERAL.
Paragraph
Definition
Classes of wire communication ...........
1. Definition.
Wire communications embraces all signals received
through the medium of electro-mechanical devices which
are connected by wire.
2. Classes of wire communications.
Wire communication forms the principle means of liaison
between the units of our army today. The subject can be
best treated under two headings, classified as follows:
Q. Wire telegraphy.-Wire telegraphy is employed be-
tween divisions and higher headquarters and between head-
quarters in back areas.
b. Wire telephhony.--Wire telephhony is employed be-
tween the command posts of all units not smaller than
infantry battalions and artillery batteries and between
headquarters in back areas.
2
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
SECTION II.
TELEPHONY.
Paragraph.
Telephony as the principal means of wire communication 3
The advantage of the telephone .....
The disadvantage of the telephone
The number of telephones installed.
Priority of installation
Party lines .................
Rules for the use of military telephones ............
The telephone switchboard ...
The purposes of the switchboard ...........................
The switchboard operator
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3. Telehpony as the principal means of wire communica-
tion.
The telephone system forms the principal means of wire
communication within the brigade, and extends down to
include the battalion. It may be considered as a means by
which each commander and his staff may talk to superior,
subordinate, supporting and adjacent; commanders and
their staffs. This communication is made possible by means
of small telephone centrals which are installed at the com-
mand posts of each unit for the purpose of handling local
calls between the various offices of that unit and to switch
calls over trunk lines to the command posts of other units.
4. The advantage of the telephone.
The greatest advantage of the telephone is that it fur-
nishes a means of communication which affords the im-
mediate and personal transmission of speech between two
persons, thereby reducing misunderstandings to a mimi-
mum.
5. The disadvantage of the telephone,
The disadvantage of the telephone as a means of com-
munication is the lack of a record of the conversation.
This record is not normally kept except in cases of those
messages transmitted by the telephone orerly at the mes-
sage center.
WIRE Y
COMMUNICATIONS
6. The number of telephones installed.
The number of telephones installed at a command post
varies with the size of the unit and the degree of stabiliza-
tion of the position. During periods of movement of the
command posts the number of telephones is reduced to the
minimum consistent with absolute necessity. As conditions
of stabilization increase, the number of telephones installed
is increased as they become necessary. It must be borne
in mind that too many local telephones overburden the
system and reduce the efficiency of the entire system, and
that telephones are installed to fulfill military needs and
not for personal convenience.
lim
ILI
RE
ved
LA
od
7. Priority of installation,
The priority in which telephones are installed at a com-
mand post varies with the situation and with the orders of
the commander. The message center telephone should be
installed first. A normal order of installation and one that
is generally followed is listed below:
a. The message center.
b. The executive officer.
C. The commanding officer.
d. The communications officer.
e. The plans and training officer.
f. The intelligence officer.
8. Party lines.
The use of party lines at a command post is not common
practice; however, many cases will arise, where owing to
the lack of time and material it will be necessary for two
or more staff: officers to use the same telephone. There
is no objection to this practice provided the military re-
quirements are met.
9. Rules for the use of military telephones.
All military telephones should be used in accordance with
the following rules:
a. Never say "Hello" in answering the telephone. State
name or designation of the office and of the individual
111
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
11
1
answering the call (Example, R-3, 1st Infantry, Captain
Smith speaking) ; or if code designations are used, “Magic
5 speaking.”
. b. Speak directly into the transmitter.
C. Speak distinctly and in the normal tone.
d. See that the receiver is replaced on hook when con-
versation is finished. If this is not done the telephone
staton cannot be called and the battaries will run down
rapidly.
e. Always ring off when the conversation is finished when
using a hand ringing (magneto) telephone.
f. Hold no unnecessary conversation with the switch-
board operator. Simply ask for the desired connection.
g. Do not direct operator how to route call.
h. Telephone conversations must be brief and discreet,
since secrecy is not insured.
1. Do not use the telephone for long reports when mes-
senger service or telegraph will serve as well, as this will
block the lines for an unusually long perior, thereby re-
ducing the efficiency of the wire system.
j. Spell out words which are liable to be misunderstcod;
using the phonetic alphabet.
k. The telephone operator's telephone should never be
used by any person other than the operator.
10. The telephone switchboard.
A switchboard is installed at important junctions of wire
line and at each headquarters where two or more local tele-
phones are installed. The switchboard is the most vita]
part of the telephone system. Great care should be exer-
cised in choosing its location with a view to providing shel-
11
ness. It should be located in a quiet place, which is free
from messenger traffic.
1
1
.
ADA
SC
11. The purpose of the switchboard.
The switchboard serves the following purposes :
a. It affords local telephone stations a means of inter-
communication and access to trunk lines running from the
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
headquarters or command posts to the telephone exchanges
at other headquarters and command posts.
b. It affords a point from which local and trunk circuits
and local telephones may be tested.
C. Provides a switching central, which may or may not
be at the headquarters of any particular command post, for
the purpose of handling telephone traffic in order to econo-
mize time and material.
12. The switchboard operator.
The switchboard operator occupies a position of import-
ance and, as the success or failure and the degree of ef-
ficiency of the telephone service will be governed largely
by his ability, great care should be exercised in choosing
men for this position. They should be manually dexterous,
quick witted and of the type who can keep their heads
during moments of confusion and excitement. They should
be technically proficient in the operation of the switch-
board and be capable of making minor repairs when the
cases arise.
SECTION III.
WIRE SYSTEMS.
Paragraph.
13
14
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#
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0
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Wire lines ..
Military wire circuits ...............
Field wire lines ..........................
Routes for field wire lines
4
15
16
13. Wire lines.
A wire line consists of one or more circuits of the same
type of construction following a given route and forming an
integral part of the wire system.
14. Military wire circuits.
Military wire circuits are classified under two headings:
a.. Classification according to their use: .
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
V
11
VV 1
I.
(1) Trunk circuits. Trunk circuits connect the switch-
boards at command posts or switching centrals to the
switchboards at other command posts or switching
centrals.
(2) Local circuits. Local circuits connect the tele-
phones at command post to the switchboard at that
command post.
b. Classification according to their construction:
(1) Metallic circuits. A metallic circuit is one which
employs a metal conductor for each wire of the circuit.
(2) Ground circuits. A ground circuit is one that uses
metallic conductor and the earth as a return. (The use
of ground circuits is not advisable due to earth currents
which will cause a noisy line, and the ease with which
the conversations may be picked up by enemy listen-
ing-in stations. Cases may arise when it will be neces-
sary to use a ground circuit for a short period, due to
bad conditions of the metallic circuits. (This practice
should be limited to emergencies.
Y
15. Field wire lines.
The lines constructed within the brigade are commonly
known as field wire lines. These lines may be either local
or trunk circuits, depending upon their use and by their
construction may be classed as either metallic or ground
circuits. The designation, field wire lines, is derived from
the type of wire of which these lines are constructed. Field
wire is a well insulated, stranded, flexible conductor of
high tensile strength and is used entirely for the wire lines,
within the brigade. Field wire is issued in two weights,
light and heavy. The light wire is intended for use in
rapid construction in the forward areas, where it must be
laid by hand. The heavy wire is used in the more permanent
construction.
.
16. Routes for field wire lines.
Routes for field wire lines should be carefully chosen
with a view to avoiding shell fire and road traffic. High-
WIRE JU
COMMUNICATIONS
ways are particularly subject to enemy shell fire and in
addition military traffic causes frequent breaks in roadside
wire lines. However, it is usually impracticable to avoid
following highways in laying field wire lines, especially
between brigade and regiment. Lines from regiment to
battalion are usually run across country by necessity; how-
ever roads and trails should be followed when available in
order to facilitate the advance of the wire axis. Lines
that are laid along the road should be placed well to the
side of the road and protected from traffic as much as
possible. When time permits, these roadside lines should
be moved off the road into the fields so as to parallel the
roads at not less than 50 yards. Road crossings and road
junctions should be avoided by at least 100 yards, in order
to protect the lines from the continuous shell fire directed
on such points. When field wire lines must cross high-
ways they should be placed sufficiently high so as to clear
the crest of the road by at least twenty feet. The com-
munications officer should acquaint himself with the routes
the tanks expect to follow in order to route his lines so as
to avoid this traffic. It is the duty of every military person
to guard against interference with wire lines. Drivers of
motor transportation, road repairmen and tank drivers are
held responsible for carelessness in this respect. During
the movements of units in combat, wire, is hastily laid,
usually on the ground; but when pole lines, rows of trees,
fences and sides of buildings are available these are utilized
to keep the wire off the ground. As stabilization occurs
wire lines are often rerouted and more stable construction
adopted.
S
SECTION IV.
PRINCIPLES GOVERNING THE TACTICAL EMPLOY-
MENT OF WIRE LINES.
Paragraph.
Installation
..............
Maintenance
Testing of wire circuits ...
17
10
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
Paragraph.
•
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•
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•
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•
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•
.
•
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•.
•
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•
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•
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•
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•
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Test stations ........
Test points ............................................................
Lateral lines ............
When field lines are installed
Wire system during forward movement
Axis of signal communication ..
Wire axis .... ..............
Forward communication centrals ..................
Organization name code
Orders ..........
...........
-------------...
..................
17. Installation.
a. The superior unit is responsible for the installation
of wire lines from its command post to the command posts
of its subordinate units.
b. A supporting unit is responsible for the installation
of wire lines from its command post to the command post
of the supported unit. Example: The artillery battalion
is responsible for the installation of a wire line to the
command post of the infantry regiment it is supporting,
and a wire line for the use of the artillery liaison officer
accompanying the assault infantry battalion.
C. An exception to the principle that the superior unit
installs wire lines to the subordinate unit may be made
where economy of time and labor or efficiency will result,
but only upon the direction of the superior unit. Example:
A battalion, going into position as an assault battalion,
passes the regimental command post. The battalion would
then be properly ordered to install the wire line as it moves
forward.
18. Maintenance of wire lines.
a. While the responsibility for the installation and main-
tenance of wire lines from superior to subordinate units
rests with the superior unit, the subordinate unit will, nev-
ertheless, assist the superior unit in the maintenance of the
lines. It therefore becomes necessary for the communica-
tions officer to prescribe and require the training of his
wire section along these lines; further it requires the closest
cooperation and coordination between the wire sections of
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
11
SY
the various units to insure teamwork which is necessary to
derive the maximum of efficiency from the telephone system.
b. A circuit which is being installed from one unit to
another should be connected to the terminal strip of the
subordinate unit, tested out, tagged and reported as in ser-
vice to the wire chief of that unit before the responsibility
of the installing section ceases. Under no conditions should
a circuit which is not in working order be accepted by the
wire chief. When this circuit has been accepted by the
wire chief, the subordinate unit will assist the superior unit
in its maintenance.
. C. As circuits are tested periodically, the fact that a cir-
cuit is out of order is known immediately. The wire chief
should then send a lineman out to locate and repair the
trouble. He follows the line, testing it at intervals until
he locates the trouble. He repairs the break and reports
to his wire chief for instructions. Similarly, the wire chief
at the other end of the line will send out a man. These
men work toward each other until the break is repaired.
The wire chief makes a record of the trouble, showing the
location of the break. This record is kept for future refer-
ence.
19. Testing of wire circuits.
In order to keep an accurate check on the serviceability of
the wire circuits, it is necessary that they be tested period-
ically. This test should be made at 10-minute intervals.
When traffic is sufficient over the various circuits and calls
have been completed within 10 minutes the periodical test
is not necessary. Many schemes may be adopted to insure
the testing of lines, but one that will permit an accurate
check of the conditions of the circuits should be used.
20. Testºstations.
Test stations are located at important points along the
wire axis to facilitate the testing and location of trouble on
the lines. These stations effect the temporary patching
of the circuits in case of failure of one or more circuits.
12
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
.
.
1
A terminal strip is installed at these points to which all
the circuits are connected. This affords a point to test
the circuits conveniently. A lineman, equipped with a tele-
phone is stationed at each test station. He connects his
telephone to a circuit which is designated by the wire chief
and thereby makes his reports and receives his instruc-
tions.
Y
21. Test points.
Test points are located by the chief of construction at
places, deemed necessary by him to facilitate the testing
and maintenance of circuits. The test point lineman is
equipped with a maintenance telephone with Frankel clips
which permit him to connect his telephone to any circuit
without breaking the insulation. Terminal strips are not
installed at test points.
22. Lateral lines..
a. Lateral lines are installed between brigades and regi-
ments and in cases of highly stabilized positions, between
battalions.
b. The superior unit is responsible for the installation
of lateral lines as prescribed in the plan of signal com-
munications. The brigade, being responsible for lateral
lines between regiments may either employ its own wire
section to install the line or direct one of the regiments to
do the work, depending upon conditions.
C. When a forward communications central is installed,
lateral communication is made possible through the switch-
board.
d. Lateral communication to adjacent units is established
to the left.
e. To insure the maximum use of men and equipment
available in the brigade and regimental wire sections, the
brigade communications officer should coordinate the ac-
tivities of the brigade and regimental wire sections in
order to prevent any duplication of effort.
nh
1
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
ST
13
f. In priority of line construction, lateral lines should
not be ordered until the lines which follow the channels of
command have been considered; that is, the lines from the
superior to the subordinate unit.
13
a
23. When field lines are installed.
ire lines are not installed within a combat unit
until actual hostile contact has been gained or is immediate-
lyt certain.
1
24. Wire system during forward movement.
During forward movements in combat the wire systems
of all units are as simple as possible, consistent with the
necessary requirements. The wire installation of a unit
established before or during deployment is taken as the
basis of the entire system. Upon this framework there
is built up gradually the more extensive system required by
continued conditions of combat.
1
.
25. Axis of signal communications.
The axis of signal comlunications is the route along which
the command post will advance. It is designated by enum-
erating from rear to front, starting at the location of the
initial command post, various points or places along the
route and joining them by dashes. The points or places
enumerated are possible subsequent locations of command
posts, which may be located at one or more of the places
enumerated, or at points in between. Each successive loca-
tion of a command post can not definitely be located at the
beginning of an operation, but if the route of advance be
known by the communications officer he can follow it as
he extends his lines forward. Further than this the general
layout of the lines of each subordinate unit should be so
directed that they build into the general scheme of their
superior unit.
26. Wire axis.
The wire circuits following the axis of signal communica-
tions are termed the wire axes. Wire axes, while conform-
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
ing in general to the axis of signal communications, take
advantage of, or avoid, certain features of the terrain, in
order to economize on time and material and afford pro-
tection from fire, to the wire lines.
IVL
27. Forward communication centrals.
Many times, in order to save time and material, it is
advisable to install a switchboard in the vicinity of the
regiments, in case they are not on the brigade axis. This
switchboard serves as a center from which service from
brigade to regiment and regiment to regiment is given.
This point is known as a forward communication central
and it should be pushed forward abreast of the regimental
command posts. The tactical situation, nature of the ter-
rain, general plan for the wire system, geographical location
of roads and routes of advance will govern the use of for-
ward communication centrals. When the axis of the superior
unit follows the axis of the subordinate unit, forward com-
munication centrals are not normally installed.
28. Organization name code.
As secrecy is not assured in telephone conversations a
code name is given each headquarters to prevent the enemy
from learning the designation of the units. This code
name is used when calling the various units. The following
name code has been used in connection with Plates 2 and 3,
in outlining a brigade wire system.
1ST BRIGADE ....................... Magic.
1st Inf ......................... Mountain.
Ist Bn ..................... Monarch.
2d Bn ....... ....... Murmur.
3d Bn .....
..Muster.
2d Inf ........
..Moment.
1st Bn ...
..... Mobile.
2d Bn .......
... Motive.
3d Bn .....
.......!!??..... Modern. .
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
15
Q
29. Orders.
That part of the orders referring to wire communica-
tions is usually given verbally by the communications of-
ficer to his chiefs of construction and the communications
officers of the subodinate units. When time and circum-
stances pemit a conference should be called by the com-
munications officer, since in this conference many small
details may be arranged and the activities of the various
wire sections coordinated, thereby tending to insure more
efficient wire service. In field orders, instructions for wire
communication are given under paragraph 5 (a).
SECTION V.
NORMAL DEVELOPMENT OF A BRIGADE WIRE
SYSTEM.
Paragraph.
Initial installation .....
Lines installed prior to advance
Movement forward of thecommand posts.
30. Initial installation.
Let us assume a brigade in position for attack, disposed
as follows: The regiments are abreast; each regiment
has two battalions in line. (See Plate 2; organization
name code has been used to designate units).
a. Two circuits, Nos. 201 and 202 have been installed by
the division signal company to Magic.
b. The wire section at Magic has installed circuits 301
and 302 from Magic to Brig. F. C. C. (Brigade forward
communication central) and circuit 412 to Mountain and
circuit 411 to Moment. Magic now has a circuit to both
Mountain and Moment and a lateral circuit between regi-
ments, through the F. C. C.
c. The wire section at Mountain installs circuits 403 and
404.
d. Circuit 516 is installed by the wire section at Murmur.
Circuits 404 and 516 are connected together on the terminal
PO
16
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
T
17
LU
strip at Monarch, thereby giving Mountain a direct circuit
to Monarch and Murmur respectively.
e. The wire section at Moment installs circuits 405 and
406 to Mobile. Circuit 405 enters the switchboard at Mobile
and circuit 406 is connected at the terminal strip at Mobile
to circuit 511 which has been installed from Motive to
Mobile by the wire section at Motive. Moment now has a
direct circuit to Mobile and Motive respectively.
f. The circuits referred to in the preceding subparagraphs
cover the initial installation.
31. Lines installed prior to advance.
In anticipation of the advance of the brigade and in
order to carry out the general plan of the wire system the
wire section at Magic installs circuits 401 and 402 to
F. C. C. (B), prior to the attack.
IA
T
32. Movement forward of the command posts.
d. As the attack progresses the wire sections at Monarch,
Murmur, Mobile and Motive install circuits 503, 504, 505,
506 from their initial command posts to the site of their
new command posts, respectively. The details have in-
stalled the switchboard at the site of the new command
post. When this switchboard is placed in operation and
the telephone is connected for use at the new site of the
message center the new command post is opened and the
old one closed. The switchboard at the old command post
is removed and the lines are connected through to the regi-
mental command post.
b. The superior unit following the axis of the subordinate
unit.-The attack has progressed sufficiently to warrant the
movement forward of the regimental command posts.
Mountain will occupy Murmur's initial command post. A
detail is sent forward to install the switchboard at the new
command "post. When this is installed and the telephone
connected for the use of the forward echelon of the message
center circuits 503 and 518 are connected together at
Monarch and the new command post is opened and the old
VIVO
21
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
O
17
w
one closed. The regimental wire section takes over circuits
403 and 404 and 516 and 518. When Mountain's old com-
mand post is closed circuits 404 and 412 are connected
together at that point. Mountain now has direct communi-
cation with each of its battalions and communication to
Magic through the F. C. C. When Moment moves forward
it will occupy the initial command post of Mobile. The pro-
ocedure followed by Mountain in moving forward is followed
by Moment. When the switchboard at the new command
post has been installed circuits 411 and 405 are connected
together at Moment's old command post, completing the
circuit back to the F. C. C. Circuits 511 and 506 are con-
nected together at Motive, thereby giving Moment a direct
circuit to the new command posts of Mobile and Motive.
C. Superior unit extending its own axis.-During the ad-
vance the wire section at Magic installs circuits 512, 513,
514 and 515, thereby connecting the new command posts
of the degiment (Mountain and Moment) to the new Brig.
F. C. C. (B). When these new circuits have been placed
in operation, a detail is sent forward' from Magic to open
Magic's new command post at Brig. F. C. C. (A). When
the new command post is opened the old one is closed and
circuits 201 and 301 are connected together and 202 and
302 are connected together, thereby giving two direct cir- .
cuits to the division command post.
T
SECTION VI.
CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS.
Paragraph.
33
uc
lilaps
............
Line route maps
Circuit diagrams ...............
Traffic charts
33. Line route maps.
To assist construction details in installing circuits a
tracing of the general map in use for the operation is made,
showing only the roads, trails, etc., that wire lines may
18
COMMUNICATIONS
WIRE TT-
follow. Numbers are placed along the routes indicating the
number of circuits to be installed along these routes. Grid
lines are shown and numbered to enable those to whom line
route maps are issued to properly orient the tracing on the
map itself. Many times a tracing is not made and the
routes of the circuits are plotted on the map itself. (See
Plate 1.)
34. Circuit diagrams.
This is a conventional or schematic sketch showing the
individual circuits and their connections. It also desig-
nates by number the construction section. A section begins
and terminates at a switchboard, terminal strip or test
station. Sections are numbered from rear to front in serial
order: The circuits within each section will bear numbers,
the hundreds corresponding to that section; thus a circuit
in section 2 might be numbered 205 and the same circuit
continued in section 3 would be 305. This diagram is for
the use of the chief of the construction party. (See Plate 2).
TITT
35. Traffic charts.
This is a schematic drawing, showing command posts and
switching points by their code names and the number of
circuits between them for the use of telephone operators
in routing calls. (See Plate 3.)
SECTION VII.
36
FUNCTIONS AND DUTIES OF THE PERSONNEL OF
THE WIRE SECTIONS.
Paragraph.
The wire section (brigade communication platoon) ....
The wire section (regimental communication platoon) .... 37
The wire section (battalion communication platoon) ........ 38
Personnel table ..........
36. The wire section (Brigade communications platoon).
a. Functioning.-The wire section installs, operates and
maintains the brigade telephone system.
-
39
-
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
4
-
-
4
-
4
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-----
-
-
•
1
WIRE IK
19
COMMUNICATIONS
O
b. Duties of personnel.
(1) Staff sergeant (section chief). '.
(a) Carries out the orders and instructions of the
brigade communications officer relating to the wire
system.
(b) He acts as wire chief and traffic chief and re-
quires all operators to comply with traffic regula-
tions.
(c) He decides questions of priority not covered
by standing instructions, in the absence of the
communications officer.
-(d) He arranges for the supply of wire and equip-
ment for the wire section.
(2) Sergeant (construction). He has charge of all
construction details and is responsible for all construc-
tion ordered by the communirations officer. In exe-
cuting his orders he follows the plan as specified in
the circuit diagram and line route maps; copies of
which are furnished him by the section chief.
(3) Corporal (operator).
(a) He has charge of the installation and opera-
tion of the brigade switchboards.
(b) He acts as chief operator and requires the as
sistant operators to observe all traffic regulations
and priority rules and arranges the details and
hours of duty for the assistant operators.
(c) He keeps the section chief informed at all
times as to the condition of the lines.
(d) He makes necessary changes in the traffic
chart.
(4) 6 Privates (line guards). They assist in the in-
stallation and maintenance of the wire lines, function-
under the section chief and construction sergeant.
While these men have a dual mission, that of installa-
tion and maintenance, at least two of them should be
available at the command posts at all times to locate
and repair line trouble.
20
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
.
71
(5) 2 Privates (pikemen); mounted on horses. They
are part of the construction and maintenance detail
and accompany the wire cart when it is laying wire.
They are also used as line guards.
(6) 2 Privates (wagoners). They are responsible for
the care and operation of the wire cart and the care
of the animals used with the wire cart.
37. The wire section (regimental communications platoon)
a. Functions. The regimental wire section installs, oper-
ates and maintains the regimental telephone system.
6. Duties of personnel.-
(1) Sergeant (section chief).
(a) Carries out the orders and instructions of the
regimental communications officer relating to the
wire system.
(b) He acts as wire chief and traffic chief.
(c) He enforces traffic regulations.
(d) Decides questions of priority, in the absence
of the communications officer, not covered by or-
ders.
(e) Arranges for the supply of wire and equip-
ment for the wire section.
(2) Corporal (construction). He has charge of all
construction details and is responsible for all construc.
tion ordered by the communications officer. In execut-
ing his orders he follows the plan as specified in the
circuit diagram and line route maps, copies of which
are furnished him by the section chief.
(3) Corporal (operator).
(a) He is charged with the installation and opera-
tion of the regimental swtchboards.
(b) He acts as chief operator and requires all
assistant operators to observe traffic regulations
and priority rules.
(c) He arranges the details and hours of fity for
the assistant operators.
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
21
(d) He keeps the section chief informed at all
times as to the condition of the lines.
(e) He makes necessary changes in the traffic
chart.
(4) 2 Privates (operators). Install and operate the
regimental switchboards and the local lines at the com-
mand post.
(5) 1 Private (miscellaneous), telephone orderly.
(6) 8 Privates (line guards). These men work under
the wire chief and construction corporal on the instal-
lation and maintenance of lines.
38. The wire section (battalion communications platoon)
. a. Functions.—The battalion wire section installs, oper-
ates and maintains the battalion telephone system.
b. Duties of personnel (battalion wire section).-
(1) Sergeant (section chief).
(a) Carries out the orders and instructions of the
battalion communications officer, relating to the
wire system.
(b) He acts as wire chief and traffic chief.
(c) He enforces traffic regulations.
(d) Decides questions of priority in the absence
of the communications officer, not covered by
orders.
(e) Arranges for the supply of wire and equip-
ment for the wire section.
(2) Corporal (construction). He has charge of all
construction details and is responsible for all construc-
tion ordered by the communications officer. In execut-
ing his orders he follows the plan as specified in the
circuit diagram and the line route maps, copies of
which are furnished him by the section chief.
(3) Corporal (operator).
(a) He is charged with the installation and opera- .
tion of the battalion switchboards.
WIRE -
COMMUNICATIONS
(b) He acts as chief operator and requires all as-
sistant operators to observe traffic regulations and
priority rules.
· (c) He arranges the details and hours of duty for
the assistant operators.
(u) He keeps the section chief informed at all
times as to the condition of the lines.
(e) He makes the necessary changes in the traffic
chart.
(4) 3 Privates (line guards). These men work under
the wire chief and construction corporal on the installa- .
tion and maintenance of lines.
(5) 1 Private (miscellaneous), telephone orerly.
puses.
AA
39. Personnel table.
WIRE SECTION
| Brigade | Regiment | Battalion

(1)
Staff Sergeants ........
Section Chief ............
Sergeants
Section Chief ...............
Construction ................
Miscellaneous ..............
Corporals
Asst. Section Chief ..
Construction ...............
Operator ..........
Pvts. 1st. Cl. & Pyts.
Line guards ...........
Operators ..
Pikeman .
Wagoner
Miscellanous. .---.............
AGGREGATE
-88 - Bacaasa
e Beres - En
MS
.......
1
On....
16
SECTION VIII.
TELEPHONE SYSTEMS.
Paragraph.
40
---•*.
Brigade telephone system
Regimental telephone system ............
Battalion telephone system ..........
U
.
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
23
40. Brigade telephone system.
d. Brigade headquarters is provided with 7 telephones,
type Łu-4, and 4 telephones, type EE-5. A normal dis-
tribution and order of installation is given below:
...
Ou
d
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
or A
Priority of
Telephone
Lacation
installation
2-EE 4 Message Center
1-EE 4 Brigade Commander ..............
1-EE 4
Executive Officer .............
1-EE 4 Communication Officer ............
1-EE 4 Plans and Training Officer ............5
1-EE 4 Intelligence Officer
.................6
4-EE 5
Use by line guards for maintenance
purposes.
Telephones for use as operators' telephones are not
shown, as a special operator's set has been provided in the
table of allowances.
6. The switchboards furnished a brigade headquarters
zre as follo1, .
2-1? line monocord boards.
2- 4 line monocord boards.
C. The number of circuits at brigade headquarters should
be kept down to 12 when possible. In order to do this the
plans and training officer and the executive officer should
be on one line jointly, as should the intelligence officer and
the communications officer. When it is necessary to pro-
vide more than 12 lines, one of the 4 line boards may be used
in conjunction with the 12 line board, thereby furnishing
space for 16 lines. (Plate 5 depicts a normal distribution
of lines entering the brigade switchboard—shown as a 12
line board.)
d. The number of trunk lines and local lines can not of
necessity be prescribed. The conditions regarding the
situation and location of units will govern the number of
lines.
F
41. Regimental telephone system.
a. Regimental headquarters is provided with the same
number of telephones and switchboards as brigade head-
quarters. The distribution at the regiment is the same as at
the brigade. The number of local and trunk lines entering
24
WIRE COMMUNICATIONS
the regimental switchboard is governed by the same condi-
tions as apply to the brigade.
b. Assuming a regiment deployed with two battalions in
line and one in reserve, a line will be run to each assault
battalion. The reserve battalion will not normally be con-
nected by telephone, leaving one drop available for use for
an additional line to brigade. When more than 12 drops
are needed, one of the four line boards can be used in con-
junction with the 12 line board. Plate 6 depicts a normal
distribution of lines entering a regimental switchboard.
TTY
42. Battalion telephone system.
Battalion headquarters is furnished 4 telephones, type
EE-4,, 1 telephone, type EE-5, and two four-line switch-
boards. The number of lines entering the battalion
switchboard is limited to 4. Plate 7 depicts a normal dis-
tribution of lines entering the battalion switchboard.

99€
3
lov
n
aman.
.
BRIG,F.C.C.
LEGEND
C.P.1st BRIG
C.P.1st INF.
200
C.P,1st BN. 1
NOTE: NUMBERS ALONG CIRCUITS
INDICATE NUMBER OF
CIRCUITS BETWEEN POINTS,
.C.P.2d.BN,
C.P.20. INF.
0,,19t. BN
g
C.P,20,$N.
LINE ROUTE MAP,
še
PLATE NO.1.
528
526
-10-


· MONARCH --...
MOUNTAIN
403
L
.,
-
.
..
'.
**-- 404
503-----
11
· MURMER
--- 504- --
ZIT
sia !
1512
FOTO DIV, HQS.
201
202
301
---BRIG.
401
po
F.C.
4
402
BRIG.
F.C.C.
.
MAGIC,
41
-7
.
A
MOBILE
.
405
---505--
during advance.
Circuits installed
Flate
Circuit Diagram
2
- 406
pior to advance.
Circuits installed
MOMENT
Initial installation-sententerrerenser
on
w -
MOTIVE
- -
com_506 inn
A
MURMUR
MONARCHO

MOBILE
MOTIVE
MOUNTAIN
BRIGADE
F.C.C.
MOMENT
MAGIC
TRAFFIC
IAR
CHART.
PLATE
-12-
Page Missing
in Original
Volume
Page Missing
in Original
Volume
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM.
BRIGADE TELEPHONE SYSTEM,
27

4
DIVISION
SUI
0,0.
LIFT
BRIG
RIGHT
BRIG.
BRIG,
AXIS
1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 112||
MESS,:
CENTER
LEFT
REGT.
EXHC
milyon manatdan
puting.com sitemizin
sa
m
12 DROP SWITCHBOARD.
.
RIGHT
EIGT.
COM.
INT.
OFF
PLATE 5
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM,
REGIMENTAL TELEPHONE SYSTEM.
Tanm
ULLANI
ELEPHO

BRIG.
COV.
INI
OFF
2
SUP
REGT
ART.
CMDİR
LEFT
REGT
P&T,
EXEC.
REGT
AXIS
11/ 231415:16171819 60 61 19
MESSAG.
CENTHI
1 st
RIGHT
BN,
REGT..
switchibo
. 2 nal
BN.
.
3 rd BN.
OR
BRIGADH
BLATE
6
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
BATTALION TELEPHONE SYSTEM.

REGT,
MESSAGE
CENTER
lli 1 2
3
4
NA
BN.
AXIS
0,0.
EXEC.
PAST.
CUT,
INT.OFF.
• 4 DROP SWITCHBOARD,
PLATE
7
-19-
OCT 23 1924
1
MARCH
PROTECTION
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE:
BY:
March Protection.
1st Section.

COLLOW
N
',-
Nem
..11
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923-1924.
95–Benning Ga., 2-1-24-2750
Zufauitry dehort. N.S. Benny
- 4
رج ومر -
MARCH PROTECTION.
Paragraphs.
Section 1. Introduction
Advance guards
III. Rear guards
TI.
-
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
-
.-
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
2-15
16-24
SECTION I.
INTRODUCTION.
Paragraph.
Scope
1. Scope.
a. The subject of march protection concerns itself with
all measures which are necessary to provide for the se-
curity, protection and unimpeded progress of troops on
the march in the presence of the enemy. Elements of
the main body of a column which are sent out to accom-
plish these missions are termed covering detachments,
and include advance, flank, and rear guards and such meas-
ures of security as may be taken during the temporary
halt.
SECTION II.
ADVANCE GUARDS.
Paragraph.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
-
-
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
COO C
Definition .............
M ission ......................................................................
Duties .............................................------------------------
Strength ............
Composition ..................
Distance from main body ............
Distribution of troops ....
Distance between elements
Point ............
Advance party ..........
Support .....
Reserve ................................................
Communication ........
Intelligence ....
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
UtA CON formando O
.........
MARCH PROTECTION
2. Definition.
An advance guard is a detachment of the command
which precedes and covers it on the march.
3. Mission.
Being a security detachment its general functions are:
a. To protect the main body.
6. To permit the timely and orderly disposal and de-
ployment of the main body.
c. To obtain information.
4. Duties. :
More specifically its duties are:
a. To prevent surprise and to furnish information by
reconnaissance to the front and to a limited extent, to
the flanks.
b. To push back small groups of the enemy and to prevent
their observing, firing upon or delaying the main body.
C. To check the enemy's advance in force long enough
to permit the main body to prepare for action.
d. When the enemy is encountered in strength to seize
a favorable position and locate his lines, taking care,
however, not to bring on a general engagement unless
the advance guard commander is specifically empowered
to do so.
e. To remove obstacles, repair roads and to assist in
every possible way the uninterrupted march of the main
body.
5. Strength.
The strength of the advance guard may vary from one-
twentieth to one-third of the entire command. Its strength
usually can be determined by the mission of the main
body and by the anticipated opposition of the enemy.
To a lesser degree its strength is also affected by the
terrain and the characteristics of the theatre of opera-
tions.
While it is neither desirable nor possible to give any
fixed ratios governing the strength of advance guards,
MARCH PROTECTION
we might, remembering the principle of the integrity of
tactical units, and considering the conditions affecting
the situation, take the following as bases from which to
make the necessary changes for any concrete case.
Unit.
For a platoon
For a company
For a battalion
For a regiment
Advance Guard.
1 squad.
1 section or 1 platoon.
1 company
1 battalion.
n
6. Composition
Machine guns, light mortars and 37mm guns are used
in driving off small hostile parties, especially those
equipped with machine guns or automatic rifles. Care
must be taken not to expose the draft animals pertaining
to these weapons to small arms fire. For the protection
of these weapons when attached to the advance guard
they must march at least 700 yards in rear of the point.
The application of this principle will usually place these
weapons with the reserve or, in the case of small advance
guards, with the main body.
In large commands and where strong enemy resistance
is expected light artillery is attached to the advance
guard usually in the proportion of one battery to each
battalion. When so attached its position in column is
governed by considerations similar to those just enunci-
ated. In an advance guard larger than a battalion it
usually marches near the head of the reserve.
In very special cases light tanks may also be attached
in order to assist in delivering a quick, powerful blow.
Cavalry can be of great assistance to the advance guard
and should be used whenever possible. When available,
some cavalry is always attached for reconnaissance duty.
In level, open country the advance guard may consist
almost entirely of cavalry.
In large commands some engineer troops are usually
attached to the advance guard to assist in repairing and
constructing roads and bridges and in removing obstacles.
They should ordinarily march with the support, although
a small portion may accompany the leading elements.
MARCH PROTECTION
In smaller commands these duties are performed by the
pioneer platoon.
7. Distance from main body.
This will vary with the nature of the terrain, the mis-
sion of the main body, its strength and composition. It
must be sufficient to insure an uninterrupted march. If
contact with the enemy is imminent it must be great
enough to permit the commander of the main body to
make his plans, decisions and dispositions without hostile
interference. It must not, however, be great enough to
can reach it.
The general principle is that the total depth of the
advance guard should protect the leading elements of the
main body from effective infantry fire. In the case of
advance guards smaller than a battalion this principle
does not apply. Similarly, in large commands the head
of the main column should be protected from artillery
fire from the front.
(NOTE: Light artillery fire is effective up to 6500 yards, machine gun fire up
to 2200 yards and rifle fire of groups up to 1200 yards.)
The following may be used as a guide upon which to
base distances are considering the foregoing :
a. A squad followed by a platoon at 150-200 yards.
b. A platoon followed by a company at 300-450 yards.
C. A company followed by a battalion at 400-600 yards.
d. A battalion followed by a regiment at 800-1200 yards.
8. Distribution of troops.
It is usual to divide the troops of an advance guard into
the reserve and the support, but where the advance guard
is smaller than a battalion the reserve is omitted. The
support sends forward the advance party, which in turn
sends forward the point.
MARCH PROTECTION
9. Distance between elements.
These vary in much the same way as distances be-
tween the main body and advance guard proper, depend-
ing upon the terrain, the strength of the command, the
activity of the enemy and the weapons employed by him.
They are reduced in broken terrain, in operations against
cavalry and when pursuing a defeated enemy. They are
extended in open country, when the advance guard is
strong and when the enemy is known to have artillery
and machine guns.
10. Point.
This is a unit, usually a squad, detailed from the ad-
vance party. It has many of the characteristics of a
road patrol and takes such a formation as will render it
least vulnerable to attack and which will facilitate road
progress. A staggered formation with five pace distance
between files with one column on each side of the road
will usually fulfill these requirements. The pointi re-
mains intact and will seldom leave the road. It does not
send out patrols. On account of its important mission
the point should be commanded by a sergeant or other
experienced noncommissioned officer. In special cases it
may be commanded by an officer.
The point will continue its advance along the road until
halted by fire from the front or upon signal from the
rear. If fired upon from the front the point will deploy
and advance to drive the enemy from his position or to
develop him. If fired upon from the flank it will deploy
along the side of the road and return the fire. It will
not leave the road to attack. If the enemy cannot be
driven out the point will remain in position, send back
information and resist any further advance of the enemy.
In an advance guard sent out by a brigade or smaller unit,
orders for the point will read that it will precede the ad-
vance party.
11. Advance party.
This is an element sent forward by the support.
If
MARCH PROTECTION
composed of a unit smaller than a company it marches
prepared for rapid deployment. Composed of a com-
pany or larger unit it habitually marches in column of
squads. The advance party is charged with reconnais-
sance to the front and flanks. The point performs the
former duty, while the latter is performed by special
flank patrols sent out to a distance of not over 800 yards
by the commander of the advance party. These may be
instructed to march parallel to the column at a certain
distance to the flank or they may be sent to selected points
for observation, After the advance party has passed
these points the patrols join the reserve or main body,
replacements being sent up from the support.
The advance party deploys only when it is absolutely
necessary. If fired upon from the flank it deploys in the
direction of the attack, opens fire and advances on the
· enemy if necessary. The point covers the road and a
patrol is sent out to cover the exposed flank. If the
enemy is found in a strongly organized position and can
not be driven out by the advance party he sends out patrols
to develop his strength, position and flanks.
Orders for the advance party will definitely state that
the head will reach an initial point, or that the unit will
clear the initial point at a given time. Orders for each
remaining subdivision of the advance guard generally will
direct it to follow the one immediately in front of it on the
road at a designated distance.
12. Support..
The strength of the support may vary from one-half
to one-sixth of the advance guard. Its functions are
combat, security and reconnaissance. It is also charged
with repairing bridges and roads and with removing
obstacles. Flank patrols may be sent out from the sup-
port to a distance of from 1000 to 1200 yards. If more
extended flank reconnaissance is necessary flank guards
are sent out from the reserve or main body to parallel
the line of march. All important patrols should be ac-
companied by one or more members of the battalion in-
MARCH PROTECTION
telligence section. In case of combat the support con-
ducts itself in a manner similar to that explained for the
advance party.
1
13. Reserve.
This is the largest element of the advance guard and
is the maneuver unit.
Its employment is governed by the general principles
covering the use of reserve troops. When the reserve
can not drive off the enemy in its front it is used by the
advance guard commander to sieze a favorable position for
.the deployment of any part of the main body.
Attached troops and weapons usually march with the
reserve which habitually marches in column of squads.
1
14. Communication.
Each element of the advance guard is responsible for
the maintenance of communication to the front. Neces-
sary connecting files and runners are sent forward to
establish and maintain this communication Distances
maintained by connecting files must at all times be such
as will permit them to receive the transmit signals both
to the front and to the rear. Connection and communica-
tions between the several subdivisions may be maintained
by single connecting files, double connecting files or, in
special cases, by a squad.
15. Intelligence.
Scouts from the intelligence section may be attached
to the advance party and support and when so attached
function under the orders of the commanders of these
elements. Observers are sent out by the intelligence
officer to utilize such observation points as may be de-
sirable during the progress of the march or attack. These
observers remain under the orders of the intelligence
officer and secure the information necessary to assist the
advance guard commander in estimating the situation
and issuing his orders.
10
MARCH PROTECTION
..
SECTION III.
REAR GUARDS.
Paragraph.
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Definition ............
Mission ..............
Duties ...............----------
Strength ..............
Composition .........
Dispositions and distances
Connecting files
Rear guard of advancing force .....................................
General ...
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16. Definition.
A rear guard is a security detachment detailed from
the main body to protect it while in march from attack
from the rear.
17. Mission.
It covers and protects the rear of a body of troops on
the march.
NOTE:
A body of troops covering the withdrawal from action of another force
is not necessarily a rear guard, although its duties are often similar.
Such a covering force might, however, later become the rear guard.
18. Duties.
The duties of a rear guard are:
a. To observe and maintain contact with a pursuing
enemy.
b. To impede the enemy's march by destroying bridges,
damaging roads and by placing obstacles in his path.
C. To fight delaying actions whenever necessary.
d. Security measures during halts.
e. Reconnaissance.
i
19. Strength.
No general rule can be given for the strength of rear
guards. This will vary with the proximity, strength,
character and morale of the pursuing force and with the
terrain and weather conditions. It must not be too large
but, on the other hand it must be made sufficiently large
MARCH PROTECTION
11
at the outset to accomplish its mission for, unlike other
security detachments, it can not expect assistance from
the main body. When the main body is disorganized or
demoralized a covering detachment (usually taken from
the reserve) must be thrown out to cover the withdrawal
from action of the units engaged and afford them time
to organize in route column.
1
20. Composition.
Machine guns should be with the rear guard :
a. To cause the enemy to deploy at long ranges.
b. To resist attack.
C. To cover the withdrawal of rear guard troops.
To this end they must make the maximum use of sur-
prise and long range fire. They should always be with-
drawn by echelon and along previously reconnoitered
routes. These movements to the rear are always made
on carts.
Howitzers and 37mm guns: When the rear guard is
a battalion or larger, these weapons may be attached.
The rear guard commander will assign them a place in
column, depending upon the tactical situation and the
terrain.
Cavalry: When available, cavalry should be attached
to the infantry rear guard. Even when the retreating
main body is covered by a specifically detailed cavalry
force some troopers should be attached to the rear guard
proper for more distant reconnaissance.
Artillery: On account of its effective long range fire
artillery is well suited to rear guard action. The amount
so attached should be as large as is consistent with pro-
tection for the guns and the increased road space re-
quired. It's place in column must be such that it can
go rapidly into position and open an effective fire on the
enemy. This position may vary from the head of the
reserve to some point within the support, depending upon
the tactical situation, the terrain and the size of the rear
guard. It will often march at the head of the reserve and
12
MARCH PROTECTION
will always be preceded by its combat trains. Each suc-
cessive echelonment to the rear should be as large
as is consistent with the tactical requirement of the
situation. Engineers with the rear guard make de-
molitions and obstacles to delay the enemy's advance;
the larger part of the engineers will march at the head
of the reserve to prepare demolitions, etc., and should
be in trucks if available. A small party of engineers
should be with the rear party to complete demolitions.
Frequently the main part of the engineers precedes the
main body to prepare demolitions, repair roads, etc., in
which case rear guard engineers complete demolitions.
In small commands these duties will be performed by
the pioneer platoon.
21. Dispositions and distances.
A rear guard is disposed in a manner the inverse of an
advance guard. That is, extending in the direction of
the enemy, we have, as before, the reserve nearest the
main body, then the support; the support sending out a
rear party which in turn sends out a rear point. Still
further out there may be a mounted patrol.
Distances between elements must be such that each
successive subdivision from rear to front shall have suf-
ficient time to deploy and to make any necessary maneuver
before being struck by the enemy.
The rear guard order will state that the main body will
clear the initial point at a given time and that it will precede
the rear guard by a certain distance. This distance will
vary subsequently as the tactical situation develops. Simi-
larly the reserve will precede the support; the support, the
rear party and so on.
S
22. Connecting files.
The commander of the main body and the commanders
of the several subdivisions of the rear guard are responsible
for maintaining the proper distance (in the direction of
the enemy) to the next element, for preserving communi-
MARCH PROTECTION
13
(These
cation and for the sending out of connecting files.
last are sent out in the direction of the enemy.)
T
23. Rear guard of advancing force.
It must be of suitable size and composition. Such a
rear guard marches in rear of the trains and has as its
principal duty the prevention of straggling.
24. General.
Practically all the principles of security already dis-
cussed apply to rear guards. One important exception is
that no help can be expected from the main body. “When
in contact with a pursuing enemy the task imposed upon
a rear guard is a very delicate and difficult one. For this
reason its commander should be chosen with great care.
He should be an officer of considerable experience and of
sound tactical training and judgment. The rear guard
takes up defensive positions and fights delaying actions
as the result of his decisions alone and he must, there-
fore, be able to judge with a high degree of accuracy how
long he can safely hold, and when and how the various
elements of his command must begin their withdrawal
to successive positions in rear.
The rear guard of a retreating force is concerned pri-
marily with delaying the enemy's advance or pursuit
and must conduct its action in a manner that will permit
its own withdrawal to successive positions. The ideal
will be achieved if the enemy can be forced to deploy
all of his forces preparatory to launching a concerted
attack, and if the rear guard can withdraw in good order,
and unmolested, just before the attack is actually de-
livered. During such actions the support and reserve
withdraw in turn by echelon one behind the other. When
the support withdraws to a position in rear of the reserve
the latter assumes the original security functions of the
support.
NOTE:
The subject of Flank Guards, although essentially a part of this con-
ference, is discussed in another paper.
OCT 23 1924
4151
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL.
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924.
.....
MAP PROBLEM.: Regiment in Attack.
BY.
..: First Section.
MAPS.....................: General Map, Gettysburg-Antietam, 1 inch-10
miles, Topographical Map, Gettysburg-Antietam
1:21120, Taneytown and Kingsdale sheets.
GENERAL SITUATION:
The Monocacy River and Rock Creek form part of the
boundard between hostile states, Blue east; Red west. War
was declared 25 March 1924. Red is unprepared and its
forces poorly trained. Blue is able to mobilize quickly, a
well trained force. Reds are mobiliizing west of South
Mountain. They have a small force in Gettysburg. Blues
are mobilizing in the vicinity of Baltimore. Neither side
has air superiority.
1
SPECIAL SITUATION (Blue) :
The 1st Blue Infantry with 1st Battalion 1st Field Artill-
ery, 1st Ambulance Company and 1st Sanitary Company
attached was detached from its division with the mission
of securing the river crossing at Harney. The remainder
of the division will follow 24 hours later. A small force
of Red troops is known to be in Emmitsburg.
The 1st Infantry bivouacked during the night of 31
March 1 April at Silver Run. At 6:00 AM 1 April it
marched on Harney via Green Valley SH–Galt in the
following formation:
Advance guard
1st Battalion, 1st Infantry
1st Platoon, Howitzer Company, 1st Infantry
Distance 800 yards.
Head of main body.
At 7:00 AM, Colonel 1st Infantry receives a dropped
message from the Division Air Service stating that a hostile
force estimated at a regiment of Infantry and a battery
of field artillery which bivouacked last night one and one-
(1)
T
half miles northwest of Koon is marching southeast, head
of the column at RJ 470 at 6:45 AM. I
At 8:30 AM the advance guard came in contact with small
enemy detachments along the railroad in the vicinity of
Galt. It pushed forward and began energetic reconnaiss-
ance.
At 10:00 AM Colonel 1st Infantry has the following in-
formation gained from personal reconnaissance, from the
advance guard commander and from the Division Air
Service.
The enemy estimated as a regiment of infantry is hastily
organizing a defensive position with its main line of resist-
ance generally along the slope northeast and southwest of
Hill 542. The west flank at point (356.8-733.4), the east
flank at point (358.0-734.3). Units are organizing po-
sitions at crossroad 535 and in the woods 500 yards west
of crossroad 535. A force estimated as a battalion was
observed entering the woods at point (356.6-735.2). A
battery of field artillery is firing from a position in the
vicinity of RJ 540.
The 1st Infantry is disposed as follows:
The advance guard has one company deployed on the
road, crossroad 538—RJ 512. The remainder of the bat-
talion and 1st platoon, Howitzer Company are along the
railroad near Galt. The 2d Battalion is in the woods north-
west of RJ 546. The 3d Battalion and Howitzer Company
(less 1 platoon), are in the woods west of hill 588. The
1st Battalion 1st Field Artillery is firing from positions
in the ravines east of ridge formed by Hill 581—Hill 582.
1st Ambulance Company and 1st Sanitary Company are
at RJ 626. Field trains are parked at Green Valley SH.
Colonel 1st Infantry decides to attack.
TYT
REQUIRED: Order of Colonel 1st Infantry for the attack
as it would appear when reduced to formal form.
Time: 3 hours. .
NOTE: Weather-clear and cool-wind from southwest,
5 miles per hour.
( 2 )
A SOLUTION
1st Inf,
RJ 546 800 yds SE of
GALT,
1 Apr 24, 10:15 AM.
FIELD ORDERS /
NO. 4
MAPS: Topographical Map, Gettysburg-Antietam, 1:21120, Taney-
town and Kindgsdale sheets.
1 (a) An enemy force estimated as a regiment of in-
fantry with a battery of field artillery is hastily organiz-
ing a defensive position with main line of resistance on
the slope northeast and southwest of HILL 542. East flank
at point (358.0-734.3). West flank at point (356.8-733.4).
Reserve positions are being prepared at CR 535 and woods
700 yards west thereof. A battalion of infantry was ob-
served entering woods at point (356.6–735.2). A battery
of field artillery is firing from a position in the vicinity
of RJ 540.
· (b) Our advance guard holds the road CR 538—RJ512.
2 This regiment will attack at 12:00 Noon enveloping
the enemy's right. Line of departure--CR 533-RJ 481–
house at point (356.47-731.83). Boundary between battal-
ions-RJ 4894fence corner at point (357.1-733.75) (all
to 1st Bn)-east corner of woods at point (357.0-734.25)
-eastern edge of woods at point (357.0-734.9) (both to
2d Bn)—western edge of woods at point (357.0-735.6) (to
1st Bn).
3 (a) The 1st Bn (1st Plat How Co attached), its left
resting at RJ 489, will attack the enemy position from fence
corner at point (357.1-733.75) to point (358.0-734.3),
making its main effort on its left. It will capture Hill.
542, assist the advance of the 2d Bn and drive the enemy
north toward ALLOWAY CREEK. Direction of attack:-
RJ 521—Hill 542— thence grid north.
(b) The 2d Bn (2d Plat How Co attached) moving
through the ravine south of GALT will deploy on a 600
yard front with its right in the ravine at point (357.0-
731.84). It will envelop the enemy's right and drive him
LV
(3)
.1
toward ALLOWAY CREEK. Direction of attack:-Grid
north.
(c) The 1st Bn 1st FA from position in ravines south
of GALT will support the attack east of ridge formed by
Hill 581—Hill 582, by progressive concentrations on enemy
positions. It will bring harassing fire on enemy positions
at once. Preparatory fire will begin at 11:40 AM, at which
time smoke will be placed on enemy front line and Hill
542 to continue until 12:20 PM.
(d) The 3d Bn will move to a position in the ravine 400
yards south of RJ 481 as regimental reserve.
(e) Co M will support the attack of the 2d Bn from a
position in the vicinity of RJ 512. When its fire is masked
it will revert to the reserve.
(f) The How Co (less 2 Plats) will follow the left of the
1st Bn to positions from which it can fire on woods south
of hill 542 and enemy machine guns.
4 (a) F Tns will remain in present position.
(b) Coll Sta RJ 509.
(c) Regtl Mun DP CR 571.
5 (a) Ax Sig Com:
1st Inf-RJ 546-GALT-CR 535-RJ 514.
1st Bn-same as 1st Inf.
2d Bn:-RJ at point (356.6-731.4)—woods at
point (356.6-732.4)—woods at point (356.7-734.0)
--RJ (356.6-735.3).
(b) CPs:
1st Inf-RJ 546.
1st Bn-GALT.
2d Bn-RJ at point (356.6-731.4)
By order of Col X
Y,
Ex.
Copies to:
R Ex Hq Co
Staff
How Co
RMGO Serv Co
Com 0 1st Bn 1st FA
Mum o Co M
(4)
1st Bn
Attached MD
2d Bn
3d Bn
Diary
File
COMMENTS
1
1. The position held by the advance guard should be
given in paragraph 1 b. (No Cut).
2. (a) Time of attack too early.
(b) Time of attack too late.
3. (a) Line of departure should include jump-off position
of all assault elements.
(b) Line of departure too close to enemy position.
(c) Line of departure too far from enemy position.
4. A critical area in the enemy's defensive position should
be included in the zone of action of one unit only. There
should be no divided responsibility for its capture.
5. In an open warfare situation detailed instructions
covering a considerable period of time after the launching
of the attack should not be given to the artillery.
6. An assault battalion should not be limited to a front-
age less than that of the enemy within its zone of action.
7. In an envelopment the direction of attack of assault
battalions is convergent.
8. Direction of attack of enveloping force not such as
will insure an envelopment.
9. Reserve battalion should be brought closer.
10. Direction of attack should be given for each assault
battalion.
11. Axis of signal communication should be given for the
regiment and each assault battalion.
12. The attack order should not require the enveloping
force to assist the holding attack in the situation.
13. The battalion making the holding attack should not
control the artillery fire.
14. Smoke should be used to cover the approach of assault
battalions to their first firing position.
(5)
V
15. The “distribution” is required in an order in formal
form.
16. A boundary between battalions is necessary to avoid
the mixing of units, insure proper direction of attack and
fix responsibility of each assault battalion.
17. Each assault battalion should be given a definite mis-
sion.
18. The mission provides an objective which is too limited
19. The possibility of surprising the enemy as to the
direction of the main blow and the cover available in
approaching the enemy's flank makes an envelopment of
the enemy's right more advantageous than an envelopment
of his left.
20. A frontal attack carries the attacking forces to an
enemy's line is not over extended and would be difficult to
penetrate.
21. See remark on individual solution.
291 Benning, Ga. 4-17-24–1600
OCT 2 j 1924
NIGHT OPERATIONS.
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE : Night Operations.
BY
: First Section
OLLOW
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923–1924.
70---Benning, Ga., 1-29-24-2500
Loet
e lun
**50sec
Section
1
.3
NIGHT OPERATIONS.
Paragraphs.
1. Introduction
II. Operations not Involving Combat .................
4.7
III. Combat Operations
IV. Training for Night Operations ..............
- 19
V. Historical Examples .........
20 - 22
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SECTION I.
INTRODUCTION.
Paragraph.
Definition ...
Experience in modern warfare .
Night operations .........
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1. Definition.
Night operations include all movements, advances, as-
saults, defenses, and similar operations undertaken in the
presence of the enemy under cover of darkness. The
principles governing night operations are applicable to
operations undertaken during fog or similar atmospheric
conditions with the exception that plans must specifically
provide, in the latter case, for the conduct of the operation
in case of sudden change in atmospheric conditions.
2. Experience in modern warfare.
Experience in modern warfare has demonstrated that
night operations are becoming increasingly important, if
not absolutely essential. Improvement in the range and
effectiveness of weapons and greater efficiency in means
of observation, aerial and terrestrial, require increased con-
cealment to avoid excessive loss and to effect surprise.
3. Night operations.
Night operations require special training on the part of
all troops. Combat operations should be undertaken only
(3)
NIGHT OPERATIONS
with organizations which have been highly trained for this
purpose, in addition to being the best troops available from
other points of view.
SECTION II. ...in,
OPERATIONS NOT INVOLVING COMBAT.
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Night marches ................
Night advances ...........
Reliefs of front line units ....
Oro
4. Night marches.
The importance of night marches has greatly increas-
ed under the conditions of modern warfare. In many situa-
tions they are absolutely essential to success. They are
made to avoid hostile observation thereby permitting secret
movements. This purpose is defeated if proper halting and
camping places for daylight hours are not available or
taken advantage of. They tend to facilitate surprise and
reduce casualties. In hot weather they are often made to
escape the heat of the day. Darkness greatly increases
the difficulties of a march. It increases the difficulties of
finding and following unknown roads. This difficulty, how-
ever, may be greatly reduced by proper preliminary re-
connaissance. Darkness retards the march on poor roads,
trails, or across country, thereby making prompt arrival
at the proper destination uncertain. Uncertainty of their
own location and that of the enemy impairs the morale
of troops and reduces their combat efficiency. The follow-
ing measures are taken to reduce the difficulties of night
marches.
(a) Strict discipline is enforced.
(b) Advantage is taken of moonlight and good roads.
(c) Routes are carefully reconnoitered and marked
beforehand. ,
(d) Guides are used when available and men are post-
ed at road forks and in cities and towns to direct
troops.
TY
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NIGHT OPERATIONS
5
(e) Close contact between units is maintained at all
times. . . . .. . .
(f) If the march is secret, silence is maintained, articles
of equipment are secured to prevent rattling,
and smoking is forbidden. No lights are permitt-
ed. Villages and farm houses are avoided when
practicable.
(g) Ample time allowance is made for all night move-
ments.
5. Night advances.
• A night advance is an advance made under cover of
darkness, for the purpose of gaining ground in the direc-
tion of the enemy, without the intention of bringing on a
decisive engagement during the hours of darkness.
a. Night advances are undertaken:
(1) To surprise the enemy.
(2) To avoid losses in securing a position which can
be reached in daylight only at the cost of prohibitive losses.
(3) To gain a maneuvering position preliminary to
an attack.
. (4) To continue, with improved prospects of success,
an advance already begun.
(5) To secure a position which the enemy holds lightly
but which leaves the assailant little or no opportunity for
maneuvering.
(6) To advance in series of short distances of a few
hundred yards each, on successive nights, from one fire
position to another. These practically amount to siege
operations. They have little application in open warfare
situations.
b. The following are observed in all night advances:
(1) That patrols precede the advance, and, if possible,
are pushed beyond the position to be occupied.
(2) That, if the position to be occupied is within
effective range of the enemy's fire, and its occupation is
not a preliminary: to an immediate attack, it must be reach-
ed long enough before daylight to give time for strengthen-
ing and organizing it.
ON
NIGHT OPERATIONS
(3) That the advance is, if practicable, simultaneous
.along the front. Isolated or disconnected advances are,
in general, avoided.
6. Reliefs of front line units.
Reliefs of front line units are confined to defensive or
stabilized situations and take place almost invariably at
night. Daylight reliefs are impracticable, for obvious
reasons, and should not be undertaken except in extreme
necessity.
Reliefs are usually carried out by division but the princi-
ples are the same for the brigade and regiment, and differ
but slightly for smaller units.
(a) Preliminary reconnaissance of routes and positions
is made by all commanders down to and including battalions.
(b) Advance parties are sent into the area to be taken
over a sufficient length of time ahead of the actual relief
to familiarize themselves with the sector to be occupied and
to act as guides to their units during the relief.
(c) Plans of defense are not changed during the relief.
If changes are necessary they are made after the relief is
completed.
(d) Command of the sector does not pass to incoming
organization until relief is complete.
(e) Ordinarily, the battalion is the largest unit to com-
plete the relief in one night. In larger organizations alter-
nate battalions are relieved on succeeding nights, relief
being thus completed in two nights.
(f) Incoming organizations are moved up to concealed
locations within six miles of the position to be taken over,
the night previous to the relief.
(g) Ordinarily supporting artillery is not relieved on
the same night as the Infantry battalions which it supports.
That which supports battalions remaining in place is re-
lieved the first night. That supporting battalions going in
the first night are relieved on the second night. Sometimes
the guns are left in place and only the personnel is re-
lieved.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
11
(h) All details of the relief must be arranged before.
hand to prevent confusion during the movement. These
include:
(1) Security measures to be taken.
(2) Provisions to insure secrecy.
(3) Complete understanding as to equipment to be
taken over by incoming organizations.
(4) Provisions for supply of all classes and arrange-
ments for taking over supply installations.
(5) Orders and instructions must be complete and
reach the troops in time for thorough study and understand-
ing before time for relief to begin.
7. Supply installation and replenishment.
Other than tactics, no single subject occupies so prominent
a place in the plans of any commander as that of supply
and nothing so surely cripples an operation as an inter-
ruption in its supply system. For these reasons every
effort is made to interfere with the supply system of the
enemy and he, likewise, endeavors to interfere with ours.
Within the combat zone the only way to insure a reason-
able freedom from interruption is to carry on all activities
of this nature at night. The same precautions are neces-
sary and the same difficulties must be overcome in bring-
ing supplies into forward areas as with marching columns
of troops, with the addition that the necessary transporta-
tion is almost wholly confined to roads, and dumps or parks
must be established in their immediate vicinity. Where
natural cover does not exist or cannot be utilized artificial
cover must be supplied or improvised for day time con-
cealment.
Woods afford the best natural cover and villages and
towns afford a limited amount, but in open country and
in operations of any size resort must be had to improvised
means of camouflage.
The details of supply methods and installation of supply
establishments are dealt with in other conferences and the
subject is mentioned here only to present as complete a
picture of night operations as is possible in a limited
time.
O
+ natura but ine had
NIGHT OPERATIONS
SECTION III.
COMBAT OPERATIONS.
Paragraph.
General considerations .............
Preliminary arrangements
Orders for night operations involving combat .................
Night assaults ...
Night defense
Raids ......
Classification of raids .
8. General considerations.
Night operations involving combat are more difficult
of execution and accomplishment than other forms of
combat, and, because of the risks involved, are undertaken
with only the best available troops. They are undertaken
on the authority or orders of the commander whose troops
occupy the entire front, including the area to be attacked,
and, in case of night assaults, only after the enemy has
become stationary and his general position is definitely,
known.
The following principles are observed in all night com-
bat operations:
a. All formations and maneuvers must be simple and
easy of execution.
b. After coming within zone of effective hostile fire all
advances are made in line of columns covered by scouts.
c. There should be as few columns as the enemy's fire,
the terrain, and the necessity for rapid development will
permit.
d. Each column is assigned a definite objective and is
not deployed until forced to do so or until the deploying
position is reached.
e. Local supports and reserves are held at shorter dis-
tances than in daylight advances.
f. The general reserve is held well in rear, preferably
off the axis of advance.
g. The operation is pushed to a conclusion without fir-
ing by the infantry units, darkness being depended upon
for protection, and the bayonet for success in combat.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
9
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h. Prearranged fires by supporting and auxillary units
may be employed when the surprise element is not affected
thereby.
i. Silence is rigidly observed and all light and noises are
prohibited.
j. Positive connection between the columns and echelons
is maintained.
k. The utmost care is taken to prevent all possibility of
unexpected collision between advancing friendly columns
or detachments.
I. Thorough reconnaissance and preparation must be
.made except in the gravest emergency.
9. Preliminary arrangements.
Preliminary arrangements for night operations involv-
ing combat include the following:
a. A thorough and exhaustive reconnaissance of the
position to be occupied or assaulted and the terrain to be
passed over, by selected staff officers, and by as many as
possible of the line officers who are to participate in the
operation.
b. The designation of a distinguishing mark for the
troops engaged.
C. When a movement in march formation precedes a night
advance or a night assault, the designation of an easily
recognizable assembly position, at which the march forma-
tion is abandoned and the columns are closed up, verified
and prepared for deployment.
d. The designation of an easily recognizable line of
departure. This line, if possible, coincides with the assault
position.
e. If two or more points are to be assaulted simultaneously,
the selection with great care of the assembly position and
the line of departure in order that in the subsequent advance
the routes of advance do not converge to such an extent
as to danger an encounter between the columns in the
dark.
f. The selection of assembly positions and lines of de-
parture as close to the hostile position as possible. The
NIGHT OPERATIONS
distance of the assembly position and the line of departure
from the hostile position is governed by the nature of the
terrain the character of the enemy's reconnaissance and ser-
vice of security, the weather, the degree of darkness, and the
size of the force employed. At times these localities must be
secured prior to the operation by covering detachments
advancing during daylight to seize and hold them until
the arrival of the assaulting forces.
g. The designation by compass bearing of all lines of
advance, and the marking of roads and routes in rear of
the line of departure.
h. Provision for maintaining the direction of march of
the columns and echelons and contact between them by the
employment of rockets, searchlights, flares, guides, com-
pass, and connecting files, as necessary.
L
10. Orders for night operations involving combat.
Orders for night operations prescribe the following points
in addition to those usually covered in combat orders:
a. The means of identification.
b. The means for guiding and assisting the command
in determining the direction and location.
C. A definite objective and position to be carried and
held by each column.
d. The course of action to be followed in case of success.
e. A rallying point for each element in case of failure.
f. A definite route of march for each column to the
assembly position, or the line of departure. .
g. The action of reserves or other troops against posi-
tions likely to enfilade the captured position.
h. The issuance of the orders by subordinate units for
the operation far enough in advance to permit of proper
reconnaissance and careful preparation of plans by each
unit concerned.
11. Night assaults.
A night assault is an attack launched under cover of
darkness with the intention of securing an objective before
daylight.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
11
a. Infantry, of all arms, is best suited to overcome the
difficulties of night assault. It depends for success upon
its ability to close with the enemy quietly and rapidly.
Supporting arms, in general, support the infantry only
during and after the assault, rarely before, except when
the surprise element is not affected thereby, or as ruses,
or as protective measures on the flank of the attack,
6. Night assaults are employed :
(1) To avoid losses by concealing the attacker's
strength, dispositions, and movements.
(2) To deny the enemy time in which to improve its
position or condition.
(3) To complete an action.
(4) To surprise poorly trained or poorly led troops.
(5) To seize an advance position preliminary to
further operations.
(6) To drive in hostile covering troops with the object
of advancing all arms before daylight to within
effective ranges and assaulting distance of the
enemy's main defense.
(7) To meet the only possible solution of a difficult
situation.
(8) To gain time or to cover a retreat.
C. The following are observed in night assault:
(1) That simple formations and maneuvers, easy of
execution, are prescribed.
(2) That. in general, only straight frontal attacks are
attempted.
(3) That the objective to be assaulted is well defined
and easily discernible on near approach thereto.
(4) That only such troops as are actually needed to
insure success are employed. The element of
surprise and protection from the enemy's observa.
tion and fire afforded by darkness, justify the
use of fewer troops than in daylight attacks.
(5) That the objectives assigned to the various units
are so separated as to eliminate the probability
CU
12
NIGHT OPERATIONS
of collision between the units during the attack.
(6) That, when only a part of a force is employ-
ed in a night assault, the remainder is held in
readiness to take advantage at daylight of any
success obtained during darkness.
(7) That, during the assault, no attempt is made by
the assaulting troops to return the enemy's fire,
the assault being pushed home as rapidly as pos-
sible, decision being sought with the bayonet.
(8) That, when the assault has gained the objective,
the attacking troops are reformed, and measures
are taken to meet counter-attacks, and to resume
the advance at daylight, the reserves being
brought up for this purpose.
(9) That, if the assault is not successful, the reserves
are used to cover the retirement of the assault-
ing line, counter-attacking the pursuers on the
flanks if possible.
12. Night defense.
The principles governing defense at night differ little
from those governing defense by daylight. Local counter-
attacks are essential to success. As the launching and
success of counter-attacks depend upon a knowledge of
the location and movements of the enemy, a general count-
er-attack is seldom if ever undertaken at night.
a. The following are observed in night defense:
(1) That protective fire by artillery, machine guns,
and Howitzer Co. weapons, from night-firing positions
is provided. These fires cover all avenues of approach
and all known or suspected hostile assembly positions.
(2) That, if possible, all arrangements to meet night
attacks are made during daylight.
(3) That the infantry does not open fire until the
enemy is close enough to offer an unmistakable target.
(4) That, whenever possible, local reserves, using the
bayonet only, make counter attacks preferably against
the enemy's flanks.
S
NIGHT OPERATIONS
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(5) That supports and local reserves are held closer
to the firing line than in daylight defense. The main re-
serve is held well in hand on a flank of the line of
probable withdrawal for use in a counter-attack at daylight,
or for covering a retirement by attacking the pursuers
in flank.
(6) That in intrenched positions, when necessary
to avoid the disadvantage of being below the assailants
at the moment of contact, the trenches are used as obstacles
in front of the firing line.
(7) That special precautions are taken to insure con-
nection and communication between all parts of the com-
mand.
(8) That, if possible, artificial illumination of the
ground in front of the position is provided.
(9) That, in general, support from adjoining troops
or troops in rear, except auxiliary arms, is impracticable
during night defenses.
(10) That, if successful in repelling the attack, the
defending troops are immediately reformed and the posi-
tion is again occupied as before.
(11) That, if the assailant is successful, no general
retirement is ordered until after daylight, because of the
great confusion resulting from the defeat, and the conse-
quent impossibility of executing an orderly withdrawal.
Each element of the defender's force, when drawn back,
occupies a previously selected position, from which it
delays the assailant by attacks after daybreak on his flanks
and rear. The general reserve is made available for launch-
ing a well organized and powerful counter-attack at day-
light.
13. Raids,
: General discussion: Raids are generally conducted
at night.
a. (1) As a rule raids are made, primarily, to gain in-
formation.
(2) Secondarily to effect destruction and to cause loss.
es, to perfect or maintain training, and to raise the morale
NIGHT OPERATIONS
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of the raiding troops and lower that of the enemy.
The necessity of raids for their effect on morale varies
with the situation. For troops on the offensive they are
not necessary: and for troops retiring before the enemy,
they would hardly be an important factor. In a long period
of stabilization, such as existed on the western front in
Europe during 1915-16-17, the maintenance of morale
generally, and the aggressive spirit, particularly, became
serious problems. Raids are especially valuable in such a
situation, serving, as they do, the other useful purposes
pointed out above.
b. A raid and an attack are similar, in that they are
both offensive in character; but the attack differs in that
it aims to hold its gains.
C. Raids are distinct from reconnaissances made to dis-
cover the enemy, or to regain contact which has been lost.
They are incidents to a situation where the opposing forces
are in close contact.
d. Information is gained by raids in the following ways:
(1) By capture, identification and examination of
prisoners.
(2) By examination of captured documents and new
war material.
(3) By reconnaissance of hostile positions.
C. (4) By observation of the enemy's dispositions and
strength as disclosed by his attempts to defeat
the raid.
e. Destruction and losses inflicted on the enemy are
not in themselves ordinarily sufficient to make raiding
profitable, but these may be important incidental results,
adding to the value of the operation.
f. For green troops, raids are valuable, as offensive
battle training, and as a means of inspiring confidence and
building up an aggressive spirit before hazarding a serious
tactical enterprise.
14. Classification of raids.
It is difficult to classify raids.
They vary in compo:
NIGHT OPERATIONS
sition from a small patrol of five men to a force of all
arms constituting, at times, an operation which has all
the essential aspects of an attack. No two raids, if planned
to best advantage, are exactly alike. One of the essential
elements of success in raids is surprise, not only in time,
but in dispositions, locality, strength, methods and in every
other way possible.
As to means and methods raids may be classified as sup-
ported raids and unsupported raids.
a. Supported raids are those in which the raiding troops
are supported by some or all of the supporting weapons.
These raids are usually made by day although numerous
instances occurred in the World War when they were put
over at night. They may be launched with or without
fire preparation.
b. Unsupported raids are usually conducted at night
and the raiding troops operate without fire support from
supporting weapons. These raids are sometimes called
silent raids.
The purpose of the unsupported raid is usually to capture
prisoners for purposes of identification. Usually, one,
or a few prisoners suffice as well as a great number. A
small patrolling operation well planned and skillfully exe-
cuted usually accomplishes the desired result. Further-
more, it is simple, direct, rapid, and economical in point
of effort, material, and men. Infantry drill regulations
prescribe methods to be used in operations of this kind.
For supported raids at night the principles applicable
to night assaults apply up to the point where the objective
is reached. In all raids the route of return should be
different from that followed in the advance, and neighbor-
ing friendly troops must be fully informed of the operation
to prevent losses from fire of friendly troops.
A complete treatise on the subject of raids is entirely be-
yond the scope of a conference on night operations, merit-
ing, of itself, more than the time allotted for the major
subject. Methods of training and principles of operation,
however, are the same for both with special emphasis, in
the case of raids, given to simplicity and surprise.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
SECTION IV.
15
TRAINING FOR NIGHT OPERATIONS.
Paragraph.
Necessity for training
Selection of troops for training in night operations..........
Individual training .....
Unit training ..................
Training of small groups in methods of scouting and
patrolling, and as part of security detachments..........
16
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15. Necessity for training.
While it is desirable that all troops be completely trained
for night operations, it is not probable that such an ideal
condition will ever be realized. It will always be possible,
however, to bring certain divisions and smaller units
to such a high degree of training that they will become
uniformly successful in such operations, and it will always
be possible to give all troops some training of this nature.
Probably, the real reason for lack of such training in the
past has been that few officers have realized its import-
ance until circumstances forced it upon their attention.
A secondary reason is that still fewer possess the patience
and ability required to surmount the difficulties which must
be overcome in such training Service regulations of
all countries provide for this training but little attention
is paid to their provisions except in time of actual hostili-
ties.
There is, of course, the ever present danger that train-
ing for night operations in time of peace may become a
short lived fad which will, for a time, overshadow other
essentials of training and then fall into disuse and neglect.
There is little danger that troops in active campaign will
suffer for lack of practice in actual operations. The dang-
er lies in the probability that their training and practice
will be simultaneous. There should be provision made in
programs for training for a specific standard to be attain-
ed in night work and inspection should determine whether
these standards have been reached.
5
16. Selection of troops for training in night operations.
Divisions or smaller units drawn largely from rural
NIGHT OPERATIONS
17
districts should be selected for special training. The indi-
vidual is already, in most cases, capable of keeping direc-
tion and footing in the dark and familiarity has robbed
him of fears attributable to imagination, that assail the
urban inhabitant when alone beyond the rays of the street
lamp. Of the rural recruits, some adventurous spirits take
especial delight in exploits which appeal to their peculiar
qualities with the added zest of danger to lend attractive-
ness to the game. These men should be gathered together
early in their service to perfect them in performance of
duty for which they are naturally fitted. This does not
mean, however, that training for night operations should
be restricted to this class. With night operations, as with
any other form of military duty, the difference in quality
of performance tends to disappear rapidly with proper
training. It rests with commanders of battalions and larg-
er units to see that this training is supplied. In future
wars the nation that possesses, at the outset, a force so
trained will have an advantage over troops deficient in
this respect, that will he hard to estimate.
1
17. Individual training.
As a first step in training for night operations, the men
should be taken in small groups to ground with which they
are perfectly familiar, and required to notice the different
appearance of objects in varying degrees of light; the
greater readiness with which an object can be distinguish-
ed when in motion that when stationary: the different
appearance of men on the sky line and with a dark back-
ground. Experiments can be made in determining the
distance at which a match, struck in the open, can be
seen. Blank cartridges can be fired and men required to
judge the distance to the rifle and the direction in which
it was pointing.
They should also be required to guess at the cause of
noises heard and the location of their sources; the work-
ing of a rifle bolt, the rattle of a mess tin, low talking or
any noises likely to be made by troops on outpost may be
utilized. The distance at which the human voice, even in
18
NIGHT OPERATIONS
low tones, can be heard is astonishing, and it is a sound
that cannot be mistaken for anything else.
The recruit can be easily taught to find his bearing by
natural means, such as the north star, landmarks, or even
the direction of the wind, if it is constant. From such
exercises it is but a step to the use of the illuminated compass,
and the care that must be taken in keeping a straight course.
Training should begin without equipment of any kind
but as it progresses equipment should be increased until
full field equipment is used. At every step of the train-
ing it should be impressed on the recruit that it is nothing
short of criminal to open fire during a night attack and
that the bayonet is to be relied upon solely as his offensive
weapon.
As training progresses large groups should be utilized
and stress laid upon importance and means of keeping con-
nection between individuals and small groups. Identifica-
tion marks should be provided to permit means of recogni-
tion without noise. Markers can be made of luminous paint
of low visibility which can be seen a few paces away, and
worn only in a certain position, as on the left sleeve.
18. Unit training.
Training should then progress to platoon and company
movements and formations by night. The company as an
advance guard or the platoon as a part thereof, and squads
and sections as patrols, all movements being carried out in
perfect silence.
Companies should be practiced in marching across
country, passing obstacles such as fences and ditches. The
tendency is to form on the opposite side parallel to the
obstacle or to start the advance at right angles thereto.
The direction must be verified in each case before the ad-
vance is resumed.
Innumerable exercises may be improvised and it will be
found to be remarkable the interest the men take and the
rapid progress that can be made.
But no matter how thoroughly trained a unit may be
when it is selected for a particular night operation it should
NIGHT OPERATIONS
19
be rehearsed in the operation on ground as nearly identical
as possible with that over which the operation is to take
place. In this way each man becomes familiar with the
part he is expected to play and there will be fewer chances
for things to go wrong.
19. Training of small groups in methods of scouting and
patrolling, as parts of security detachments.
Is taken up in other conferences and will not be touch-
ed upon here further than to point out the futility of night
firing, as a general rule. It has always happened in past
wars that during the early stages firing at night by sentries
and outguards at the slightest excuse was the rule. As
experience and training progressed this firing tended to
disappear. With proper preliminary training it would seem
that needless night firing might be dispensed with from
the start. The French Army in Algeria has a rule that any
sentry who fires at night must produce a corpse or be dealt
with for giving a false alarm. If adopted for our service
this rule might well further stipulate that the corpse be
that of a foe. When a sentry or small outguard discovers
an advancing enemy force it should withdraw to the next
larger covering detachment without permitting the enemy
to know that he is discovered and when the enemy has ad-
vanced to such position as to offer an unmistakable target
he should be received with a volley, or one round from every
rifle of the covering detachment followed by a resolute
and immediate bayonet attack.
11
wa
SECTION V.
HISTORICAL EXAMPLES.
Paragraph.
20
Ancient history
......................
Example from World War .......
Conclusion
22
20. Ancient history.
History is full of examples of night operations, successful
and unsuccessful, the latter predominating. One of the
earliest recorded successful operations is found in the
20
NIGHT OPERATIONS
sixth chapter of Judges in the Old Testament. It illustrates
several military principles, some being applied, others
violated. Gideon, of the tribe of Manasseh, opposed the
Midianites who had laid waste the crops and villages of
the Israelites. Coming upon their unguarded camp by night
Gideon sent three hundred of his men, equipped only with
torches concealed in earthenware pitchers, and trumpets,
to surround the camp of the Midianites. At a given signal
the three hundred broke their pitchers, thus revealing their
lights, and blew their trumpets.
The Midianites, frightened and confused at finding them-
selves surrounded, fell upon each other in the darkness and
practically annihiliated their own force of seven thousand
men Gideon completed their destruction at his leisure,
and with very slight loss. The principles, applied and violat-
ed are so obvious as to need no comment...
1
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21. Example from World War.
One of the most recent examples of successful night
operation was that of the 2d Division in the Meuse Argonne
offensive during the first week of November, 1918. Select-
ing a dark night the 3rd Brigade consisting of the 9th and
23rd Infantry regiments attacked and penetrated the
German lines on a compartively narrow front, and pushed
troops through the passage gained to a depth of five kilo-
meters. The German resistance at the front line was keen
but once through the front lines the operation resolved it-
self into a simple march to and occupation of the previously
selected objective.
The resulting demoralization of the Germans in this sec-
tion was very evident and the American casualties were
slight. Had the same operation been undertaken by day-
light, the casualty list, at least, would have been much
larger.
This action, of itself, furnishes a foundation for serious
thought and speculation as to tactics to be followed in the
future. Of course, it is but an application of the principle
of infiltration, or pushing hard where the going is good
and then working to the flanks, but the extent to which it
NIGHT OPERATIONS
might be developed by large forces thoroughly trained in
night work deserves very serious consideration.
22. Conclusion.
No attempt has been made to present a complete treatise
on Night Operations. What has been attempted is to
present the most important principles governing such
operations, a few suggestions as to methods and means of
training for those operations, and to arouse such interest
in their possible development and employment as will pre-
vent the officers attending courses as this School from losing
sight of their importance.
OCT 20 1924
RIVER CROSSINGS
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE ............ River Crossing (Offensive).
BY
........: 1st Section.
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA.
1923-1924.
201—Benning, Ga., 3.18-24-2500
Pantautie, Port
DUR
RIVER CROSSINGS.
Paragraph.
General considerations ...........
Classification ......
Reconnaissance
Tactical and technical considerations
Technical preparations
Tactical preparations
The crossing .......................
Special infantry weapons .......
Principles ..............
OTA COCOK
.............
o
c
1. General considerations.
a. In the theater of active operations there are many
features of terrain that impede the progress of marching
or attacking troops. Mountains, rivers, marshes, canyons,
dense woods, high and heavy tropical grasses are examples
of such terrain features. In most cases these features
must be studied on the ground, and plans formulated at
the time for overcoming the difficulties which they impose.
b. In regard to rivers, there are certain principles that
are applicable in whole or in part to overcoming the diffi-
culties, whenever a stream, reinforced by enemy fire im-
pedes the advance of troops, and these principles will be
the subject of this discussion.
C. The individual scout finding his crossing of a stream
opposed by an individual scout of the enemy readily moves
by concealed covered route: up the stream or down the
stream and crosses unopposed. In like manner the smaller
infantry units can move rapidly and usually by concealed
routes, to where the enemy is not expecting them to cross
with little or no resistance. Obviously a large force ar-
riving at the river and finding its passage blocked by an
enemy cannot then maneuver under cover and move secretly
to a place where the crossing will be unopposed.
C
TY
(3)
RIVER CROSSINGS
Tu
d. The principles involved in a river crossing can best
bi brought out by considering the passage of a reinforced
brigade, or of a brigade in division, for in either case, it
involves a consideration of the helpful tactical role of
artillery, and the essential technical assistance provided by
engineers.
2. Classification.
a. Where no opposition exists.--In such cases the en-
gineers provide the technical arrangements for overcoming
the stream as an obstacle to the advance, provided such
arrangements are necessary. This phase is covered in a
later demonstration, and this conference is not concerned
with crossings of this character,
b. When the enemy opposes the crossing by fire.-In this
case the enemy takes advantage of the clear field of fire
afforded by the smooth surface of the stream, and of the
lack of maneuver ability that the stream imposes, to resist
the advance, or he may include the strzam as an additional
obstacle in his scheme of defense of that particular locality.
Q7
.
3. Reconnaissance.
d. As a command approaches an important stream within
its zone of advance, enemy intelligence and a thorough map
study in connection therewith is made. Commanding
ground on the near side, dominating the opposite bank, and
bends in the river influence the tentative decision from the
map study as to the points of crossing that may be reached.
Salients toward the attacker's side enable him to rake the
included areas with'flanking fires, and facilitate the cross-
ing. Reentrants on the defenders? side give these advan-
tages to him.
b. As the command gets closer, staff reconnaissance in
conjunction with engineer reconnaissance is undertaken.
The engineer officer should be thorough acquainted with
the commander's tactical plan before he considers the tech-
nical requirements. He should accompany the commander,
or his staff representative, on reconnaissances. By this
NO
RIVER CROSSINGS
QI
procedure a great many questions can be decided on the
ground and it also gives both a better opportunity to learn
the difficulties incident to the other's problem. Daylight
reconnaissances are obviously preferable to night recon-
naissances. Care should be exercised that reconnaissances
are not conducted with such boldness and indifference to
secrecy as to betray the point of crossing to the enemy.
Independent reconnaissances along a considerable length of
stream line will be confusing to the enemy. A site for the
operations of bridge head troops should be sought, where
the enemy does not hold his bank of the stream in superior
strength, or where such enemy strength can be easily neut-
ralized during the crossing.
C. The engineers are therefore limited in their search
for crossing sites to those that are tacticically acceptable,
and include in their reconnaissances considerations of the
practicability of constructing a bridge rapidly by pontoon,
or otherwise, at a point tactically advantageous. They
consider at the same time the possibility of finding in the
vicinity of the acceptable crossing site, material for the
construction of a semi-permanent bridge.
d. The acceptable site should have several routes leading
to it to avoid delays incident to having a single route de-
stroyed or interrupted by hostile fire.
.
.
4. Tactical and technical considerations.
Tactical considerations are of primary importance. How-
ever, there inust close coordination between technical and
tactical requirements. The technical work must be made
to fit the tactical plan. The engineer must not raise objec-
tion to the tactical plan based on technical difficulties, unless
it is absolutely certain that such difficulties can not be over-
come. However, tactical plans that absolutely ignore tech-
nical requirements and difficulties are as faulty as technical
measures that do not fit in with the tactical plan.
5. Technical preparations.
a. These preparations comprise:
(1) The assembling of the material for the means of
IN
RIVER CROSSINGS
1
crossing, the repair or building of bridges, the construc-,
tion of ferries, repair of fords or the collection of boats
according to the means to be used.
(2) The preparation of crossing tables and traffic regu-
lations in accordance with the tactical plan.
b. If pontoon bridges are to be the means of crossing
it may be neccary to unload the pontoons from their wagons
at a considerable distance from the river and they will then
have to be moved by hand to the stream. This work must
be facilitated, if necessary, by details of infantry from the
main body and not from the troops designated to partici-
pate in the first crossings.
C. If pontoons are to be used first for ferrying over
troops, the ideal load is one section of infantry per pontoon
with a few casuals such as runners, company and platoon
commanders, signal men, etc. This load preserves tactical
unity and facilitates reorganization on the enemy side of
the stream
d. The ferrying is done by boat crews of engineer troops.
The engineer noncommissioned officer in charge of each
boat must be the absolute commander of his crew and the
boat after it puts out from the shore.' Only under the most
exceptional circumstances should he be interfered with in
the execution of his mission.
e. (1) No effort should be made by the crew to over-
come the action of the current by rowing straight across
the stream. Such effort would only lengthen the time that
the infantry is in a helpless situation. The point of de-
barkation is therefore somewhat down stream from the
point of embarkation.
(2) On the Chattahoochee this distance is usually about
twenty-five yards. Returning empty the boat drifts down
stream some fifteen yards more.
(3) On a river such as the Chattahoochee, which is
about one hundred yards wide and runs at that width
about five miles per hour, a boat full of soldiers can be
rowed across it in one minute and fifteen seconds.
T
RIVER CROSSINGS
6 Tactical preparations.
a. In all forced crossings the characteristic element is,
as the word implies, force; surprise and promptness of
execution always help, but in last analysis force is the de-
cisive factor. At the point of crossing either fire superior-
ity must be obtained, or opportunities for fire superiority
must be denied the enemy by forcing the crossing at a
time when his visibility is poorest, at night or in a dense
fog.
b. Maneuver on the near side of the stream is possible
and is frequently undertaken to reach some point that is
either unguarded or guarded so weakly that a passage can
be readily forced. This point, however, must not be so
remote that the original tactical mission will be placed in
jeopardy by diversion to such a point of crossing.
C. Maneuver on the stream is not possible, but maneuver
on the enemy side of the stream is highly desirable. There-
fore the plans for forcing the crossing must contemplate the
early capture and temporary defense of an area covering or
commanding the bridge, ford or ferry at the extremity on
the enemy's side of the river and this area must be of such
size as will meet the maneuver requirements of the com-
mand. Such an area with its temporary defensive arrange-
ments is called a bridgehead. This term is also applied
to a similar area on the enemy side of a defile.
d. Other tactical preparations comprise:
(1) The location of artillery, so that it can furnish
protective fire, when needed, to the first troops crossing,
and later support the assaulting troops to the extent of
its effectiveness.
(2) The placing of sufficient troops secretly close to
the river, ready to cross rapidly when technical facilities
are offered. The points at which these troops cross need
not be the most favorable points for bridges. Effort is
made to put these first men across at points, where they
will meet least opposition.
STT
VI
RIVER CROSSINGS
(3) To provide observers, riflemen and machine gun:
to protect the parties putting pontoons in the river, anal
making other preliminary arrangements..
(4) To consider maneuver and conduct of covering
force after crossing.
(5) To provide for an orderly progression of necessi-
ties in the way of men, ammunition, material, etc., as soon
as the bridge head is established.
e. The troops first crossing must establish the bridge
head, and if the operation is at night or in a dense fog,
they preferably select and physically mark a suitable line
of departure from which the troops designated for the
attack move at the appointed hour. In a crossing
to be followed immediately by an attack, the cross-
ing and attack are disposed of in the same field order.
Objective and zone of advance are given, and the line of
departure is either specified or left to the covering force
to select. Above all, the order must give the engineers
ample time to finish the technical arrangements that require
cover of darkness for completion. The considerations that
govern in this allotment of time are that the covering force
must be crossed, the bridge head established and the line of
departure provided in ample time for the assaulting troops
to cross, reorganize, reach the line of departure, and there
calmly to await the hour with every provision completed
for a coordinated attack.
f. It is reasonable to suppose that the enemy's defensive
arrangements are in considerable depth, that the river
line itself is held by groups for observation who have
unusual advantages of resistance against covering troops
crossing in boats or by wading or swimming Back of
these observation groups are the other defensive arrange-
ments of his outpost zone and further to the rear are his
main defensive arrangements, which our assaulting
troops have for their objective. Further to the rear are
the enemy's mobile but cumbersome reserves, designated
to move on early definite information to the point of cross-
ing. Cumbersome was designedly used along with mobile
TYY
RIVER CROSSINGS
1
in referring to the enemy's reserves, for when the cross-
ing is suspected they are alerted, and formed. There are
fake crossings to contend with, causing conflicting reports
and perhaps crders regarding the point of crossing. In any
event the reserves may perhaps move by the flank or in
the darkness of night and take up a nearer and rather un-
certain position in readiness.
7. The crossing.
a. If the enemy occupies or can occupy his bank of the
stream in great strength and can take under effective fire
the engineers while they are placing pontoons in the water
and later can fire effectively upon the boats containing
troops from the time they push off until they reach the
enemy side, then the commander's reconnaissances have
been faulty and he has selected the wrong site for crossing.
b. In combat we know that movement forward is possible,
when fire superiority is acquired and maintained. In
forcing a river crossing in the daytime, the movement
across the river will be possible and economical, when
marked fire superiority is gained and maintained by the
attackers. In this general treatment of the subject, it is
assumed that reconnaissances have revealed grave doubt
as to our ability to gain and maintain fire superiority in
forcing the crossing during the day. Therefore we will
make the crossing under the cover of darkness, in the in-
terest of surprise, and to neutralize the rifle and grenade
fire of the enemy.
C. As soon as darkness blinds enemy observation, the
engineers place their pontoons quietly in the water and
dispose them on a broad front preparatory to ferrying over
the covering force. Prior to or during this technical opera-
tion the covering force has secretly reached concealed posi-
tions on the river bank. It now emerges from its hiding
and moves quietly in a kind of approach formation to the
water's edge, where five or six boats per company are
provided. The general allotment of boats to small units
and parts thereof is a concern of the company commanders.
10
RIVER CROSSINGS
It must be borne in mind that reorganization will not take
place until after the landing on the opposite bank is ef-
fected, and then only after the enemy river groups have
been driven back.
d. The crossing is made on a broad front to limit the
effect of enemy concentration on the covering troops and
with the expectation that the men in boats meeting little
or no opposition may move promptly against the flank or
rear of the enemy who is opposing the landing of other
boats. However, there is a limit beyond which the cross-
ing on a broad front develops disadvantages that outweigh
the advantages sought. Too broad a front brings about
needless dispersion, fritters away control, retards reorgan-
ization, and lays the unit liable to defeat in detail. A
general guide to follow is that the unit should not cross
on a front wider than the width of the zone of action is
which it can be efficiently engaged in subsequent attack
against the enemy.
€. In each company, sections for the assault and support
echelons are designated in advance to aid the leaders in
the later reorganization. However, when the boats reach
the enemy side, the troops therein meeting resistance,hastily
disembark and deploy under the river bank. Naturally
there is some demoralization, this deployed line is thickened
and the men are not in their regular deployed position.
Nevertheless, they crawl forward, possibly up steep banks
and pause at the crest to open fire of great volume on the
enemy river group that opposed them, or it may be ad-
visable to rush the enemy groups with the bayonet. If the
enemy group has retired, this section seeks contact with
the section on its flanks before pursuing or moving into
the position last held or just vacated by the enemy.
f. The men in boats that encounter no opposition likewise
deploy hastily, move up the bank, send scouts to the front,
seek contact with the group on one flank and send à squad
or more to aid the troops engaged on the other flank. All
groups should exercise the greatest care not to fire on
friendly troops. Where time permits, in anticipation of
RIVER CROSSINGS
11
force should hold rehearsals both by day and night in attack
up steep and difficult slopes, and get the picture and work
out the details of mutual support, and subsequent reorgan-
ization, that will be an important and dangerous phase of
a forced river crossing at night.
g. When the enemy observation groups are thus driven
back from the water's edge the companies pause to reform
and continue a more coordinated effort to drive further
back the enemy river detachments. The covering force
has previously learned through intelligent agencies, or it
ascertains in the continuation of this attack, the enemy's
next line of defense and finds out that it is entrenched,
though lightly held. Circumstances at the time determine
the procedure to be adopted so far as concerns the attack
of this line. If the covering force now has an area adequate
to the maneuver requirements of the assaulting troops, it
will not attack this enemy line. The fact that it is en-
trenched would require more of a coordinated attack than
the darkness will permit, and it would necessitate the use
of artillery, which in itself would remove all doubt in ihe
enemy's mind as to the time and place of crossing. Fur-
thermore, if this line is taken it is of course known to the
enemy artillery and the latter could make it unsuitable as
a jump-off line. In addition to these considerations, it is
well to leave the enemy in a position accurately known to
the attackers, so that at H-hour or just prior thereto he
will receive a tremendous wallop from our artillery and
special weapons.
h. If therefore, the temporary bridge head requirements
have been accomplished, contain the enemy in his preserita
position and assist the assaulting troops to their line of
departure, by guides and facilitate their attack by trans-
mitting all information that has been acquired.
i. The covering force has accomplished its mission. The
pontoons are now used in ferrying over the assaulting
troops, whose crossing is conducted on a reduced front to
facilitate early reorganization and control. Other pontoons
MER
TY
(
1
12
RIVER CROSSINGS
are used in starting the bridge or bridges and as the work
progresses, boats are taken from ferry duty, and added to
the bridge. The bridge is completed, and the first units
to cross should be the machine gun units belonging to tie
covering troops. These may have been in action on the
flanks of the river bend, or otherwise used to assist the
crossing and action of the covering force.
3. The troops designated for the assault have already
crossed by ferry, and reorganized. The assault echelons
have moved to the jump-off line physically marked for
them by the covering troops. Communications platoons in
crossing by boat reeled out and weighted to the bottom of
the stream twisted pair wire, and telephone communication
is established. The wire thus laid should be at a consider-
able distance from the bridge site to insure safety from
pontoon anchors. In river crossings communications officers
should revel in their opportunities for display of initia-
tive and originality in effecting and maintaining comniuni-
cation across the stream.
k. Enemy targets are definitely located and reported,
and just prior to H-hour the artillery of the attackers
turns its heaviest concentration upon the enemy's front
line. Under the cover of this fire the assaulting infantry
closes to within safety in adjusting its units, and moves to
the attack at H-hour. The bridge head is extended and
troops adequate for the further or main mission are put
over on bridges.
8. Special infantry weapons.
a. Smoke.-(1) It is believed that our system of mus.
• ketry training makes the American soldier the best marks-
man in the world. He is taught to gain fire superiority
over his enemy by the superior accuracy of his fire. To
accomplish this result, conditions of visibility must be fa-
vorable, and great care is exercised in the use of smoke.
(2) In the actual operation of crossing a river, the
soldier cannot use his rifle to counteract enemyi fire, and
any condition that will limit enemy visibility would be help-
RIVER CROSSINGS
13
ful. Therefore the use of, smoke in forcing a river crossing
in daytime has ideal application in concealing troops during
a period of time, when they are unable to reply to enemise
fire:
6. Machine guns.-
(1) The principles governing machine guns in attack
are in general applicable to river crossings. The plans for
their use will be made on the ground after a study of
terrain features, and all factors and elements relatins to
the situation.
(2) At night machine guns on the near side of the
stream are capable of providing barrage fire or concen-
trations on the enemy's defensive arrangements, provided
ample time for thorough daylight reconnaissance has been
available.
(3) The question of ferrying over machine guns with
the covering force at night and thereafter advancing them
by hand is a question for decision on the ground. It must
be remembered that a machine gun without ammunition, or
separated from its tripod, is a useless burden and at best,
flashes from enemy rifles are poor targets upon which to
lay machine guns.
C. 3 inch trench mortar and 37 mm gun.--The use of
these weapons must be determined on the ground. In
general no attempt should be made to ferry them across, nor
should their use be contemplated on the enemy side of the
stream until they are assured of an adequate supply of
ammunition. This can hardly be expected before the bri.ge
or bridges are completed.
d. Tanks.-Tanks of course play no part in the actual
operation of forcing a river crossing, unless the amphibious
tank is developed to meet such requirements.
Y
9. Principles
d. Secrecy in the preliminary preparation is essential.
6. A sufficient covering force of infantry supported by
machine guns from the assailants' side and if necessary
by artillery and sperial weapons, must be put across the
14
RIVER CROSSINGS
1
.
river to form a bridge head to cover the crossing of the
command.
C. The crossing of the covering force should be on a
broad front.
d. Detachments once across should operate to the flanks
to assist adjoining detachments whose progress is opposed.
e. The bridge head area should be of sufficient depth to
allow the construction of bridges and the crossing of the
command without undue losses.
f. Everything necessary should be prepared as far as
practicable in advance, for the crossing of the command.
g. A schedule, showing site of crossing, means of cross-
ing and priority is essential.
h. Early signal communication across the stream should
be established and maintained.
i. If practicable, artillery assistance for the covering
force should be limited in volume to its normal fires.
DEFENSE
INCLUDING ORGANIZATION OF
THE GROUND AND DEPLOYMENT
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE:
BY:
DATES TO CLASSES:
Defense, including Organization of the
Ground and Deployment. (Synopsis)
First Section.
Refresher Course 16 Oct. 23.
Advance Course 23 Jan. 24
Company Officers' Course 14 Mar. 24.
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923-1924.
97—Benning, Ga., 2-1-24-2500
Qefantry School
Gara 1924
DEFENSE, INCLUDING ORGANIZATION OF THE
GROUND AND DEPLOYMENT (SYNOPSIS).
Section
1. General discussion
Paragraphs
..... 1 - 4
II. Classes and forms of defense .....
........ 5 - 6
III. Employment of infantry in defensive combat.... 7 - 11
VI. Organization and occupation of a defensive
position or zone ..
...... 12 - 14
'?
SECTION I.
RI
GENERAL DISCUSSION.
Paragraph.
Scope of conference
---------------------------------
Employment of defensive combat ...................
General principles of defensive combat ...........
Relation of defensive to offensive operations
Essential elements of a defensive position ............
Ice
.....
ORA CONH
1. Scope of conference.
This conference covers the general principles and tactical
details of the defense as applied to the smaller units, up to
the reenforced brigade, inclusive, larger units are men-
tioned only when necessary to show how the smaller units
fit into the general scheme. The conference is intended .
to orient the student on the general subject of the defense,
and to familiarize him with the terminology; the subject
will be covered in greater detail in other conferences
which follow.
1
2. Employment of defensive combat.
The principles of war teach that the primary objective
of the army in time of war is the destruction of the enemy's
main army and to impose our will upon him. This de-
mands the strategical and tactical offensive. However, in
many cases, due to such cases as national unpreparedness,
..
(3)
DEFENSE
.
strength of forces available, or to the plan of operations,
it will be necessary to assume the defensive on the whole,
or a part of, the front.
In 1917 if Germany had been able to place an army. on
our Atlantic seaboard we would have been required to take
up the defensive, pending the organization of an army to
expel the invader.
The German plan of operations in 1914 called for the
defense of the Franco-German frontier while the bulk of
the German forces operated offensively through Belgium
toward Paris.
The action of the British 'expeditionary force in France
in 1914, where a force of 90,000 men were thrown into the
action at Mons with the mission of delaying the German
advance, and preventing them from seizing channel ports
that would menace England, is an example of the defense.
On the western front from 1915 to 1918 elaborate sys-
tems of defense served to cover the concentrations of great
forces and launching of offensives against decisive points.
3. General principles of defensive combat.
a. A number of principles governing offensive combat also
apply to defensive combat. Such principles include sim-
plicity of plan, combined employment of all forces, con-
centration of effort at the decisive points, economy of
force, disposition in depth, continuous reconnaissance and
security, the use of fire power and shock action, the use of
terrain and tactical surprise.
b. There are also a number of principles which, in gen-
eral, apply only to defensive combat. Among them are the
following:
(1) Defensive combat should be employed only when
necessary to give combat, and the situation and
mission do not permit or justify the offensive.
(2) Except when compelled by the situation to em-
ploy the defensive temporarily, defensive combat
should be employed only to economize forces and
to retain freedom of action.
DEFENSE
(3) Defensive combat in general may be conducted
with fewer troops' in a given situation or on a
given front than can the offensive. Hence, it may
be advantageously employed when compelled to
give combat at a time when, or place where, a
decision is not sought.
(4) Defensive combat is always secondary to offensive
combat. Therefore, no more troops than neces-
sary should be assigned defensive missions, so that
as large a force as possible may be available for
the offensive. Similarly, troops assigned de-
fensive missions should be prepared at all times
to assist the offensive or to change promptly from
the defensive to the offensive.
(5) No purely passive system of resistance can hope
to withstand attack. Therefore the defensive
(a) Should employ the troops, the means available,
and the terrain for fighting an aggressive battle.
(b) Should insure the success of the defense by
counter attack.
(c) Should be mobile, i. e., it should be able to meet
hostile concentrations on any part of its front
by concentrations of its own..
(d) Should be flexible, ¿. e., it should be able to
change its dispositions and its conduct of the
defense to meet changes in the situation or
mission, and it should be prepared to offer re-
sistance to the flank as well as to the front.
(e) Should be aggressive, i. e., should quickly dis-
cover a hostile attack, promptly form for action,
promptly take the enemy under fire and when
the proper moment arrives launch the counter
attack with rapidity and determination.
(6) The tactical principles of mobile warfare should
govern the training of troops, their organization,
equipment, and general disposition for defense.
Whatever the elaboration or special measures
adopted to meet the defensive character of opera-
DEFENSE
tions, they should not be such that the organiza-
tion, tactical groupings, and conduct of the defense
are disrupted the moment the enemy breaks
through the defense line, position, or zone, or such
that the troops are unable to take the offensive
promptly.
I
4. Relation of defensive to offensive operations.
A. The attack has the initiative. It locates and develops
the defensive force, or the defensive position or zone, and
launches the attack. The attack may include the whole or
a large part of the defensive forces, position or front, but
the main effort is concentrated against a decisive point. The
main effort may take the form of a penetration, an envelop-
ment, or a turning movement.
b. The defense employs counter' measures to meet those
employed by the attack. The general measures are the
same to meet all forms of attack. The extent to which,
and the manner in which these measures are applied, how-
everi depend upon the general purpose of the defensive
combat.
Plaarn measures include:
(1) Deciding upon the forms and classes of defense.
(2) Locating and maintaining contact with the hostile
forces.
(3) When practicable, selecting, occupying and organ-
izing favorable positions or zones for defense.
(4) Developing and delaying the hostile advance or
attack.
(5) Repulsing the hostile attack.
(6) Arresting or confining penetrations or envelop-
ments.
(7) Expelling penetrations or averting envelopments
by counter attack.
c. In the active defense a decisive general counter of-
fensive changes the action from the defensive to the of-
fensive, at least on that part of the front where the of-
fensive blow is struck.
by County
DEFENSE
5. Essential elements of a defensive position.
a. The essential elements of a defensive position are:
(1) A good field of fire, to include flanking arrange-
ments along the entire front.
(2) Observation of the entire field of action including
the position or zone itself.
(3) Communications for movements and supply.
(4) Liaison for command.
(5) Cover from fire and view from both ground and
air.
(6) Obstacles.
b. A good field of fire, to include flanking arrangements
along the entire front. To prevent the hostile attack from
reaching the main line of resistance, the defense must gain
and maintain fire superiority over the attack. In defense,
fire superiority is obtained, not by the volume of fire, but
by a well aimed and well directed fire, which inflicts losses
on the enemy and causes his fire to become inaccurate. The
defense relies for fire superiority on the more methodical
organization of its fire, especially flanking fire, the more
accurate knowledge of ranges and of the terrain, the pro-
tection afforded by entrenchments, the concealment of its
dispositions, and the disorganization which movement, ob-
stacles and accessory defenses produce in the attacker's
dispositions.
The terrain selected should permit a full development of
fire of infantry weapons, especially the flanking fire of
machine guns, delivered preferably from retired positions,
to cover the front and flanks of the organized areas. It
should permit close support of the front by the fire of
supporting arms, and effective fire in ffont of the position
up to the limit of the effective range of the weapons.
The organization of the defensive position should permit
the forward areas of the position, and intervals between
the areas to be covered by fire from units in rear, especially
machine gun fire.
C. Observation of the entire field of action.--To facilitate
tactical control and the development of fire power the posi-
DEFENSE
tion should secure ground observation well to the front and
flanks, and within the position itself.
d. Communications for movement and supply.--Prompt,
rapid, and where possible, concealed movement of reserves
and supplies and evacuation of wounded are essential. These
are accomplished by the use of existing communications
found in the area, and by the construction of approach
trenches for communication from rear to front, and com-
munication trenches for lateral communications within and
between organized areas.
In large defensive areas, road and railway systems must
be constructed for the bringing up of troops and supplies
from the rear areas, and for the rapid shifting of general
reserves to any point where they may be needed for employ-
ment in a counter attack.
Denying the enemy use of communications, especially
within several thousand yards of the defensive front, will
decrease his mobility, and obstruct his advance.
e. Liaison for command.—Simplicity and elasticity should
be the governing factors in the establishment of the liaison
system. All means of liaison should be established, oper-
ated, and maintained toward perfect functioning, both in-
dependently and as part of the whole plan.
Each unit commander announces the location of the
command post for his unit and designates the locations of
the command post of the next subordinate units.
The command post of a unit is centrally located and near
the rear of the area assigned to the unit. It is located so
as to facilitate communication with all parts of the area,
under all conditions, as well as with the command post of
the next higher unit.
It should offer cover, and concealment, both from ground
and air when practicable.
In a combat zone, wire communication, particularly by
.business expeditiously at a distance, and, in the defense,
telegraph, is the most satisfactory means of transacting
is the most important means of communication down to
the battalion inclusive. For this reason careful considera-
UL
DEFENSE
tion must be given to method of routing, installing, main-
taining, and operating such wire systems in the defense.
Lines should not be placed close to roads, should avoid im-
portant cross roads, and road junctions by at least 200
yards, should be concealed from aerial photography, and
when practicable should be placed in trenches, or buried.
Radio nets function normally in all units, down to the
battalion inclusive.
Messenger communication must be relied on in units
smaller than a battalion. Messenger schedules to subor-
dinate units will be reduced.
f. Cover from wire and view.
(1) Natural and artificial concealment should be em-
ployed in the defensive dispositions, to prevent, or
make it difficult for the enemy to locate them, and
to minimize losses.
(2) Cover should be provided for troops and material,
both for use while delivering fire and for use while
awaiting opportunity to employ their weapons.
The extent of cover provided depends upon the
time available to construct it, and the necessity
for arranging the cover so that the defense can
employ its weapons when and where required; the
latter necessitates the sacrifice of possible complete
protection from hostile fire to meet the tactical
requirements for the employment of the weapons
of the defense. For this reason deep dugouts are
usually not employed in the front line, but are
employed by reserves.
(3) Both ground and aerial observation should be de-
nied the enemy. Points of observation which can
not be denied the enemy should be neutralized.
Aerial observation is denied the enemy by selecting
terrain with natural and artificial features, such
as woods, villages, etc., which favor this purpose
and during the organization of the ground can be
further effected by the use of horizontal and ver-
tical screens, and by the application of camouflage.
VON.
DEFENSE
Construction of dummy works, including dumniy
materiel, will deceive him. Concealment, or free-
dom from hostile observation, thus effected, will
permit the defense to surprise the enemy during
his assault.
When accurate maps of the theatre of operations are
lacking, observation, to the attacker, is of vital importance,
because of the necessity for observed fire. Hence, for the
defense the necessity of denying such observations.
Reverse slope positions provide concealment from hostile
observation. They are employed for the firing line only
when the enemy is able to deliver a well directed fire,
mainly by artillery, of sufficient intensity to make a position
on the forward slope untenable. They are employed for
supports and reserves when their main mission is counter
attack.
g. Obstacles.-Obstacles, such as barbed wire entangle-
ments, increase the fire effect of the defense. They are
placed so that they will stop or delay the hostile advance
in localities where it will be subjected to the most effective
fire of the defense, particularly the flanking fire of auto-
matic weapons.
Obstacles prevent a sudden entrance of hostile forces
into the front line of defense.
The area containing obstacles must be kept under observa-
tion and controlled by fire at all times, especially at night.
They must not be so close to the trench as to permit the
enemy to approach to bombing range of the position withi-
out being discovered, or to be destroyed by fire directed
upon the trench. They must be concealed as m'ich pos-
sible from the enemy's observation, both terrestrial and
aerial.
19
SECTION II.
CLASSES AND FORMS OF DEFENSE.
Paragraph.
General
Classes of defense
Forms of defense ............
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-
-
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-
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-
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-
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-
-
-
-
-
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•
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w
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-
DEFENSE
6. General.
a. All defensive actions are not conducted along the
same general lines. The method of conducting the defense
in a particular situation depends primarily upon the gen-
eral mission. The several methods employed are called
"classes of defense.” Depending upon the mission they are
as follows:
(1) Active defense.
(2) Passive defense.
(3) Delaying actions.
b. There are several methods of organizing a position or
area for defense. They are called forms of defense. The
main difference between them is the extent to which the
ground is organized for defense, which depends primarily
upon the time available for the work and the size of the
forces available. The forms of defense are:
(1) Deployed defense.
(2) Position defense.
(3) Zone defense.
c. In order to discuss infantry defensive combat it is
necessary to have some knowledge of the various classes
and forms of defensive combat, and of the essential differ-
ences between each form and class.
work and pends which the
7. Classes of defense.
a. The active defense. The mission in the active defense
is to gain a tactical victory by temporarily developing and
containing the enemy and then striking a decisive counter-
blow. Two forces are essential, a purely defensive force,
which is held as small as is consistent with the mission,
and a large general reserve. The defensive force engages
and contains the enemy with a view to creating a favorable
opportunity for a decisive offensive by the general reserve.
Example: The defense at the Marne in 1914 followed by
the striking of a decisive blow against the German right.
The defense of the Vesle in August, 1918, by the French
and Americans, where the Americans held the line on the
Vesle, while the French enveloped the enemy's right flank;
12
DEFENSE
OF
later the Americans also passed from the defense to the
cffense.
The action of General Hooker at the beginning of the
Chancellorville campaign, leaving a holding force confront-
ing General Lee on the Rappahanock River, he crossed the
Rappahanock and Rapidan Rivers with the remainder of
his force and moved against the left flank of Lee's army.
b. The passive defense.—To hold a specified area, position,
or front against hostile attack. While the defense must be
aggressive and energetic no general counter attacks seeking
I decision are contemplated.
Examples: .
The defense at Verdun, which was a critical point of the
French defensive system.
The defense of Agua Prieta, Sonora, by General Flores'
army in 1915 against the attack of Villa.
The defense of Vicksburg by the Confederates against
the Union attacks in 1863.
The defense of Port Arthur by the Russians against the
Japanese attacks in 1904.
The German defense of St. Mihiel.
C. Delaying action.—To gain time by developing and de-
laying the hostile offensive. This class of defense con-
templates engaging the enemy in successive actions, to force
him to consume time in advancing to the attack, deploying,
and reforming his columns. Decisive engagements are
avoided.
Examples:
The action of the allies in delaying the German advance
through Belgium pending the concentration of their forces
at the desired locality.
The action of the Russians in delaying the advance of
Napoleon to Moscow.
The campaign of General Joseph E. Johnson in with-
drawing from Chickamauga battlefield to Atlanta.
Y
8. Farms of defense. ·
a. There are three forms of defense, the deployed, the
DEFENSE
ON
position, and the zone of defense. The distinction between
them is the extent to which the ground is organized for
the defense. For example, when a force assumes the de-
fensive in a meeting engagement it may only have time
to deploy the troops on the ground; there might be time
to dig fox holes, but nothing more; this form of defense
is called the deployed defense. If these troops remain in
the position they will begin to strengthen it, by entrench-
ing, putting up wire entanglements, and other obstacles,
l'eorganization, and by other means. If only one position
is organized it is called a position defense. One position
alone usually will not suffice for a large force; greater
organization in depth must be obtained; to obtain this
depth other positions are organized in rear of the first
position, or it might be necessary to gain more ground to
the front by local attacks to organize position further for-
ward; this form of defense is called the zone of defense.
Thus the form of defense may change from the deployed
defense to the position defense, and then to the zone de-
fense as the ground becomes more highly organized for
defense.
b. General distribution of troops for defensive combat:-
(1) The general distribution of troops in all forms or
classes of defensive combat is similar. In its de-
ployment for defense and independent force uses
three elements arranged in order from front to
rear as follows:
(a) Outpost forces.
(b) Main body, or holding force, located in a battle
area.
(c) General reserves.
(2) Outpost forces.-(a) The outpost forces consist of
reconnaissance and security detachments for the
forces as a whole. In some situations they are
charged with specific delaying functions.
(b) The outpost forces locate and maintain contact
with the enemy; and develop and delay his ad-
vance and attack. When driven back they may
In
/
Y
DEFENSE
praeed
join the reserves or be absorbed in the main
body.
(c) In addition to the outpost forces, if the enemy
situation demands it, a covering force is located
in advance of the outpost area, whose purpose
is to maintain contact with the eneniy, and to
secure the time necessary for the deployment of
the main body and the organization of the
ground. The main efforts of the covering force
are in general limited to developing and delay-
ing the hostile advance by causing early deploy-
ments. This is accomplished by covering the
main roads and routes of advance. It fights a
delaying action, but should not become seriously
engaged. Although the covering force may or-
ganize tactical localities for use in its delaying
actions, usually no regularly organized position
is contemplated. The direction of withdrawal
should be such as not to mask the fire of the
forces occupying the battle zone. When with-
drawn it usually forms part of the reserve. The
strength and composition of the covering force
are such as to enable it to accomplish its mission.
It may consist of a force of all arms.
(3) The main body or holding force.—The main body
or holding force consists of the units assigned to
the defense of the battle area. Its deployment
comprises such local security detachments as neces-
sary for the immediate front and flanks; a firing
line, local supports, battalion, regimental, brigade,
and division local reserves.
The main body occupies the battle area. It de-
velops, delays, and repulses hostile attacks and
assaults. The various elements within the main
body limit and confine penetrations within, or ad-
jacent to their areas which they can not expel
with the means available, and prepare the way for
counter attack. Finally, they support counter
Q
DEFENSE
15
A
.
attacks by fire and, if practicable, by maneuver and
shock action. Each element of the main body uses
its local reserves to maintain the defense of its
area or sector. Piece-meal use of reserves is
avoided, sufficient reserves being used at the be-
ginning to carry out the mission.
(4) The general reserves consist of units designated as
such by the commander of the entire defensive
force; the army commander for a defensive force
consisting of an army acting alone; the brigade
commander for a defensive force consisting of a
brigade acting alone, and so on for defensive forces
consisting of units smaller than a brigade acting
alone.
The general reserves protect the flanks of the
battle area. If necessary, they assist the main
body in limiting and confining penetration or en-
velopments. Finally, or most important, they
launch the main counter attacks and conduct
counter offensives. Their main effort is conserved
for the two latter functions. When a unit of the
main body is exhausted or disorganized they may
relieve it, thereby maintaining the fight.
(5) The relative strength, composition, dispositions,
and conduct of the three elements of the defense
(outpost forces, main bodies, and general reserves)
vary greatly for the three classes of defensive
combat (active, passive, or delaying). They also
vary for the three forms of defensive combat (de-
ployed, position, and zone).
C. The deployed defense. This is a form of defense in
which emergency tactical dispositions, unaided by thorough
preparation for defense, is relied on for the conduct
of the defense. It is used when a force is compelled by the
situation to give defensive combat, and there is not sufficient
time for selecting the most favorable position, and making
thorough preparations for defense. In this form of defense,
the time available and the situation generally do not permit
SI
DEFENSE
cf more than local arrangements for coordinated fire puwer
and shock action, mutual support and cooperation, and
allow little, if any, ground organization.
Examples:
The action of the 2d division at Chateau Thierry when
it was thrown in the line without any preparation to stop
the German advance.
The action in the first phase of the battle of Gettysburg
when the Union commander, realizing the importance of
the position, deployed the nearest available troops on the
position to hold it.
C. The position defense. This form of defense is based
on the selection, preparation, occupation, and defense of a
single position suitable for defensive battle. This defensive
position consists of a line of mutually supporting tactical
localities, organizeú for all-around defense.
In general, a period of six hours is taken as the minimum
time required for this purpose, after the work has been
planned and staked out, the position occupied, and the
troops equipped and supplied for the task at hand.
The position is covered by an outpost force. In the
position defense the ground occupied by the outpost forces
is not extensively organized. The outpost forces check
hostile reconnaissance parties and local or minor attacks,
but in case of a serious hostile offensive, they delay theo
enemy only so long as necessary to enable the main body
to prepare for defense, when they withdraw usually to
a position in reserve.
The feature distinguishing the position defense from the
deployed defense is the degree to which the prospective
scene of action is prepared for defense. In the deployed
defense the preparation is meager, limited usually to
hasty entrenchments, often constructed according to local
needs while combat is in progress. In the position defense,
one position is prepared, in accordance with the precon-
ceived plans, the completion of which is contemplated be-
fore combat ensues.
DEFENSE
17
.
17
Example:
The second phase of the battle of Gettysburg.
The defensive action at Vera Cruz pending arrival of
reinforcements, and orders to advance.
h. The zone defense.-Zone defense involves large forces
deployed on broad fronts, organized in great depth. It
consists of successive positions and tactical areas, all as-
sociated in the general defensive system. Zone defense
presupposes protracted and determined defense, together
with great economy of forces. Its depth varies from three
to seven miles. The average distance between organized
positions is such as to require successive forward dis-
placements of the attacking light artillery, about 4000 yards.
There are two features distinguishing the zone defense
from the position defense: the number of organized posi-
tions, and the mission of the outpost forces. In the posi-
tion defense there is but one organized position—in the
zone defense, there is more than one organized position
and may be more than one battle zone.
Unlike the outpost force in the position defense, in the
zone defense, the ground occupied by the outpost forces is
well organized; they do not withdraw in case of a hostile
offensive until ordered to do so, but resist the enemy to
the utmost, seeking to develop and disorganize the attack
on the battle position, not merely to delay it.
The zone defense is employed when extensive fronts,
which the enemy must attack, if he attacks at all, are to
be held by large forces for relatively long periods—periods
exceeding a few days—and when, under the circumstances,
a position defense would be ineffectual, in such case, for
example, as when the enemy has the ability secretly to
locate masses of artillery in such a position as to bring
overwhelming fire to bear on the organized battle position.
In the zone defense, the battle position may be located so
far to the rear of the outpost forces as to compel a dis-
placement forward of the hostile light guns before an ef-
fective fire can be brought to bear on the battle position.
DEFENSE
Example:
The situation on the western front in France after the
action had been stabilized.
i. Any one of the three forms of defense may be used
in the active defense, passive defense, or delaying action.
The form selected depends upon the situation, the time
and space factors, the size of the forces involved, the
means available, and the terrain.
SECTION III.
EMPLOYMENT OF INFANTRY IN DEFENSIVE
COMBAT.
Paragraph,
The basis of infantry defensive combat .. ............... 9
Situations in which infantry may be employed in defensive
combat .....
Employment of infantry in the battle position ................... 11
Employment of infantry in other situations .....
12
...
10
9. The basis of infantry defensive combat.
The essential elements of the employment of infantry in
the defensive are:
a. The occupation and defense of tactical localities; that
is, those areas of the terrain which are so situated as to
be suitable for part of a defensive organization or maneuver
and which afford facilities for development of fire power,
observation, and communication, cover and concealment.
b. Distribution in depth.—These tactical localities are
disposed in depth:
(1) So as to provide security and gain time for units
in rear to prepare for action.
(2) To provide for mutual support by fire and counter
attack and for the protection of the flanks.
(3) To limit the effect of surprise attacks, to prevent
air observation which leads to destruction and pro-
vide frr resistance to a flank as well as to the front,
(4) To avoid concentration which would expose the
troops to heavy losses and neutralization by hos-
tile artillery fire.
(5) Distribution in depth does not imply dispersion
of forces. The successive elements of the defense
DEFENSE
19
must be within supporting distance of each other
to insure effective assistance by fire and counter
attack.
C. Counter attack.-(1) All defense is based on counter
attack. As it is imposssible to maintain a rigid resistance
against overwhelming hostile fire power, the conduct of a
defensive action contemplates varying combinations of fire
elements are required, namely, defensive or holding units,
and offensive, or counter attack units. A purely passive
defense cannot withstand determined attacks. Ultimate
success is favored by flexibility in the conduct of the defense,
combined with the availability of sufficient counter attack
troops to recapture the groups.
(2) The counter attack is made vigorously and at the
proper time; counter attacks are made:
(a) By launching the reserve against the enemy's
flank while the attack is in full progress. This
1
(b) By units in the first line, with their supports,
attacking straight to the front after repulsing the
enemy's attack and demoralizing him with pur-
suing fire.
(c) By the troops in rear of the first line wher the
enemy has reached or penetrated the position.
(3) Counter attacks include:
(a) Immediate counter attacks by infantry only; in-
cluding front line troops, local supports, and
reserves.
(b) Counter attacks by sector or general reserves
supported by an artillery preparation and ac-
companied by tanks or artillery.
(4) Every unit at once expels by counter attack any
hostile forces penetrating its sector, unless a with-
drawal has been ordered by the higher commander,
counter attacks against an enemy that has pene-
trated a position are launched before he has time
to organize the ground. Units held in reserve
are assigned definite places to form for counter
DEFENSE
attack. Provision is made to secure coordinated
action by all available auxiliary weapons and sup-
porting arms.
d. Coordination of adjacent units.—Unit commanders co-
ordinate the defense of the subdivisions of their unit by
the assignment of:
(1) Sectors of defense.--A defensive position or area is
divided into sectors, each of which is occupied by
a tactical unit. Each sector is designated tactic-
ally by the name of the unit occupying it, as army,
corps, division, brigade, regimental, battalion,
· company, or platoon sector.
The sector is designated by the assignment of
sector boundaries which are extended a sufficient
distance into the enemy's zone to fix responsibility.
Sector boundaries of units smaller than a division
extend sufficiently far to the front to fix the re-
sponsibility for covering the front with fire up to
the effective range of the arms of the unit con-
cerned and to the rear sufficiently to include the
reserves of the unit concerned.
Within their respective sectors the lower units
organize areas for close defense, which are desig-
nated as centers of resistance, strong points, and
combat groups, and are usually garrisoned by bat-
talions, companies, and platoons respectively.
Limiting points.—The points of intersection of
the firing line, support line, battalion reserve line,
and regimental reserve line with the various sector
boundaries are called the limiting points of the
respective lines for the various sectors. The limit-
ing points are specified by the various tactical
commanders to insure coordination of the location,
siting, and defense of the various lines with those
of adjacent units. In addition to the above, in
units smaller than a regiment the general location
of the various lines may be indicated by reference
to natural or artificial terrain features, such as
military crest, wood lines, roads, etc.
DEFENSE
21
(3) Mutual support by fire.--In addition to covering
his own sector, unit commanders up to the regi-
ment inclusive must insure the covering of the
ground in front of adjacent units with fire of
proper weapons. It is upon this mutual support
that the entire system of defense is based.
10. Situations in which infantry may be employed in de-
fensive combat.
a. As part of a covering detachment, which maintains
contact with the enemy, and delays his advance, to give
the troops in rear time to prepare for defense.
b. As part of an outpost force.
(1) March or camp outposts.
(2) Outposts of a force occupying a defensive position,
or defensive zone.
C. A part of a force occupying a delaying area in zone
defense.
d. As part of the forces occupying a battle position in
deployed position, or zone defense.
(1) As a unit on the firing line.
(2) As platoon or company supports.
(3) As local reserves, battalion, regimental, brigade,
or division.
e. As part of a general reserve.
f. As part of a force engaged in a delaying action.
(1) In one position.
(2) In successive positions.
11. Employment of infantry in the battle position.
a. A battle position when completely organized consists
of four lines of organized tactical localities arranged from
front to rear as follows: firing line, support line, battalion
reserve line, and regimental reserve line.
The mission of the infantry of the battle position is to
maintain the integrity of that position by fire and local
counter attack. The maintenance of this position preserves
the freedom of action of all forces (general reserves) in
rear of it, and enables them to be used to prevent penetra-
tions or envelopment of the battle position by executing
22
DEFENSE
YI
counter attacks, or initiating a counter offensive.
b. Firing line.-(1) The tactical localities in the firing
line are occupied by combat groups. The garrison of a
combat group varies from a squad to two platoons, depend-
ing upon the size of the area, the nature of the terrain
within it, the amount of troops available, the mission, and
other elements of the tactical situation; however, in as-
signing garrisons an effort is made to preserve tactical
unity of command; for this reason a platoon is usually
assigned to garrison a combat group.
A combat group always contains automatic rifles, rifles,
and grenades. Sometimes it contains machine guns and
other auxiliary weapons, but these weapons usually will
not be under the command of the commander of the combat
group.
It will include a number of locations for automatic weap-
ons, arranged for flanking fire along the front, flanks, or in
rear of adjacent combat groups, as well as for firing to the
front covering all approaches.
It is essential that each combat group be prepared to
assist in the protection of adjacent combat groups by
flanking fire from automatic weapons.
To sum up, combat groups on the firing line are ordin-
arily organized for all around defense, and so located as:
(a) To afford, by delivery of flanking fire, mutual fire
support to adjacent units of the firing line.
(b) To permit concealment during the advance of the
enemy, at the same time allowing the delivery of effective
fire.
(c) To cover by frontal, or flanking fire, all intervals
between adjacent combat groups.
(d) To protect the machine guns and auxiliary weapons.
(2) Siting of firing line. The firing line is usually
located on the forward slope (see Par. 39 of Con-
ference: “Defense Including Organization of the
Ground and Deployment”).
(3) Frontal and depth.
A rifle platoon, in open country, can effectively cover with
its fire a front of about 400 yards, when participating as
DEFENSE
part of a larger force in the defense of an area organized
i depth. In close country, the front covered will be con-
siderably less.
The area actually occupied by a single combat group and
organized for close defense should not, as a rule, be greater
than 150 yards front by 75 yards depth for a platoon, nor
greater than 75 by 75 yards for a section.
A squad deploys with 5 yard intervals between skir-
mishers. A squad trench to fit this deployment has a
length of approximately 36 yards. Such length of trench,
although desirable for control and communication within
the squad is unnecessary for the cover of the individuals
of the squad. Considering the necessity for control in the
squad, the necessity for avoiding losses from hostile fire,
and the requirements for delivering of fire properly to cover
the squad sector, the squad may dig one trench 20 yards
lung, or four tasks each 5 feet square, grouped as necessity
requires.
Particularly during the early stages of the defense, the
garrison occupying tactical localities along the firing line
will not usually be in continuous trenches. The adjacent
squads of a combat group are not necessarily alongside
each other without intervals. Generally there are inter-
vals. The average interval may be taken as 20 yards,
although the particular situation may require less or niore.
When the interval exceeds 50 yards, it is generally better
for purposes of control to split the garrison into two combat
groups. This enables the squads in each group to be better
controlled.
c. Support line.-(1) The support line is occupied by the
support platoons of the combat companies. A combat com-
pany deploys with one or two platoons on the support line.
Combat groups on the support line are so located as to offer
resistance to the front and flanks, and, if located on the
forward slope, to cover by fire the flanks and unoccupied
intervals between the combat groups on the firing line.
When the nature of the terrain does not offer a suitable
position on the forward slope for the development of the
fire power of the support, or, when the principal mission
ST
24
DEFENSE
of the support is to counterattack, the support combat
groups may be located on the reserve slope. The support
line furnishes cover and concealment for the supports. It
is usually located from 100 to 300 yards in rear of the
firing line.
d. Combat companies.--The combat companies are de-
ployed on the firing line and support line and sometimes on
the battalion reserve line. They occupy strong points. A
strong point is an organized tactical locality composed of
several combat groups distributed both in width and depth,
and under the command of a single officer. Although the
normal garrison of a strong point is a company, in special
situations it may be held by a force varying from two
platoons to two companies, depending on the terrain, the
size of the defensive force, and other elements of the tactical
situation.
Machine guns, 3 inch trench mortars, 37mm guns, and
other auxiliary weapons may be located in the strong point,
but usually they will not be under the command of the
commander of the strong point.
If the mission of the combat company is primarily de-
fense to a flank, it may organize the strong point on three
lines, the firing line, support line, and battalion reserve
line.
A strong point is always organized for resistance to the.
front and flanks. If the terrain permits, it should be capable
of defense to the rear.
Obstacles should cover the front and flanks of the strong
point but should not disclose its location or interfere with
the maneuvering of supporting troops making counter
attacks.
(2) Frontage and depth.-A rifle company (war
strength) may effectively defend with its fire a front of
from 250 to 800 yards approximately. The portion of the
front organized as a strong point is generally not less than
250 yards front by 250 yards depth, in order to reduce
losses due to enemy fire, and ordinarily is not greater than
400 yards front by 250 yards depth, to permit the prompt
reinforcement of combat groups, and the capture or de-
DEFENSE
25
C1
struction by immediate counter attack of hostile groups
which penetrate the area.
e. Battalion reserve line.-(1) The battalion reserve com-
panies are assigned to the defense of the battalion reserve
line. The method of organizing the battalion reserve line
is similar to that prescribed for the combat companies. The
reserve company is located and disposed so as to check and
throw back by counter attack or by fire any hostile elements
which succeed in penetrating the firing line. A reserve.
company is always prepared to support the units on the
flanks of the battalion as well as the combat companies of
its own battalion, either by fire or counter attack.
Strong points on a battalion reserve line are located with
a view to covering the intervals between the strong points
in their front. They are organized in depth. If a reserve
company is held in a position of readiness, measures must
be taken to insure its prompt assembly in case of hostile
attack.
The battalion reserve line is usually located from 300 to
600 yards in rear of the support line.
f. Combat battalions.-(1) Combat battalions are as-
signed sectors of the defensive position by regimental con-
manders. The area organized for close defense within the
sector is called a center of resistance.
(2) A center of resistance is an organized tactical
locality consisting of several strong points distributed in
width and depth, and under one command. It is usually
defended by a battalion with one or more platoons of the
howitzer company attached, will always have a reserve, and
will always extend over three lines, the firing, support, and
battalion reserve lines. It will be organized for resistance
to the front, flanks, and to the rear.
(3) Frontage and depth.-A battalion may effectively
defend with its fire a front of from 500 to 1600 yards.
The area organized for close defense should not be less
than 500 yards frontage by 400 yards depth, in order to
reduce losses from enemy fire, and ordinarily should not
exceed 1000 yards frontage by 900 yards depth, to permit
26
DEFENSE
IV
1
prompt reinforcement of strong point and the capture, or
destruction of hostile elements which penetrate the area.
The interval between strong points in the same center of
resistance should not exceed 400 yards.
g. Regimental reserve line.-Regimental reserve battal-
ions occupy the regimental reserve line. This line is located
approximately from 800 to 1700 yards from the firing line.
It is far enough away so that the regimental reserve bat-
talion will have sufficient space for counter attack and near
enough for the machine guns of the regimental reserve
units to support the firing line by overhead fire.
Tactical localities on the regimental reserve lines are
organized as strong points. The primary mission of the
regimental reserve is to maintain the integrity of the battle
position: its principal means is counter attack. When the
tactical situation does not permit counter attack the regi-
mental reserves must stop or delay the enemy's advance to
permit a counter attack to be prepared and delivered by
brigade and division reserves. The strong points on the
regimental reserve line must be located with both these
objects in view. They are organized in depth by the suitable
location of platoons or combat groups.
Where cover and concealment are available a regimental
reserve battalion is usually assigned to a position in readi-
ness instead of occupying strong points on the regimental
reserve line. The battalion commander makes a recon-
naissance to determine probable lines of departure for
counter attacks and the routes of approach to same. He
should have plans formulated for the use of the battalion
to meet penetrations by the enemy in his own and adjacent
sectors.
h. Employment of auxiliary weapons.-
(1) Machine guns.-Machine guns are an important
element in the defensive organization. They are sited to
cover the width and depth of the position with continuous
bands of fire. In the deployed defense the guns are dis-
posed in slight depth, as the organization of the position
progresses the distribution in depth increases.
IVO
W
n
DEFENSE
27
Machine guns must be protected locally by other weapons,
riflemen and automatic riflemen; therefore machine guns
will usually be located within combat groups, a strong point.
In general the value of machine guns increases directly
in proportion to the opportunity which the situation offers
for the use of flanking fire. Dead spaces which can not be
covered by machine guns are covered by other weapons,
rifles and automatic weapons.
When the main position is covered by an outpost, machine
guns generally are not located in advance of the outpost
line of resistance. Some participate in the defense of the
outpost by delivering flanking fire through the intervals
between supporting points or overhead fire from command-
ing position in rear. The greater part of the machine
guns, however, are employed in defense of the battle posi-
tion. They are distributed throughout the position and to
a limited depth in rear thereof.
(2) The automatic rifle is used for both frontal and
flanking fire. It is especially useful in covering dead space
which can not be covered by machine guns.
(3) 3 inch trench mortars are sited so as to cover dead
dead spaces, or to supplement artillery fire.
(4) The 37mm gun is employed primarily as a weapon
of opportunity against machine guns and tanks. It is
preferably placed where it can control the principal ap-
proaches.
(5) The principal use of tanks in the defense is in
counter attacks.
(6) Auxiliary weapons usually are not attached to
units smaller than a battalion. Their fires are coordinated
by the battalion commander, through his staff, and the
commanders of the auxiliary weapons.
i. Effect of different forms and classes of defense on the
organization of the battle position.
S
in position and zone defense has been discussed above. De-
DEFENSE
C
ployed defense in general differs from these forms in the
following ways:
(a) The deployment is made so as to take advantage,
to a great extent, of the terrain features, such as ridges,
woods, clumps of trees, hedges, embankments and cuts,
groups of houses, etc. These features affect the location
of the several lines of the battle position especially the
firing line.
(b) The battalion and regimental reserves are more
often assigned to positions in readiness than to organized
localities.
(2) In the general case the employment of infantry
in active defense differs from its employment in passive
defense as follows:
(a) A large proportion of the whole force is em-
ployed as reserves.
(b) Units are assigned narrow frontages.
(c) The position selected must favor forward man-
euver; negative measures, obstacles, etc., are
not used.
(d) The organization is less complete.
(e) When small infantry units have an independent
mission the active defense differs from the passive defense
in the same manner as described,, except that, unless the
flanks rest on obstales, about the same proportion of the
force must be employed as reserves in both classes of de-
fense. In delaying actions, whether in one position, or in
successive positions, small, independent infantry forces must
hold out a large proportion of the force as reserves unless
the flanks rest on impassable obstacles.
12. Employment of infantry in other situations.
a. As part of a covering detachment.-(1) The employ-
ment of infantry units in outposts is characterized in gen-
eral by:
(a) The utilization of the natural features of the
terrain as in deployed defense.
(b) Small depth of organization,
DEFENSE
(c) Incomplete organization and few obstacles.
the outpost which may be highly organized and use obstacles
to the fullest extent.
(2) The outpost in the defense provides security by
observation and resistance. Where resistance is vital, the
strength of the outpost is increased, infantry in the outpost
is distributed in depth, and the position is organized to the
extent required for a delaying action. The line of resist-
ance of the outpost is the front on which hostile raids and
reconnaissance are stopped, and where an attempt is made
to check a general attack. Artillery protective fire supports
this line. Defensive areas on, and in rear of the line of
resistance are organized to block routes of approach, and
defend the ground of tactical importance to the outpost.
From front to rear, the elements of the outpost are the line
of observation, line of supports, and line of reserves. The
supports provide reliefs for patrols and groups in observa-
tion and may garrison the outpost line of resistance. The
three lines of groups are mutually supporting and are lo-
cated with that requirement in view. The distance of the
outpost line of resistance from the main position is such
as to permit some artillery support from guns located in
rear of the main position. When an outpost can not be
located beyond small arms range of the main line of resist-
ance of the battle position local security groups are pro-
vided instead of an outpost. An outpost position is divided
into sectors corresponding to the defense sectors of the
battle position. The outpost troops are sent out usually
from the infantry units occupying these sectors, and are
under the sector commander. Where withdrawal of any
position of an outpost endangers the security of adjacent
sectors, the order for withdrawal comes from a common
commander, or is made in accordance with instructions
issued by him.
(3) The other covering detachments usually employ
measures similar to those used in deployed defense.;
30
DEFENSÉ
Rear guards often employ delaying action either in one
position or in successive positions.
b. As part of a force occupying a delaying area in zone
defense.---A unit forming part of a force occupying a de-
laying area in zone defense is employed in a similar manner
to one employed in the outpost in the same form of defense.
C. As part of a force engaged in a delaying action. The
eniployment of infantry units in delaying actions differs in
accordance with the type used:
(1) Delaying actions in one position do not differ
from passive defense except that:
(a) Negative measures are employed to a greater
extent.
(b) The early development of the effective fire power
of all arms is emphasized.
(c) The force is withdrawn as soon as it has caused
the necessary delay.
(2) It is essential that the force be prepared to offer
a stubborn resistance, and that the extent of
the position or area is not too great for the force
to hold.
(3) Delaying actions in successive positions are char-
acterized by:
(a) Deployment on wide fronts.
(b) Small reserves.
(c) Development of maximum fire power at long
range, rather than close defense.
(d) Mutual support is necessary in successive posi-
tions.
SECTION IV.
PROCEDURE IN ORGANIZATION OF A DEFENSIVE
POSITION OR ZONE.
Paragraph.
Preparatory steps -
Effect of various situations upon the organization of
a defensive position or zone ...
..... 14
... 13
DEFENSE
'
IT
13
13. Preparatory steps.
a. The higher tactical commander, after estimating the
situation and deciding on defensive action, in a certain
location, may pursue the following steps in planning the
organization of the defensive position or zone:
(1) From the mission determine the class of defense
to be adopted; active, passive, or delaying.
(2) Determine the relative strengths of the outpost
force, main body, and general reserves required to
carry out the class of defense adopted.
(3) From the size of the force, the time and space
elements and the defensive value of the terrain,
as it may be modified in the time available, deter-
mine the most suitable form of defense that can
be employed to carry out the mission.
(4) Assign sectors to subdivisions of the unit, in ac-
cordance with predetermined frontage and in a
manner to preserve the unity of the defensible
areas of the terrain.
b. The smaller unit commanders, when acting alone,
would proceed along the lines outlined above. In defensive
action, however, the smaller units usually act as part of a
larger force. Orders from the higher commander will
define the sector, limiting points on the various lines within
the sector, and other pertinent information with reference
te the sector assigned. The smaller unit commander's task
now is merely to decide upon the best plan of organizing
his sector for defense in accordance with the orders re-
ceived. He decides upon this plan after a tactical study on
the map, and a reconnaissance of the ground. The plan
includes:
(1) Tactical localities (combat groups, strong points,
or centers of resistance, depending on the size of
the unit concerned).
(2) The successive lines in depth of the position shown
by limiting points (firing) support, battalion re-
serve, and regimental reserve lines.
.
DEFENSE
(3) Areas of responsibility of units (sector boundaries,
and mutual support by fire).
(4) General distribution of the artillery.
(5) Main lines of communications
(6) Appropriate locations of observation posts.
(7) Systems of signal communications.
(8) Plan of work. This includes:
(a) A definition of the work to be realized, plans in-
cluding availability of engineers and descrip-
tions.
(b) The layout of the work on the ground.
(c) The provision of tools and materials.
work.
(e) Instructions as to priority.
b. The method, in detail, of formulating this plan of oc-
cupation and organization of a defensive position for the
various commanders from the brigade to the platoon in-
clusive, is contained in pars. 81 to 87 in the conference,
“Defense, to include organization of the ground and de-
ployment."
C. Orders. It is not practicable to include instructions
concerning all details of the occupation and organization of
a defensive position or zone in the field order. These de-
tails are included in annexes to the field order. The most
important annexes are:
(1) Engineer annex, organization of the ground.
(2) Annex of signal communications.
(3) Artillery annex.
Orders are covered in other conferences. Note: Annexes
are only issued by the larger units.
14. Effect of various situations upon the organization of a
defensive position or zone.
a. The conditions outlined in paragraph 12 above pre-
supposes that the commander has complete control of the
situation from the time that the decision was made to take
up the defensive until the organization of the position or
DEFENSE
zone was completed, or at least until the position had been
occupied, and every unit had a clear understanding of what
it was to do, and the work begun. But this condition is
only true when the force is out of contact with the enemy,
and the organization can be planned and started without
molestation from him. When in contact with the enemy
the initiative must pass to the individual unit commanders,
especially during the initial phases of the organization of
the defensive position or zone. The degree to which this
initiative must be taken over by the smaller unit com-
manders varies with the situation.
(1) In a meeting engagement, or at the end of an un-
successful attack, when the defense is forced upon
the command, individuals seek cover, and if they
do any work it is actuated by the impulse of self-
preservation, without thought of coordination, or
of results beyond protection. Prompt decision and
direction on the part of the smaller unit com-
manders on the spot is necessary to bring about
combined effort to secure proper results without
unnecessary waste of effort.
As soon as the necessary information is available to form
general plans, the higher commander communicates them
through orders to the troops. . This should be done as
quickly as possible, to avoid useless effort not in con-
formity with projected plans, and to put the coordinated
plan into effect in the minimum time.
The defense in these situations usually results in the de-
ployed defense at the start, which may be developed into a
position, or zone defense as time goes on, depending upon the
situation.
(2) When there is a local offensive, or a foreseen halt
ir. a general offensive, the commander may specify the or-
ganization of the position or zone in accordance with the
completeness of the knowledge possessed. The order of
importance or priority of work may be specified, and the
arrangements for the supply of the necessary tools and
materials made. But, since the actual conditions at the
34
DEFENSE
time of the halt can not be definitely predetermined, details,
if expressed, are subject to modification by subordinate
commanders in accordance with the situation as it is ac-
tually met.
-
--
-
RIFLE COMPANY
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE:
The Rifle Company.
First Section.
BY:
DATE TO CLASS:
Refresher, 10 Oct. 23
Advanced Course, 10 Jan. 24
Company Officers, 6 March, 24
National Guard, 9 May 24

COLLOW
-
.
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924
921–Benning, Ga., 11-6-23—2500
#Bruno Bufanden.
2-11-1925
SECTION I
.....
9
III
IV
THE RIFLE COMPANY.
Paragraphs.
The Rifle Company .................
......... 1-5
Company Headquarters ............
......... 6-8
The Rifle Platoon......................
Platoon Headquarters.....
The Rifle Section................
Section Headquarters..........
12
The Rifle Squad...........
13
General principles of organization of the Rifle
Company and included units
.............14-17
VI
VII
SECTION I.
THE RIFLE COMPANY.
Paragraph.
Organization ..........
Grades ............
Weapons ....
Transportation ......
Road space ......
OTA CON
1. Organization.
d. The rifle company at war strength is composed of five
officers and two hundred enlisted men organized into three
platoons of one officer and fifty-seven enlisted men each and
a company headquarters of two officers and twenty-three
enlisted men. There are six extra privates, replacements,
who have no permanent assignment within the company
but are usually attached to company headquarters until re-
quired to replace casualties.
b. The company is organized to be self-contained and of
sufficient strength to be capable of sustained effort in battle.
c. The segregation of the special weapons, automatic rifles
and grenades, is considered fundamentally unsound for
which reason they are distributed equally throughout the
company.
d. In time of peace every company should contain sufficient
men to organize a war strength platoon. In time of war
the company will be expanded by the addition of officers
and men to bring it up to war strength.
THE RIFLE COMPANY
2. Grades.
a. The rank of the officers of the company follows:
1 captain
2 1st lieutenants
2 2nd lieutenants
b. The enlisted men are distributed in the grades as
follows:
1 1st sergeant
12 sergeants
26 corporals
53 privates, 1st class
108 privates.
C. Specialists ratings within the company are:
2 specialists 4th class
2 specialists 5th class
8 specialists 6th class.
3. Weapons.
a. The weapons of the company consist of:
18 automatic rifles
18 rifles with grenade discharger
18 pistols
151 rifles.
b. The various weapons shown in the foregoing paragraph
are carried by the following personnel :
Automatic rifles, by number 3 rear rank in each squad.
Rifle with grenade discharger, by number 2 front rank
in each squad.
Pistols:
5 by the company officers
1 by the 1st sergeant
3 by the platoon sergeants
1 by the mess sergeant
1 by the supply sergeant
1 by the corporal, clerk
2 by the buglers
4 by the cooks.
Rifles, by all other men in the company.
THE RIFLE COMPANY
4. Transportation.
The rifle company has no transportation assigned but
there is attached from the Service Company, the following:
1 cart, water
1 kitchen, rolling { combat train
1 wagon, combat
1 cart, ration
field train.
1 wagon, R & B
5. Road space.
The road space required by the rifle company in nornial
formation is:
troops .................... 95 yards
combat train .............. 55 yards
troops and C train .......... 150 yards
field train ................ 35 yards
troops, C and F trains .......185 yards.
SECTION II.
COMPANY HEADQUARTERS.
Paragraph.
Organization ...........
Forward echelon, organization, duties ..
Rear echelon, organization, duties
coa]
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-
-
-
-
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--
-
-
-
-
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-
-
-
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-
-
-
-
-
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-
-
-
-
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-
-
-
-
-
-
-
6. Organization.
The company headquarters consists of 2 officers and 23
enlisted men. It has two functions, tactical and adminis-
trative. In order to perform these functions, in combat,
the headquarters is divided into a forward and rear echelon.
7. Forward echelon, organization, duties..
a. The forward echelon performs the tactical mission.
Under normal conditions, when the company is engaged
with the enemy the personnel of the forward echelon con-
sists of:
(1) 1 Captain, company commander
(2) 1 1st Sergeant.
THE RIFLE COMPANY
(3) 1 Sergeant, signal
(4) 1 Corporal, signal
(5) 2 Buglers
(6) 4 Privates 1st class and privates, runners and
agents (2 of these are at battalion headquarters).
(7) In addition to the foregoing the following, attach-
ed personnel would accompany the company com-
mander.
(a) 3 Privates, runners (1 from each rifle platoon).
(6) 1 Corporal and 2 privates from the supporting ma-
chine gun platoon. (When the machine gun platoon is in
support of the company only.)
b. The duties of the personnel of the forward echelon are:
(1) Captain commands the company. He is in a posi-
tion to observe at all times, to direct the assaulting line,
and to perform his other prescribed duties. The enlisted
men accompanying him furnish the agencies through which
he sends orders to his platoon leaders, receives orders from
and sends messages to his battalion commander, and keeps
in touch with the neighboring units.
(2) 1st Sergeant, remains with the company command-
er at all times and performs such duty as the latter may
direct. He carries a field message book and is the company
message center.
(3) Sergeant, signal, is in charge of the forward
echelon of the company headquarters (less the 1st ser-
geant). He is responsible for the pyrotechnics used by
the company. He observes aeroplanes for signals and
messages.
(4) Corporal, signal, is the operator for the signal
lamps with company headquarters.
(5) Two buglers, one on each flank, observe the con-
necting groups, troops on the right and left, and indications
of the enemy. In addition they perform such other duties
as the company commander may direct.
(6) Four privates, runners and agents, are used for
the transmission of orders and messages and perform such
other duties as are prescribed by the captain. Two are
sent to the battalion command post for use by the battalion
THE RIFLE COMPANY
commander in sending orders to the company. Two remain
with company headquarters for the transmission of mes-
sages to the battalion commander. Thus it is seen that
the captain has four runners operating between his head-
quarters and the command post of the battalion.
(7) Three privates, runners, who are attached from
the platoons, are used by the captain for transmitting or-
ders to the platoons.
(8) One corporal and two privates, attached from the
supporting machine gun platoon, remain with the company
headquarters for the purpose of conveying messages con-
cerning machine gun support. (When the machine gun
platoon is in support of the company only.)
8. Rear echelon,
d. The rear echelon is charged with the administrative
functions of the company. The personnel consists of:
(1) 1 First lieutenant, 2d in command
(2) 2 Sergeants; include
(a) Mess sergeant
(6) Supply sergeant.
(3) 1 corporal, clerk.
(4) 11 Privates, 1st class and privates; include
(a) Barber.
(b) Cobbler.
(c) Cooks, 2 first and 2 assistants.
(d) Mechanics, 2.
(e) Tailor.
(f) Runners, 2 for communication with the company
commander.
(5) In addition to the foregoing there are attached :
6 extra privates of the company, replacements.
b. The duties of the personnel of the rear echelon are:
(1) The 1st lieutenant, second in command of the
company, is in immediate command of the rear echelon.
He is responsible for the food and supply of the company,
and supervises the work of the clerk in the rendering of
reports and preparation of records. He collects and makes
proper disposition of stragglers who may collect in vicinity
LI
THE RIFLE COMPANY
TI
1
of the rear echelon. He maintains close connection with
the company commander and keeps himself informed as
to the situation at the front.
(2) The mess sergeant is in charge of the company
kitchen. He is charged with the care and preparation of
the food.
(3) The suply sergeant is charged with the drawing,
care, and delivery of equipment. He draws the rations.
for the company and delivers them at the company kitchens.
(4) The corporal, clerk, is in charge of the company
files and records. Under the supervision of the second-in-
command he prepares the reports and records of the com-
pany.
(5) The barber performs the usual duties of a barber.
In addition he may be assigned other duties, such as guard-
ing company property and general work around the kitchen.
(6) The cobbler, keeps the shoes of the men of the
company in repair. He works under the supervision of
the supply sergeant. He may be assigned other duties.
(7) Four cooks prepare the food of the company under
the supervision of the mess sergeant. They are given
specialist ratings as follows:
(a) 2 First cooks, specialists 4th class.
(6) 2 assistant cooks, specialists 5th class.
(8) Two mechanics are charged with making minor
repairs to the company equipment and with incidental
carpentry required in the company. They work under the
supervision of the supply sergeant. They may be assigned
other duties when necessary. They have ratings of special-
ist 6th class.
(9) The tailor, makes minor repairs to the clothing
of the men in the company, performing his duty under the
supervision of the supply sergeant. He may be given other
duties when necessary.
(10) The 6 extra privates, replacements, attached to
the rear echelon, are available for any duty assigned them
by the second-in-command, until required in the company
as replacements.
THE RIFLE COMPANY
SECTION III.
THE RIFLE PLATOON.
Paragraph.
Organization......
........
9
9. Organization.
The rifle platoon consists of 1 officer and 57 enlisted
men organized into two sections of 26 enlisted men each
and a platoon headquarters of 1 officer and 5 enlisted men.
SECTION IV.
PLATOON HEADQUARTERS
Organization and duties
Paragraphs.
------- 10
11
10. Organization and duties.
a. The platoon headquarters consists of 1 officer and 5
enlisted men. Its function is tactical only; the duties em-
braced being :
(1) Command of platoon.
(2) Communication with higher, subordinate and ad-
jacent units.
(3) Securing information relative to progress and
delay.
b. The personnel of platoon headquarters consists of:
(1) 1 Lieutenant (1st or 2d) platoon commander.
(2) 1 Sergeant (platoon sergeant).
(3) 4 Privates 1st class and privates, runners.
c. The duties of the personnel of platoon headquarters
are:
(1) The lieutenant commands the platoon and directs
the entry of its section into action.
(2) The platoon sergeant assists the platoon com-
mander and, when the latter becomes a casualty, takes
command of the platoon.
(3) The 4 privates, runners, keep the platoon com-
mander informed as to progress or causes of delay, and
are primarily used for transmitting orders to subordinate
10
THE RIFLE COMPANY
commanders, and receiving orders from and sending mes-
sages to company headquarters. They may be used for
communication with adjacent units. One runner is sent
to company headquarters for use by the company command-
er in transmitting orders to the platoon.
SECTION V.
THE RIFLE SECTION.
Organization ....
Paragraph.
........ 11
11. Organization.
a. The rifle section consists of 26 enlisted men organized
into three squads of 8 enlisted men each and a section head-
quarters of 2 enlisted men.
b. The section is the smallest unit provided with a seperate
headquarters. Its employment in combat is under the
direction of the platoon commander.
SECTION VI.
SECTION HEADQUARTERS.
Organization and duties ........
Paragraph.
............. 12
12. Organization and duties.
a. The section headquarters consists of 2 enlisted men.
Its functions, like those of platoon headquarters, are purely
tactical. It differs from platoon headquarters, however,
in that it is concerned with leadership and command only.
b. The personnel of section headquarters consists of:
(1) 1 Sergeant, section leader
(2) 1 Corporal, section guide.
C. The duties of the personnel of section headquarters
are:
(1) The sergeant leads the section. He controls the
action of his section through his squad leaders or by direct
THE RIFLE COMPANY
11
orders, if the circumstances require. He designates new
squad leaders as the necessity arises.
(2) The corporal, section guide, is the alternate section
leader. His position, when the section leader is present,
is in rear of the section, and from this position he corrects
all branches of discipline, prevents straggling and compels
the men to remain in line and advance as directed. His
attention is devoted, primiarily, to the action of the men
of the section. He leads the section when the section leader
becomes a casualty.
SECTION VII.
THE RIFLE SQUAD.
Paragraph.
Organization ..........
13
-
13. Organization.
A. The rifle squad consists of 8 enlisted men formed into
a group for instruction, discipline, control, and order. It
has no headquarters, the leader controls his squad by means
of verbal orders and signals.
b. The personnel of the squad consists of:
(1) 1 Corporal, squad leader.
(2) 7 Privates, 1st class and privates.
(a) 5 Riflemen
(b) 1 Rifleman, with grenade discharger.
(c) 1 Automatic rifleman.
C. Every man in the squad should be trained in the use
of the automatic rifle, hand and rifle grenades and in scout-
ing and patrolling, as well as in the use of the rifle. There
are certain special functions which are assigned within the
squad as follows:
(1) No. 1 front rank, scout.
(2) No. 1 rear rank, alternate scout.
(3) No. 2 front rank, rifle grenades.
(4) No. 3 front rank, substitute automatic rifleman.
(5) No. 3 rear rank, automatic rifleman.
(6) No. 4 front rank, corporal, squad leader.
12
THE RIFLE COMPANY
V
d. All men in the squad carry grenades and extra am-
munition for the automatic rifle as directed.
SECTION VIII.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION OF THE
RIFLE COMPANY AND INCLUDED UNITS.
Paragraph.
14
Second-in-command
Distribution of privates .....
Automatic riflemen
Rifle companies ....---
15
n
ec...
14. Second-in-command.
The position of the second-in-command of the rifle com-
pany is with the rear echelon. He is placed there for a
definite purpose. Often during combat all of the company
officers become casualties. It is especially important that
an officer of appropriate rank and experience, who is famil-
iar with the company, be present to take hold and reorganize
and regroup the company when it comes out of the lines.
TY
n
✓
YY
15. Distribution of privates.
There is no specific distribution of the privates 1st class
and privates within the company.
16. Automatic riflemen.
Six automatic riflemen, one in each section, have the rat-
ing of specialist 6th class. Merit within the section should
govern the selection.
ST
'17. Rifle companies.
Companies A, B, C, E, F, G, I, K and L are the rifle
companies within the regiment and will be designated as
such. The term "Infantry Company” applies to all of the
companies in the infantry regiment.
OCT 2). 1924
DRAFTING OF A
FIELD ORDER
FROM DETAILED PLAN
MAP PROBLEM
MAP PROBLEM
BY
MAP
: Drafting a Field Order from Detailed Plan
(No. 2 - 1st Series.)
· 1st Section.
: Topographical Map, Gettysburg-Antietam
1:21120, Hunterstown Sheet.
Ollow
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923–1924.
2
98–Benning, Ga., 2-1-24–2500
Rufen in Fray here
15-1924
GENERAL SITUATION:
A blue force operating in enemy territory has reached
the general line Plainview-McElheny (351.70-753.30).
The opposing Red force occupies the general line cross
roads 666 (355.10-761.10)-hill 607 (353.65-759.40)—
cross roads 548-Goodintent S.H.-J. Weaver-house at
(351.15-755.70).
Y
SPECIAL SITUATION (Blue):
At 5:30 P.M. 20 January 1924 the 1st Blue Brigade an
interior brigade with 1st & 2d Infantry from right to left
is disposed as follows:
1st Infantry: cross roads 549 (353.80-757.70) to road
junction 538 (353.10-756.35) (inclusive).
2d Infantry (less one battalion) on left of 1st Infantry.
The 1st Battalion. 2d Infantry is in brigade reserve in
woods in the vicinity of (354.50-755.20).
The 1st Field Artillery in position—one battalion in
the vicinity of road junction 592 (355.50-755.15) and one
battalion in the vicinity of road junction 552 (354.50-754.70).
At 5:30 P.M. Colonel A commanding the 1st Infantry
receives an order from his Brigade Commander a portion
of which follows:
“The enemy in our immediate front holds a position along
the general line: RJ 548—Goodintent SH-J. Weaver
house at (351.15-755.70). The position is partially in-
trenched and partially covered by wire. Enemy light
artillery has been located in woods to the west of CR 608
(350.40-757.95). Enemy machine guns have been active
from the orchard near RJ 548.
The 2d Div is on our right and the 2d Brig is on
our left.
(3)
DRAFTING A FIELD ORDER
1
In conjunction with adjoining troops this brigade, with
regiments abreast, 1st Inf' on the right and 2d Inf on the
left, will attack at 6:30 AM tomorrow, make its main blow
on the right, assist the advance of the 2d Div and will
capture Table Rock Station.
Line of departure: Present front line.
Direction of attack: 307 degrees magnetic azimuth.
Zone of action:
North boundary: Hunterstown (excl)-CR 549—RJ
548-bridge at (350.65-759.70)-SH 'at (349.40-
760.35) (all incl).
South boundary: House at (354.10-754.30) (excl) —
RJ 501—house at (351.40-756.00)—Goldenville
house at (348.60-758.10) (all incl).
Boundary between regiments: RJ 556 (355.15-755.00)
(to 2d Inf)-RJ 538_J. Weaver-house at (350.65-
758.25) house at (349.60-758.50) (all to 1st Inf)
Texas (to 2d Inf).
The 1st Inf will drive hard, capture the high
ground in the vicinity of Goodintent SH and advancing
rapidly will assist the advance of troops of the 2d Div.
Assisted by the 2d Inf it will capture Table Rock Station.
The 2d Inf (less 1st Bn), making its main effort
with its right, will assist the rapid advance of the 1st Inf
and aid in the capture of Table Rock Station by pushing
rapidly forward and seizing the high ground in the vicinity
of Texas. It will take Goldenville.
The 1st FA from, positions in the vicinity of RJ 592
and RJ 552 will support the attack by progressive concen-
trations. Special attention will be paid to enemy positions
on the high ground in the vicinity of Goodintent SH and
RJ.548.
The 1st Bn 1st FA will support the 1st Infantry.
The 2d Bn 1st FA will support the 2d Infantry.
All troop movements in preparation for the attack will
be completed prior to 6:00 AM.
Details reference administration, supply and evacuation,
See Administrative Order No. 10 1st Division (omitted).
AX Sig Com:
17
DRAFTING A FIELD ORDER
or
1st Infantry: Point in woods at (354.30-756.50)-RJ 542
-Goodintent SH–Table Rock SH-Table Rock Station. . ,
Cps:
Ist Inf: Point in woods at (354.30-756.50).
Colonel A draws up his field order in accordance with
the brigade order at the same time basing his decision on
the local situation confronting him.
He decides to use that part of the information concern-
ing the enemy in the brigade field order which applies to
his particular front. In addition to the enemy information
in the brigade order he has discovered enemy machine guns
in the vicinity of hill 592 and J. Weaver.
He frames his order so as to attack with battalions a-
breast, the 1st Battalion on the right and the 2d Battalion
.
at the same time assisting the advance of troops of the
2d Division, and capture Table Rock Station.
He decides to show in his order the line of departure,
direction of attack, time of attack and the regimental zone
of action together with the boundary between battalions
which is as follows: house at (354.65-756.70)-R Smith-
Goodintent SH–house at (351.70-758.25)—Table Rock SH
--Table Rock Station (all to 1st Battalion).
The 1st Battalion, with one platoon Howitzer Company
attached, is directed to attack the enemy position in its
zone of action, capture hill 592, then drive forward, assist-
ing the advance of troops of the 2d Division on the right,
and capture Table Rock Station.
He plans to have the 2d Battalion, with one platoon Howitz-
er Company attached, push hard to the front and assist
the 1st Battalion in the capture of hill 592 by an outflank-
ing movement from the south. It will then drive forward
rapidly and assist the 1st Battalion in the capture of Table
Rock Station.
The artillery (1st Battalion, 1st Field Artillery), he
shows in his order as indicated by the brigade order.
The 3d Battalion he places in regimental reserve in woods
near point (354.60-756.60).
DRAFTING A FIELD ORDER
Company M; from positions in field near point (354.40-
757.30) to support the attack of the 1st Battalion by fire
on enemy positions in vicinity of road junction 548 and
hill 592 until its fire is masked when it will revert to the
reserve.
Howitzer Company (less two platoons) to support the
attack of the 1st Battalion from positions in draw near
point (353.90-757.45) until its fire is masked when it will
revert to the reserve. Special attention will be paid to
enemy machine guns in vicinity of road junction 548 and hill
592.
He indicates that troop movements in preparation for
the attack will be made prior to 6:00 A.M.
The regimental munitions distributing point to be in
woods northeast of road junction 556. The field trains
and combat trains (less munitions section) to remain in
present positions.
Munition sections combat trains to refill at regimental
munitions distributing point and await orders in that
vicinity.
Regimental aid station to be in woods at (354.50-756.40).
Prisoners to collecting point in orchard at 572 (355.90-
• 754.80).
Axis of signal communication for the regiment to be as
shown in brigade order.
For 1st Battalion: point in woods at (354.00-757.25) -
Herman-house at (350.55-759.40)---point on railroad at
(349.80-759.55).
For 2d Battalion: point in woods at (353.60-756.70)—
house at (352.45-757.45)—house at (351.10-758.15)-house
at (350.45-758.50)-bridge on railroad at (349.55-758.90).
Command posts: 1st Infantry-point in woods at (354.30-
756.50), 1st Battalion-point in woods at (354.00-757.25).
2d Battalion-point in woods at (353.60-756.70).
REQUIRED:
Colonal A's formal field order.
Assume that you are Colonel A and that you issue the
formal field order for the attack, that it is your eleventh
DRAFTING A FIELD ORDER
field order and that you sign it at 6:30 P.M. January 20,
1924 at the regimental command post in woods at (354.30-
756.50).
Authorized abbreviations will be used.
A SOLUTION.
1st Inf,
Point in woods at (354.30-756.50),
20 Jan 24, 6:30 PM.
Field Orders
No 11
Map: Topographical Map, Gettysburg-Antietam, 1:21120;
Hunterstown sheet.
1 (a) The enemy in our immediate front holds a position
along the general line RJ 548_Goodintent SH-
J. Weaver. The position is partially intrenched and
partially covered by wire. Enemy machine guns
are in position in orchard near RJ 548, in vicinity
of hill 592 and at J. Weaver.
(b) Our brigade in conjunction with adjoining troops
attacks tomorrow with the 2d Div on the right and
the 2d Brig on the left. The 1st Bn 1st FA supports
the attack of our regiment by progressive concen-
trations paying particular attention to enemy
positions in the vicinity of RJ 548 and high ground
in vicinity of Goodintent SH.
· 2 This regiment with 1st and 2d Bns in assault, 1st
Bn on the right, will attack at 6:30 AM tomor-
row making its main effort on the right. It will
take the enemy position in the vicinity of hill 592,
and will then drive forward, assisting the advance
of troops of the 2d Div on its right, and will capture
Table Rock Sta.
Line of departure: Present front line.
Direction of attack: 307 degrees magnetic
azimuth. .
Zone of action:
DRAFTING A FIELD ORDER
-
TIT
VV
.:North boundary: Hunterstown (excl)-CR 549
:--RJ 548_bridge at (350.65-759.70)-SH at
(349.40-760.35) (all incl).
South boundary: RJ 556 (355.15-755.00) (excl)
-RJ 538—-J. Weaver-house at (350.65-
758.25)-house at (349.60-758.50) (all incl)
-Texas (excl).
Boundary between battalions: House at (354.65-
756.70)-R, Smith--Goodintent SH—house at
(351.70-758.25)-Table Rock SH–Table Rock
Sta. (all to 1st Bn).
3 (a) The 1st Bn (1 plat How Co attached) will attack
the enemy position in its zone of action and capture
hill 592. It will then drive forward aiding the
advance of troops of the 2d Div on its right and
with the assistance of the 2d Bn will capture Table
Rock Sta.
(b) The 2d Bn (1 plat How Co attached) will push hard
to the front assisting the 1st Bn in the capture of
hill 592 by an outflanking movement from the
south. It will then push forward rapidly and as-
sist the 1st Bn in the capture of Table Rock Sta.
(c) The 3d Bn in regimental reserve will await orders
in woods near point (354.60-756.60).
(d) Co M from position in field near point (354.40-757.30)
will support the attack of the 1st Bn by fire on enemy
positions in vicinity of RJ 548 and hill 592 until
its fire is masked when it will revert to the reserve.
(e) How Co (less 2 plats) will support the attack of the
1st Bn from position in draw near point (353.90-
757.45) until its fire is masked when it will revert
to the reserve. Special attention will be paid to
enemy machine guns in the vicinity of RJ 548 and
hill 592,
(x) All troop movements in preparation for the attack
will be made prior to 6:00 AM.
4 Regtl Mun DP in woods north east of RJ 556.
F Tns will remain in present position.
:C Tns (less Mun Secs) will remain in present position.
1
DRAFTING A FIELD ORDER
· Mun Secs C Тns will refill at Regtl Mun DP and await
orders in that vicinity.
Regtl Aid Sta in woods at (354.50-756.40).
Prisoners to collecting point in orchard at-572 (355.90-
754.80).
5 (a) Ax Sig Com:
1st Inf: Point in woods at (354.30-756.50)-RJ
542—Goodintent SH-Table Rock Sta.
1st Bn: Point in woods at (354.00-757.25)-Herman
-house at (350.55-759.40)-point on railroad at
(349.80-759.55).
2d Bn: Point in woods at (353.60-756.70)-house
at (352.45-757.45)—house at (351.10-758.15) house
at (350.45-758.50)—bridge on railroad at (349.55-
758.90).
(b) CPs:
1st Inf: Point in woods at (354.30-756.50).
1st Bn: Point in woods at (354.00-757.25).
2d Bn: Point in woods at (353.60-756.70).
Col.
File.
Copies to:
R EX
Staff
RMGO
Mun 0
Com O
1st Bn.
2d Bn
3d Bn
Hq Co
How Co
Serv Co
Co M
1st Bn 1st FA
Attached MD
1st Brig
Diary
OCT 23 1924
A9-
ESTIMATE OF THE
SITUATION
(MAP PROBLEM)
MAP PROBLEM..... NO. 1-1st Series-Estimate of the Situation.
BY.
.......: First Section.
MAPS........... ......: Gettysburg-Antietam, 1:21120, Bonneauville,
Gettysburg, Knoxlyn, Emmitsburg, Taney-
town Sheets.
>
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA.
1923-1924.
100-Benning, Ga., 2-1-24-2500
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION.
hufantay Belicet
6-5-1984
(MAP PROBLEM)
GENERAL SITUATION:
The Monocacy River-Rock Creek forms the boundary
between hostile states, Blue east, Red west. War has just
been declared.
Gettysburg, an important railroad center, is garrisoned
by a regiment of infantry and a battalion of field artillery.
The 1st Blue Division has arrived in Hanover and Littles-
town.
Air service of both sides is active.
SPECIAL SITUATION (BLUE):
The 1st Brig with the 1st FA, 1st Bn 1st Engrs, and one
prov med Bn, (Sn Co No 1, Amb Co No 1) attached is in
Littlestown, The brigade commander is in receipt of the
following message:
1st Div
HANOVER, PA.
17 Jan 24
To Brig Gen 1st Brig
March early tomorrow and capture and hold Gettysburg
until the arrival of the remainder of the division, about
noon Jan 19.
A
C of s
At 7:50 AM, 18 Jan when the head of the reserve halted
at RJ 546 (NW of GERMANTOWN) the Brigadier Gen-
eral who was at the head of the reserve received the fol-
Ir wing information by dropped message:
“The leading element of a column composed of infantry
and artillery turned east at CR 455 (N of FAIRPLAY)
(3)
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
at 7:40, the head of the main body was at RJ 520 (SW of
FAIRPLAY) and the tail at unimproved RJ on ROSE
HILL (E of EMMITSBURG). There is a bivouac of field
trains in EMMITSBURG."
At this time the reinforced brigade is disposed as follows:
Point
1 squad
Distance
200 yards
Advance party 1 platoon (less 1 squad)
Distance
400 yards
Support
1 rifle company (less 1 plat)
Distance
500 yards
Reserve 1 battalion (less 1 Co) 1 How plat.
attached
Battery A 1st FA
Distance to head of main body 800 yards.
NOTE: 1. Rock Creek unfordable south of the Baltimore Turnpike, fordable
with difficulty north of this road.
2. Enemy organization is similar to ours.
REQUIRED.
The ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION of the BRIGA-
DIER GENERAL 1st Brig.
:
PART I.
THE ESTIMATE-General A makes the following esti-
mate of the situation:
1.: Mission.
The mission of the 1st Brigade is to march to Gettysburg
and capture and hold the city until the arrival of the re->
mainder of the 1st Division...
The appearance of the hostile force in the vicinity of
Fairplay complicates the situation, but the mission remains
unchanged. There is merely an added situation to cope
with in the accomplishment of the mission.
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
TY
2. The enemy.
A. Situation.
Q. Strength and composition.—Both the Reds in Gettys-
burg and the force in the vicinity of Fairplay must be con-
sidered. The force in Gettysburg is reliably reported as
one regiment of infantry and one battalion of artillery.
· The force in the vicinity of Fairplay is reliably reported
to consist of infantry and artillery. Its strength is not
known, but can be rather definitely determined from the
road space it occupies.
From the message of observer we know that it is 2000
yards from the head of the main body to the leading ele-
ment, and we know one battalion of infantry is the smallest
force that will occupy this much road space as advance
guard.
The message of the observer also indicates that the main
body occupies approximately 4100 yards road space. A
regiment of infantry, less one battalion and one howitzer
platoon (in advance guard) without field trains occupies
2095 yards road space, assuming that the infantry strength
of the main body is one regiment less one battalion and
cne howitzer platoon, we have about 2000 yards of troops
in march formation to account for. We know there is
artillery in the column and that a battalion of artillery
with its combat train occupies 1965 yards road space. This
accounts approximately for the road space occupied by the
hostile troops, and as a battalion of artillery is the normal
attachment for a regiment of infantry the conclusion that
this force consists of one regiment of infantry and one bat-
talion of artillery appears to be justified.
b. Location, distribution, movements, troops within sup-
porting distance. The Red troops which will oppose the
accomplishment of the mission are divided into two op-
proximately equal forces, one of which is in Gettysburg-
the destination of the Blue forces—and the other enroute
toward Gettysburg from Emmitsburg.
. At 7:40 A. M. the leading element of this column was
at CR 455, six miles (2 hours and 24 minutes marching
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
time) from Gettysburg. At the same time the head of
the main' body was at RJ 520 (2 hours and 50 minutes
marching time) from Gettysburg, if the march is con-
tinued along the direct route-the Emmitsburg road.
The rear of the column is 11/hours behind the leading
element.
No other Red troops are known to be within supporting
distance.
C. Physical condition, morale, training, equipment. The
Red troops in Gettysburg are fresh and if encountered at
the border will not have marched far enough to be fatigued.
Assuming that the force marching on the Emmitsburg Road
bivouaced last night in Emmitsburg, it will have marched
about seven miles when contact is gained and will be capa-
ble of further serious effort today.
The morale of the Red troops can be considered as very
good, although untried troops, they are operating in friend-
ly territory and in their first action they will be called
upon to expel an invader.
The troops are not seasoned and are only partially
trained.
B. Probable knowledge of our situation.---
a. Observation.--As Red air service is active it is quite
probable that accurate information of our strength and
niovements has been obtained. Portions of our column will
probably be visible to observers with powerful glasses on
Round Top and Hill 662.
6. Reconnaissance. There has been no cavalry reported
with the Red forces and reconnaissance will not have dis-
disclosed any information of the Blue forces at this time.
C. Prisoners, documents, inhabitants.--As the opposing
forces have not yet gained contact Reds have not yet ob-
tained any prisoners or documents.
The inhabitants, although friendly, are not in a position
to give information of the Blue troop movement until it
arrives near the border.
ESTIMATE OF THÈ SITUATION
C. General factors.--
a. Time and space.--The enemy troops at Gettysburg
can be in position to defend the border east of that city in
a very short time, about one hour.
The force marching from Emmitsburg, if it continued on
by the Emmitsburg road, would be in Gettysburg by 11:35
A. M.
Marching via Barlow-King it could intercept the Blue
column at Two Taverns at 11:00 A. M.
Marching via Hoffman the leading element wil reach
RJ 469 at 9:34 and if unopposed can intercept the Blue
column at the crossing of the Baltimore Turnpike over
Rock Creek at 10:30 A. M.
6. Terrain; c. Roads; d. Visibility. The terrain is favor-
able for Red action in opposing the Blue invasion. Rock
Creek which forms the boundary is considerable of an
obstacle. The heights southeast of Gettysburg and the
Round Top group afford good observation of the border and
the area of probable activities.
Roads are good and numerous lateral roads lead to the
border.
Areas affording cover and concealment from ground ob-
servation are numerous and the wooded areas south and
southeast of Gettysburg afford cover and concealment from
aerial observation.
MY
1
D. Lines of action open to enemy.-The enemy may:
(1) Concentrate his forces in the vicinity of Gettys-
burg for coordinated action against the Blue force.
(2) Utilize the forces separately, each to defend a cer-
tain section of the border.
(3) Seek to interrupt the march of the Blue force.
(4) Attempt to delay the Blue force with part of the
force marching from Emmitsburg, sending the
bulk of this force to reinforce the Gettysburg Reds.
The first plan is sound tactically and, but for the fact
that the leading element of the Emmitsburg force has al-
ready turned east off of the direct road to accomplish this
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
concentration, would be the one that the enemy is expected
to adopt.
The second plan would only be reasonable as an emer-
gency measure and would very quickly give way to a co-
ordinated defense; it is not the best plan available to the
Keds and we should not expect its adoption.
The third plan is good except that the Red forces are not
yet united and coordinated offensive action cannot be ex-
pected until these forces do unite or until they are within
supporting distance. The fact that the Gettysburg force
has not been reported in movement, while not conclusive,
indicates that this plan is not being put into execution.
The fourth plan is sound tactically., Rock Creek offers
a good obstacle along which considerable delay can be occa-
sioned by a comparatively small force, the heights afford
good observation for artillery fire and the direction of the
Baltimore Turnpike along which the Blue force is march-
ing is such that it can be covered by artillery fire to Ger-
mantown.
The Round Top Hill mass affords cover for the remainder
of the force in its march to Gettysburg.
E. Probable intentions:-
As it is quite probable that the Reds know the destination
and strength of the Blue force as well as the fact that it is
in movement from Littlestown, it is probably their inten-
tion to interrupt and delay its march by the use of a com-
paratively small flank guard or by the early use of artillery
against the column. While the remainder of the two forces
unite for coordinated action.
As this plan would be the most disadvantageous to us, we
are safe in assuming such to be the probable intentions of
the Red force.
13. Our own troops.
A. Situation.
a. Strength and composition.—The 1st Brigade is re-
enforced by the 1st Field Artillery, 1st Battalion, 1st En-
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEP.RDENT OF MILITRY ART
1923 1924.
U
.
303
111P EERCISE
: Supply of Regiment and Smaller Units in Combat,
BI
: First Section.
DATE 10 CLASS
: Ladvanced Course, 29. Feb. 8248
PRRAPA SHART.
Change"GER. I SITUATION* to read a follows:
2nd sentence: Invading Red forces have been withdrawing in
good order and have reached the general line OAK GROVE SH (361.3-760.3),
southwest to (359.0 760.3)
BOOK SHOP
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
FORT BENNING, GA.
NOTICE TO MAILING LIST SUBSCRIBERS.
1. The fifth consignment of the Infantry School, Mailing.
List, consists of the following pamphlets:-
vintricacie
1. Map Excercise: Supply of Regiment and Smaller Units
in Combat.
2. Conference: River Crossings. .
The Message Center.
Night Operations.
March Protection,
Defense,
The Communications Officer.
Map Problem: Drafting a Field Order from Detailed Plan.
No, 1.1st Series- Estimate of Situation.
10. Errata Sheet. Supply Regt. and Smaller Units in Combat.
.
.
BOOK SHOP.
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
mi
gineers and a provisional medical battalion. In infantry
and artillery our strength is practically the same as the
enemy; although his force is separated at this time by
several miles it can unite and offer coordinated resistance
before we can defeat either part of it in detail.
The air service of our division is operating and furnish-
ing inforamtion of the enemy but we have no advantage in
this respect for the enemy air service is active and equal
in strength and aggressiveness to ours.
b. Location and distribution. At 7:50 A. M. the re-
inforced brigade is enroute from Littlestown, the point of
the advance guard is at Two Taverns, the head of the re-
serve at RJ 546 and the head of the main body is 100 yards
east of RJ 555, about 2300 yards (31 minutes marching
time) of the combat elements of the Blue force are still in
Littlestown.
From its present disposition the Blue force can deploy
very quickly by two or more roads to meet the Red force
marching from Emmitsburg, however, the Red column can
likewise deploy very quickly to meet our movement against
1
i
il.
C. Supporting troops.—No assistance can be expected
from the division before the forenoon of January 19, in case
of great necessity reinforcements might be sent forward by
motor transportation but they cannot be counted on.
d. Physical condition, morale, training, equipment.- Our
troops are comparatively fresh, having marched only a short
distance. Their morale can be considered as good and being
the first organization to march to invade enemy territory
their enthusiasm will be high. War having just broken
out there will be many new men in the various units and
their training is not complete. Equipment can be considered
as complete and in good condition.
B. General factors.-
a. Time and space. If the Blue force continues its
march unopposed it will be 212 hours from now when the
tail of the combat unit passes Two Taverns, the first point
20
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
at which Red interference is to be feared, from Two Tav-
erns on interference may be encountered anywhere. The
head of the main body being now in the vicinity of RJ 555
can march north to the Hanover Road, but the Red force
if unopposed would be able to strike the column at any
point west of Bonneauville.
b. Terrain; c. Roads.-The terrain is unfavorable from
the standpoint of the Blue mission. Rock Creek, forming
the boundary, is a considerable obstacle along which a
strong defense can be expected, the wooded mass of hills
between the Hanover Road and the Baltimore Turnpike
afford good observation for the Blue force and cover and
concealment for the deployment.
Roads are good and lateral roads are numerous.
Other than the bridges over Rock Creek, which we may
expect to find destroyed, the stream is fordable with diffi-
culty north of the Baltimore Turnpike.
C. Lines of action open to us.—The following lines of action
are open to us:
.. (1) To continue the march on Gettysburg ignoring the
Red force advancing from Emmitsburg.
(2) To continue the march on Gettysburg, detaching
a large part of the 1st Brigade to meet the Em-
mitsburg Reds.
(3) To change the route of the main column to the
Hanover Road, leaving a strong flank guard to
contain the Emmitsburg Reds.
(4) To change the direction of march to meet the
Emmitsburg Reds.
(5) To continue to march on Gettysburg detaching a
flank guard to meet and contain the Emmitsburg
Reds.
11
Plan No. 1.
Advantages.-It keeps the command intact. The com-
mand can quickly develop by two columns to the flank to
meet a threat from the southwest.
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
Disadvantages. It endangers the command to unneces-
sary delay, interference and loss from a comparatively
small Red force.
Plan No. 2.
Advantages.-Secures the command from interference
by the Emmitsburg Reds.
Disadvantages.—Dispersion, endangers the accomplish-
ment of the mission.
LIIII
Plan No. 3.
Advantages.-Frees the main column from irterference
by the Emmitsburg Reds. The attack of the main force
would be favored by a less serious obstacle in its front.
Disadvantages.-Loss of valuable time. Endangers the
flank guard and main force to defeat in detail. Permits the
Reds to unite and offer coordinated resistance or institute
coordinated aggressive action.
O
Plan No 4.
Advantages.-Retains the command intact. Offers a pos-
sibility of defeating the Reds in detail.
Disadvantages.- Temporarily abandons the mission. The
whole command may be drawn away from its mission by
a comparatively small Red force while the remainder of the
Red force unites for coordinated action. Gives the Reds in
Gettysburg additional time to prepare for defensive or of-
fensive action.
Plan No. 5.
Advantages.-Does not delay the accomplishment of the
mission. It may result in preventing the two Red forces
from uniting for coordinated action. It secures freedom
of action to the main force by blocking the threat against
its flank. Permits us to stop the Emmitsburg Reds with a
small force, and to carry out the mission with but little
weakening of the brigade.
12
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
Disadvantages. Might not succeed.
Considering the above it appears evident that part of the
force must be used to block the Red threat from the south-
west, that this force should be the smallest that can accom-
plish the mission is also quite evident in order to have the
greatest strength possible for the main effort. In view of
the present location of the leading elements from Emmits-
burg prompt action is necessary to meet and block this
force at sufficient distance from the Baltimore Turnpike to
insure the uninterrupted advance of the main column.
Y
III
4. Decision,
The general decides to continue the march on Gettysburg,
detaching the present advance guard to march to the vicin-
ity of RJ 450 to block the advance of the Reds between
Rock Creek and the Round Top Hill mass.
PART II.
NOTE:
Adapted from "Exercise in Solution of Probleni SP 4,' The Command
and General Staff School, 1923-1924.
1. Purpose.
This problem is drawn to illustrate the mechanism and
the method of solving problems.
2. Method of arriving ať sound tactical decisions.
To arrive at a sound tactical decision and to initiate the
steps necessary to carry that decision into effect, the solver
must go through a well defined mental process, which in-
cludes a consideration of his mission, the obstacles to be
overcome, and the means at his disposal for overcoming
these obstacles. This process of reasoning is called the
"Estimate of the Situation," and should be followed always
regardless of the sizes of the force involved. This results in
a methodical, step by step, reasoned solution, and the final
decision is arrived at, not by jumping to a conclusion, but
is led up to through the logical course of reasoning followed
in the estimate of the situation.
U
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
1.
3. The mission.
A clear conception and understanding of the mission is
the first and most important element of the estimate of the
situation. The mission is that particular duty which the
commander is required to perform; the specific task that
has been given to him.
The entire plan of the higher commander may depend
upon the subordinate carrying out the particular mission
assigned him.
In this problem the mission of the 1st Brigade is to cap-
ture and hold Gettysburg until the arrival of the remainder
of the 1st Division about noon 19 Jan..
The appearance of the hostile force marching from Em-
mitsburg toward Gettysburg renders the accomplishment
of the mission more difficult, but does not justify General A
in changing his mission and the burden of proof rests on
the subordinate commander who makes a change in the
mission given him by his superior commander, consequently
a change should never be made until a careful estimate of
the situation has been made, then if from a consideration
of all elements it appears that the original mission is im-
possible of accomplishment or that another mission will
better carry out the superior commander's general plan a
change is justified. A careful estimate in this case does
not justify a change in the mission.
In writing an estimate of the situation, the mission to
ke stated in the beginning is that task which is given the
commander of the force. A new mission adopted by the
commander is arrived at only after estimating the situation
confronting him while in the contemplation or execution of
his original mission. The new mission then appears in the
commander's decisions--the last item in the estimate of the
situation. Having decided to change his mission the solver
would then properly turn back to the first element in his
written estimate of the situation (the mission) and note
the fact of the commander's change of mission.
Nivil,
14.
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
In the solution of the map problem, the burden of making
the decision as to what will best carry out the-superior
commander's plans rests on the solver.
4. The enemy.
There is danger of overrating or underrating what the
enemy may or can do, unless logically and in sequence, as
set forth in Part I, consideration is given to his strength
and composition, location and distribution, movements,
troops within supporting distance, his physical condition,
Yuorale, training and equipment, his probable knowledge of
our situation, the effect of general factors of time and space,
terrain, etc., the lines of action open to him, and his prob-
able intentions.
An estimate of the situation is a reasoning document. A
miere recital of facts without conclusions drawn therefrom
ii; of little avail. To state that war has just been declared
is not enough, the reasoning conclusion as to new men in
the organiation and the lack of complete training should
be drawn. The estimate must be complete in itself, be-
cause only by including all points considered will the con-
clusion reached or decision made be clearly deducible.
In this case, the application of the estimate as set forth
in Part I leads to the conclusion that the enemy will at-
tempt to delay the 1st Brigade with a part of the force
marching from Emmitsburg while the remainder of the
force joins the Gettysburg force for coordinated action.
5. Our own troops.
In like manner, our own troops must be considered, logic-
ally and in sequence (as set forth in Part I), under all the
Various heads and subheads, otherwise the conclusions
reached as to lines of action open to us may be faulty and
lead to an unsound decision.
Part I outlines five possible lines of action open to us
with the advantages and disadvantages of each. These
require examination and consideration, some more than
cthers, to determine their fitness. To omit consideration
VY
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
15
w
of any of these lines of action would detract from the value
of the solution.
Lines of action that give some reasonable ground for
belief that they may carry out the mission deserve first
consideration; others may require a short examination to
determine that they fail to carry out the mission or are
otherwise unsuitable. Such lines may be mentioned and
immediately rejected with terse reasons.
Obviously faulty or impracticable lines of actions need
form no part of an estimate of the situation. For ex-
ample, in this situation it would be a waste of time to dis-
cuss a retreat or a step by step defensive. Complicated
plans should be avoided since they may fail on account of
one small oversight, mistake, or lack of coordination. Lines
of action that promise decisive results should be sought.
An incorrect method of giving consideration to possible
lines of action would be to decide first what line of action
to adopt; then to fill the space allotted for discussion of
lines of action open merely with arguments for the one
chosen and arguments against the other possible lines.
In considering lines of action open to us in this problem
the following tactical principle should be remembered:
Detachments should not be made without proper justifica-
tion. They should contribute directly or indirectly to the
accomplishment of the mission. If intended to keep a part
of the hostile force out of the main battle, the contained
force should be stronger than the containing one.
6. The decision. ,
The decision should be brief, clear, and unequivocal. It
must be full enough to convey clearly the general plan of
action of the commander, but should omit the details of the
plan that would be necessary to put the general plan into
effect. It should follow logically from the estimate.
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
PART III.
COMMENTS ON SOLUTIONS:
1. The mission should be clearly and concisely stated.
2. For a full understanding of the mission, it is important
that you indicate about how long Gettysburg must be held.
3. A short statement as to what effect the Red force in:
the vicinity of Fairplay has on the mission can well be
included under consideration of the mission. (No cut.)
4. A discussion as to a commander's obligations under
his mission should not be made a part of an estimate of the
situation. (No cut.)
5. The strength and composition of each of the enery
forces should be included in the estimate.
6. A short statement showing how the strength o: the
force in the vicinity of Fairplay was determined is im-
portant.
7. Do not give enemy numerical strength in rifles or guns
unless his organiation differs from ours. (No cut.)
8. You have made an important error in the enemy road
space.
9. It is important to state whether or not there are any
supporting troops to be considered.
10. The estimate should cover the physical condition,
morale and training of the enemy.
11. The importance of Rock Creek as an obstacle if Reds
adopt defensive action should be covered.
12. The enemys air service is active so he no doubt has
rather definite information of our strength and inove-
ments—this should be covered in the estimate.
17
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
17
13. The importance of the heights south and southeast of
Gettysburg to Red defensive action should be stated.
n
14. Under “time and space factors" you should show:
(a) What time the enemy can reach the vicinity of Two
Taverns; (b) The crossing of the Baltimore Turnpike on
Rock Creek; (c) Unite his forces in Gettysburg.
15. (a) Under lines of action open to the enemy, probable
plans should be fully discussed.
(b) Improbable plans should be omitted
16. The probable intentions of the Reds in the vicinity
of Fairplay should be deduced and definitely states because
present indications are that it is part of this force that
must receive our first consideration, and our (Blue) plan
will be largely based on what we decide will be the action
of this column.
17. It would be a serious tactical error for the Emmits-
• burg column to cross Rock Creek and march against the
Blue column.
18. Draw a comparison between your strength in in-
fantry and artillery and that of the enemy.
19. Under terrain Rock Creek and the wooded hill mass
north of the Baltimore Turnpike should be discussed from
the standpoint of the Blue mission.
20. You should discuss continuing the march on Gettys-
burg by the Low Dutch-Hanover Road as a probable line
of action.
21. A decision to continue the march on Gettysburg
should also provide for a left flank guard.
LV
22. A decision to march against the Reds advancing from
Emmitsburg should also provide for a right flank guard
to protect the brigade from the Gettysburg force.
ESTIMATE OF THE SITUATION
23. In this situation it is considered a serious tactical
error to be led away from the direct accomplishment of
your mission.
24. You should discuss marching to the southwest against
the Red column as a probable line of action.
25. The decision should be brief, clear, and unequivocal.
It must be full enough to convey clearly the general plan
of action of the commander, but should omit the detailed
plan that would be necessary to put the general plan into
effect.
26. You should discuss continuing the march on Gettys-
burg by the Baltimore Turnpike, sending a covering de-
tachment to protect the left flank as a probable line of
action.
27. A decision at this time to attack enveloping the
enemy's left (right) or to penetrate is not sound. Contact
has not yet been gained, the enemy's position is not known
and his flanks—if in a defensive position have not been .
determined.
28. The following should not be discussed as probable
lines of action open to us:
(a) Halting to await developments.
(b) Taking up a defensive position.
(c) Taking up a position in readiness.
(d) Halting to await the arrival of the remainder of
the division.
29. In writing an estimate of the situation the prescribed
form should be followed. The headings and subheadings
should be entered and the appropriate material discussed
under each. Omit subheadings that do not apply to the
particular situation under discussion.
30. See comment on your paper.
ny
THE INFANTRY SCHOJL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924
Map Exercise: Supply of Regiment and Smaller Units in Combat.
By:
First Section.
Map:
Gettysburg-Antietam 1:21120-New Oxford Sheet.
General situation:
The Western edge of the New Oxford Sheet is the
boundary between hostile states; Blues (east), Reds
(west). Invading Red forces have been withdrawing in
good order and have reached the general line (362.0-
759.0)-Oak Grove SH, southwest of (359.0-759.0).
Special situation (BLUE):
The Blue advance halted for the night along the gener-
al line (362.0-759.0); southwest to (359.0-757.0). The
1st Infantry occupies the assault line from (360.7-758.3) to
(359.8-757.7). Formation, Column of battalions. 1st
Battalion and 1st Platoon, Howitzer Company attached,
in assault; 2nd Battalion and 2nd Platoon, Howitzer Com-
pany attached, in reserve near woods 150 yards west of
SNYDER. 3rd Battalion and Howitzer Company, (less
2 platoons) in reserve near woods 350 yards south of CR
530.
2nd Brigade on the right, 2nd Infantry on the left.
The division continues the attack at 6:30 A. M. tomorrow.
Zone of advance for the 1st Infantry; Northeast
boundary (right) (363.89-755.0) — (360.93-758.00)
(359.00-760.05). Southwest Boundary (left) (363.00-
754.5)-(360.1-757.0)-(359.00-758.7).
Harrassing artillery fire on CR -530 and CR-594.
Concentrated artillery fire on CR 530.
Brigade mun DP at CR -584 (363.4-753.9).
Regimental command post at SNYDER.
Regimental trains, less munition train, at New Oxford.
Railhead at HANOVER (6 mi. SE of NEW OXFORD).
Munition train in woods west of creek at road bend
466W.
Weather: clear, cold; bright moon.
Time: 4:00 P.M. today.
You are R-4.
Required:
Location of kitchen sections of battalions and howitzer
company for the night.
sin
.
Situation II:
The 1st Battalion is disposed as follows: Companies
“A” and “B” (right to left) in assault, Company “C” in
reserve. Company “D” and 1st platoon Howitzer Com-
pany, in reserve.
Kitchen sections in woods west of creek at Road Bend
466W (363.2-756.0) 2nd battalion and 2nd platoon, How-
itzer Company attached, in woods Northwest of SNYDER.
2nd platoon, Howitzer Company attached to “H” Com-
pany for rations. 3rd Battalion and Howitzer Company
(less 2 platoons) in woods south of CR-530.
Required:
Your plan for delivering supper to the battalions and
Howitzer Company.
Situation III:
Requisitions for munition by battalion commanders
and Howitzer Company have been delivered to the regi-
mental munitions officer.
You are regimental munitions officer.
LI
Required:
Plan of munition supply including location of regimen-
tal munition distributing point at“H” hour; actions of
regimental munitions train tonight.
An appoved solution — situation I:
In woods west of creek at road bend 466W.
Reasons: Good cover, accessible to roads and water.
An approved solution - situation II:
After reconnaissance, Bn.-4 of the 1st and 2nd battal-
ions decide to haul supper by ration carts to woods west
of SNYDER. Route: Unimproved road west to edge of
woods, then north across creek on improved road, then
west along creek to the long draw running north to
SNYDER, through draw to woods west of SNYDER. Bn.
wa
5-5-1425
2
Senosti, aley
-4, 2nd battalion issues food to companies of his battalion
at this point. Bn. -4, 1st battalion conducts his ration
carts through woods northwest to unimproved road at
(361.2-757.6) then to house at (360.9-757.8). He has
previously arranged for parties to meet ration carts at
this point to take food to the companies. Bn. 4, 3rd Bat-
talion carried food in ration carts from kitchen section
to his battalion in woods, south of CR - 530. Command-
ing Officer of Howitzer Company furnished food to his
company, (less 2 platoons) by the same method, at the
same point. Ration carts remain at their respective
places to return food containers to kitchens.
1
1
An approved solution - situation III:
Regimental munitions distribution point at “H” hour
located southwest road bend 460W on west side of
stream.
Reasons: Good route of approach, good cover, acces-
sible to all units.
Issue of munitions is based upon the requisitions of the
unit commander. Battalion and separate company com-
manders must of necessity notify the regimental munitions
officer of the location of their respective distributing
points. His plan is to supply 3rd Battalion direct from
train, supply 1st and 2nd Battalions thru the battalion
distributing points. (All battalions have been engaged
during the day).
Action of regimental munitions train: Regimental muni-
tions officer will make issue direct to 3rd Battalion and
Howitzer Company. He will then send' sufficient wagons
to the 2nd Battalion munition distributing point. These
wagons will be under his direct command or that of his
assistant. He or his assistant will conduct sufficient
wagons to distributing point of 1st Battalion and Howit-
zer platoon to fill their requisition.
Having previously designated an assembly point for
empty vehicles, he will assemble all wagons and conduct
them as a train to the brigade munitions distributing
point at CR-584 (363.4-753.9), where they will refill
and return to the regimental munitions distributing point,
ready to follow the advance.
2
TTTT
936–Benning, Ga., 11-12-23-2500
OCT 23 1924
RADIO
AND RADIO SETS.
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE .................: Radio Communication and Radio Sets!
BY .....
..........: First Section.

COLLOW
S
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA.
1923–1924.
237—Benning, Ga., 3-28-24-2500


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RADIO COMMUNICATION AND RADIO SETS.
SECTION 1. General ......
Brigade radio and panel section ........
III. Regimental radio and panel section ........
• IV. Battalion radio and panel section .............
V. Infantry radio sets ......
Paragraph.
.. 1-13
14-17
18-21
22-25
26-31
SECTION I.
GENERAL.
Paragraph.
General
Tactical supervision ..
Radio nets
Net command station
Classes of radio nets ............
Operation of radio nets ......
Radio communication on the march ............
Advantages of radio communication.
Disadvantages of radio communication .............
Location of stations ..........
Special employment of radio .................
Radio call letter codes ...........................
Distribution of call letter codes ...........
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1. General."
Radio is used as a means for communication between all
combat units down to and including battalions, tanks and
airplanes. Especially within the infantry brigade, radio
during the World War was considered unreliable, slow and
seldom if ever applicable to the requirement of the moment.
It may be well to point out some of the reasons for this
with a view toward a prevention in the future. Heretofore
radio telegraphy has not been fully utilized due to a lack
of training for operators, a lack of a selected and responsi-
ble agency for the coding and decoding of messages, and to
a common lack of appreciation and understanding of this
i
(3).


RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO
system by battalion, regimental and brigade
These have been advanced as the chief reasons Ion
limited use of radio. On the whole these are sound, but
fundamentally the infantry has had no sets which were
sufficiently reliable under combat conditions. This has
militated against the use of radio and promoted misconcep-
tions and wrong methods. This lack of good infantry radio
sets is rapidly being remedied and everything points toward
a satisfactory solution of this matter. With such a solu-
tion, we must reiterate and emphasize that the functioning
of these instruments within infantry organizations to in-
*lude the brigade, is now the sole responsibility and duty
of the infantry. This responsibility and these duties re-
solve themselves into training of personnel along lines
which are sound tactically and technically.
kas.
-
2. Tactical supervision.
For official radio communication, it becomes the duty of
the field officer to understand the powers and limitations in
The use of radio instruments as a means of communication.
With this understanding, it becomes a relatively simple
matter, but of great importance, for such officers to know
and determine the competency of personnel charged with
this duty. By proper questioning and some tactical super-
vision, proper establishment, operation and maintenance of
the radio station is further assured and facilitated. Much
better results are obtained in all tactical situations if the
unit commander recognizes the importance of each and
every means of communication which are at his disposal
for the exercise of command. He must, himself, be in
liaison with his communication officers, and all means of
communication if maximum results are to be expected in
the operation of his unit.
13
3. Radio Nets.
In order that radio communication may follow the proper
Channel of tactical command, the radio station of the super-
jor unit and the radio stations of the next subordinate
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
units are grouped into one radio set. Each net is designated
by the name of the superior unit. Thus, the division net
includes the division station and the brigade stations. The
brigade net includes the brigade station and the regimental
stations. The regimental net includes the regimental and
battalion stations of an infantry regiment and the stations
of any artillery units attached to or supporting the infantry
regiment.
4. Net command station (NCS)
The station at the superior headquarters of any net
is commonly called the net command station (NCS). This
station supervises the operation of the net.
5. Classes of radio sets.
For purpose of control radio nets are divided into three
classes:
a. Directed net.-When a station in a directed net desires
to transmit, permission to do so must first be obtained from
the NCS. This procedure permits the NCS to supervise
the operation of the stations in the net. This class of net
is most commonly used.
b. Control nets. During moments of confusion when
operators are apt to become excited and jam the air, the
net command station may change the net to a controlled
net. In a controlled net the NCS calls the various stations
asking them if they have anything to transmit. If they
have, a period of time is alloted them for this transmission.
Stations in a controlled net can not ask for permission to
transmit. The controlled net is used to avoid excess radio
traffic and restore net discipline.
C. Free nets.The free net is one in which each station
may transmit at any time. No control is exercised by the
NCS in a free net.
6. Operation of radio nets.
The operation of radio nets is tactical in character and
must conform to existing conditions. Stations in these
6.
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
nets advance and retire with their units. Many cases arise
when there must be absolute control of the air in every
net, and those messages which are of vital military im-
portance must be given the right of way. The changes pro-
duced by the varying tactical situation require net dis-
cipline, control and direction, so that any net can serve
promptly the will of the commander who is responsible for
its tactical operation. In all cases, except priority mes-
sages, permission will be obtained from the originating
station's NCS before entering another net. After per-
mission is granted by the NCS to enter the adjacent net,
the calling station will change to the wave length of the
adjacent net, and call to the NCS of that net requesting
permission to transmit the message. When permission is
granted, call is made to the station in the adjacent net
for which transmission is desired. When the transmission
is completed, the calling station will report back into its
own net. The commanding officer of the unit exercises
tactical control over the net of his unit through the NCS.
7. Radio commmunication on the march.
Radio communication may be used between units on the
places. The establishment of radio communication during
hourly halts is not routine practice.
8. Advantages of radio commmunication. ..
a. The transmitting ability is independent of conditions
of roads and traffic and is only slightly affected by the
nature of the intervening terrain. . . :
6. Radio can be used between rapidly moving units when
distances are so great and movement so continuous that
wire and messenger communication can not be maintained.
Under these conditions arrangements may be made in ad-
vance for the simultaneous establishment of stations at
certain hours, as for example two or four times during the
day. All radio stations are established during nightly halts
an' -emain in operation during the night..
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
9. Disadvantages of radio communication.
The following disadvantages in the use of radio are ap-
parent:
a. Radio communication is not secret. This disadvantage
necessitates the use of a code.
b. The general position and number of radio sets can be
located by enemy goniometric stations, by which the amount
of concentration of our forces can be judged, if he knows
our radio organization. This disadvantage can be minimized
by curtailing the use of radio during a concentration period
or by establishing dummy stations.
C. Enemy interference stations can interrupt the work
of our own stations. These stations, however, ordinarily
interfere with the enemy stations as much as with our own
and therefore, are not employed to any great extent.
d. Atmospheric interference called "static" occurs when
the atmosphere becomes highly charged with electricity.
10. Location of stations.
The following points should be considered when locating
radio stations.
a. The stations should be in a dry, quiet place and pro-
tected from enemy fire. At times radio signals are very
faint; noise and confusion make it difficult for the operator
to copy them.
b. Stations should not be placed in the immediate vicinity
of electric light plants, wires carrying alternating current
or telephone exchanges.
C. Radio sets should not be placed too close to each other,
due to their mutual interference.
11. Special employment of radio.
Radio is employed for the following special purposes:
*a. Reception only.
(1) Gonimetric location of enemy stations.
(2) Gonimetric location of enemy airplanes.
(3) Interception of enemy messages.
(4) Interception of friendly messages (supervision).
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
6. Transmission and reception.
(1) Meteorological data.
(2) Time signals.
(3) Press reports.
12. Radio call letter codes.
Call letters for radio stations are usually composed of two
or more letters, numerals or combinations of letters and
numerals, prescribed by the army signal officer in sheets
of call letters. From the sheets so issued signal corps officers
allot to their divisions certain sheets or blocks of lines. In
the past it was necessary for division signal officers to take
the blocks of lines so allotted and assign them to the radio
stations of his units. Certain types of call letters or those
of a particular sheet sometimes were restricted to a par-
ticular set. This having been done, it was necessary to
copy the call letters for each day of the month and furnish
to each radio station (for a fixed period) its own call letters
as well as those of every other station it was required to
communicate with. For the assignment of radio call letters
or settings to stations the Signal School has proposed a
system briefly summarized and illustrated below. It is
understood that the blanks as actually issued are carried
out and completed for the full number of days it is intended
to issue the call letters or assignments.
11n
13. Distribution of call letter codes.
d. The army signal officer prepares sheets containing call
letter tables in the following form for as many days as he
desires to issue in advance. He has them printed for dis-
tribution to corps signal officers in sufficient numbers to
provide for the issue of one complete line to each signal
or communications officer whose radio station will be re-
quired to know the call letters on that line. Additional
copies are provided for the records of the corps and division
signal officers. The letter designation of the sheet will
appear on each line of the sheet. Each line of the sheet
will be numbered. The spaces on each line under the head-
ings “Unit" and "Wave length or tuner setting," will be
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
9
left blank, so that the officers who will finally assign the
individual lines can insert thereon the name of the organiza-
tion whose radio station will eventually be given the call
letters of that line and the wave length or tuner setting
they will each employ. Perforations are advised between
horizontal lines, so that separate lines or groups of lines
can be torn out and pasted on separate cards for final issue.
EXAMPLE OF CALL LETTER SHEET.

Unit
She
(Left
R
Line, Wave Length or
Days
No. Tuner Setting TIT2 T3 T4 T5 T6
(Left Blank) WZS | Balance of call letters, days
LF7 | of the periods and lines omitted
3
Z041
Blank)
R
2
|
R
1
TI
b. From the sheets assigned him by the army signal
officer, the corps signal officer assigns certain sheets or
parts of sheets to the division signal officers. Other sheets
he utilizes for the corps net, assigning the various lines so
the various signal officers in charge of the radio stations
of the corps net, in the same manner as described below
for nets within the division.
c. From sheets of call letters issued by the corps signal
officer, the division signal officer compiles for each net
within his division, a table designated by sheet and line
the assignments of call letters for that net. Each table,
as will be seen from the following example, consists in the
listing for each "unit" of the net, of the "sheets," "line No.,"
and “Wave length or tuner setting,” but not of the call
letters. This is because these tables are published in “Sig-
nal Operations Instructions” (to be discussed later) issued
to all interested signal units of the division. The distribu-
tion is so wide and general that it would be unwise to pub-
lish the call letters for each unit in such a document, es-
pecially for several days at a time, because of the danger
of this information falling into the hands of the enemy.
The table serves as a guide and as a check so that each
signal officer can detect immediately any error in the assign-
ment of call letters within the net in which his radio station
works.
10
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
EXAMPLE OF A CALL LETTER ASSIGNMENT TABLE. !
Division net (SCR—79A and SCR130)
-
-
--
Wave
Length
Sheet L. Line

700
700
700
1st Division ....
1st Brigade.
2d Brigade .....:::::
1st Field Artillery Brigade ......
Corps Artillery ....
Tank Company ...
1st Observation Squadron ......
100
103
104
108
112
110
102
700
700
700
700
avIVIL DyuaaIUI
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
d. The actual call letters are furnished directly to each
communications officer by the division signal officer. They
consist of various lines from the call letter sheets printed
by the army signal officer, pasted on a card labeled for the
net to which those lines of call letters apply. On each line
the blanks of “Unit” and “Wave length or tuner setting”.
have been filled in by the division signal officer, in accord-
ance with his published "Call letter assignment table.”
Elaborate precautions are taken to prevent these call letter
assignments from falling into the hands of any person not
authorized to know them. The signal officer himself issues
to his radio station only those call letters they have to know
for a dạy or so. He does not issue all the calls for the
month at one time. The following two examples of call
letter assignment cards will illustrate.
e. As indicated above, each communications officer will
be furnished a card giving the assignments of call letters
and wave lengths or tuner settings for each radio station
of each radio net with which his own radio station works.
In addition, to facilitate the relaying by radio of messages
forward within a division, each communications officer will
be furnished the above data concerning the radio station of
every unit subordinate to the command of which he is com-
munications officer. For example, the infantry brigade
communications officer will be able to give to his radio
station the call letters of each station of his brigade, in-
cluding his battalions; but the communications officer of
an infantry battalion of the brigade can give to his radio
Y
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
11
operators only the call letters of the other infantry and
associated artillery battalions and the infantry regiments
of the brigade, as illustrated in "Card No. 7." Higher
units are given these call letters of subordinate stations
out of the net, so that, referring to Radio Message Blank
(transmission), for messages relayed outside of the net,
the call letters of the station at the final destination can be
inserted after (V), thus relieving an intermediate radio
station of the necessity of sending the message to its mes-
sage center for determination by decoding what the final
destination is. The communications officers of lower units
can not be issued the call letters of higher units outside of
those nets because of danger of capture by the enemy.
EXAMPLES OF CALL LETTER ASSIGNMENT CARDS.
CARD NO. 4.
(8 copies plus additional for aviators)
Call letters for 1st Brigade and 2d Brigade SCR—105 nets.
Unit.
1st Brigade ...
1st Infantry ...
2d Infantry
2d Brigade ..
30 Infantry ...
4th Infantry ...
Liaison plane ..
Line | Wave
Days
| Sheet No. | Length 1 2 T3 T4 T5 T6
| 140 | 150 | WZ2 | HFO |
X 144 ſ 150 1 LFT , QB2
X 147 150 | ZC4 | LD4
143 1 300 MP5 | RT5
148 300 l
141 300
1 185 1 500

CARD NO. 7.
(24. copies)
Call letters for infantry regiments and associated artillery regiments SCRM-77A net.

-
Unit.
Ist Infantry .....
1st Bn. ........
(2d Bn.)..
(30 Bn.)
1st Bn., 1st F. A. ..
2d Bn., 1st F. A. .
20 Infantry ....
1st Bn. .....
(2d Bn) ..
(3d Bn.) ......
Line | Tuner
Days
Sheet! No. Setting 1T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
į 113 4 LR8 / RW3
A 118 1 | KD6 | HA41
A 117
A 111
i 179
171
A ) 11:2
115
1 119
A 115 l
-
-
NOTE: Organizations in parenthesis are considered as in reserve. Tuner
settings are assigned to each of them as soon as its probable location is known.
f. The radio service code (RAD followed by number) is
a code issued to all radio stations and message centers down
12
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
to and including battalions and to all other units equipped
with radio. It is intended to be used for all radio service
communications between radio operators, chiefs of radio
stations, officers of the radio service of the army and where
there is available no other suitable means of communica-
tion than radio for all other signal service messages sent
by radio, for which the field code would not be satisfactory.
SECTION II.
THE BRIGADE RADIO AND PANEL SECTION.
Paragraph.
Functions of the brigade radio personnel ...
Organization and duties of the personnel of the
brigade section
Tactical principles of the brigade section
Summarization for brigade radio and panel section .......
...
14. Functions of the brigade radio personnel.
d. Receives from and transmits to:
the regiment
divisions.
lateral brigades
supporting units (artillery regiment).
Receives from airplanes.
b. Operates through the message center.
C. Operates buzzer phones when installed.
d. Controls the brigade net and responds to the control
of the division net.
15. Organization and duties of the personnel of the
brigade section.
a. The radio and panei section consists of:
1 sergeant
2 corporals
7 privates.
Of the privates, one is rated as an operator, one as a
chauffeur, and five are classed as miscellaneous, although at
least three and preferably all should be competent oper-
ators.
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
13
(1) The sergeant is the section chief. He receives
from the communications officer the net regulations,
the wave length and call letters for each set. He care-
fully supervises and directs the brigade net control. He
keeps the communications officer and the message
center informed as to the stations of the brigade and
divisional nets and of the degree of coordination with
the infantry liaison and contact planes. The charging
of the batteries receives his close attention. He care-
fully supervises the keeping of the station logs, deliver-
ing lists and retained copies of coded messages.
(2) One corporal, operator, is in charge of the SCR No.
105 set which operates in and controls the brigade net.
He keeps in communication with the regiment, lateral
brigades, supporting artillery units and liaison and
contact planes. He receives the wave lengths and call
letters from the section chief, keeps the station log,
delivery lists and accurately transmits and receives
messages.
(3) The other corporal, operator, is in charge of the
SCR No. 130 which operates in and is subject to the
control of the division net. He must be able to com-
municate with the sets in this net, especially the sets
of division and lateral brigades. He receives the call
letters and wave lengths from the section chief, keeps
a station log, delivery list and accurately sends and
receives messages.
(4) The private, operator, and three of the privates
miscellaneous, assist the corporal operators, two with
each set. Each set must listen continuosly.
(5) Two privates, miscellaneous, operate the panels
as directed by the section chief, or as directed by the
operators working the sets .
(6) The private, chauffeur, drives the truck which
carries platoon equipment and draws the radio trailer.
He is subject to the specific orders of the communica-
tions officer.
14
AND RADIO SETS
NS
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS 16. Tactical principles of the brigade section.
a. The section operates thru the message center.
b. It observes priority rules and radio net regulations.
C. It controls the brigade net and responds to the con-
trol of the division net.
d. Acknowledgement of all messages sent and received
must be made in accordance with the prescribed rules to fa-
cilitate “follow up” by the message center ,
e. It must be ready for all emergency messages, especial-
ly those of the supporting artillery.
f. Radio stations advance and retire with their units.
g. Communications on the march are established at such
prearranged times or places as may become necessary or
desirable. The establishment of radio communication at
the hourly halts is not routine practice. Sufficient per-
sonnel must accompany the transportation to operate the
sets during the movement, if this is desired.
h. When the brigade headquarters deploys or moves off
the roads and across country, the SCR No. 130 will not be
able to accompany it and the necessary messenger arrange-
ments must be made if its use is desired. In this case the
No. 105 must be removed from the trailer and transported
by hand.
i. In the approach march, the section guides on the mes-
sage center, preferably following it.
j. The relief of a section is not complete until all data con-
cerning stations with which the new section will operate has
been received and understood. Incoming sections should
not receive or prescribe new wave lengths, call letters, net
regulations, airplane identification and markings and
signals. Such procedure will furnish important information
to the enemy.
17. Summarization for brigade radio and panel section.
Personnel.
Duties.
1 sergeant chief of section
1 corporal operator, SCR No. 105 set.
1 corporal operator, SCR No. 130 set.
1 private operator, assists No. 105 set corporal
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
15
YYY
VU
3 privates miscellaneous; act as operators SCR No
105 set; 2 act as operators SCR No.
130 set.
2 privates miscellaneous; operate panels.
1 privates chauffeur.
10 total
SECTION III.
18
THE REGIMENTAL RADIO AND PANEL SECTION.
Paragraph.
Functions of the regimental radio personnel .. .....................
Organization and duties of personnel of the regimental
section ---...
19
Tactical principles of the regimental section ...................
Summarization for regimental section
18. Functions of the regimental radio personnel.
d. Receives from and transmits to:
the battalions
the brigade
lateral regiments
supporting artillery
Receives from airplanes.
b. Operates thru the message center.
c. Operates buzzer phones when installed. All buzzer
phones within the regiment come from the five issued the
regimental communications platoon.
d. Controls the regimental net and responds to the con-
trol of the brigade net.
19. Organization and duties of personnel of the regi-
mental section.
a. The radio section consists of:
1 sergeant, section chief
2 corporals, operators
3 privates, operators
3 privates, panelmen
9 total
16
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
(1) The sergeant, section chief, is responsible for the
proper functioning of the radio and panel details in
accordance with the orders and regulations concerning
such operations. He must obtain from the communi-
cations officer the wave lengths and call letters for the
sets. He should be a radio operator and thoroughly
familiar with methods of radio and airplane ground
communication. In the matters of supply and upkeep,
he must be particularly active, seeing that sets are
properly cared for, that spare tubes and other parts
are on hand and that proper arrangements are made
in advance to provide for additional supplies of dry
batteries and the recharging of storage batteries.
(2) One corporal, operator, and two privates, operat-
ors, have charge of the operation of the SCR No. 77A
set which works in and is the command station of the
regimental net.
(3) One corporal, operator, one private, operator and
one private, miscellaneous operate the SCR No. 105 set
which is in the brigade net.
(4) Two privates, miscellaneous, handle the panels for
communication with the airplanes and work in close
cooperation with the SCR No. 105 set.
b. All men of the radio and panel section should be effici-
ent radio operators. This should be normally included in
their training. Three operators are required with each
set, if their operation is to be efficient and continuous.
20. Tactical principles of the regimental section.
a. This section can communicate with the brigade CP,
other regimental CP's and artillery regimental CP's by
means of the SCR No. 105 set and by the panels if it is
necessary to transmit to and receive messages from the
airplanes. To the infantry battalions, artillery battalions,
and even other infantry regimental stations, radio communi-
cation is provided for by the SCR No. 77A radio set. Both
of these sets must be in continuous operation, listening in
if not transmitting.
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
17
TV1
YYY
b. The SCR 77A set as mentioned above is the command
station of the regimental net. It has the “break-in" feature
peculiar to this loop set which permits the station with
which it is working to interrupt it while transmitting.
This is a great advantage since it eliminates the necessity
of the receiving station waiting until a message is com-
pleted, in case a repetition of some kind is desired.
C. As a rule only the assault battalions use their sets to
communicate with the regiment and the artillery. The
other battalion sets "stand by," listening in and waiting to
be called.
d. Radio stations do not move forward to the new CP
until the old CP closes.
e. The radio and panel sections will move with the platoon
on the march in rear areas. The transportation accom-
panied by one or both radio mechanics will be with the
combat train. Conditions may require that at each halt
radio stations, with the operation of one or both sets, be
established by the section. Such requirements demand that
the radio detail accompany the transportation, or preferably,
that the latter accompany the platoon. If the transporta-
tion accompanies the platoon it will be under the orders
of the communications officer..
f. The situation will govern the location of the radio and
panel section on the march. The requisites are that when
the regiment deploys, the section can go to the indicated
location of the command post, without interfering with the
deployment and movement of troops. The transportation
must accompany the section as far forward as possible, in
order that communication can be quickly established.
g. The section chief will be directed by the communica-
tions officer of the general initial location of the radio
station when deployment in the presence of the enemy is
imminent. Equipment is unloaded and moved by hand to
the initial station location. Communication is established
as soon as possible and the communications officer immedi-
ately notified of this fact. The message center is also
notified.
18
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
h. In defense, radio communications are established and
improved as time permits. More protection is obtained for
the station. Times for radio calls are more or less regulated
and operators are divided into shifts.
i. In attack, the radio sections keep in constant touch
with one another. The SCR No. 105 set informs its net
command when it is about to close station. The SCR No.
77 set notifies the other sets in the net when it is closing
station, and indicates which station, usually that of the
reserve battalion, or even the extra SCR No. 77A set, will
be temporarily the net command station until the new
station is established. During the attack, because of the
relative ease with which stations may be established and
operated, the use of the SCR No. 77A set as a means for
communication should prove a great asset. Excellent con-
trol must prevail among sets. Radio procedure must be
followed strictly, otherwise confusion will prevail and poor
results may be expected. It is in the attack that the radio
personnel demonstrates its ability, and proves its worth.
When the communications officer goes forward to establish
the new CP, one man of the section should accompany him.
j. In an ordered withdrawal, the manner of operation is
similar to the advance. Time will usually allow the radio
detail to move out with the detail establishing the new com-
mand post.
k. The functioning of the regimental section during a
relief is similar to that prescribed for the brigade. The
time of the relief should, if possible, be 12 hours in advance
of that of the regiment as a whole.
l. During the occupation of an organized position, the
training of the section can be greatly perfected, striving
always along the lines of offensive combat. The section
must be alert and required to operate its sets, and, improve
its facilities from the standpoint of cover, comfort and con-
cealment. The section will have a tendency to become
stale, due to the non-use of radio as a means for communi-
cation by the unit commanders. As other means become
perfected, especially wire lines, the use of the radio will
ATY
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
19
become less and less if the unit commander and the com-
munications officer fail to realize the necessity for the con-
tinued use of this auxiliary means, when the need for such
use is not especially important. This section must be made
to feel that they are valuable and necessary. Pride in the
individual and section spirit comes with successful accom-
plishment of duty assigned-the reception and transmission
of messages.
m. The radio detail must function, in the pursuit, under
the specific directions of the communications officer. .
NOTE: For purposes of training, the SCR 79-A has been issued to some
brigades and regiments to replace the SCR 105, which has proven unsatisfactory.
21. Summarization for regimental section.
Personnel.
Duties.
1 sergeant
section chief
1 corporal
operator
1 corporal
operator
1 private
operator (SCR No. 105 set)
2 privates
operators (SCR No. 77A set)
1 private (miscl.) operator (SCR No. 105 set)
2 privates (miscl.) panel operators
9 total
SECTION IV.
THE BATTALION RADIO AND PANEL SECTION.
Paragraph,
Functions of the battalion radio personnel .......
Organization and duties of the personnel of the battalion 23
Tactical principles of the battalion section
Summarization for the battalion radio section
.........
..
24
22. Functions of the battalion radio personnel.
a. Receives from and transmits to:
the regiment
other battalions of the regiment
supporting artillery
lateral battalions.
20
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
The battalion cannot operate by radio with the airplane.
6. Operates thru the message center.
c. Responds to the control of the regimental net command
station.
23. Organization and duties of the personnel of the
battalion.
a. The radio and panel section consists of:
1 corporal
5 privates
6 total
(1) The corporal is the section chief and is responsible
for the operation of the set. He has the call letters,
the wave lengths, radio codes and panel codes. He
must supervise the display of the panels. Three pri-
vates are radio operators and help install the set, and
assist in the reception and transmission of messages.
All of these men should be trained operators. The set
must be ready for use at all times.
(2) Two privates are panel men and perform miscel-
laneous duties.
24. Tactical principles of the battalion section.
a. The battalion is equipped with the SCR No. 77A set,
and works in the regimental net. Communication will be
maintained principally with the regimental and supporting
artillery stations.
b. One of the principal uses of battalion sets is for com-
munication with the supporting or attached artillery. The
channel of such communication will be direct after per-
mission of the net command station has been obtained.
c. There is no special transportation provided for the
equipment of the communications platoon of the battalion.
For the time being, the battalion headquarters and head-
quarters company wagon (R and B) must be used for the
transportation of heavier signal equipment, including radio
set and batteries. Recommendations have been made to
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
21
provide for a suitable means for transporting the battalion
signal equipment.
d. In training areas and in areas in rear of the enemy, the
radio set operates daily in practice with the other available
sets of the net. All radio equipment is overhauled, and
where necessary, replaced. Every preparation is made
toward perfect functioning in combat.
e. On the march the radio set can be set up at all halts
to listen in for messages and to transmit messages. How-
ever, the need for this should normally exist only when the
battalion is separated from the regiment.
f. In the approach march, this section usually marches
in rear of the platoon as it has less need for observation
and reconnaissance than the wire section, for instance. It
can set up readily when needed.
g. In the attack and successive movements with the
change of command post the section chief acts under the
specific directions of the communications officer.
25. Summarization for the battalion radio section.
Personnel Duties
1 corporal chief of section, operator
3 privates operators
2 privates panelmen and for miscellaneous duties.
6 total
SECTION V.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
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-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.
-
.
-
.
-
-
-
•
-•
•
•
-
-
-
--
-
-
-
-
--
-
-
-
-
-
RADIO SETS.
Paragraph.
Infantry radio sets ........
SCR 77A set
SCR 105 set.
SCR 130 set ............
SCR 79 A set ..............
Summary
26. Infantry radio sets.
a. In designing radio sets for infantry use the following
points have been considered:
----------
-
.
.
-
-
.
.
.
-
-
-
-
.
-
.
-
.
-
.
-
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-
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-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
22
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
a. (1) Portability.
(2) Ruggedness.
(3) Reliability.
6. At the present time the infantry is supplied with four
different sets, which are described in detail in the following
paragraphs.
27. The SCR 77A set.
a. This is a new two-way (receiving and transmitting)
telegraph set and provides undamped or continuous wave
communication. This set is employed by infantry battalions
and regiments and artillery battalions. The range of this
set may be considered as 5 miles under average conditions.
Experience has shown that the adjustment of the set is very
critical and requires well trained operators to maintain
communication. The wave length range of the set, both
transmitting and receiving is from 74 to 76 meters. Within
this range of two meters it is possible to work on nine dif-
ferent wave lengths without interference. The type of an-
tenna used with this set is called a loop antenna. It con-
sists of a single turn of metallic tubing, the ends of which
are provided with suitable connection lugs for mounting
the loop on the set box and making contacts to the circuits
in the loop box. The loop is assembled in these sections which
are joined together by bolts and wing nuts. Each section
is hinged so that it may be folded for packing. When
packed, it is carried in a canvas case. Three storage bat-
teries, type BB-41, 4 volt, 16 amperes hour capacity, are
furnished with the set. Two of these batteries are with
the set (une in use and one in reserve), and one battery on
charge at all times; to facilitate carrying by hand the entire
set is divided as follows:
(1) 1 Set box.
(2) Equipment box, containing dry batteries, extra
vacuum tubes and head sets.
(3) 2 storage batteries.
(4) Loup antenna, in canvas case.
b. This set can operate only with a similar set.
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
23
28. SCR 105 sets.
a. The SCR 105 is a two-way (transmitting and receiving)
radio telegraph set with a working range of five miles. This
range which is considered adequate under ordinary cir-
cumstances but may be increased to thirteen miles if a two-
stage audio-frequency amplifier such as the SCR 72 or SCR
121 is connected to the telephone jack. There are six prim-
ary wave lengths varying from a setting of 150 to 300
meters. These are transmitting wave lengths. The set
complete consists of three parts, the lower equipment set
box and the antenna.
b. The principal use of the SCR 105 is for communication
between the regiment and the brigade but may also work
with the artillery and the airplane. This furnishes the regi-
lient with two sets, the SCR 77A and the 105, the former
receiving from and transmitting to the battalions, the latter
receiving from and transmitting to the brigade, supporting
artillery and airplane. The power equipment consists of
three storage batteries, one in use, one in reserve and one
on charge. These batteries are known as the BB-23 are
10 volt, lead-acid batteries of the non-spill type. They have
a 20 ampere hour capacity and each weighs about 25 pounds,
The antenna is an inverted L, 20 feet high and 75 feet long,
with a lead in wire 25 feet long. It is set up by means of
two bamboo masts held in place by light guys attached to
ground stakes. The ground is either a buried mat or a
counterpoise. There are two ground mats made of coarse
copper wire mesh each 9 by 1 2-3 feet. The counterpoise
consists of two heavily insulated wires 75 feet long.. All of
this equipment is capable of being transported by hand.
The radio equipment proper is contained in a chest which
weighs approximately 25 pounds, has no projections when
closed and is furnished with a carrying strap. This set is
fairly satisfactory but causes a great deal of interference
when operated in the vicinity of other stations.
29. SCR 130 set.
a. The SCR 130 set is designed primarily to transmit and
receive undamped wave radio telegraphy. It is essentially
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
the same as the SCR 127 pack set which is intended for
mounted organizations and differs only in the means provid-
ed for transportation and the source of electric current. The
SCR 130 set is intended for communication between organ-
izations equipped with ample motor or wagon transportation
and is assigned to each of the following organizations:
Infantry division
Infantry brigade
Cavalry division
Cavalry brigade
Cavalry division train.
We are chiefly concerned with the assignment to the in-
fantry brigade and communication with it to and from the
division with the artilllery and the airplane. The set has a
communicating radius of 60 miles and a wave length range,
both sending and receiving, of 550 to 1,100 meters. Thus
at brigade, as at the regiment there are two sets, the SCR
105 and the SCR 130, for communication with the regi-
ments and the division, the artillery and the airplane. The
SCR 130 is a recent development of the signal corps and
is held to be the best and most efficient within the brigade.
However, owing to the weight of the antenna equipment,
the shelter tent, the set and the power equipment, its use
in its present form is prohibitive forward of brigade.
b. The antenna equipment consists of a sectional mast.
antenna wire guy ropes and ground stakes. The mast con-
sists of 14 sections, each 4 feet, 2 inches long. Including the
coupling tube, the mast sections are 5 feet, 2 inches over all.
Ten sections are used for the mast and three sections for
a wall terit furnished with the set. One section is a spare.
The standard antenna is of the umbrella type with six
radiating wires each 75 feet long, insulated at the open
ends and held as nearly horizontal as possible by guy ropes.
extensions 90 feet long, the outer ends of which are fasten-
ed to the ground stakes. Both antenna and counterpoise are
carried on hand reels which facilitates packing, reeling and
unreeling. At least five men are required to erect the an-
• RADIO COMMUNICATIONS YA
25
AND RADIO SETS
tenna, and a clear space must be selected at least 225 feet
in dianieter.
C. The shelter tent is similar in dimensions and con-
struction to the standard “common” wall tent issued by
the Quartermaster Department except that it is made of
lighter material and is not provided with pole, and up-
rights.
il. Other equipment. Other equipment of this set con-
sists of nine batteries, lead-storage, three in use, three in
s'eserve and three on charge, a dynamotor and case for car-
rying same. Equipment type RE-22 consisting of the set
box, cords and a box for accessories, batteries, tubes, head-
sets, etc.
17
30. SCR 79A set.
The radio telegraph set SCR 79A is a vacuum tube set
designed for transmitting undamped wave signals and for
receiving either damped or undamped wave signals. The
transmitting and receiving wave length range is continuous
from 500 to 1100 meters. The transmitting range is given
as 25 miles. The set is large and bulky and is designed for
use at command posts that are provided with ample motor
or wagon transportation. The antenna used with this set is
of the “V” type with a 60-degree opening, 20 feet high.
Each side is 100 feet long. The antenna is supported by
three sectional masts, 20 feet high. Each mast is equipped
with two guy ropes and necessary stakes. One end of both
legs of the antenna wire forms the point of the “V” and to
this the 25-foot lead-in wire is attached. The power equip-
ment furnished with the set consists of one dynamotor type
DM-1 and nine storage batteries type BB-14. The batteries
are 4 volt lead storage batteries of 100 ampere hour capa-
city. Six of these batteries are with the set when it is in
operation (three in use and three in reserve) and three are
on charge. The entire set consists of the following:
a. Carrying case, containing the set box, vacuum tubes,
dynamotor, necessary cords, headsets and tools.
6. The antenna equipment, consisting of antenna wire,
masts, guy ropes, ground stakes, hammers and counterpoise.
Y
RADIO COMMUNICATIONS AND RADIO SETS
c. Nine storage batteries type BB-14.
31.-Summary.
In this conference an attempt has been made to emphasize
the kinds of sets used at the battalion, regimental and brig-
ade headquarters, something of their functios and use with a
minimum detail as to theoretical and technical aspect. In
order to promote thought along radio lines, the question
presents itself as to whether it is not necessary or at least
highly desirable for infantry radio operators to be inter-
changeable at the different headquarters within the bri-
gade. In other words should not the infantry operator be
thoroughly competent to operate all sets within the brigade?
At present this is not possible owing to the great differ-
ences in the equipment. Hence training in the theoretical
and technical use of the sets is different, the sets are not
interchangeable as to parts and the supply of equipment
is made more difficult.
BOOK SHOP
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA.
THIRD CONSIGNMENT - THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
MAILING LIST.
************
**********************************************************
1. Conference -- Infantry Weapons,
2. Conference -- Combat in Woods,
3, Notes On -- Scouting and Patrolling.
4. Conference -- Dutposts.
5. Conference -- The Regiment, Regimental Headquarters, and Head quarters
Company.
Conference -- Offensive Combat.
Conference -- Marches, Camps, Shelter.
8. Errata Sheet -- The Battalion, Battalion Headquarters, and Headquarters
Company. ( Conference ).
**
*************************
*********
**
**
************
**
*****
*********
**
THE BOOK SHOP IS ABLE TO SUPPLY A LIMITED NUMBER OF KALAMAZOO BINDERS
AT $ 2.15 each
PREPAID.
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
OCT 23 1924
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923-1924.
........
Map Problem
By
Maps ..............
..: The Assault Battalion in Attack.
....: First Section.
General Map, Gettysburg-Antietam, 1 inch
equals 5 miles.
Topograhical Map, Gettysburg-Antietam,
1:21120, Hunterstown and Arendtsville
sheets.
General situation:
The mountain ranges to the west of the valleys of the
Monocacy River and Conewago Creek form the boundary
between two hostile states, Blue (west) and Red (east).
The Blue army invaded Red territory and was stopped
along the line Monocacy River with its left flank at Gettys-
burg by the Red army. A Red force of all arms is in re-
serve near New Oxford.
Special situation (BLUE):
The Blue army plans to resume its attack 24 Mar 24. The
1st Division now northeast of Arendtsville protecting the
left flank of the Blue army was ordered to advance on New
Oxford on 24 Mar 24, and destroy the Red force known to
be at that place. The Red force near New Oxford, was esti-
mated to be less than one division. At 5:00 AM 24 Mar 24
the 1st Division began its advance. At 7:00 AM the Blue
advance guards encountered Red advance guards on the
southeastern slope of the first ridge to the east and north-
east of Table Rock SH and drove them east of the stream
which flows southwest past Herman. No futher advance
was attempted by the Reds, and they were observed de-
ploying along the hill 592 - hill 607 ridge. The division
commander decided to attack at 11:30 AM.
The 1st Battalion 1st Infàntry is located in the woods
north of the unimproved road at (350.2-759.5).
At 9:30 AM Lieutenant Colonel "1st Battalion, 1st In-
fantry” with Bn 2, Bn3, Battalion Communications Officer,
Company Commander, Company D and two messengers,
SIS
(1)
all mounted reported to Colonel "1st Infantry" at the woods
at (351.7-759.5), and received an attack order, extracts of
which follow:
“A Red force of all arms, estimated as a reinforced brig-
ade, is deploying along the general line, trees 200 yards
north of J. Weaver -hill 592- road junction 400 yards east
of Herman- road junction 581. Red reserves are on the
ridge south of R. Smith and on hill 574.
"Our brigade attacks with regiments abreast, the 2d In-
fantry on the right, captures hill 592 and the ridge south
of R. Smith, and assists the 2d Brigade in taking hill 607.
“The 1st Battalion, 1st Field Artillery, west of Hirst,
will support the 1st Infantry by progressive concentrations.
The 101st Field Artillery supports the division. The at-
tack will be preceded by thirty minutes artillery preparation
begining at 11:00 AM. Hill 607 and the woods on its south-
western slope will be covered by concentrations and smoke
from 11:30 AM to 12:20 PM.
“This regiment (less 3d Battalion) will penetrate the
enemy's position between road junction 548 and the woods
on the southwestern slope of hill 607, and assist 2d Brigade
to capture Hill 607. It will then, assisted by the 2d Infantry,
take the ridge south of R. Smith.
“Time of attack: 11:30 AM.
"Formation : column of battalions, 1st Battalion in as-
sault”.
Line of departure: the northeast and southwest ridge
which is 1000 yards southeast of Table Rock.
Zone of action:
Southwest (right) boundary: Table Rock -Woods at (352.2-
759.0) - road junction 548 - road junction at (353.4-756.9),
all exclusive -roads junction 552 inclusive.
Northeast (left) boundary: Fidler -house at (353.5-
758.8) (both exclusive) -crossroads 549 - house at (354.5-
755.8) (both inclusive).
“The 1st Battalion (one platoon, howitzer company at-
tched) will penetrate the enemy's position between road
junction 548, and the woods on the southwestern slope of
( 2 )
hill 607, and assist the 2d Brigade in the capture of hill
607. It will then, assisted by the 2d Infantry, take the ridge
south of R. Smith.
“Zone of action : same as for regiment.”
The 2d Battalion, in regimental reserve, will await orders
in the woods along the stream at (351.2-760.6). It will de-
tail one rifle section as a connecting group to maintain con-
nection with the 2d Brigade.
The 3d Battalion, now in position along the line, ridge
700 yards northwest of. Herman - woods at (352.1-759.9)
will remain in its present position until passed by the as-
sault battalions. The battalion (less Company M) will then
assemble near road junction, 900 yards northwest of Her-
man as brigade reserve. Company M, from its present
position, will support the attack of the 1st Infantry by
direct overhead fire until its fire is masked, when it will
revert to the control of the battalion commander.
"Company H from positions on ridge near (352.3-760.7)
will support the attack of the 1st Battalion and assist the
2d Brigade in the capture of hill 607 by fire on the enemy
position on hill 607 and woods on southwest slope thereof
until its fire is masked when it will revert to the reserve.
"The Howitzer Company (less one platoon) from posi-
tions near woods at (352.3-760.7) will support the attack
of the 1st Battalion and assist the 2d Brigade in the capture
of hill 607 by fire on hill 607 and woods on southwest slope
thereof until its fire is masked when it will revert to the
reserve.
"Regimental Munitions Distributing Point: woods north-
west of road junction at (351.4-760.8).
"Field trains will remain in their present positions. Com-
bat trains (less munitions sections) will remain in present
positions. Munitions sections, combat trains will refill at
the Regimental Munitions Distributing Point and await
orders in that vicinity.
“Regimental aid station: house at (351.5-761.5).
"Prisoners to woods 300 yards northeast of A. Logan.
T1
1
A
(3)
"Axis of signal communication: A. Logan - woods at
(352.1-760.6)-woods at (353.1-759.2) - R. Smith.
1st Battalion: Same as regimental axis.
“Command post: 1st Infantry: A. Logan.
1st Battalion: wooded draw (352.1-760.6).
2
Required:
Actions taken and orders as actually issued by Lieuten-
ant Colonel “1st Battalion” from the time he received the
· regimental commander's order to include orders issued for
the attack.
NOTE: Conewago is fordable. Weather: fair. Roads: dry.
Observation: good.
Wind: towards southeast.
A SOLUTION
1. Lt. col. “1st Battalion” sends the following written
Co. 1st Bn,
Woods at (351.7-759.5)
24 March 24 - 9:45 AM
To Major "second-in-command"
Enemy holds the line GOODINTENT SH-hill 607. We
attack from ridge 1000 yards east of TABLE ROCK at
11:30 AM.
Companies A and B with will be assualt companies, Com-
pany A on the right. Company C reserve. Move battalion
at once to draw 500 yards southeast of TABLE ROCK via
woods along CONEWAGO and orchard west of RJ 567.
Have battalion staff and company commanders join me
at southeast edge of woods at (351.7-759.5) at 10:30 for
orders.
Lt. Col. “1st Battalion”
2. He issues the following verbal orders:
(a) To CO Company D: Reconnoiter for gun positions
within our zone of action on this ridge paying particular
.
(4)
attention to woods at (352.2-760.1) and report to me here
with your recommendations at 10:25 AM."
(b) To Communications Officer: "Establish CP in draw
at (352.1-760.6) and report to me here at 10:30 AM”.
(c) To Bn2: "Reconnoiter for observation posts. and
get detailed information concerning enemy in our front
from 3d Battalion. Report to me here at 10:25 AM."
(d) To Bn 3: "Order commander of Howitzer Platoon
which is attached to this battalion to reconnoiter for posi-
tions within our zone of action on this ridge, paying par-
ticular attention to vicinity of woods at (352.2-760.1) and
to meet me here at 10:25 AM.”
3. Lt. Col. "1st Battalion” accompanied by Bn 3, then
makes a reconnaissance of his sector, moving under cover
of the ridge to woods at (352.4-760.3), and then to woods
at (352.4-760.7) from which positions he can obtain a
good view of the ground over which the attack will be
made, and the enemy's position in front, comparing the
ground with the map.
10:25 he returns to woods at (351.7-759.5),gets reports
from CO Company D, CO Howitzer Platoon, and Bn2, and
issues the following verbal orders to his staff, and com-
pany, and attached unit commanders assembled there:
"A Red force of all arms, estimated as a reinforced brig-
ade, is deployed along the general line, trees 200 yards
north of J. WEAVER - HILL 592 - ROAD JUNCTION 400
yards east of HERMAN - ROAD JUNCTION 581. Red re-
serve are on the ridge south of R. SMITH and on HILL
574,
Our regiment (less 3d Battalion) in conjunction with ad-
joining troops attack at 11:30 AM today in column of bat- ·
talions.
The 2d Infantry is on our right and the 2d Brigade on our
left.
The 1st Battalion, 1st Field Artillery, west of HIRST, will
support the 1st Infantry by progressive concentrations. The
101st Field Artillery supports the division. The attack will
be preceded by thirty minutes artillery preparation begin-
IL
)
1
.(5)
ing at 11:00 AM. HILL 607 and the woods on its south
western slope will be covered by concentrations and smoke
from 11:30 AM to 12:20 PM. The advance guard is in
position on this ridge and will cover our deployment.
The 3d Battalion, 1st Infantry, now in position along the
line, ridge 700 yards northwest of HERMAN - woods at
(352.1-759.9), will remain in its present position until pass-
ed by the assault battalions. Company M, from it present
position, will support the attack of the 1st Infantry by
direct overhead fire, until its fire is masked, when it will
revert to brigade reserve.
Company “H” from positions on ridge near (352.3-
760.7) will support the attack of the 1st Battalion and
assist the advance of the 2d Brigade by fire on the enemy
position on Hill 607 and woods on the southwest slope there-
of until its fire is masked when it will revert to the reserve.
The Howitzer Company (less one platoon) from positions
near woods at (352.3-760.7) will support the attack of the
1st Battalion and assist the advance of the 2d Brigade by
fire on Hill 607 and woods on the southwest slope thereof
until its fire is masked when it will revert to the reserve.
This battalion with 1st Platoon Howitzer Company at-
tached, with Company “A” on the right, and Company “B”
on the left will attack at 11:30 AM, penetrating the enemy's
position between road junction 548 and the woods on the
southwest slope of Hill 607, and assist the 2d Brigade to
capture Hill 607. It will then, assisted by the 2d Infantry,
take the ridge south of R SMITH, driving the enemy to
the southwest.
Line of departure: the northeast and southwest ridge
which is 1000 yards northeast of TABLE ROCK.
Zone of action :
Southwest (right) boundary: TABLE ROCK_Woods
at (352.2-759.0)-road junction 548-road junction at (353.4-
756.9) (all exclusive)— road junction 552 (inclusive).
Northeast (left) boundary: FIDLER-House at (353.5-
758.8) (both exclusive)—crossroads 549-house at (354.5-
755.8) (both inclusive).
no
TI
(6)
Company A with its right resting at the southwest edge
of the woods at (351.8-759.4), attacking on a front of 500
yards will advance rapidly and capture the ridge northwest
of RJ 548, after which it will assist Company B in the
capture of the woods on the southwest slope of Hill 607.
by flanking fire in the direction of Hill 607. After the
capture of Hill 607 it will advance, and assisted by the 2d
Ion'fantry, will capture that part of the ridge south of R.
SMITH which lies within its half of the battalion zone of
action, driving the enemy to the southwest.
Company “B” with its right resting at the southwest edge
of the woods at (352.1-769.95), attacking on a front of 400
yards, will drive hard and, assisted by Company “A,” will
capture the woods on the southwest slope of Hill 607, after
which it will assist the 2d Brigade in the capture of Hill
607. It will then advance and capture that part of the ridge
south of R. SMITH which lies within its half of the bat-
talion zone of action, driving the enemy to the southwest.
Company “C” in battalion reserve will await orders in
woods at (352.1-760.7). It will furnish connecting groups
of one squad each to maintain connection with the units
on our right and left.
Company “D” will support the attack of the battalion
from first firing positions near the edge of the woods at
(352.3-760.1). Special attention will be paid to woods on
southwest slope of Hill 607. ;
The 1st Platoon Howitzer Company will support the
attack of the battalion from positions in the vicinity of
woods at (352.3-760.1). Special attention will be paid to
woods on southwest of slope of Hill 607.
Field trains will remain in present position under con-
trol of R4.
Combat trains (less munitions section) will remain in
present position.
Battalion Aid Station: wooded draw near house at
(351.9-760.8).
Prisoners to woods near road at (352.4-760.7).
-
(7)
Axis of signal communications: 1st Battalion, woods at
(352.1-760.6)-woods at (353.1-759.2)—R. Smith.
Command post: 1st Battalion; wooded draw at (352.1-
760.6).
· If there are no questions, that is all.
COMMENTS,
1. The location of the battalion command post was desig-
nated in the regimental commanders' order, and should be
established immediately.
2. The C O Company “D” should be ordered to recon-
noiter for gun positions, and to report to the battalion
commander with recommendations at a specified time and
place.
3. The C O of the howitzer platoon attached to the bat-
talion should be instructed as to the situation and ordered
to reconnoiter for gun positions, and to report to the bat-
talion commander with recommendations at a specfied time
and place.
4. The boundary between companies should extend far
enough to include the greatest advance that the battalion
is expected to make.
5. The position designated for Company “B” places the
entire company out of its zone of action, according to the
boundary between companies as designated.
6. To carry out the mission assigned to the battalion the
greatest effort should be made on the left.
7. The battalion commander should not issue orders con-
cering the use of the sub-divisions of the company.
8. Two conflicting orders have been given to the reserve
company.
9. The battalion commander should get in touch with the
CO 3d Battalion as valuable detailed information con-
cerning the enemy in his front probably can be obtained
from him.
(8)
10. It is practicable in this situation for the battalion
commander to issue his order at a point from which the
enemy position and the terrain over which the attack is
to be made can be seen by the group to which the order is
being given.
11. No base company, or guide is assigned in a battalion
in attack.
12. The interval betwen companies at the beginning of
the attack is too large.
13. Information that the 2d Infantry will assist in the
capture of the ridge south of R Smith should be given.
14. The battalion aid station should not be located at the
regimental command post.
15. Situation incomplete.
16. The frontage assigned to the left assault company to
cover in its advance to the first objective is too great, as
the greatest effort should be made on that flank of the bat-
talion.
17. The battalion should be moved immediately up as a
unit to a position preferably one affording cover and con-
cealment from observation and direct fire, from which the
units can be quickly moved to their attack positions. It is
held there until the battalion commander has issued orders
for the attack to the unit commanders.
18. The route selected for the movement of the battalion
forward is too long. A direct route towards TABLE ROCK'
or H. LOGAN should be used.
19. It is inadvisable to load paragraph 1 down with too
much detailed information concerning higher units. See
paragraph 44 (1) (b), page 23, Combat Orders. (No cut.)
20. The initial battalion command post was designated in
the regimental commander's order. Its location could
not be changed without authority from the regimental com-
mander.
21. The location, or disposition of units should not be
designated by the battalion commander before he has made
a reconnaissance, and has received recommendations from
the unit commanders concernd.
(9)
22. The C O Company “D” and the C O howitzer platoon
should be ordered to reconnoiter for position, and to make
recommendations to the battalion commander.
23. Information that the deployment will be covered by
the 3d Battalion should be contained in the order.
24. The instructions given to Company “D” in the initial
attack order should include first firing position, mission, and
targets. Detailed instructions in this order, concerning
actions of the company after H hour should not be given,
first because it hampers the initiative of the company com-
mander, and second because the targets for the machine
guns during the course of the action should be designated
when they are encountered as the situation develops.
25. The frontages assigned to the assault companies do
not cover the entire enemy position included within the
zone of action.
26. The plan of maneuver should include the attack of the
ridge south of R. Smith.
27. A boundary should be designated as inclusive, or ex-
clusive. (No cut.)
28. Information concerning supporting troops should be
contained in paragraph 1, and not in paragraph 2 or 3.
(No cut.)
29. Battalion aid station should be designated.
30. Connecting groups from the reserve company should
be detailed to maintain connection with the units on our
right and left. The size of the connecting groups should
be designated by the battalion commander.
31.. The bulk of the fire of supporting weapons should
be directed on Hill 607 and woods on southwest slope thereof.
32. It is impracticable in this situation to serve lunch to
the troops before the attack. (No cut.)
33. Instructions indefinite.
34. Detailed instructions to units should be placed in
paragraph 3.
35. The left assault company should be directed to assist
the 2d Brigade in the capture of Hill 607.
(10)
36. The zone of action to be covered by each assault com-
pany should be definitely defined, either by assigning a
boundary between companies, or by assigning to each com-
pany a definite frontage to cover, and direction of attack,
and by locating the companies on a definite portion of the
line of departure.
37. The battalion commander should make a reconnais-
sance of his sector while his unit commanders are being
assembled for orders.
38. The battalion commander's orders should include a
plan of maneuver.
39. The point where prisoners are to be sent should be
designated.
40. Information that Company “M” will support the at-
tack should be included.
41. See Comment No. 21.
42. The plan of maneuver should be contained in the
subparagraphs of paragraph 3 which pertains to the various
units of the command, and not in subparagraph (x).
43. The object of the battalion commander's reconnais-
sance is to obtain a good view of the ground over which
the attack is to be made, and the enemy's position in his
front, and to compare the ground with the map.
44. In this situation the battalion reserves should be
placed near the left flank of the battalion zone of action as
the greatest effort is to be made on that flank.
45. The C O Company “D” should not be assigned the
task of reconnoitering for positions for the howitzer pla-
toon.
46. Maintenance of connection between companies is a
function of the company commanders.
47. Two conflicting orders have been given to the bat-
talion.
48. The 2d Infantry was ordered to assist the 1st Infantry
in the capture of the ridge south of R. Smith.
49. In this situation a connecting group of one squad on
each flank is sufficient. (No cut.)
(11)
50. In this situation Company “D” snvuld support the
attack as a unit.
51. The position selected for this platoon, Company “D,”
is 800 yards in front of the line of departure, and affords
a poor field of fire due to lack of command and because
trees are in front of it.
52. The position selected for the howitzer platoon is in
front of the line of departure.
53. Information that Company "H" and Howitzer Com-
pany (less 1 platoon) will support the attack should be in-
cluded.
54. Premature use of reserve.
55. Conjectures, expectations, etc., do not inspire con-
fidence and should be avoided. They tend to divide re-
sponsibility between the commander and his subordinates.
56. Instructions to the machine gun company concerning
movement forward are unnecessary. (No cut.)
57. Wire and telephone are not available in the battalion
equipment to connect the observation post with the com-
mand post. (No cut.)
58. Faulty plan of maneuver. · The company which is
making the main effort should not be directed to assist the
other assault company, but should concentrate its efforts on
its own objective.
59. The battalion commander should send for his unit
commanders immediately, directing them to meet him at a
designated time and place, in order that no time will be
lost in issuance of attacf order.
60. See Comment No. 35.
61. Reserve company exposed unnecessarily.
62. Your plan of maneuver is so vague and complicated
as to be impracticable of execution.
63. After the capture of the ridge northwest of RJ 548
the right assault company should be ordered to assist by
fire the left assault company in the capture of the woods
on the southwest slope of Hill 607.
64. See Comment No. 48.
(12)
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This service at $1.50 a year, payable in advance, offers an
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(174920)

و اسکے (7 مرا ر
ی سے ان
/ 3
//
7
BOOK SHOP
THE INFA NTRY SCHOOL
FORT BENNING, GÅ.
NOTICE TO MA ILING LIST SUBSCRIBERS,
لما
The following is a list of pamphlets which consists the Sixth
Instalment of the Infantry School Failing List for the of
1923-24.
U2
hty
rin
1. Conference, Organization and Functions of the
Service Company.
"Verbal Orders and Dictated Orders.
"I Wire Communication,
"Supply of Regiment and Smaller Units
in Combat,
"Radio Comunication and mRadio Sets,
Problem, "Problem of Decision No, bo
"No.3, 1st Series, Advance Guard.
"Regimental feadquarters and Headquarters
Company No. 2-4th Series,
"The Assault Battalion in Attack,
"Battalion Headquarters and Headquarters
Company.No.1-4th Series.
"Eegiment in Attack.
12. Tactical Walk !! Machine Gun Company in Defense.
niona os
Compan
With this Instalment the 1923-24 Mailing List of the Infantry
School Closes,
Approximate cost of Printing.
sumber of Pamphlets sent out on failing Listeninen
Toxinate cost of printing Per. Pamphlet,.,
Total Cost Of Printing.....
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Net Loss to Goverment.ir., 1.00
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او

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دراما
مهمی
.... میده .همه .
جيجه
دن مدینه
به
۰
سا
ممهه
را
امد
/
الله
ارد
او :
ممه نه..
مهستم
.
معنی
in romantiquaria
ا
.
.\
ro
نم
0
و
و
ایده ال
د اده و
سسسسس
بسمه محسسهمهمندرسته.. مه :
2
مارس
20
. ۰۰۰. مممم۰۰
۰۰۰ -
BOOK SHOP
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
FORT BENNING, GA.
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Surplus copies of Mailing List material for sale.
(We only have a limited number of some of these.)
Price
Messengers and Agents -----
.100
- ----
.150
Care of Animals and Stable Management
.150
Animal Drawn Transportation -----
.150
Brig. in Attack with Art. Attached
.100
Deployment prior to Attack ------
.100
Battalion Hq. and Hą. Co.
.15c
Tanks, Fire power of, and Tactical Control.
.050
The Rifle Company ------------
Plat. in Approach March and Attack
.10c
Support Platoon in Attack.----
.050
Duties of Leaders-----
.050
Tactical Use of Tanks ----
.15c
Marches, Camps, Shelter
.150
Combat in Woods --
.150
Outposts -----------
Offensive Combat ------
.150
Regt., Regti. Hq. and Hq. Co.----
.150
Notes on Scouting and Patrolling
.050
The Howitzer Co. in Attack ----
.050
Machine Guns in Attack ------
Brig., Brig. Hq. and Hq. Co. ---
.150
Estimate of the Situation, (conference) ---------
.150
Troop Training in Ind. Protection ------
.150
Methods of Attack by a Rifle Platoon -
Functioning of Bn. Hq. and Hq. Co. ----
The Communications Officer -------------------
.050
Defense, including Organization of the Ground ----
March Protection ---
.150
Night Operations ----
.150
The Message Center-
River Crossings ----------
Organization and Functions of Service
.150
Radio Communication and Radio Sets -----
.150
Verbal and Dictated Orders ------
.150
We are also prepared to furnish any number of the Map Exercises
and Map Problems sent out this year on the Mailing List up to 800
copies of each.
The maps to be used in these various Exercises may be purchased
from the Book Shop at the following prices:-
Camp Benning Fire Control Map No. 1 -----
.150
Camp Benning Fire Control Map No. 2
Camp Benning Fire Contral Map No. 3 .--
.150
All sheets of the Gettysburg-Antietam Map are-------.050 each
.150
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OCT 20 1924
151
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924.
CONFERENCE ............: The Communications Officer.
BY
..............: First Section.
THE COMMUNICATIONS OFFICER.
........
Paragraphs.
Communications situation in the infantry during the World
War
Lessons learned
Reorganization
The communications platoon ....................
The communications officer ................
Duties of the communication officer ...
Qualifications desirable in a communications officer.........
Basis for judging his proficiency ......--
-------...........
COOTH CUNH
1. Communications situation in the infantry during the
World War.
a. During the World War a signal platoon, consisting of
1 officer and 76 enlisted men was organized as a part of
headquarters company of each infantry regiment. When
the regiment was extended for combat this platoon was aug-
mented by a platoon of 1 officer and 65 enlisted men from
Company C (outpost company) of the division signal bat-
talion. This detachment, 2 officers and 141 enlisted men,
was divided into 4 sections, one for each battalion and one
for regimental headquarters, and was charged with the in-
stallation, operation and maintenance of the communica-
tions system of the regiment.
b. Brigade headquarters had a signal detachment of 4
men. This detachment was too small to operate the com-
munications agencies at brigade headquarters. A detach-
ment of 24 men (12 men from Company A, radio com-
pany, and 12 men from Company B, wire company), divi-
sion signal battalion), was detailed to install, operate and
niaintain the communications at brigade headquarters.
2. Lessons learned.
This system required the merging of the two signal
platoons, each from a different branch of the service. The
VI
personnel were not trained together and during combat
many questions presented themselves that made it apparent
that the communications within the infantry brigade should
be handled by infantry personnel. The following lessons
were learned:
a. Personnel too few in numbers.
b. Responsibility was divided.
C. Training was not uniform.
3. Reorganization.
Upon the reorganization of the Army in 1920, the in-
fantry was charged with installing, operating and main-
taining all communications within the infantry brigade to
4. The communications platoon.
When the present tables of organization were drawn up
each battalion, regiment and brigade was allotted a con-
munications platoon. This platoon is a part of the head-
quarters company of a unit to which it pertains and its
strength varies with the size of the unit. This platoon is
divided as follows:
a. Platoon headquarters.
b. Message center section.
C. Wire section.
d. Radio and panel section.
e.. Messenger section.
To command this platoon a lieutenant, known as the com-
5. The communications officer.
The tables of organization do not show the communica-
tions officer as a member, of the unit commander's staff.
He is, however, a technical adviser to the commanding of..
ficer for communications and as such is considered a mem-
ber of the technical staff. In this capacity of communica-
tions officer he functions directly under the plans and train-
ing officer from whom he receives his instructions and
orders. It is vitally important that he keep in close touch
Zenfantry School, N.S. Anny
at
6-6-1924
with the plans and training officer in order to keep posted
as to any intended moves of the command post and provide
6. Duties of the communications officer.
a. The communications officer is responsible to the corc-
manding officer for the tactical and technical training of
his platoon and for the tactical and technical control of the
communications system of the unit.
b. He must have his communications personnel so thor-
oughly trained that chances of error in transaction, recep.
tion and delivery of messages will be reduced to the mini-
mum. This state of training will allow the commanding
officer to feel confident that his orders and decisions will
be transmitted and received promptly and efficiently. The
communications officer who brings his platoon to such a
degree of training has gained a great asset; the confidence
of his commanding officer. To be worthy of this confidence
he must maintain the training of his platoon to the highest
degree.
C. He must watch carefully the communications equip-
ment allowed his unit and take such steps as are necessary
to insure that all authorized equipment is available. He
must also pay close attention to the state of repair of all
equipment and arrange to replace any article that has be-
come lost or unserviceable.
d. In addition to serving as a technical adviser to the
commanding officer, he must possess the tact so essential
to avoid friction and permit him to work smoothly with the
staff and exert, when necessary, that forcefulness which
creates confidence in the minds of the officers and enlisted
men with whom he comes in contact.
7. Qualifications desirable in a communications officer.
a. General.
(1) Proficiency in the tactical and technical training of
his platoon, based on the fundamental combat prin-
ciples of the unit he serves.
(2) Trustworthiness.
(3) Tact, initiative and forcefulness.
(4) Good physique.
(5) Willingness and ability to work tirelessly and
without respite when necessary.
(6) Desire to cooperate for the good of the whole
command.
b. Tactical.
(1) Graduate of The Infantry School or have equiva-
lent training.
C. Technical.
(1) Graduate of the Signal School or have equivalent
training.
8. Basis for judging his proficiency.
The following points should be considered in judging the
proficiency of the communications officer:
a. Ability as a tactical instructor for his platoon.
b. Ability as a technical instructor for his platoon, on the
following subjects:
(1) Elementary electricity.
(2) Radio.
(3) Telephony and telegraphy.
(4) Duties of messengers and agents.
(5) Visual signaling.
(6) Message center operation.
(7) Ability to conduct field training for his platoon in
a way which will insure teamwork.
D
185—Benning, Ga, 3-7-24-2500
OCT 20 1924
2
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT
AND SMALLER UNITS
IN COMBAT
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE : Supply of Regiment and Smaller Units in Combat.
....................: First Section.
BY

ollow
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL.
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924.
246–Benning, Ga., 4-1-24–2500.
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT AND SMALLER
UNITS IN COMBAT.
SECTION 1. General ............
Paragraph.
1-10
11-12
13-14
15-17
III. Routine of supply (except munitions)
IV. System of munitions supply
SECTION 1.
GENERAL.
...........
Paragraphs.
Scope .........
Basic principle
Classes of supplies
Requisitions .......
Methods of determining ration requirements .................
Rations carried ...
Weight of rations ........................ ...------------
Trains .............
Operations of trains ..
Carrying capacity and cargoes of field train ...............
O 000-70 CTA CON
cocco
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1. Scope.
This conference is a discussion of the supply of the regi-
ment and smaller units in combat. It will include the
supply of the company. The subject of supply can be
well discussed under two headings:
a. System of supply other than munitions.
b. System of supply of munitions.
IU
2. Basic principle.
The basic principle in the issue of supplies is that troops
in campaign must receive the proper kind and quantity
of supplies in ample time and where needed, and in an
emergency without the necessity of formal requisitions.
(3)
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
3. Classes of supplies.
Supplies required by a regiment are divided into four
classes.
a. Class I supplies. All articles which are consumed at
an approximately uniform daily rate irrespective of com-
bat operations or terrain and which do not necessitate
special adaptation to meet individual requirements, such
as rations, forage and bedding, fuel, gasoline,, lubricants
and illuminants, including dry batteries, are called class
I supplies. This class thus contains all articles which can
be handled in the field on the basis of a daily automatic
supply.
6. Class II supplies. Authorized articles of equipment
which, though consumed at an approximately uniform.
rate, are for the personal use of the individual and neces-
sitate special arrangements to meet individual require-
ments, such as clothing and gas masks are called class
II supplies.
C. Class III supplies, Authorized articles of equipment
for which allowances are established by Tables of Basic
Allowances published by the War Department or by head-
quarters of the field forces, such as arms and engineer,
medical, ordnance, quartermaster and signal equipment,
including vehicles, both motorized and animal drawn, are
called Class III supplies.
d. Class IV supplies. This class includes articles for
which allowances are not prescribed; articles not includ-
ed in the category of field supplies; articles which on ac-
count of their particular nature and character, are supplied
by purchase or manufacture as needed; articles of an
exceptional nature, including those in process of develop-
ment; and all supplies which, by reason of shortage or
special requirements, as to manufacture and storage, re-
quire special supervision in their distribution and use.
For example this class includes munitions, construction
material of all classes, engineer and ordnance material,
other than equipment, and all articles of which the con-
sumption varies sharply with operations, season or terrain,
such as barbed wire, bridge and road material, lumber
I
1
i
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
and forestry products (other than fuel) railway ties and
rails and water supply equipment. It may also include
such articles as certain medical supplies, photographic and
lithographic materials, optical apparatus, chronometers and
other instruments of precision.
e. Transfer from one class to another. Any article which
normally belongs in Class I, II or III may, by reason of
special emergency be placed in Class IV, pending re-estab-
lishment of normal status of supply. This will be done on
orders issued by headquarters of the field force.
4. Requisitions.
Requisitions for supplies other than Class I supplies are
prepared by each company and forwarded to the regimental
supply officer who consolidates the requisition of the regi-
ment and forwards the consolidated requisitions to G4.
The supplies are delivered by a representetive of G4 at
the distributing point to the Regtl SO's representative at
that point who is responsible for the delivery of same to
the regimental distributing point.
y
5. Methods of determining ration requirements.
a. There are two systems which can be used for obtain-
ing information as to the number of rations to be dis-
tributed :
(1) The system of a ration return from each unit.
(2) A strength report furnished by the division adjutant.
ments or organization rationed separately, consolidates the
returns of the companies or other units and prepares a
ration return. This return is submitted to the office of the
subsistence officer in the afternoon for the following day's
distributon. The rations drawn by organizations are
therefore based on their strength of the previous day.
c. Under system (2), the daily strength report is used
as the basis upon which to distribute the daily rations,
in which case two copies of the strength report are sent
to the quartermaster's office each afternoon, one of which
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
is sent to the railhead office. This report therefore covers
the strength as of midnight the previous night.
d. Based on either the ration return or strength report,
the division quartermaster draws from the railhead the
Class I supplies for all units of the division for which he
is responsible.
O
6. Rations carried.
Present regulations prescribe that the following Class
I supplies be kept in the division at all times:
a. On the man-2 days reserve rations..
b. In regimental field train and rolling kitchen:
1 day's reserve ration.
2 days' field ration.
2 days' grain ration for each animal.
c. On each wagon or riding animal:
1 day grain ration for each animal.
d. In the division train:
1 day field ration for the division.
1 day grain ration for all animals in the division.
e. On each motor vehicle, one day supply of gasoline and
oil.
7. Weight of rations.
The following weights are assumed to be sufficiently
accurate for use in computing loads:
a. Field ration, 4.5 pounds.
b. Garrison ration, 5 pounds.
c. Reserve ration, 3 pounds.
d. Grain ration, may be taken in campaign as 10
pounds, although the usual prescribed ration is 9 pounds
for the mule and 12 pounds for the horse.
e. The hay ration may be taken as 14 pounds, although
it will vary for certain weights of animals. Because of
its bulk, 1 escort wagon can carry only one ton of baled
hay.
8. Trains.
The trains of the regiment are divided into ? groups,
i.e., the combat train and the field train.
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
a. The combat train consists of the combat wagons, roll-
ing kitchens and water carts of each company. They are
generally grouped as follows:
Battalion combat trains.
Howitzer Company combat train.
Regimental headquarters company combat train.
b. The field train consists of the R & B wagons and the
ration carts of the regiment.
9.-Operations of trains.
The operations of the trains are governed by orders,
based on the mission of the unit, nature of terrain and
the situation and are usually controlled by higher authority,
When a regiment is on the march the ration carts usually
march with the field train, and when the halt for the night
is made the ration carts join their respective kitchens.
This is not a fixed rule however, as the ration cart may
march either with the field train or combat train. The
trains of the regiment operate under the supervision of the
Regtl so.
10. Carrying capacity and cargoes of field train.
Approximate field train capacity---39 tons.
Approximate load of field train includes, 1 day reserve
ration, 2 days field ration, 2 days grain ration, baggage and
equipment-34.5 tons.
Excess capacity~4.5 tons.
The following is given as a guide to the amount of cargo
that must be handled to supply the regiment for one day:
1 day field ration–7 tons.
1 day grain ration-2.5 tons. .
Other Class I supplies~0.5 tons.
Total cargo_10.0 tons.
.
SECTION II.
ORGANIZATION AND DUTIES OF PERSONNEL.
Personnel ............
Duties
Paragraph.
----------- 11
........... 12
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
11. Personnel.
The personnel who operate the system of supply in the
regiment are members of the service company except the
following:
Regimental Supply Officer (member of regimental staff).
Munitions Officer (member of regimental staff).
Battalion supply officers (members of the staff of their
respective battalions).
1
12. Duties.
The duties of the personnel operating the supply system
of the regiment are:
, a. Regimental supply officer.
(1) The regimental commander in consultation with
the supply officer, the munitions officer and the plans and
training officer decides upon the plan of supply, based upon
the division administrative orders for the regiment. This
plan includes:
(a) Procurement of supplies, munitions, equipment
and transportation.
(b) The distribution of all supplies, equipment and
munitions.
(c) The location of the regimental distributing point
and the munition distributing point.
(d) The furnishing and allotting of transportation
for personnel and material.
(e) Collection and salvage of material from the battle-
field.
(f) Disbursement of funds for the maintenance of the
regiment (does not include pay of troops and of regi-
mental or organization funds). :
(2) The regimental supply officer is responsible for
the proper functioning of the supply system in accordance
with the plan adopted. His sphere of operations includes
the entire regimental area. His duties will require frequent
visits to G4, through whom he receives all supplies, as
well as visits to all units of the regiment. In the perform-
ance of his duties in connection with supply the Regti so
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
is assisted by certain officers and enlisted men from the
supply section of the service company.
(a) His office at the regimental distributing point
is in charge of the senior 1st lieutenant.
(b) A second lieutenant at this same point has charge
of the reception, storage and issuance of supplies.
(c) The junior first lieutenant is located at the divis-
ion distributing point and is charged with drawing all
supplies except munitions from the representative of
G4. He checks them against the requisitions, super-
intends the loading and delivers them to the regimental
distributing point.
(3) The enlisted personnel who function in the system
of supply are members of the service company and
niin
LIVI
IV.
IU
C
1111
functions and organization of the service company.
(4) The munitions officer. (a) This officer is in-
cluded in the regimental headquarters group and acts
as an assistant to the Regtl so to carry out the plan of
munitions supply, which differs somewhat from that by
which other supplies are handled. The requirements
for munitions being spasmodic neither the exact
quantity nor the time of replenishment can be foreseen,
though probable needs must be estimated so that
sudden shortages will not occur.
(b) The regimental munitions officer carries out the
plan of munitions supply, supervising, co-ordinating
and controlling the supply of munitions for the regi-
ment.
(c) He establishes and operates the regimental muni-
tions distributing point.
(d) The regimental munitions train operates under
his directions.
(e) He, assisted by certain enlisted personnel, draws
and issues the munitions for the regiment.
(f) Requests for munitions are forwarded to the regi-
mental munitions officer through the office of the Regt!
SO. These requests show the amount and kind of
munitions and the places for delivery.
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
(g) The regimental munitions officer is responsible
for the delivery of munitions to points designated by
battalion and special unit commanders.
(5) The battalion supply officer. He acts as an assist-
ant to the Regti so for the supply of his battalion. He
draws all his supplies, except munitions, through the Regti
SO and is responsible for the delivery of same, to the com-
panies of the battalion.
SECTION III.
.........
ROUTINE OF SUPPLY (EXCEPT MUNITIONS).
Paragraph,
Division to regiment
... 13
Regiment to company .......
........... 14
13. Division to regiment.
(Assuming that requisitions have been received by G4,
and the necessary supplies are now available for issue to
organizations.) The supplies for the regiment are turned
over to the Regtl representative (1st lieutenant) at the
division: distributing point. He checks them against a copy
of the requisition which has been furnished him for this
purpose. Under the supervisions of this officer, the supplies
for the regiment are loaded on the regimental field train,
which has arrived at the division distributing point at a
specified time in accordance with orders, and are hauled to
the regimental distributing point and turned over to the
Regt? SO's assistant at that point. The 1st lieutenant at the
division distributing point is responsible for the supplies
until they are delivered at the regimental distribuiting
points.
1
14. Regiment to company.
a. Regimental distributing point to kitchen sections.
When the supplies are delivered at the regimental distribut-
ing point, the officer in charge of reception and issue divides
the supplies according to company requisitions. The sup-
plies for each company are grouped by: battalions and
turned over to the battalion supply officer. Those for special
DT
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
:
11
TYT1
units are turned over to represenatives of those units.
Under the direction of the Bn So the supplies for the bat-
tallion and attached units are hauled to the kitchen sections.
Ration carts or ration and baggage wagons are used for
this haul. Upon arrival at the kitchens the supplies are
distributed to the various companies, under the supervision
of the Bn SO or his assistant.
b. Kitchen section to troops. (1) Rations. The food
necessary to the command will be issued daily, usually in
the evening. Upon arrival at the kitchen sections one day's
rations will be issued to each company. This enables the
cooks to prepare and issue breakfast before the morning
advance, cook dinner in the morning before moving and
serve a hot supper in the evening as soon as the situation
will permit. Cooks must be warned not to hoard food as
this causes delay in moving, due to bulk. At some time
during the day the company commander will notify battal-
ion headquarters the number of rations he will need for
the next 24 hours. Using this information as a guide the
Bn SO will notify the second-in-command of the companies
the number of rations to be prepared. The Bn SO is speci-
fically charged with furnishing two meals per day to the
troops, one of which will be hot, The Bn so will use the
ration carts to carry the food forward to companies or to
the point where the food is turned over to tcarrying parties.
In any event, the food is carred as far forward as possible,
using the transportation. When carrying parties, are em-
ployed a point must be designated at which the carrying par-
ties take over the food. When carrying parties are
furnished from companies other than those being served,
the company being served must furnish guides to conduct
the carrying parties. The second-in-command or the mess
sergeant must accompany the food to the companies and
return the food containers to the kitchen.
(2) Other supplies. The Bn SO receives his supplies at
the regimental distributing point based on the companies'
requisitions. These supplies are carried as far forward as
possible using transportation. He will designate a point
at which the supplies will be turned over to carrying parties.
TAT
2
SUPPLY OF P.EGIMENT T
IN COMBAT
1
At this point they are issued to the company supply ser-
geant, who is in charge of the carrying parties, and are
carried forward to the troops.
(3) The process of supply of the regimental head-
quarters company, service and howitzer companies is similar
to that of the battalion, except that company commanders
concerned take the place of the battalion supply officer.
(4) When it is not practicable for the units attached to
the battalion to operate a separate mess they are attached
to a company in the battalion for rations.
SECTION IV.
SYSTEM OF MUNITIONS SUPPLY.
Paragraph.
15
Battalion munitions distributing point ............
Method of issue ........
Quantity of animunition ...
------..........
16
........... 17
17
15. Battalion munitions distributing point.
Munitions are drawn from the division munitions dis-
tributing point by the regimental munitions officer, who
operates under the Regt! SO. This officer in turn issues to
the battalion, thru the battalion munitions disributing
point which is designated by the battalion commander. It
is located as near the assault companies as the situation
observation and cover from enemy fire are observed.
27
al. Upon the approach march.
(1) Extra ammunition having been ordered issued, the
wagons are brought close to the troops, each company be-
ing supplied from its own wagon.
b. The order directing the approach march will also
designate a rendezvous point for the combat wagons.
After the extra ammunition has been issued the combat
wagons assemble at he rendezvous point and form the
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
ry
11
regimental munitions train. This train operates directly
under the regimental munitions officer. The empty wagons
are sent to the division munitions distributing point to
refill and immediately return and join the regimental muni-
tions train. This train is kept filled at all times. As the
attack progresses and ammunition becomes exhausted the
battalion commanders, thru their Bn So, request ammuni-
tion, giving the kinds and quantities and the point to which
it is to be delivered. The ammunition called for is delivered
at this point by the regimental munitions train, operating
under the regimental munitions officer.
C. The munitions requirements will not be constant,
but will be governed by the nature of the operation and
intentions of the commander. Therefore the regimental
munitions officer must be ready to supply munitions on
short notice.
UIT
SW
VE
17. Quantity of ammunition.
a. The immediate sources of ammunition supply in
combat are:
(1) Ammunition carried on the person and, for machine
gun companies, that carried on carts.
(2) Ammunition in the combat train.
b. The quantity of ammunition carried by the individual
and in the combat train is prescribed in the tables of Basic
Allowances Special to Infantry.
(1) Troops.
(a) Ammunition; caliber 30.
Tracer Cal. .30
Armor Piercing
Cal. .30
Ball Car-
tridges,
Cal, .30
50
50
Red
White
25
25
Con
50
25
.
75
50
25
.
Section leader ......
Squad leader .......
Guide ..................
Scout ..
............
Runner carrying Very pistol.
Runner ..................
All other riflemen .......
Automatic riflemen
من ع
. .
4
16
per squad.......
M. G. carts, per gun ......l
M. G. ammunition carts ....
1000
3000
50
..........
200
..............
..........
14
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
(b) Pistol ammunition; caliber 45;
per individual armed with pistol only, 35;
per individual armed with rifle and pistol, 21. .
(c) Grenades.
Carried in combat train, issued as required.
(d) Pyrotechnics.
Carried in combat train other than Very pistol
cartridges. These are issued 15 per pistol after communi-
cations plan has been published.
(2) Combat train.
(a) Ammunition caliber 30-Rifle and headquarters
companies.
105-rounds ball per rifle.
960— " ball per automatic rifle.
4- ". Red tracer per rifle.
6— " White tracer per rifle. .
20% .” White tracer per automatic rifle.
Machine gun companies.
5250_rounds ball cartridges per gun.
100- " white tracer per gun.
400 ” armour piercing per gun.
(b) Pistol ammunition, caliber .45.
21.rounds per pistol.
(c) Grenades.
Hand.
Fragmentation, per rifle company, 288.
Smoke, per rifle company, 24.
Rifle.
High explosive, per rifle company, 216.
Smoke explosive, per rifle company, 36.
(d) Pyrotechnics.
Cartridges, Very pistol, assorted
15 per pistol.
Cartridges, V. B.
24 per discharger,
rifle grenade, in reg.
imental or battalion
headquarters com-
pany; 24 per regi-
mental headquarters
company; battalion
headquarters com-
pany; howitzer com-
pany and nachine
gun company.
SUPPLY OF REGIMENT IN COMBAT
15
Rockets.
15 per regimental
and battalion head-
quarters company.
(3) Division train.
(a) Ammunition, caliber 30-60 per rifle, divided as
follows:
54 ball
3 armour piercing
1.8 white tracer
1.2 red tracer
per automatic rifle, one half quantity carried in combat
train.
(b) Pistol. caliber .45–21 rounds per pistol.
(c) Grenades—one half quantity carried in combat train.
(d) Pyrotechnics. .
Cartridges, Very pistol, assorted
15 per pistol.
Cartridges, V. B. assorted.
!
24 per regimental
and battalion head-
quarters company,
howitzer company
and machine
gun
company,
Rockets, assorted.
15 per regimental
and battalion head-
quarters company.
OCT 20 1924
*-'-
!
.-
--*
.
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923–1924.
MAP PROBLEM
BY
MAP
: Battalion Headquarters and Headquarters
Company. No. 1 - 4th Series.
: First Section.
: Gettysburg-Antietam Map, 1--21120,
Taneytown Sheet.
GENERAL SITUATION:
Pennsylvania (Red) and Maryland (Blue) have recently
declared war. A Blue force of all arms has been driving
a Red invading force back toward Gettysburg. Yester-
day afternoon the fighting stopped with the forces in
close contact, generally along the line Taneytown-Bridge-
port. Artillery and air services of both sides having been
active.
Allaway Creek is not fordable.
SPECIAL SITUATION (Blue):
Army orders issued yesterday directed a resumption of
the advance, along the entire line, at 6:00 AM today (day-
light).
During the night the 1st Infantry occupied a position
extending from CR 476 (353.0-730.3) to RJ at (351.45-
730.90). The 1st Battalion occupied the right half, the 2d
Battalion the left half of the line. The 3d Battalion was
in regimental reserve along the creek at (351.8-729.2).
First Battalion zone of action:
Right boundary: RJ 507 (353.1-727.1)-CR 476-Hill 532
-RJ (353.1-736.1)-Hedgegrove (all
inclusive).
Left boundary: RJ 522 (352.2-727.2)-draw north of
RJ 522_woods west of Eckhardt (all
to 2d Battalion) -CR 4914CR 500_
CR 452—Hill 492 (all to 1st Battalion).
Companies A and B are in the assault, Company A on
the right. Company C, in reserve, is in the woods at (352.9-
729.5). Company D is supporting the attack of the battal-
i
ion.
.
(1)
A howitzer platoon is attached to each of the assault
battalions. The Howitzer Company (less 2 platoons) is
retained under the control of the regimental commander.
REQUIREMENT I:
a. Location of assault battalion command posts at the
jump-off and who would normally designate them.
6. What disposition, in general, has Bn 2, 1st Battalion,
made of his intelligence section for gaining information
of the enemy during the attack?
SPECIAL SITUATION II:
By:9:30 AM the battalion has advanced to and was occupy-
ing an east and west line on the forward slope of Hill 532.
The battalion commander is on reconnaissance and has sent
a message to Bn Ex directing that the command post be
moved to the woods on the south slope of Hill 532 and that
he will return to it there.
REQUIREMENT 2:
a. Prior to the receipt of this message what routine
action, if any, had been taken by any members of the com-
munications platoon in anticipation of a move of the com-
mand post?
6. What is the action taken by Bn Ex on receiving this
message?
c. Describe the movement of the command post to its
new location from the time Bn 3 is told to prepare to make
the move.
SPECIAL SITUATION III:
By 3:00 PM the 1st Battalion has reached and is hold-
ing a line about 600 yards south of the cross road in Harney.
The howitzer platoon attached to the battalion has been
severe loses that the battalion commander decides to re-
lieve it with the reserve company. He directs Bn Ex to have
this done.
(2)
REQUIREMENT 3:
Give the routing of this order from Bn Ex to the com-
manding officer of the reserve company.
SPECIAL SITUATION IV:
Battalion intelligence personnel report an enemy machine
gun nest in the farm house at (353.30-735.05). These
machine guns have been causing a considerable number of
casualties in the battalion. The battalion commander is
at the command post.
REQUIREMENT 4:
Action taken by Bn 2 on receipt of this information,
REQUIREMENT 5:
Action taken by Bn Ex on receipt of this information.
i
A SOLUTION
REQUIREMENTI:
a. 1st Battalion Command Post is in the woods south of
Boyd (352.3-730.3).
2d Battalion Command Post is in the southern edge of
These locations were designated by the regimental com-
mander in the regimental attack order.
b. Bn 2 1st Battalion has established an observation post
with a corporal and two privates in the north edge of woods
400 yards east of Boyd; he has sent a corporal and two
privates to each of the rifle companies to accompany patrols
that may be sent out by them; he has arranged to send
a searching party, consisting of two privates, to follow each
assault company.
REQUIREMENT 2:
a. When the assault line had advanced and it was appar-
ent that a move of the command post would soon be made,
the communications officer sent the sergeant, section chief,
i
(3)
and three privates of the wire section with a hand reel cart
to run a wire line forward along the prescribed battalion
axis of signal communications.
b. Bn Ex calls in the officers then at the command post
and tells them that the commanding officer has ordered the
command post moved to the woods on the south slope of
Hill 532 and directs Bn 3 to make the necessary arrange-
ments for the move. He directs all others to be prepared
to move in 30 minutes.
C. Bn 3, the communications officer, and a detachment of
the communications platoon with equipment necessary to
establish communications, proceed to the woods designated
for the location of the command post. Bn 3 then selects
the exact area to be occupied and designates the locations
for the commanding officer and Bn Ex, R3, the intelligence
section, and the communications platoon. He directs the
communications officer to establish communications.
When communications have been established and the new
command post is prepared to function, Bn 3 so notifies
Bn Ex.
At a suitable time Bn Ex orders the old command post
closed and the new one opened, so notifying all organizations
with which he normally communicates. When Bn Ex
orders the command post closed, the platoon sergeant con-
ducts the groups of the communications platoon, less one
line guard and one messenger, to the new command post.
The other groups at the command post conform to the move-
ments of the communications platoon, each moving to the
new command post under the direction of the senior officer
or non-commissioned officer present with it.
On arrival at the new command post, the various groups
are established by the officers responsible for them in com-
bat, at the places indicated to them by Bn 3 or the com-
munications officer.
TTT
V
REQUIREMENT 3:
Bn Ex calls Bn 3 and gives him the order, directing him
to transmit it to the commanding officer Company C. Bn 3
then sends for the commanding officer, Company C (he
(4)
being at the command post) and gives him the order
verbally. Should the latter officer not be at the command
post, Bn 3 would prepare a message for delivery to him
and send it to the message center. The message center,
after recording it, would call for a runner and send him
to Company C with the message. Here the message would
be delivered to the 1st Sergeant, Company C, who in turn
would give it to the commanding officer of the company.
REQUIREMENT 4:
Bn 2 immediately and hastily checks this information
with information previously received for verification or
conflict and then takes it to Bn Ex. He has it plotted on the
enemy situation map and entered in the Bn 2 Journal. The
battalion commander may direct him to prepare this in-
formation to be sent to the adjacent battalion on the right.
REQUIREMENT 5:
Bn Ex would take this information to the battalion com-
mander and suggest that the regimental commander be
informed of the situation and requested to have the machine
gun fire neutralized by artillery fire.
PART II.
DISCUSSION.
1. This problem is intended to show the functioning of
a battalion command post in an attack. It shows a battal-
ion in the most frequently used attack formation_two
companies in the assault and one in reserve, supported by
the machine gun company and a howitzer platoon. The
attack has been ordered resumed at daylight.
2. In an attack at daylight the initial battalion command
posts are usually located closer to the assault line than
in the day. This is to avoid, if possible, one move of the
command post during the day. It shows, also that the next
higher commander designates the initial command post
(5)
.
ton
for the resumption of an attack. This procedure would
not hold, however, for the resumption after a temporary
cessation of the advance during the attack. While the
higher unit commander prescribes the initial locations for
the command posts of the lower units, these locations would
usually coincide with the locations taken after dark or
would conform to the desires of the lower unit commander.
This designation by higher authority is announced in orders.
The information as to the initial location for all command
posts, at the jump-off, is essential to communications and
command.
3. The problem shows the disposition made by Bn2 of
his intelligence section prior to the jump-off. The intelli-
gence officer plans to have his section cover the entire area;
some of the scouts to be available to accompany patrols
that may be sent out by the rifle companies, especially dur-
ing lulls in the battle when greater opportunities would be
afforded for their operation; others organized to cover the
area in rear of the assaulting line, searching dead and
wounded, abandoned enemy dug-outs and command posts
for any new information regarding the opposing force.
An observation post is established as close to the front line
as practicable and in such location as to afford the best
observation of the enemy terrain. A part of the section is
retained as an office force, for searching prisoners, to be
used as replacements, and for supervising the work of
the field force.
4. During the progress of an attack the communications
officer must have a plan in mind for the movement of the
command post, the principal object being to provide ade-
quate and uninterrupted communications during the move.
In his plan he includes the early laying of the wire line
forward from the command post along the axis of signal
communications previously prescribed. This is done usually
on definite information from Bn3 and prior to the announce-
ment by Bn Ex that the command post is to be moved.
However, it sometimes happen that the wire is not laid
before Bn3 makes his preparations to move, in which case
the wire is laid when the latter officer and the communica-
TY11
.
(6)
111
tions officer go forward to establish the new command post.
In any event, routes of approach to possible locations for
the new command post are anticipated and necessary recon-
naissance of same made by the communications officer. New
command post locations are governed by two chief factors-
the action of the assaulting line and the axis of signal com-
munications.
5. Bn Ex announces to the headquarters group, the com-
manding officer's decision to move the command post and
announces the new general location. He is also responsible
for determining the exact time that the old command
post will close and the new one open. In units smaller than
a division this time is usually not decided upon and announc-
ed prior to the completion of the preparations for the
establishment of the new command post. When the new
command post is ready to function there is usually no
delay in occupying it and, conditions permitting, the old
one is closed and the new one opened imediately.
6. In a move the groups at the command post should co-
ordinate their actions, making the change in an orderly
and concerted manner with a minimum of friction, con-
fusion, and delay. When Bn3 and the communications
officer move forward, the latter officer takes part of the
communications equipment (one switchboard, necessary
telephones, including all but the Bn Ex and message center
telephones if conditions warrant, wire, etc.). He also takes
sufficient personnel to install and operate it and to pro-
vide messenger service. If conditions justify, such as
availability of men, establishment of an observation post,
necessity for a reconnaissance, Bn 2 also will send part
of his section forward at this time.
7. It is advisable for the commanding officer of the re-
serve company to remain at the battalion command post.
It is at this place that he can best keep in touch with the
progress of the fight and thus be best prepared for any duty
that may be required of him. The second-in-command can
handle well the company while it is in reserve. As it
normally would be located near the battalion command post
no appreciable time will be lost by the company commander
(7)
in returning to his organization on receiving orders affect-
ing it.
8. The problem brings out the principle of one channel
for communications i. e. through the message center. This
is an important principle that must be applied constantly
in order to secure the greatest use and efficiency from the
communications platoon, to avoid duplication of effort,
waste of man power, and loss of or delay in the delivery of
messages. All messages coming into or leaving the com-
mand post must pass through the message center. Those
coming in will be sent from the message center in writing
to a previously designated officer, usually Bn3. This officer
is responsible for the delivery of messages to the persons
concerned and final destination.
9. The problem demonstrates the function of Bn Ex in
the capacity of executive. In this capacity he is the co-
ordinator of the staff and the intermediary between the
commanding officer and his staff and subordinate com-
manders. In this he should not be reticent and the com-
manding officer should use him in this capacity. The com-
manding officer expects the advise and counsel of Bn Ex,
especially on matters pertaining to staff work and recom-
mendations by him should not be withheld.
COMMENTS
1. Requirement calls for the location of the assault battal-
ion command posts. Each battalion has but one command
post, i. e. the place from which the battalion is normally
commanded. The command post includes not only the office
of the commander, but includes also the various groups of
headquarters and headquarters company personnel who
assist the commander in performing his combat duties.
(Requirement 1 a.) (No cut where location of only one
battalion command post was shown).
. 2. Members of the intelligence section normally are sent
to the rifle companies to be attached by company com-
manders to patrols sent out by them. These men are not
(8)
furnished the rifle companies for the purpose of searching
in rear of the assault line. Other members of the intelli-
gence section are sent out to perform the latter duty which
includes searching enemy dead and wounded, abandoned
CP's, etc. These parties begin operations at the jump-off.
Observation posts function at all times.
3. Bn 3 (Bn 1 if at the CP) normally designates the
locations of the various groups (considering the communi-
cations platoon as one group) at the CP. Bn2 would not
designate the location for his group.
4. It is not a duty of Bn2 to have his men “observe the
assault companies”. He would send men to report to the
rifle company commanders for use with patrols that they
may send out. The intelligence section primarily seeks
information of the enemy and not of friendly troops al-
though information pertaining to the latter may and often
will be reported.
5. The regimental commander normally designates the
initial (jump-off) location for the battalion CP's. There-
after the battalion commanders designate the locations
they may desire within limits that may be prescribed by
the regimental commander. This is usually done by pres-
cribing the axis of signal communications for each battalion.
6. To establish battalion CP's or OP's in isolated build-
ings or other prominent features is not desirable. The
enemy will suspect such places as locations for CP's or
OP's. Such use is almost certain of discovery and eventual
neutralization or destruction at the best time to suit him.
They may be used as secondary locations for OP's. No cut.
7. In this situation the communications officer probably
would have gone forward prior to this time to reconnoiter
for possible routes for the wire line and for messengers.
Usually Bn3 will give the communications officer advance
information regarding a move of the CP to enable him to
make this reconnaissance or to have a wire detail lay the
wire. The communications officer does not reconnoiter
for a location to which to move the CP except incidently
but will usally make mental note of any desirable locations
(9)
TY
he may see, for use in case he is asked for recommedations
for a location. (Requirement 2 a).
8. The locating of OP'S is a function of Bn2 and not of
the communications officer.
9. The communications officer normally would not accom-
pany the battalion commander on reconnaissance. If the
battalion commander were to go on reconnaissance espec-
ially to select a CP location, (such a reconnaissance is
quite unusual) the communications officer might acom-
pany him.
10. Bn2, Bn3, the communications officer and other
officers present should be informed of the contemplated
move of the CP. Bn Ex normally will inform them.
11. Bn Ex directs Bn3 to make the necessary arrange-
ment for moving the CP to the location indicated. The
move is not actually made until Bn3 has notified Bn Ex
that communications are installed at the new CP and until
he, Bn Ex, has specifically ordered the move.
12. The hour for opening and closing battalion CP'S
normally is not determined until the new CP is actually
ready to be opened. The time is not predetermined. When
all arrangements for making the change are complete, Bn 3
notifies Bn Ex who then decides when the move will actually
be completed. After all arrangements are made there
should be no delay in moving the active or old CP personnel
and equipment to the new CP. When this move is made,
Bn Ex fixes and announces the time for closing and opening
the CP's and notifies the regimental CP, adjacent, suport-
ing, and attached units and units of the battalion.
13. Bn3, the communications officer, and all available
communications personnel and equipment (at least the extra
switchboard, telephone, and hand reel cart) will move
forward to establish communications, including a message
center, at the new location. The remainder of the per-
sonnel and equipment contiune to function at the old CP
until ordered by Bn Ex to move forward. Bn Ex designates
locations for the CO and Bn Ex, for Bn3, Bn2, and the
communicatons platoon at the new CP and notifies B,
Ex when it is ready to function.
uy
(10)
-
11
14. The actual organization of the new CP is carried on
by the various groups as nearly simultaneously as pos- •
sible. The communications officer, of course, gives par-
ticular attention to the message center and wire section.
15. The radio and panel and intelligence sections do
not move forward in preparation for the move. They go
on orders from Bn Ex. The battalion has but one set of
radio and panel equipment, consequently only one station
can be established at a time. A part of the intelligence
and other sections may go forward in the preliminary move
if considered desirable by the officer under whom they
function.
16. The first sergeant of a company is normally the mes-
sage center for the company and all messages sent to the
company should be received by him.
17. The commanding officer of the reserve company is
usually at the battalion CP, in which case the message
would be delivered by Bn3 or Bn Ex verbally and not
through the message center. (No cut).
18. The usual means of delivering messages to any com-
pany by the battalion message center is by runner. There
is no wire communication between battalion CP and the
companies.
19. Information from Bn2 for the commanding officer
should go through Bn Ex. Information that might be
of interest to other officers, such as Bn3, should also be
given to them. There should be close cooperation between
staff officers.
20. Bn2 will evaluate information of the enemy receiv-
ed by him preferably before it is taken to Bn Ex. The
Bn Ex should have the best available information. He
should be informed as to its reliability.
21. Bn2 usually would not take this information to
the commanding officer but would give it to Bn Ex who
is normally the intermediary between the commanding
officer and his staff. (Requirement 4).
22. This information should be plotted on the enemy
situation map and recorded in the Bn2 journal. (Require-
ment 4).
(11)
we
LAT
23. In this situation the battalion commander, in re-
questing neutralization of the machine guns, would call
R Ex, or Bn Ex would telephone to the regiment by direc-
tion of the battalion commander. The routine of a written
'message would involve too much delay under this condition.
24. Bn Ex should give this information to the battalion
commander, present at the CP, for his action. While
prompt action is necessary, the battalion commander him-
self should take the desired action in this case. (Require-
ment 5).
25. Fire on a machine gun nest in an adjacent zone of
action should be coordinated with the unit responsible for
the zone of action. This should be done perferably through
the 1st Infantry regimental headquarters. Furthermore,
in this situation machine guns are not the most suitable
target for machine guns.
186--Benning, Ga., 3-7-24-2500
(12)
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
OCT 29 1924
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923-1924.
TACTICAL WALK:
BY
DATE TO CLASS
Machine Gun Company in Defense
First Section
Advanced Officers' Course, 25 Jan. 24.
Company Officers' Course, 20 Mar. 24.
GENERAL SITUATION.
An invading Blue division, having advanced from Brad-
leys Landing NE along the First Division road, has been
defeated by superior forces near Harmony Church, and is
retreating SW along the First Division Road.
1
SPECIAL SITUATION (Blue).
The 1st Brigade, Blue, has been ordered to keep up a
defensive position on the line Davidson Hill-Ebbert Hill
-Singleon Hill—Talley Hill, to cover the withdrawal of
the remainder of the division.
The Order to Lt. Col. 1st Bn., 1st Blue Inf., received on
Ebbert Hill is as follows:
1
(EXTRACT)
Organize a center of resistance including Ebbert Hill-
Singleton Hill, and that part of Riley Ridge NW of the
Narrow Gauge RR inclusive.
Limiting points on firing line, (18.0-20.5)-(19.0-19.6)
Bn, reserve line (17.7-20.3)~(18.6-19.4).
At 9:30 a.m. Lt. Col. 1st Bn., 1st Inf. gives Capt. Co.
D the following information:
“We will defend this line (pointing out the firing line,
support line, and battalion reserve line on map and ground)
covering the withdrawal of the 2d Brigade.
2d Bn, 1st Inf on our right (SE) holding Davidson
Hill.
1st Bn, 2d Inf on our left (NW) holding Talley Hill.
This battalion will organize the following strong points
Co A Ebbert Hill
Co B Singleton Hill
Boundary between companies, draw north of Ebbert
Hill, RJ in 7th Infantry Woods, inclusive to Co. A. i
Co C Riley Ridge, on the Bn reserve line.
Limiting points on firing line (18.0-20.5)-(19.0-19.6)
Make your reconnaissance and give your recommenda-
tions for the use of your company with the least possible
delay”.
REQUIREMENT 1: (Time allowed, 45 minutes).
Recommendations of Capt Co D on the siting of the
sections (or guns) of his company. Show on sketch thus:
SECTION
GUN
Sector of fire
00<
ox
F. P. L.
REQUIREMENT 2:
Orders of Capt Co D to his company, assuming that your
recommendations have been accepted.
SOLUTION TO REQUIREMENTS 2:
To MG Platoon leaders :
“The First Brigade will hold this line (point out on map
and ground) Davidson Hill-Ebbert Hill-Singleton Hill,
covering the withdrawal of the 2d Brigade. .
The 2d Battalion, 1st Inf in our right holds Davidson
Hill. The 1st Bn, 2d Infantry on our left holds Talley
Hill.
Our battalion will organize a center of resistance as
follows:
“A” Company on Ebbert Hill
“B” Company on Singleton Hill
“C” Company in reserve on Riley Ridge.
Lieutenant 1st platoon you will place one section on the
northern slope of Ebbert Hill. Its primary mission is to
cover the left of “A” Company strong point and the right
of “B” Company strong point. Your second section will
be south of 1st Division Road about 200 yards southeast
of the water tanks. It will cover the right of “A” Company
strong point.
TL
Lieutenant 2d Platoon you will place one section on the
northwest slope of Singleton Hill about 50 yards north-
east of the unimproved road crossing that hill. Its mission
to cover the left of “B” Company strong point. Your second
section will be on the northwest slope of Riley Ridge as a
break through section with a mission to fire either on “A”
or “B” Company strong point in case of a penetration or
to cover a counter attack by “C” Company.
(To both platoon leaders) Dump all ammunition on your
carts near the gun positions and send the carts to ...
the Battalion Munition Distributing Point to refill.
I will move out with Lieutenant 1st Platoon now, and
will inspect the second platoon in about forty-five minutes.
Any questions? Move out.
UII
69—Benning, Ga., 1-29-24-2500
OCT 23 1924
41
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL.
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
. 1923-1924.
MAP PROBLEM..... No. 3, 1st Series, Advance Guard.
BY...
...........: First Section.
MAPS..
.........: F. C. Map, Ft. Benning, 1:20000, Sheet 1;
General Map, Georgia-Alabama, 1:1000000.
General Situation:
Georgia (Red) and Alabama (Blue) have recently de-
clared war. Reds are concentrated at Americus (50 miles
southeast of Ft. Benning). Blues have seized Columbus
and Ft. Benning.
TY
Special Situation (Blue) I:
The 1st Blue Division, crossing the Chattahoochee at
Columbus, bivouacked two miles south of that place last
night. The 1st Blue Infantry, with the 1st Battalion, 1st
Field Artillery attached, bivouacked at Ft. Benning. At
7:30 PM yesterday Colonel 1st Infantry, at Ft. Benning,
received the following message from the division command-
er in Columbus:
“Our air service reports that a Red reinforced brigade,
marching west, camped near Lumpkin (25 miles southeast
of Ft. Benning) late this afternoon. A small Red 'force
estimated at one battalion of infantry with some artillery
attached detrained at Cusseta just before dark today.
This division will move south at 6:30 AM tomorrow via
the Columbus-Ft. Benning-Lumpkin Road and will hold the
enemy east of the Keystone Road.
The 1st Infantry, with 1st Battalion, 1st Field Artillery
attached, will move on Cusseta early tomorrow morning
via the First Division Road, covering the left of the divi-
sion."
111
.
1
Required:
1. The strength of the Advance Guard determined upon
by Colonel 1st Infantry.
2. The order of march of the Advance Guard, the com-
position and marching formation of each of its subdivisions,
(1)
distances between subdivisions and distance between
Advance Guard and main body.
3. The order of march of the main body.
NOTE: Field train of the Advance Guard has joined the
field trains of the main body.
Special Situation (BLUE) II:
At 7:00 AM today just as the advance party was clearing
CR at (16.01-20.45), Colonel 1st Infantry received a drop-
ped message reporting that a hostile column of one bat-
talion of infantry and one battery of field artillery was
maching west on the First Division Road with the head
of its advance guard approaching RY at (24.85-22.1) at
6:45 AM.
At 8:00 AM the advance party received rifle and auto rifle
fire from what appeared to be two platoons on Reynolds
Hill.
The advance guard commander at Davis Hill decides to
push forward aggressively and develop the Red force.
The support deployed across the First Division Road and
forced the enemy in its immediate front east of the Old
Hickory-Marne Road where it was stopped by the Red main
body which was hastily deploying along the general line 58th
Infantry Woods-Langwell Ridge. Battery A had opened
fire from positions in the vicinity of Ebbert Hill.
The reserve had continued its march and was at this
time halted under cover about 200 yards east of the First
Division Road with its head near RJ at (19.6-20.55).' It
is now 8:15 AM.
REQUIRED:
The decision, actions and orders of the advance guard
commander.
AN APPROVED SOLUTION.
Special Situation (Blue) 1:
Requirement 1: Colonel 1st Infantry determines upon an
advance guard of 1st Battalion 1st Infantry with 1st Pla-
(2)
toon Howitzer Company and Battery A, 1st Field Artillery
attached.
Requirement 2:
Yards
Point (1 Squad Co. A)
(Staggard formation, with one column
25-50
on each side of road)
Distance
150-200
Advance Party (1 platoon Co. A less 1 squad) 35-50
(Column of twos, one column on each side of road
Distance
250-350
Support (Co. A less 1 plat)
60-75
(Column of squads)
Distance
600-800
Reserve in order:
1st Battalion, 1st Infantry (less Co. A), 1st
„Platoon Howitzer Company, Battery A, 1st
Field Artillery
Distance
800-1000
Requirement 3:
Fwd Ech, Hq 1st Inf
2d Bn, 1st Inf
How Co, 1st Inf (less 1 platoon)
1st Bn 1st FA (less C TN)
3d Bn, 1st Inf
Rear Ech, Hq 1st Inf
C Tn 1st Bn 1st FA
F Tns
Special Situation (Blue) II:
Lieutenant Colonel 1st Battalion, the Advance Guard
commander, decides to make a co-ordinated attack at 9:00
AM and envelop the enemy left.
He dictates to Bn 3 a message for Captain Co. C direct-
ing him to send at once a combat patrol of 1 squad north
along Brown Ridge to discover the Red right and another of
equal strength southeast along the unimproved road through
(3)
2
V
11
39th Infantry Woods and thence north along Old Hickory
Road to discover the Red left.
He directs Bn 2 to go at once to the reserve of the advance
guard and to have its several units marched immediately
to assembly position for the attack and to cause the unit
commanders to report at house near (20.28-20.35) at 8:40
AM for orders.
Accompanied by Bn 3 and the Sergeant Major he then
hurries forward to the position of the support commander,
consults with him as to conditions in his front, makes such
rapid reconnaissance to the south as the limited time will
permit and joins his unit commanders at the place and hour
designated.
There at 8:40 AM he issues the following verbal orders:
"The enemy, estimated at one battalion of infantry with
one battery of field artillery attached, has occupied and is
hastily organizing the line 58th Infantry Woods-Lang-
well Ridge.
Our support, Co. A, is deployed across the First Division
Road at the Marne Road where it is held up by heavy
fire from the main Red position. Combat patrols of 1
squad each have been sent out to each hostile flank.
This battalion with attached troops will attack at 9:00
AM. Our units are now moving into position.
Line of departure: Old Hickory—Marne Road.
Boundary between companies: RJ on eastern slope
of Reynolds Hill-stream north of 58th Infantry Woods
(incl. to Co. A).
Co. A, attacking form its present position, will assist
the advance of Co. B by a rapid penetration up the ravine
north of the 58th Infantry Woods.
Co. B will extend the line of Co. A and envelop the enemy
left; direction of attack 50 degrees magnetic.
... Btry. A, 1st Field Artillery, from present positions will
support the attack by progressive concentrations paying
particular attention to assisting the attack against the 58th
Infantry Woods.
Co. D will support the attack from positions on Davis
Hill.
(4)
The Howitzer Platoon will support the attack from a
position near (19.6-20.6).
Co. C, in reserve, will remain in its present position.
Extra ammunition has been issued.
Bn CP at this point.
It is now 8:46.
Are there any questions?
Join your organizations."
COMMENTS
1. A battalion of infantry assigned to the advance guard
should have its share of howitzer company weapons.
2. You have confused advance party with point. (No
cut)
3. You did not assign this unit to advance guard.
4. Howitzer platoon not accounted for.
5. This position of the artillery in column is perhaps
not the best. (No cut)
6. The advance party is part of the support.
7. A support as large as a company might well march
in column of squads.
8. In this situation the advance party, which is less than
a company, might better march in two columns of files,
one column on each side of road.
9. Support usually follows advance party.
10. Some artillery should be attached to your advance
guard.
. 11. This distance should be measured to the head of the
advance party.
12. There is no formation “Platoon Column.” (No cut.)
13. This distance should be measured to head of support.
14. Company commanders were not with Battalion Com.
mander on Davis Hill.
15. Your co-ordinated attack could be made more
promptly. (No cut).
16. The support was held up at the Marne Road.
(5)
17. It is considered faulty for the advance guard to take
up a defensive position.
18. This is not the best position for Company D.
19. Main effort should be made on enemy left.
20. See individual comment on your paper.
21. Command post too far to the rear.
22. Advance Guard commander should issue his orders
at some point nearer the front.
23. Would your hour of attack admit to this maneuver ?
24. Should not the C Tns refill? You have issued extra
ammunition.
25. Location of command post is too indefinite.
26. The Reds had a battery of artillery.
27. Orders of advance guard commander were called for.
(6)
361 Benning, Ga. 5-5-24-1500
OCT 20 1924
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924
MAP PROBLEM: Problem of Decision No. 1.
BY:
First Section.
General Map, 'Gettysburg-Antietam - 1 inch
Equals 10 miles. Getysburg-Antietam 1-21,000
Bonneauville, Gettysburg and Knoxlyn Sheets
General situation: - :
South Mountain is the boundary between hostile states.
Blues (east), Reds (west). Blues are concentrating a
division at Hanover and a division at Westminster to
check an anticipated Red invasion pending the concentra-
tion of the Blue Army at Baltimore. Reds are concentrat-
ing at Chambersburg andHagerstown.
Special situation (BLUE):.
The 1st Brigade with 1st Field Artillery, 1st. Sanitary
Company and 1st Ambulance Company attached, was
detached from the 1st Division at Hanover on 9 Decem-
ber 1923 with the mission of advancing west to block
will follow at daylight 10 December. The 2nd Divis-
ion marching from Westminster will arrive at Taney-
town on 11 December 1923.
At noon 10 December 1923 the main body of the 1st
Brigade which had been marching west along the Han-
over road was halted with its head at cross-road 530. At
this time General “A” commanding the 1st Brigade is
at the head of the main body and has information of the
situation as follows:
A Red force estimated as a brigade with a regiment of
Field Artillery is advancing in two columns through
i
Gettysburg from the west. A Red force estimated as a
· regiment of Infantry and a battalion of Field Artillery
is advancing north on the Emittsburg road, head of the
column 1 mile south of Greenmount.
The Blue advance guard consisting of the 1st Infantry
(less 1 battalion and 1 platoon Howitzer Company) and
1st Battalion 1st Field Artillery (less combat trains) has
its support deployed with its left on the Hanover road
800 yards west of road junction 550 and extending 600
yards north. The reserve is deploying in the woods on
the northwest slope of Hill 566 (north of Wolf Hill).
1st Battalion 1st Field Artillery is going into positions
along White Run. Deployed Red infantry is advancing
east from Bumer Hill and Hill 566 (north of Bumer Hill).
Red artillery is firing from the vicinity of Wm. Culp.
The main body is in the following order of march:
Forward Echelon, Headquarters 1st Brigade.
3rd Battalion 1st Infantry with 1 platoon Howitzer
Company attached.
2nd Infantry.
1st Field Artillery (less 1 Battalion 1st Field Artillery
less combat trains).
1st Sanitary Company (less detachment).
1st Ambulance Company (less detachment).
Rear Echelon, Headquarters 1st Brigade.
Field trains.
Required:
1. General “A’s" decision.
2. A statement of the detailed plan of action decided
upon.
-
A SOLUTION:
BY:
Problem of Decision No. 1.
First Section.
1. General “A's" decision:
To secure and defend a position extending along the
general line road junction 548 - cross road 530 -
stream junction (356.4-747.6) – Southern edge of woods
(356.9-746.7).
2. A statement of the detailed plan of action decided
upon:
n
1. Boundary between regiment - Bonneauville -
stream junction (356.4-747.6) road junction 452 — Hill
587 (all to 2nd Infantry).
2. Firing line on the general line road junction 548,
ridge running south from Hill.571, nose of ground at point
(356.4-747.3) --woods at point (356.9-746.7).
11
3. Regimental reserve line — Trostle — Mc Master -
point (358.0-747.0).
nit
4. The 3rd Battalion 1st Infantry, a platoon Howitzer
Company 1st Infantry attached, to organize and defend
the south sector.
5. The 2nd Infantry to organize and defend the north
sector.
TY
6. The 1st Infantry (less 1 battalion and 1 platoon
Howitzer Company) to delay the enemy advancing from
Gettysburg. When forced to withdraw, to retire around
the flanks of the brigade, and assemble in a position in
the vicinity of Garver as Brigade reserve.
7. The 1st Field Artillery to support the defense from
positions echeloned in depth east of the line M. Fink -
Coshun.
The 1st Battalion 1st Field Artillery to support the 1st
Infantry (less detachments) from its present position
withdrawing upon orders from these headquarters to
positions in the vicinity of Sweet Home S.H. It will then
support the 3rd Battalion 1st Infantry.
The 2nd Battalion 1st Field Artillery to support the
2nd Infantry from positions north of Hanover road.
8. Axis of signal communications:
Brigade-Hanover road.
3rd Battalion, 1st Infantry - Bonneauville--J. Smith
Mc Master.
2nd Infantry - Hanover road.
9. Command Posts.
Brigade — Farm House, 600 yards east of road junc-
tion 617.
3rd Battalion, 1st Infantry -Mc Master.
2nd Infantry – ravine at point (358.2-748.1).
1014_Benning. Ga., 12-14-23–2750
VERBAL AND
DICTATED ORDERS
(CONFERENCE
CONFERENCE : Verbal and Dictated Orders.
BY
: 1st Section.
DATE TO CLASS : Advanced Course, 22 Jan., 24.
Company Officers Course 13 March, 24.
N. G. & Reserve Officers Course,
ANO:19
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923-1924.
99–Benning, Ga., 2-1-24–2500
VERBAL AND DICTATED ORDERS.
Section
Paragraph.
1. Introductory
II. Details reference verbal and dictated orders. 2-12
SECTION I.
INTRODUCTION.
Paragraph.
Introduction
......
1
1. Introduction.
Combat orders may be divided into two general classes;
formal written field orders, verbal and dictated orders. .
:** By a formal written field order is meant an order which
is: carefully and methodically prepared, checked and re-
checked, reduced to written form and then issued to those
concerned.
A verbal order is one given by word of mouth, those re-
ceiving it making notes of the parts which concern them.
A commander may give a verbal order in its entirety, ex-
tracts being sent to those concerned, or he may be forced
to issue it in fragmentary form, that is, part to one sub-
ordinate and part to another, the same order to several
subordinates in turn or even a part of it at one time and
the rest later.
A dictated order' is an order delivered verbally in its
entirety and taken down word for word. It may be dic-
tated to a stenographer who makes copies for distribution
or to an assembled staff who can use duplicating pads, thus
assuring a number of copies in a short time, or it may be
dictated to subordinate commanders,
1
(3)
VERBAL AND DICTATED ORDERS
SECTION II.
DETAILS, REFERENCE, VERBAL AND DICTATED
ORDERS.
Paragraph.
Commander determines kind of order ............
Orders usually written ........
Orders follow standardized form ....
Method of procedure in issuing a verbal order
Quick thinking essential ....
Subordinates assembled .....
Proper manner of issuing orders
00.00 motor com
Opportunity to ask questions .......
Important verbal orders recorded ...
Test of a field order .....
.................
2. Commander determines kind of order.
No hard and fast rule can be laid down as to the manner
in which orders will be issued by different units. The
particular means employed depends upon such matters as
the size of the command, the operation in view, the time
available, the dispersion of the command. Whether the
order is to be issued in written form, verbal or fragment-
ary, is a matter for determination by the commander in
cach case.
3. Orders usually written.
a. The normal and accepted manner of issuing orders down
to and including the regiment is in writing and under pres-
ent conditions the order is normally typewritten. How-
ever, it has been found that the smaller the command the
legs time and facilities there are for so doing, with the
result that orders emanating from battalions and smaller
units are usually issued verbally.
b. In the initial stages of combat, where time is available
for careful preparation, the orders of all units down to bat-
talions may be written, but in subsequent stages of the
combat, the time element may require verbal orders, even
for a division.
c. On the other hand the time available may be so short
as to demand a reverse precodure in which case the initial
VERBAL AND DICTATED ORDERS
orders are fragmentary, that is part to one subordinate
and part to another-or part at one time and part at an
other. The complete order may then be issued subsequent-
ly. Such will be the case almost invariably in a meeting
engagement. In this situation time will seldom or never
be available in the initial stages for a formal order. The
situation must be met by verbal orders or messages.
d. This lack of time may likewise prevent the issuance
of verbal orders in complete form and may necessitate issu-
ance in fragmentary form. Even in such cases they should
follow the prescribed form and use the same language and
phraseology as is employed in the preparation of written
crders.
4. Orders follow standardized form.
a. The standardized field order form is applicable to
every situation wherein it is desired to issue tactical or
strategic instructions, whether it be a formal field order,
dictated order, verbal order or a field message. It is
equally applicable to an army or a patrol. The only dit-
ference is in the amount of detail and the character of
the instructions. The standarized form enables the will
of the commander to be easily and quickly understoori,
thereby promoting cooperation and assuring efficiency
among units.
b. This prescribed form is our standard five paragraph
order already discussed in the conference on Field Orders.
It stood the severest tests of the World War and was found
to be adaptable to all conditions.
C. Dictated and verbal orders are much harder to issue
than written orders and require more practice. No matter
what the size of the unit, such orders should follow the
prescribed form. In fact the smaller the unit, the more
necessary it is to guard against the omission of essential
details.
d. Before issuing a dictated or a verbal order the coul-
mander must have his plan thoroughly crystallized, ...ust
know exactly what he is going to say and the exact verbiage.
VERBAL AND
AL DICTATED ORDERS
AND he is going to use. This requires a proper grasp of the
problem, obtained by a rapid estimate of the situation.
This is necessary even though the time is limited. If this
proper grasp of the situation is not obtained, the com-
mander is liable to use snap judgment.
verbal ot is of not de
A
5. Method of procedure in issuing a verbal order.
As to a method of issuing verbal orders it is of course
impracticable to specify one. Fixed methods are not de-
sired, because such procedure will seldom exactly fit any
concrete case, then again the actual mechanics of issuing
an order are largely dependent upon the personal equation
of the individual. However, it may be pertinent to men-
tion a procedure. If time permits, block out on paper an
outline of the various headings and paragraphs of the
order, troops to be included and instructions to be given
each unit. If time does not permit this blocking out, on
paper, the order should be completely arranged in the mind
before starting to issue it. In other words the decision
must be made and the means for carrying that decision
into effect must be determined upon, before any start is
made to issue the order.
<
21
6. Quick thinking essential.
Verbal orders require quick thinking in addition to an
ability to convey ones thoughts clearly and definitely. Quick
thinking is possible only through a knowledge of prescribed
forms, a complete grasp of the situation, logical reasoning
and an abiiity to coine to a decision quickly. These can be
obtained only by persistent practice.
T
7. Subordinates assembled.
a. When initial combat orders are issued verbally, sub-
ordinates for whom orders are intended are assembled, the
place of assembly, offering cover and also a commanding
view of the terrain over which the command is to operate.
b. Lack of time, dispersion of the command and other
circumstances may prevent the assembly of all officers for
LL
VERBAL AND DICTATED ORDERS
whom the order is intended. In this case instead of issuing
the order piece meal it generally will be better to issue
the combined order and then direct that those not present
be advised.
C. Once subordinates have returned to their commands,
and set about the accomplishment of their missions, it gen-
erally will be impossible to reassemble them during further
progress of the engagement. Direct orders to individual
subordinates, or messages—written or verbal-will then
have to be resorted to until the situation is passed.
1
8. Proper manner of issuing orders.
d. Verbal orders should be given in a clear, distinct, con-
fident tone of voice which is audible to all those assembled
for the purpose. The language should be couched in mili-
tary terms. The order should be framed with the clearness,
logical arrangement and conciseness of a properly conceived
written order. It should be short and to the point.
b. Vague or ambiguous orders indicate vacillation and
the absence of any definite decision on the part of the officer
responsible. Troops have a right to be told, in terms that
are direct and unmistakable, exactly what their leader
wants them to do.
C. Much talking or incoherency are more than likely to
denote hysteria, or a state bordering on hysteria, which
in the immediate presence of the enemy, and particularly
just prior to going into action, is a thing very easily com-
municated to others, usually with disastrous results.
d. Training the mind to follow a logical and systematic
method of dealing with a situation is highly important.
The written order, before issue, can be corrected, modified,
added to or otherwise changed. This can be done with
dictated or verbal orders, but the moment the commander
starts to change his verbal or dictated order, he opens
the door to confusion and misunderstandings, to say nothing
of the lack of confidence in him as a commander which will
be engendered by his apparent indecision and vagueness.
VERBAL AND DICTATED ORDERS
9. Necessity for notes.
. a. In issuing an order those who are to receive it should
be cautioned to take it down verbatim, if it is a dictated
order, or to make notes of it, if it is a verbal order. In
the latter case, commanders make notes of the particular
features of the order which apply to their respective com-
mands or to carrying out their respective missions. As
the various organizations of a command are units of a
team, the instructions to one have a bearing on the
action of the others, therefore these notes should be as
copious as time will permit.
b. The commander, who knows that his subordinates
have to make notes, will invariably be more economical in
his use of words and endeavor to frame his order with
telegraphic brevity and clearness. As a consequence the
order will be simpler and more readily understood. The
captain or lieutenant should insist that his noncommissioned
officers make notes of the tactical instructions given them.
keeping a record of their assigned missions. The major
should require his captains to do likewise. The taking of
notes will tend to fix the mission firmly in mind and rufer-
ence can be made to them as the occasion arises. Serious,
perhaps fatal misunderstandings can thus be avoided. A
memorandum of those to whom an order is given, made at
the time the order is issued, will also tend to prevent the
possibility of a controversy.
10. Opportunity to ask questions.
· When a commander has finished issuing his verbal orders,
he should give his subordinates an opportunity to ask for
repetitions and explanations so that the order may be
thoroughly understood. This is the proper time to clear
up all doubts. The commander of any organization, no
matter how small, is 'entitled to have all doubts removed
from his mind before taking his men into combat. The is-
suing officer is also interested in clearing up all debatable
points, as the success of the mission is jeopardized if doubt
exists in the mind of the leader of a single unit of his team.
VERBAL AND DICTATED ORDERS
11. Important verbal orders recorded.
Important verbal orders from headquarters of record are
recorded as soon as practicable. This is done to make a
check on the verbal order and to fix responsibility for any
misunderstanding. Only by observation of this rule can
serious disputes be avoided. Justice not only to the con-
mander issuing the order, but more especially to his sub-
ordinates who receive it, demands a record. Practice in
making notes at the time verbal orders are given will soon
make possible the keeping of a record without loss of time.
.
12. Test of a field order.
To sum up: the test of a verbal or dictated order
in fact any order is: Is it simple, clear and practicable?
Is the expression crisp, omitting nothing essential and con-
taining nothing nonessential to the particular operation of
the unit concerned? Does it answer the question, "From
whom, to whom, what, when and where?"
TY
VOLL
UCT 2 u 1924
ORGANIZATION
AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
SERVICE COMPANY
(CONFERENCE)
Organization and Functions of the
Service Company
First Section.
BY
FOLLOW
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923–1924.
178—Benning, Ga., 3-6-24–2500
ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
SERVICE COMPANY.
Paragraph.
SECTION I. General
1 - 6
Company Headquarters
7- 9
III. Headquarters Platoon .................................. 10 - 14
IV. Transportation Platoon ............ ................. 15 - 21
1.
WOII
SECTION I.
GENERAL
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Personnel
Functions ...........
Organization
Grades ..................
Equipment
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1. Scope.
The scope of this conference will include the organiza-
tion, functions and duties of the personnel of the service
company.
2. Personnel.
The personnel of the service company was formerly in-
cluded in the supply company and regimental headquarters
company.
3. Functions.
The functions of the service company are:
a. Ta supply the regiment with transportation, equip-
ment, pay, munitions, rations, and forage.
b. To furnish personnel for certain administrative duties
at regimental headquarters.
C. To furnish music for the regiment.
(3)
THE SERVICE COMPANY
4. Organization.
The service company consists of 6 officers, 1 warrant
officer and 273 enlisted men organized as follows:
a. Company headquarters, 1 officer, 15 enlisted men.
b. Headquarters platoon, 4 officers, 1 warrant officer, 81
enlisted men.
C. Transportation platoon, 1 officer, 177 enlisted men.
5. Grades.
The personnel by grades is as follows:
a. 1 captain. .
4 1st lieutenants.
1 2d lieutenant.
1 warrant officer
3 master sergeants
1 1st sergeant
5 staff sergeants
18 sergeants
8 corporals
238 privates 1st class and privates.
.b. The specialist ratings within the company are as
follows:
4 specialists 2d class
8 specialists 3d class
17 specialists 4th class
27 specialists 5th class
66 specialists 6th class.
1
6. Equipment.
The equipment of the service company as provided in the
Tables of Basic Allowances (Cir. 169 and Cir. 276, W. D.
1922) is as follows:
a. Weapons:
102 pistols
178 rifles.
b. Animals:
332 mules, draft
13 horses, riding
9 mules, riding.
c. Vehicles :
18 carts, ration
2 mul
18 carts, water . 2 mule
18 kitchens, rolling 4 mule
18 wagons, combat. 4 mule
27 wagons ,escort (R&B) 4 mule
2 trucks, cargo 34 ton.
AST
SECTION II.
COMPANY HEADQUARTERS.
Paragraph.
Functions
Personnel ......................----
Duties ...................
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7. Functions.
The functions of the company headquarters are the com-
mand, supply and administration of the service company,
and the coordination of the work of the various sections of
the company operating in the rear echelon.
8. Personnel.
d. The personnel of company headquarters consists of 1
officer and 15 enlisted men, organized as follows:
1 captain
1 1st sergeant
3 sergeants
1 mess
1 supply
1 miscellaneous
1 corporal (company clerk)
10 privates, first class and privates
1 barber
1 cobbler
5 cooks (2 first and 3 assistants)
2 mechanics
1 tailor.
THE SERVICE COMPANY
9. Duties.
a. The captain commands the company and is responsible
for its organization, instruction, training, supply and dis-
cipline. He establishes, commands, and directs the move-
ment of the regimental distributing point.
b. Miscellaneous.—The duties of the enlisted personnel
are the same as for the corresponding enlisted men in the
rifle company. The sergeant miscellaneous is assistant
to the supply sergeant and performs such other duties as
may be directed by the company commander.
SECTION III.
HEADQUARTERS PLATOON.
Paragraph,
10
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Functions
Organization ....
The staff section .........
The supply section
The band section ........
........
10. Functions.
The functions of the headquarters platoon include:
a. The execution of the administrative and personnel
duties at regimental headquarters.
6. The procurement and issue of supplies, including pay
of personnel, and equipment for the regiment.
C. To provide music for the regiment."
11. Organization.
The headquarters platoon consists of 4 officers, 1 warrant
officers and 81 enlisted men, organized as follows:
Staff section-1 officer, 16 enlisted men.
Supply section--3 officers, 17 enlisted men.
Band section-1 warrant officer, 48 enlisted men.
12. The staff section.
a. Functions.—The functions of the staff section include
the execution of the administrative and personnel duties for
THE SERVICE COMPANY
regimental headquarters, including payment of the regi-
nient.
b. Organization. The staff section consists of 1 officer
and 16 enlisted men organized as follows:
Personnel office force 1 officer and 8 enlisted men.
Mail force-5 enlisted men.
Miscellaneous group—3 enlisted men.
(1) Personnel office force:
(a) 1st lieutenant, assistant to the adjutant. He
is in charge of the personnel office and pays
the regiment.
(b) 1 master sergeant, assistant to the adjutant.
(c) 1 staff sergeant, assistant to the adjutant.
(d) 1 sergeant, miscellaneous, assistant to the ad-
jutant.
(e) 5 privates 1st class and privates, 3 rated clerks
and 2 messengers.
(2) Mail force:
1 sergeant in charge of mail.
4 privates 1st class and privates, 1 for each bat-
talion and one for special units.
(3) Miscellaneous group:
(a) 2 staff sergeans (1 provost sergeant and 1
color sergeant who commands the guard over the
regimental baggage).
(b) 1 private 1st class or private, chaplain's as-
sistant.
13. The supply section.
a. Functioning.-The functions of the supply section in-
clude the procurement and issue of supplies and equipment
for the regiment and to provide the office force for the regi-
mental supply officer.
b. Organization. The supply section consists of 3 officers
and 17 enlisted men organized as follows:
(1) Group at division distributing point consisting of
1 officer and 1 enlisted man.
THE SERVICE COMPANY
(2) Group at regimental distributing point consisting
of 2 officers and 12 enlisted men.
(3) Group at regimental munitions distributing point,
consisting of 1 enlisted man.
(4) 1 supply sergeant with each battalion.
c. Duties:
(1) Group at division distributing point.
(a) 1st lieutenant, and one master sergeant, act
as representatives of R4 and receive the sup-
plies and equipment for the regiment, and see
that they are delivered to the regimental dis-
tributing point.
(2) Group at regimental distributing point.
(a) 1. Provides office force for R4.
2. Receives stores and issues supplies and
equipment, except munitions, for the regi-
for the regiment.
3. Makes necessary repairs on regimental trans-
portation.
4. Operates the shoe repair machines.
(b) This group includes:
1. 1st lieutenant, second-in-command of ser-
vice company; supervises and directs
work of the office force.
1 master sergeant, chief clerk.
1 corporal, stenographer for R4.
3 rated clerks.
2. In charge of receipt, storage, and issue:
1 2d lieutenant in charge.
1 supply sergeant, assistant to 2d lieutenant
2 privates 1st class, storekeepers.
3. Repair of transportation:
1 private 1st class, wheelwright.
4. Repair of shoes :
3 privates 1st class, operate shoe repair
machines.
Y
THE SERVICE COMPANY
(3) At regimental munitions distributing point: 1
private 1st class, assistant to regimental munitions
officer.
(4) The battalion supply sergeants: Act as assistants
to their respective battalion supply officers:
14. The band section.
a. . Function.—To furnish music for the regiment.
b. Organization. The band section consists of 1 warrant
officer and 48 enlisted men organized as follows:
1 warrant officer, the band leader.
48 enlisted men, comprise the band.
C. Duties.
(1) Warrant officer is the band leader and is responsi-
ble for the training of its personnel.
(2) Miscellaneous. The enlisted men of the band sec-
tion are musicians.
SECTION IV.
15
THE TRANSPORTATION PLATOON.
Pagraph.
Functions
---------------------------------------------------------......................
Organization ..............
Personnel ..............
Duties ............
Equipment ...........
Additional strength
Chart
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15. Functions.
The function of the transportation platoon is to furnish
the transportation for the field and combat trains of the
regiment and to provide the personnel to care for and oper-
ate the same.
16. Organization.
The transportation platoon is organized as follows:
a. Platoon lieadquarters, 1 officer, 31 enlisted men.
5. 1st Battalion section, 41 enlisted men.
10
THE SERVICE COMPANY
C. Second Battalion section, 41 enlisted men.
d. 3d Battalion section, 41 enlisted men.
e. Headquarters section, 8 enlisted men.
f. Howitzer company section, 15 enlisted men.
17. Personnel.
The transportation platoon includes the following per-
sonnel :
1 1st lieutenant.
1 : taff sergeant.
6 sergeants.
1 stable sergeant
5 assistant wagon masters
2 corporals, miscellaneous
168 privates 1st class and privates
6 horse-shoers
• 4 saddlers
158 wagoners.
18. Duties.
a. The 1st lieutenant commands the platoon, locates the
picket lines, and parks for the fields trains. He also acts
as regimental inspector of transportation.
b. The staff sergeant is the wagon master. He is in
charge of all animals, harness, vehicles and other equipment
of the platoon. He makes prompt report to the platoon
commander of all shortages of equipment and of unservice-
able animals and transportation.
C. The stable sergeant, under the supervision of the wag-
on master has charge of the watering, feeding, grooming
and shoeing and general condition of the animals. He is in
charge of the picket lines and supervises the work of the
saddlers.
d. The five sergeants, assistant wagon masters, are as-
signed one to platoon headquarters, and one to each section
except the headquarters section as wagon masters. They
perform the duties within their respective sections similar
WTS
VIII
THE SERVICE COMPANY
11
to those prescribed for the wagon master and such other
duties as the wagon master may direct.
e. The two corporals, miscellaneous, are assistants to the
wagon master and perform such duties as he may direct.
As a general rule, one will be with the headquarters section
and one with the regimental munitions train, in the ca-
pacity of assistant wagon masters.
. f. The six horseshoers are privates 1st class or privates.
They are charged with fitting and shoeing of all the animals
of the regiment, except those in the machine gun companies
and howitzer company. When a section is detached from
the train a horseshoer is detailed to accompany that section.
g. The four saddlers are privates 1st class or privates.
They make repairs to the harness and saddle equipment of
the regiment except that of the machine gun companies.
h. 158 Privates 1st class or privates are assigned as
wagoners and assistant wagoners. They are usually as-
signed at the rate of 1 wagoner or assistant wagoner to
every 2 animals in draft. They are responsible for the
care and condition of their respective teams and vehicles.
19. Equipment.
a. Animals.
1 horse, riding
9 mules, riding
332 mules, draft.
6. Vehicles. (See par. 6c).
20. Additional strength.
For each regiment not a part of a division:
a. Personnel.
3 privates 1st class, spec 6th class, wagoners.
3 privates 1st class, spec 5th class, wagoners.
b. Vehicles. 3 wagons, escort, with battalion entrench-
ing equipment.
C. Animals 12 mules, draft.
NOTE:
In the division this additional strength is a part of the engineer
regiment.
12
THE SERVICE COMPANY
21. Detailed organization of transportation platoon.

TRANSPORTATION
PLATOON
1 officer
177 enlisted

Personnel.
Plat Hq Sec
1st Bn Sec
2d Bn Sec
3d Bn Sec
Hdars Sec
How Co Sec
Total Plat
1
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.
1st lieutenant
Plat CO ...............:
Staff sergeant
Wagon master .....
Sergeants-
1 stable ..............
5 88st. wagon master ...
Corporals .........
Horseshoers ........
Saddlers ..............
Wagoners ...............
HONOH had H
1
1
1
1
1
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1.
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40
1
40
14
1 158
Total
Enlisted
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3
I 41
41 1 41
00:
15
15
177
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5
1
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
Transportation :
Carts, ration
Carts, water
Kitchens, rolling ..
Wagons, combat .
Wagons, R & B ......
Trucks, carto 34-ton ..
STG OTOT
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fondo fondo
00 00 00
58
5a
co
o
601 BC
60 |
2
hered
2d 1..
N
a. 1 for rifle company.
b. 2 for machine gun company.
b. 4 forage wagons.
C. 1 for each company
1 for communications equipment and baggage, Bn Hą.
d. For general utility.
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL - 1
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART.
1923 - 1924.
By:
Demonstration: Duties of Leaders (Minor Tactics).
1st Section.
Map:
Fire Control Map, Fort Benning, Ga., Sheet No. 1.
Date to Class: Refresher Course, 15 Oct. 1923.
Advanced Course 6 Nov. 23.
11
one
TY
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Points to be emphasized in this demonstration.
The following points are to be emphasized in this
demonstration:
a. When the scouts are fired on the platoon leader
goes to a position from which he can overlook ground
to front and makes estimate of the situation.
1. Before the platoon is committed to action all men
should be told so far as is possible what is taking place,
particularly the part the section and squads are to play.
C. Method of building up firing line.
[d. Position of squad section leaders during fire fight.
.e. Duties of different leaders during fight.
Situation:
The scouts of an interior assault platoon moving east as
part of the large force advancing to the attack are in the
position shown on the ground. The remainder of the
platoon is disposed as follows:
Two runners 75 yards west of Cook Ridge.
Platoon leader and one runner near draw between
Maxey Ridge and Cook Ridge.
Remainder of platoon just west of Maxey Pidge,
under cover.
The platoon has passed through enemy long range
artillery fire and is now in an area receiving artillery and
long range machine gun fire.
Narrative:
Scouts move forward. Under concealment afforded by
tall grass, platoon headquarters follows at about 300
yards. Sections remain under cover west of Maxey Ridge. ;
After brief reconnaissance of Cook Ridge, scouts signal:
to platoon leader: “All clear", and move on by bounds.
Platoon leader signals platoon forward.
(TTY
When scouts have passed beyond the crest of Cook
Ridge about 75 yards, they are fired on by riflemen from
Riley Ridge. In a few seconds semi-automatic fire opens
apparently on troops in woods behind the grandstand.
The scouts pick up targets and open fire. The pla-
toon leader double-times ahead to make a personal re-
connaissance.
Using glasses and with the assistance of the fire of the
scouts, he locates the actual known and the probable
points of enemy resistance. He also sees the platoon on
his left side is in the woods behind the grandstand and
that there is a' gap on his right. He makes an estimate
of the situation (based on probable points of resistance
and location of adjacent friendly troops).
He sends a runner back for the platoon sergeant and
section leaders. (Section guides remain with their sec-
tions.)
To the platoon sergeant and section leaders assembled
under cover he issues these orders: “The enemy is on
that ridge (pointing to Riley Ridge). We have located
two machine guns. The left pair of scouts is firing on
them. There is a section of enemy trench this side of
Riley Ridge about 100 yards. The other scouts are firing
on it.
Our other platoon is in those woods (pointing to the
left). The company on our right is not yet up.
We are going to attack at once with the entire platoon.
Darley, (leader leading section) build up the line of
scouts and cover both targets.
Como, (leader rear section) move your section to the
right and build up a firing line on the right of the lead-
ing section and cover both targets. Send four men 200
yards over to the right as a flank combat patrol.
I will be over there (pointing about 50 yards).
Any questions?
Move fast.”
Without orders, the platoon sergeant remains in the vi-
cinity of platoon headquarters where he keeps in close
touch with platoon headquarters and the situation. Sec-
tion leaders return to their sections, assemble squad lead-
ers and section guides under cover and issue brief orders.
Squad leaders return to their squads and as far as
TIT
!
2-11-1924
Ey
#1. Peaving Roofia dig band
V
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they can do so, under the circumstances, tell their squads
what is taking place and what is to be done.
Squad leaders having received orders to reform on the
line of scouts, work their squads forward individually as
close to the crest of the hill as enemy fire will permit and
from these points send forward first their automatics, go
next themselves and leave assistants to send other men
forward. The assistants themselves go last.
Section leaders go forward when they think best, to
a position from which they can:
(1) See the target,
(2) Be in touch with their sections.
Section guides go forward when practically all of the
squads within their respective sections have gone to the
firing positions. They take positions from which they can:
(1) See the entire section.
(2) Be near the section leader.
The position should also be one permitting of touch with
platoon headquarters. This is a minor consideration,
however, as the platoon leader has runners which he will
use to connect up with his section leaders.
Squad leaders will have to move frequently to enforce
fire discipline and to control the fire of their squads.
In order to exercise control, section guides will move
frequently for a few minutes at a time. When, however,
they are not with one of the squads on a specific duty,
their positions should be in accordance with the principles
stated above.
The squad leader of the left squad, left section, becomes
a casualty. The squad is without a leader. The assist-
ant, being out of touch with the leader, fails to notice
the fact that he has become a casualty. The section
guide comes over by short bounds to this squad and
causes the assistant to take charge. .
The section guide then goes back to a position from
which he can be in touch with all squads.
Platoon leader signals:
"Squad-shift cone of fire to the right-commence fir-
ing”, and has runner fire tracers. The section guide of the
right section gets signal and notifies section leader, who
directs the guide to go to right squad and shift its fire
to the new target.
1
CY
.
The platoon leader becomes a casualty. The platoon
sergeant takes command. He does not lappoint an tas
sistant at the time as both sections are fully engagedpa
Fire superiority is gained: The platoon leader signals:
right section. 15 By twos from the right rush”, and the
left section: By twos from the left rush." : Soort
When started , squad leaders require others to increase :
their fire.
15
::
The automatic rifleman, center squad, left section,
becomes a casualty. A substitute takes over his equip-
ment and serves the piece.
Section leader, right section, without orders increases
rushes to squads.
In center squad of left section, two men digging in, not
going forward. The first N. C. O, who sees them causes
them to leave cover and keeps them in the fight.
Men fire wildly in all squads. Leaders crawl from
man to man and steady them.
The resistance begins to break. Men without arms
are assumed to be seen running from Riley Ridge into
the woods beyond.
Two or three men get up and start rushing forward
toward the enemy position.
All leaders use their influence to get all men up and
to get them to move forward in assault.
1
"
Note: The orders of platoon, section and squad lead-
ers ordinarily will be very brief. However, best results
will be obtained only when their men know what is going
on. Often it will be impossible to assemble leaders under
cover. No matter where assembled, they should not
bunch in sight of the enemy. When for any reason it
is impossible to assemble them the platoon leader either:
(1) Goes to each individually,
(2) Signals to them,
(3) Uses runners to carry written or verbal mes-
sages, or
(4) Gives instructions verbally, or":
(5) Uses a combination of these methods to secure the
team work of fire helpful towards success in battle.
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. 938–Benning, Ga., 11-12-23—2500:-
415.1
COMBAT IN WOODS
Conference : Combat in woods.
By
: First Section.
Date to class: Refresher Course 5 Dec. 23.
Advanced Course 23 Apr. 24.
Company Officers Course 17 May. 24.
RI
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1
27
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
FORT BENNING, GA.
1923-1924.
935—Benning, Ga., 11-10-23-3000
COMBAT IN WOODS.
Paragraph.
Section 1. Introduction ....
II. Defensive woods fighting ......
..................
III. Offensive woods fighting ......
SECTION 1.
INTRODUCTION.
Paragraph.
Battle of the Wilderness .......
Importance of woods and woods fighting ......
General characteristics ............
1. Battle of the Wilderness.
Steele, the historian, in his work on American Campaigns
had this to say regarding the Battle of the Wilderness,
"Most of the bad tactics of the battle can be charged to the
dense underbrush and lack of roads. Organizations could
not keep intact; commanders could not see or keep in touch
with their lines; positions could not be pointed out, describ-
ed or identified; columns could not be directed; distances
could not be estimated nor could the time be calculated
that troops would take to go from one point to another;
at fifty paces friends could not be distinguished from foes
and neither could be seen a hundred yards away." This
quotation is given with the view of bringing out the many
difficulties which may be encountered in woods fighting and
to emphasize the importance of careful training of troops
for such operations.
2. Importance of woods and woods fighting.
Combat in woods partakes in a lesser degree of many of
the characteristics of night combat. Like night operations
the importance of woods fighting has increased. Also like
night operations little has been written upon the subject,
COMBAT IN WOODS
consequently its importance as compared to other training
has not been given due emphasis.
3. General characteristics.
Difficulties encountered in woods vary in proportion to
their density, extent, conformation of the ground, and season
of the year. Based upon these, there are certain general
characteristics which pertain to woods and woods fighting.
a. They permit the placing of troops in position or the
shifting of them about unobserved by the enemy's ground
or air observation.
b. They decrease the effectiveness of fire and increase
the importance of close combat.
c. They facilitate the use of the surprise element in war-
fare.
d. They make more difficult the maintenance of direction
and communication.
e. They make ambushes and gas concentrations more
effective.
f. They favor delaying action by relatively small forces
and facilitate concealment as to strength and movements.
SECTION II.
DEFENSIVE WOODS FIGHTING.
Paragraph.
Advantages and disadvantages S ......................
Methods of defense ................................
French defense in woods ....
..........................
German defense in woods ...........
voor in og
4. Advantages and disadvantages.
Woods are of advantage to the defense in that they con-
ceal to a large extent the friendly works by obstructing
enemy ground and aerial observation, and by decreasing
the effectiveness of enemy artillery fire. On the other
hand woods are more easily neutralized by gas concen-
trations than are open spaces; and when the undergrowth
is dense considerable work is required to clear the ground
COMBAT IN WOODS
for the construction of defensive works, and to provide
a field of fire.
on
.5 Methods of defense.
a. The defense aims to take the attacking units under
flanking fire and by surprise. This is accomplished:
(1) By the establishment of carefully concealed strong
points.
(2) By placing obstacles at intervals along the front
of the defensive position in the interior of the woods for
the purpose of breaking up the attacker's formations.
(3) By posting supports and reserves to take in flank
by counter attack hostile elements which have succeeded
in penetrating the position.
(4) By placing machine gun and automatic rifle fire
along roads and paths in front of the position.
b. The main line of resistance is preferably placed a
hundred yards or more from the edge of the woods. Re-
entrants and salients in the edge of the woods are useful
in organizing fire to sweep the edge of the woods.
C. The field of fire in open woods may require no improve-
ment, but in dense woods, especially where there is heavy
underbrush, it will be necessary to make clearings the extent
of which depends upon the time available. The clearings
should not be so extensive as to render the position con-
spicuous from the air or from the ground.
d. In making clearings for a defensive position in woods
first consideration must be given to machine gun positions
which must be so located that bands of fire may be placed
along the front of the position. To accomplish this lanes,
along which the bands of machine gun fire are placed, must
be cleared. These lanes should be about two yards in
width. On the inner side (nearer the defender) of the
lane obstacles are placed in order to hold the attacker under
fire in the cleared spaces.
6. French defense in woods.
The French wired the edges of the woods, preferring the
system of posting small posts and machine guns there,
and arranging a disconnected defensive position with low
COMBAT IN WOODS
block houses connected with wire entanglements in the
interior of woods. Obstacles were placed from the edge
into the interior in an effort to lead the attacker along
paths dominated by machine guns. Sharpshooters and
machine guns lodged in trees kept paths and roads under
fire. Sound detectors gave warning of the approach of the
enemy. In the Vosges the Alpine Chasseuers, lodged in
trees gave the alarm by imitating the cries of brids. Use
was made of artillery by firing a barrage, with ravines,
crossroads, paths and roads through the woods kept
systematically under fire.
7. German defense in woods.
Q. When the Germans first occupied the Bois de Man-
heulles, some 12 kilometers east of Verdun they held the
edge in force. Later, however, they established their
main line of resistance about 300 meters farther back and
for a long time used the edge of the wood solely as a line
of observation to which light machine guns were sent up
at night. Well defined paths led from the main line of
resistance forward to the line of observation. Riflemen
posted on the line of observation were few, being only
those necessary for bold and regular patrolling to the front.
b. The main line of resistance consisted of a series of
machine gun posts in which both light and heavy machine
guns were used in considerable numbers. These were
arranged so as to place interlocking bands of fire through
the woods to their front. The space between the observ-
ation line and the line of resistance was a dense jungle of
underbrush still further entangled by barbed wire. The
few paths leading forward were covered at the ends by
light machine guns. For a distance of about 50 meters
in front of the main line of resistance the underbrush
was entirely cleared away, and in this open stretch was
placed a broad belt of barbed wire. One or two emplace-
ments in the main line were very long in the direction of
depth and roofed with earth and logs with lateral open-
ings cut near the rear affording opportunity for enfilade
fire.
COMBAT IN WOODS
SECTION III.
OFFENSIVE WOODS FIGHTING.
Paragraph.
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Phases of the attack
The advance to the edge of the woods .......
maiorno
The advance through the woods ......
....................
Formations ..........................
Machine guns ....
...::::.............................
Light mortars and 37 MM guns ...
Tanks .......
................................
Hand grenades and rifle grenades ..
Artillery ............
Fighting within the woods ......
Egress from the woods ...........................
...............
HHHHH
OSTA CON pad o
1
Stundis
VIVlied
II
- VUUN
.
.
.
. .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
8. Phases of the attack.
The attack of a woods is divided into three general phases :
a. The advance over open ground to the edge of the woods.
b. The advance through the woods.
C. Egress from the woods.
9. The advance to the edge of the woods.
a. During the advance over open ground to the edge of
the woods the main feature of the situation confronting
the attacker lies in the fact that the defender sees all the
movements of the advancing troops while his own position
is concealed. To offset this, providing wind and atmos-
pheric conditions are favorable smoke screens may be
used to screen the advance of the attacker over the open
ground, or the approach to the edge of the woods may be
made under cover of darkness.
b. The edge of the woods should be carried like any other
position and employed as a departure position from which
the advance through the woods is organized and launched.
If woods are small, it will often be possible to push through
them rapidly, but such procedure has its danger if the
woods are large. Without, halting, at the edge, to re-
organize, needless inequality in the advance of the line,
loss of direction, and confusion will result.
**C. It may be stated then as one of the principles of woods
fighting that a unit must reorganize after it has captured
WOW
1
UUT
8
COMBAT IN WOODS
the edge of the woods and before it takes up the advanced
through the woods.
d. During the halt at the edge of the woods patrols ad-
vance and maintain contact with the enemy. Combat patrols
are stationed on the flanks, and measures are taken to
keep contact with troops in rear.
1
10. The advance through the woods.
d. The rate of advance through the woods depends largely
upon the necessity for reconnaissance and other security
measures as well as the character of the woods. Obviously
it is much slower than on open ground. .
b. The advance is made under protection of patrols
(scouts or larger groups) to the front and flanks. Patrols
must not be so far away that they cannot see the troops
they are protecting. As soon as the patrols have indicated
that all is clear, the platoon, section, or squad advances
and patrols move forward for further reconnaissance.
c. In general, the movement through the woods should
be effected in a series of bounds. Short halts should be
made to fix the direction and to restore order and contact.
These halts should be made on certain predetermined,
well defined lines such as roads running perpendicular to
the direction of advance or clearings. If such features do
not exist then the halts should take place at prescribed
periods.
d. (1) There is a tendency to place too much importance
on the necessity for frequent halts to restore order, con-
tact, communication, and control. Experience has shown
that in some situations it is desirable to get some of the
leading elements through the woods and established in
position at the farther edge as soon as practicable. It
must not be understood that this is a rule to be applied to
every situation. The plan for an advance through the
woods will become more elaborate, and more attention will
be paid to contact, communication, and control, in direct
proportion to the extent of the woods, the defense offered,
and the nature of the operation. For an advance through
woods of ordinary extent, approximating a thousand yards
1
COMBAT IN WOODS
YA
TITO
in depth, and presupposing conditions of open warfare,
more importance will be given to pushing leading companies
forward with the mission of gaining the farther edge of
the woods and there taking up a position, even though
contact with adjacent companies advancing through the
woods be lost.
(2) If contact and control are over-emphasized, and
equality in the advance sought for, frequent halts will
be necessary. An enormous amount of time will be con-
sumed thereby, causing the troops to become impatient and
worn out by constant halting and by apparent needless
delays. The day may end in a relatively short advance
if this sort of procedure is adhered to.
TY
TT
11. Formations.
a. Since some of the greatest difficulties to be encounter-
ed in advancing through woods are loss of direction and
separation of units, it follows that the formations to be
adopted are of importance. In addition, tactically, forma-
tions should be such as to prevent being surprised by am-
bush, of being prepared at all times for rapid deploy-
ment, to employ assault fire, and to advance vigorously
with fixed bayonets.
: b. In woods fighting, the formation used depends upon
the density of the woods. The denser the woods are, the
closer must be the formation adopted by the troops. By
the adoption of a close formation an officer or a noncom-
missioned officer can direct his men more efficiently. Fairly
open, sparse woods with no underbrush permit the use of
a close line of skirmishers for the leading elements, how-
ever, in dense woods, where conditions more closely resemble
control. Line formations in woods permit men to slip from
view with the result that the line breaks up into uncon-
trollable groups incapable of concerted action. The success
of the engagement will depend directly upon the aggressive-
ness of these groups,
c. To form the leading platoons into platoon or section
columns has the disadvantage of making the columns too
10
COMBAT IN WOODS
long, deployment is difficult and does not favor a rapid
development of fire power and assault. Squad columns,
on the other hand, will be close enough to keep in sight of
each other and can more easily work through the woods.
They favor quick deployment and assault.
d. From a consideration of the foregoing it follows that
a desirable and effective formation in dense or fairly dense
woods is one in which the leading platoons are in line of
squad solumns and the rear platoons in section or platoon
columns.
e. Scouts or small patrols should always precede the
advance. Patrols or small detachments should be placed
on the flanks preferably in echelon so that any hostile flank
attack is itself flanked by detachments moving to the front.
f. Supports should closely follow the assault units. Con-
necting files maintain connection between adjacent units
and keep contact between rearward and leading units .
g. Reserves will generally follow the assaulting troops
by a distance which will vary between 100 and 200 yards
depending on the density of the woods and the roads and
paths available for their advance. Contact with the assault
units should be maintained by patrols or connecting files
sent forward from the reserve.
ih. When columns have been successful in passing through
a woods and have gained the farther edge, provision must
be made for a careful mopping up of the woods. This duty
may be given to troops from the support or reserve.
i. When necessary during an advance through woods,
progress may be indicated by the use of flares which will
readily be picked up by airplanes. Rocket signals are used
to indicate arrival at the objective or on important terrain
features. Such signals are especially important when the
advance is being made in conjunction with artillery support.
::.
12. Machine guns,
d. During the advance and attack to secure the edge of
the woods, machine guns support the attack by overhead
fire, when practicable, using either direct or indirect laying
depending upon the terrain over which the attack is made.
COMBAT IN WOODS
This supporting fire is delivered frontally, penetrating the
woods to a considerable depth and producing both a moral
and a physical effect on the enemy. If the guns can be
so placed as to fire obliquely into the woods this position
would be preferable.
b. In a situation where the enemy holds woods which
are not wholly included in the zone of action of an attack-
yn
IU
: mmmm

ENEMY
ستاره دبی دی تین
BI
ل
Woods
ه
ان بیاناله با بیمه دانا
0.
Boundary
Boundary
FIGURE I
12
COMBAT IN WOODS
ing unit, (See Figure I) machine gun fire placed along
the side (AB) of the woods would be valuable in prevent-
ing him debouching from or entering into the woods.
c. If the woods are of limited extent, (less than about
1,000 yards in depth), some machine guns, after the edge
DA (See Figure I) has been taken might advantageously
be moved to the flank from which fire can be delivered on
enemy troops approaching or leaving the far edge BC. This
may require that the guns be moved into the zone of action
of an adjacent unit. Within the regiment this is a detail
which could be arranged for by the regimental machine
gun officer.
d. If the woods extend over the width of the zone of
action and are of considerable depth (more than 1,000
yards), the machine guns, after supporting the attack to
gain the forward edge of the woods, close up on the assault
companies. The movement forward will usually be by
sections within each platoon; one section of each platoon
remaining in the original position for protection against
possible counter attack. If the terrain permits, the leading
section may go into an intermediate position between the
original position and the edge of the woods for additional
protection against counter attack or for the delivery of fire
on the flank.
If the woods are sparse or if there are roads or paths
running through the woods, and if the time of revrganiza-
tion of the rifle companies is unduly long, this additional
protection may be obtained by placing the guns in position
within the woods in the immediate vicinity of the troops
which are reorganizing.
In the event that the reorganization, of the assault
companies consumes but a relatively short period of time,
(about 10 minutes.), the leading sections will move into the
woods and be prepared to follow their respective rifle com-
panies. The rear section will move from the original
position and follow the leading sections after the latter
have moved into the woods.
e. The position of the guns during the advance through
the woods should be such as will permit their ready use
D
1
COMBAT IN WOODS
13
YT
11
within the woods in case opportunity is presented, and
such that they will arrive early at the far edge of the woods
where they can take up suitable positions from which they
can cover the reorganization of the rifle companies and
support their egress from the woods. Within the battalion,
one platoon of the machine gun company will usually be
assigned to the support of each of the assault rifle com-
panies, and in advancing through the woods will follow
closely in rear of the support platoons of the assault rifle
companies.
f. Within the woods machine guns may be placed to
fire along roads and paths or in clearings. Where positions
of sufficient elevation are available plunging fire deliver-
ed over the tops of trees in support of the advance may be
of material advantage.
13. Light mortars and 37 MM guns.
a. Light mortars may be used in woods where suitable
positions are available and observation of fire is possible.
In the selection of positions care must be taken to prevent
interference by branches of trees.
b. 37 MM guns are used to advantage in delivery of
fire along roads or in clearings against machine guns and
tanks.
C. The howitzer platoon when attached to a battalion
advancing through woods should keep well closed up on
the assault rifle companies in order to be available when
its fire support is necessary. It should be in the vicinity
of the reserve company.
1
14. Tanks.
. The best methods of attack on woods by tanks and in-
fantry depends greatly on the extent to which the woods
are passable to tanks. If the woods are passable to tanks,
every effort should be made to penetrate into the woods
and get behind the enemy firing line during the initial
stages of the attack.
If the woods are impassable to tanks they can only assist
by covering the advance of the infantry with fire from the
flanks, and by surrounding and picketing the woods.
TV
14
COMBAT IN WOODS
ne gunslv pas be ve
1
• Woods which are otherwise impassable can often be pene-
trated by tanks moving down the paths, roads, or open
places. The tanks can then greatly assist the infantry with
covering fire. These open places are, however, likely to be
defended by anti-tank guns. In this case, bursts of fire
should be directed down the open places before the tanks
advance, and the tanks should keep up a steady frontal
fire with machine guns after they have done so.
If the woods are easily passable to tanks, the action of
the tanks and infantry should be very much the same as
in the open..
15. Hand grenades and rifle grenades.
The use of hand grenades and rifle grenades in woods
fighting is generally more dangerous to our own troops
than to the enemy.
16. Artillery.
Artillery support is usually furnished a unit attacking
through woods by concentrations or sensitive points within
the woods. Its physical effect is limited, however, its moral
effect is of great value. Close liaison must exist between
the artillery and infantry to keep the artillery fire well in
advance of the assault line. (See paragraph 11 i.)
17. Fighting within the woods.
· Combat in woods may be considered as a phase of an
advance through the woods. As previously mentioned,
one of the characteristics of woods fighting is the decrease
in the effectiveness of fire and increase in the importance
of close combat.
do The importance of the bayonet as the decisive weap-
on in woods fighting is emphaszied. This does not mean
that rifle fire is of little or no importance or that assault
fire preceding bayonet action should not be used. It does
mean, however, that protracted fire fighting in woods
should be avoided.
b. In woods, troops will encounter each other at dis-
tances hardly more than 100 yards, so that rapid fire and
energetic attack with the bayonet will secure to the troops
all the advantage resulting from surprise and, consequently,
COMBAT IN WOODS
success. The enemy unable to see, allows himself to be
frightened by the attack, overestimates the hostile strength,
and hearing loud shouts from all sides, turns in flight, be-
lieving his retreat cut off.
c. Only in clearings and at spots where the woods are
clear and devoid of underbrush can rifle fire be resorted to,
to any extent; otherwise the decision is sought by attack
with the bayonet.
d. If scouts discover a hostile post or strong point the
leading elements rapidly form skirmish line facing it and
the post or strong point is rushed without hesitation. Col-
umns in rear move to one side of the line of advance with
the view of taking the hostile resistance in flank or check-
ing a counter attack against the flanks of the leading col-
umns.
e. The attack and capture of woods by a relatively large
force may be accomplished by directing a part of the force
against a flank or rear while the troops in front execute a
holding attack. The difficulty lies in the coordination of
such an attack.
Special precautions must be taken and arrangements
made once the far edge has been gained for proper mopping
up of the woods.
f. When resistance is encountered by a unit, a platoon
for example, of such nature as to cause it to be held up,
other units (platcons) on its flanks continue to push for-
ward taking the precaution to increase reconnaissance
towards the flanks.
Experience shown that by units on the flank pushing
forward they will assist the advance of the unit held up
more than by attempting to maneuver to assist it. Troops
in rear which are following at comparatively short dis-
tances, can be used to assist the unit held up. Equality in
the advance is of little importance compared to getting
at least some troops through the woods and established
at the far edge.
g. Troops advancing through the woods and relatively
near the edge should provide combat patrols for maintain-
16
COMBAT IN WOODS
ing connection with troops advancing on the flank outside
the woods.
h. The less noise troops make in passing through the
woods the better; all shouting must cease and only the
necessary sound signalling be permitted.
18. Egress from the woods.
Special precautions must be taken before debouching
from the far edge of the woods. This includes reconnais-
sance and reorgainzation. Machine guns are brought up
and posted, and egress made under their protective fire
and the fire of supporting weapons.
415.1
Y
.Al
T
.
HIPPOLOGY
and
HORSESHOEING
DEPARTMENT OF GENERAL SUBJECTS
KOLLOW
U.S.
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
FORT BENNING, GA.
1923-1924.
822-Benning, Ga. 10-5-23-2000
el 1-11-1924
H. Penuing hufantig del
HIPPOLOGY AND HORSESHOEING
................
.
Section I. Anatomy, general outline ...
11. Conformation ..............
III. Health, disease and injuries .......
IV. Age and height, colors and markings ..
Vices, restraint and control ..
VI. Care of remounts .......
VII. General instructions .....
VIII. Principles of horshoeing .
Paragraphs.
1-15
16-19
20-30
31-33
34-35
36
37
38-44
SECTION I.
ANATOMY, GENERAL OUTLINE.
Paragraphs.
feed
N
O
O
....................................
The skeleton ........
......................................
The joints ......
Ligaments .......
Muscles ...... ...................................
Synovial membranes ..
nes ..............................
The digestive system ......
Digestion ............
..............................
The respiratory system ...........................
The urogenital system .............................
The circulatory system
em ...........................
The lymphatic system .
The nervous system ......
.............................
The skin
........................................
...........
The foot .......
O
O
O
CON
A
7
1. Definition.
The term hippology means a study of the horse, its
structure, habits, and the like.
2. The skeleton.
a. The skeleton or bony framework supports the soft
parts and vital organs of the body. In the horse and mule
the skeleton consists of 205 bones. The skeleton is
(3)
HIPPOLOGY.
TV
1
..
(4) Irregui
divided into two parts, the trunk and the limbs. The
trunk consists of a skull, spinal column, ribs, and keel
or breast bone. The limbs, two anterior and two pos-
terior, support the body and are levers of propulsion.
Bones are held together by means of ligaments and mus-
cles in such a manner that joints, levers and pulleys are
formed.
b. Bones are described as being long, short, flat and
irregular.
(1) Long bones support the weight of the body and
act as levers of propulsion. These are found in
the limbs.
(2) Short bones are found in the knee, hock and fet-
lock joints. Their function is to break con-
cussions.
(3) Flat bones are found inclosing cavities contain-
ing vital organs such as the ribs and scapula
which inclose the heart and lungs.
Irregular bones are found in the spinal column
and the cranium where they inclose and protect
the spinal cord and brain.
c. Bones are covered with a tough membrane known
as the periosteum, except at their articular or joint sur-
face, which is covered with a layer of cartilage.
d. The skull consists of 34 irregular shaped bones,
which form the framework of the head. For purposes
of description it is divided into two parts, the cranium
and the face. The bones of the cranium inclose the
brain and, together with those of the face, form the
cavity of the eye and nose.
e. The bones of the face form the skeleton of the
mouth and nasal cavities and support the tongue and
larynx. The most important bones of this region are
the maxillae (upper jaw) and the mandible (lower jaw)
which contain six cavities on either side for the molar or
back teeth. The upper jaw bone from these cavities for-
ward becomes gradually narrower and terminates in the
premaxilla or upper jaw bone which contains six cavi-
ties for the upper incisor or front teeth.
AVA
HIPPOLOGY.
T
f. The teeth are 40 in number and are of three kinds,
į. e., the incisors, 12 in number, are found in the front
of the mouth, six above and six below. The canines, or
tushes, four in number, are found just back of the in-
cisors, two above and two below. In the mare these are
usually missing or very small if present. The cheek or
molar teeth are 24 in number and are situated six above
and six below on either side.
g. The spinal colum is regarded as the axis of the
trunk from which all other parts originate. It extends
from the base of the skull to the tip of the tail as a
chain of irregular shaped bones called vertebrae. These
are solidly united by ligaments and cartilage. These
bones are divided into five regions according to their
position. From front to rear they are cervical, thoracic,
lumbar, sacral and coccygeal. Throughout the length of
this bony chain from the atlas or first cervical verte-
brae to the fourth coccygeal bone is a tubular passage
called the spinal canal through which passes the spinal
cord.
h. The bony thorax or chest is a cavity formed by the
thoracic vertebrae above, the ribs on the sides and the
sternum or breast bone below. This cavity known as
the thoracic cavity contains the heart, lungs, large blood
vessels, nerves, and a part of the esophagus and trachea.
i. The ribs are 36 in number, 18 on a side and are at-
tached above to the thoracic vertebrae and below to the
sternum or breast bone. The first eight ribs are attached
by cartilage and are called true ribs, the remaining ten
are indirectly attached and are called false ribs.
j. The bones of the fore limb from above downward
are the scapula, humerus, radius and ulna, the carpus
or knee consisting of eight small bones; the large meta-
carpal bone called the cannon bone, the small meta-
carpal bones (two in number) called the splint bones;
the first phalanx called the long pastern bone; the sec-
ond phalanx called the short pastern, bone; the third
phalanx called the coffin bone; two proximal sesanoids,
and the distal sesamoid or navicular bone.
HIPPOLOGY
k. The bones of the hind limb from above downward
are the oscoxae or hip bone, femur or thigh bone, tibia,
fibula, and patellaor stifle; the tarsus or hock consisting
of six or seven small bones; the large metatarsal or
cannon bone; the two small metatarsal or splint bones;
the phalanx or long pastern bone; the second phalanx
or short pastern bone; the third phalanx or coffin bone;
two proximal sesamoids, and one distal sesamoid or
navicular bone.
l. The hip bone (or coxae) consists of three parts, the
ilium, ischium, and pubis, all of which meet to form a
large cavity to receive the head of the femur or thigh
bone. The right and left hip bones are connected above
with the sacrum and below they are united with each
other to form the floor of the pelvic cavity. This bony
arch together with the first three coccygeal vertebrae
is called the pelvis and forms the framework of the hips
and croup.
TTT
3. The joints.
a. A joint or articulation is the union of two or more
bones or cartilages by strong fiberous bands called liga-
ments. Joints are of three types, immmovable, slightly
movable, and freely movable. Movable joints are cov-
ered on their bearing surface by a thin, smooth cartilage
called articular cartilage. A thin fluid like oil known
as synovia is secreted by the synovial membrane and
lubricates the joint surfaces. It is confined within and
protected by the joint capsule. The joints of the limbs
are as follows:
b. Joints of fore limb.
(1) Shoulder joint--formed by the scapula and
humerus bones.
(2) Elbow-formed by the humerus, radius and
ulna.
(3) The carpal or knee joint-formed by the radius,
bones of the carpus, and the large and two
small metacarpal bones.
HIPPOLOGY,
(4) The fetlock joint-formed by the large meta-
carpal bone, the proximal sesamoids and the
first phalanx.
(5) The pastern joint-formed by the first and sec-
ond phalanges.
(6) The coffin joint-formed by the second and
third phalanges and the navicular bone. .
C. Joints of the hind limb.
(1) Sacro-illiac—formed by sacrum and illium.
(2) Hip joint-formed by the hip bone and femur.
(3) Stifle joint-formed by the femur, patella and
tibia.
(4) The hock joint-formed by the tibia, the bones of
the hock, and the large and small metatarsal bones.
. (5) The joints below the hock are named and formed
as in the fore limb.
4. Ligaments.
i
Ligaments are in general inelastic white fibrous bands
which bind the bones together and hold articulating surfaces
in place. The neck ligament supports the head and neck
and is made up of yellow elastic tissue. It extends from the
withers forward above the cervical vertebrae and attaches
to the top of the skull.
Ligaments supporting a great portion of the body weight
are found in the limbs.
5. Muscles.
C. Muscles are the active organs of motion and are classed
as voluntary, or those under control of the will, and in-
voluntary, or those not under direct control of the will, such
as those of the intestines and heart. Voluntary muscles
form about 45 per cent of the body weight.
b. Muscles are composed of a fleshy part, red in color, and
a tendonous part, the latter being used for purposes of
attachment. The tendonous part, or tendon, transmits to
the point of attachment the power generated by the contrac-
HIPPOLOGY.
1
LUD
tion of the fleshy portion. Tendons are composed of in-
elastic fibres and are very tough.
c. Muscles with regard to form are classed as long, short
and wide. Short muscles are found near joints, long muscles
in the legs, neck, and back, and wide muscles surrounding
the body cavities.
d. A muscle is called an extensor when its action is to
extend or straighten a joint; a flexor when its action is to
flex or bend, a joint. All muscles have an origin and an
insertion.
6. Synovial membranes.
Synovial membranes are thin walled sacs similar to the
synovial membranes of joints. They secrete synovia for the
prevention of friction and are placed at points where one
structure moves upon another, as where a tendon plays over
a bone. The most important of these bursae are found in
the fetlock, knee and hock and are frequently the cause of
an animal's becoming blemished or unsound.
7. The digestive system.
a. The organs of digestion are the mouth, pharynx, eso-
phagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.
All of these organs are lined with mucus membrane.
b. The mouth extends from the lips to the pharynx. It
is bounded on the sides by the cheeks, above by the hard
palate. The floor of the mouth is formed by the tongue
and other muscular tissue.
· C. Separating the mouth from the pharynx is the soft
palate which is a fleshy curtain suspended from the hard
palate. It permits the passage of food from the mouth to
the pharynx but prevents its passage in the opposite direc-
tion.
d. The lips are the organs of prehension and possess the
sense of touch.
e. The tongue, which is the organ of taste, is situated
between the branches of the lower jaw. It is muscular and
assist in mastication, in salivation, and swallowing.
HIPPOLOGY,
f. The esophagus is a muscular tube extending from the
pharynx to the stomach. It passes down the lower left
side of the neck, through the middle portion of the thoracic
cavity, pierces the diaphragm and enters the stomach near
the front of the abdominal cavity. Through it the food and
water taken into the mouth pass to the stomach. .
g. The stomach is a pear shaped organ located to the
front and on the left side of the abdominal cavity directly
behind the liver. The stomach contains the peptic glands
which secrete the gastric juice. The capacity of the horse's
stomach is from three to four gallons which is small in
proportion to the size of the animal.
h. The small intestine extends from the stomach to the
large intestine. It is about seventy feet long and has a
diameter of from one to two inches:
i. The large intestine is about twenty-two feet in length.
It consists of four parts, the coecum, large colon, small colon
and rectum. The mucus membrane of the intestine is
covered with minute projections called villi which absorb
the nutriment of the food after it has been prepared by
digestion. The membrane also contains small glands which
pour their secretions into the intestines. These glands and
villi are more numerous in the small intestine than in the
large.
j. The anus is a muscular ring forming the posterior
opening of the alimentary canal. It appears as a round
projection below the root of the tail.
k. The mesentery is a strong fibrous band which is attach-
ed to the lower surface of the muscle below the spinal co-
lumn. In it the stomach and intestines are suspended.
Accompanying these fibrous bands are nerves, blood vessels,
lymph vessels, glands, and nerves. Enclosing the intestines
and lining the abdominal cavity is a serous membrane called
the peritoneum. The mesentery is a part of the peritoneum.
1. Enclosed in the abdominal cavity are three large glands,
the liver, pancreas and spleen. The liver and the pancreas.
are part of the digestive system. The spleen is a ductless:
gland, the function of which is not definitely known.
W
HIPPOLOGYLi
.
(1) The liver lies behind the diaphragm and in front
of the stomach. Its weight is from ten to twelve
pounds. Its function is to secrete bile which is
poured into the small intestine where it assists
digestion.
(2) The pancreas weighs about seventeen ounces and
is situated behind the stomach and in front of the
kidneys in the upper portion of the abdominal
cavity. It secretes into the small intestine pancre-
atic fluid which assists in digestion.
(3) The abdominal cavity is inclosed by the muscles
of the back above, the abdominal muscles on the
sides and below and the diaphragm in front.
8. Digestion.
a. The function of the digestive organs as a whole is to
take in the food, digest it, absorb the nutriment and dis- :
charge the waste material from the body. Food is taken
into the mouth by the lips, is there ground by the teeth and
mixed with saliva. Saliva mio stens the food and acts che-
mically upon certain parts. The tongue determines the taste :
of the food and by muscular action assists in mixing the
mass. It also carries the food back in the mouth to the
pharynx. As soon as the food reaches the pharynx the
act of swallowing takes place involuntarily and is completed ;
by the pharynx and esophagus.
6. Upon reaching the stomach the food is subjected to a
mechanical rolling and mixing called maceration and an
action by the gastric juice. It then passes to the small
intestine and is called chyme. i .
C. In the small intestine further action takes place by the
bile, absorbtion occurs, and the food passed on to the
ceccum where further absorbtion and digestion are effected.
The waste material then pas. es on to the small colon where
the moisture is absorbed and pellets are formed of the mass
to be passed to the rectum and discharged at intervals as
dung through the anus.
HIPPOLOGY
9. The respiratory system.
a. The respiratory system consists of the nostrils, nasal
chambers, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and the lungs,
all of which, except the air sacs, are lined with mucus mem-
brane.
(1) The nostrils are two oblong openings above the
upper lip and are the anterior openings of the nasal
chambers.
(2) The nasal chambers occupy the bony canals above
the mouth from which they are separated by the
hard palate. The sense of smell is located at the
back of these chambers.
(3) The pharynx is an elongated cylindrical muscular
cavity common to the respiratory and digestive
tracts.
(4) The larynx is a muscular cartilaginous box situated
in the back of the maxillary space. It gives pass-
age to the air on its way to and from the lungs and
is the organ of voice. The anterior opening is
guarded by the epiglottus which closes mechanically
in the act of swallowing and prevents the passage
of food or water into the respiratory tract.
(5) The trachea is a flexible cartilaginous cylindrical
tube extending from the larynx to the base of the
heart. It is composed of from 40 to 50 incomplete
rings according to the length of the neck. At
the base of the heart it divides into right and left
bronchi which again divide into bronchical tubes
and air cells. .
(6) The lungs are the essential organs of respiration,
are two in number, conical in shape, situated in
the thoricic cavity, one on either side. They are
composed of elastic fibrous tissue and contain bron-
chial tubes a'r cells, blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels and nerves.
b. Respiration cosists of two acts; inspiration, the draw-
ing of air into the lungs, and expiration, the expulsion of air
from the lungs. These acts are involuntary and are con-
trolled by the nervous system. At rest respiration takes
In
12
HIPPOLOGY.
place about twelve to fifteen times per minute. About 250
cubic inches of air are taken in and expelled at each breath.
10. The urogenital system.
a. The urinary organs are the kidneys, uretus, bladder
and urethra.
(1) The kidneys are two glands, one on either side of
the spinal column below the lumbar vertebrae.
Their function is to separate waste material from
the blood.
(2) The uretus are two tubes conveying the urine from
the kidneys to the bladder.
(3) The bladder is a muscular sac in which the urine
is stored until discharged from the body.
(4) The urethra is a mucus tube extending from the
. bladder to the head of the penis in the male. In
the female it extends to the floor of the vagina.
b. Urine is a yellowish fluid composed of water, various
salts and waste material from the body. The normal
amount is from three to six quarts in 24 hours. Color and
quantity vary according to food, temperature of the air and
work performed.
11. The circulatory system.
a. The circulatory system consists of the heart, arteries,
capillaries, veins and blood.
(1) The heart weighs about 61/2 pounds. It is situated
in the middle and left side of the thoracic cavity
between the lungs and is enclosed in a serous sac
called the pericardium. The function of the heart
is to maintain the circulation by continually pump-
the blood through the arteries as it is received from
the veins.
(2) Arteries are strong, thick walled tubes which carry
the blood from the heart to all parts of the body.
They give off branches and subdivide until they
terminate in the capillaries.
In
HIPPOLOGY.
13
(3) Capillaries are small, thin walled vessels that are
just large enough to permit the passage of blood
corpusles. In these vessels occurs the exchange bet-
ween the blood and tissues. Through them oxygen
is supplied and carbonic acid gas taken up.
(4) Veins are the blood vessels that return the blood
to the heart. They accompany arteries as a rule and
usually bear the same names.
(5) Blood is a fluid which carries oxygen and nutritive
material to all the tissues of the body and together
with the lymph returns waste material to the ex-
cretory organs. It is composed of serum and red
and white corpusles.
b. Circulation is divided into two classes, i.e., the pulmo-
nary and systemic. The pulmonary takes the blood from the
heart to the lungs and back to the heart. The systemic
carries blood to all parts of the body. The contraction of
the heart sends the blood out in waves and causes a disten-
tion of the arterial walls. This distention passes from the
heart to the extremities and can be felt where the arteries
are near the surface. The waves or beats are known as the
pulse and are a guide in diagnosis. The normal pulse is
from 36 to 40 beats per minute.
12. The lymphatic system.
a. The lymphatic system consists of a series of vessels,
glands through which they pass, and certain fluids known
as lymph and chyle.
(1) Lymph glands are small groups of cells through
which lymph vessels pass and in which white cor-
pusles are formed. They also act as filters for
removal of disease, germs and injurious sub-
stances,
(2) Lymph is a watery fluid by which the tissues are
nourished and waste material gathered up and
eliminated.
a. The nervous system is divided into two minor systems,
the cerebro spinal which is to a considerable extent influenc-
14
HIPPOLOGY.
ed by the will of the animal and the sympathetic one over
which the will has no control.
(1) The cerebro spinal system consists of the brain
and spinal cord with the cerebro spinal nerves act-
ing as a communicating portion.
(2) The sympathetic system consists of a double chain
of ganglia or nerve cells. The communicating por-
tion of this system is distributed to the involuntary
muscles, mucus membranes, internal organs and
blood vessels. A nerve consists of a bundle of
fibres held together by connective tissue. The
fibres are transmission lines conveying impressions
from the nerve ending to the brain or spinal cord
and conveying impulses to the various organs.
14. The skin.
a. The skin covers the external surface of the body. It
varies in thickness according to the amount of protection
the part of the body requires. It is the special organ of
touch and is supplied with sensory nerves.
b. The skin consists of two parts, the outer called the
epidermis or cuticle, and the inner called the dermis or
true skin.
(1) The epidermis is the outer or protective covering.
The hoof, ergots and chesnuts are modifications
of it.
(2) The dermis lies directly beneath the inner surface
of the epidermis. It contains the hair folicles,
sebacious and the sweat glands.
(a) Hairs grow from the hair follicles and form the
outer protective covering of the skin or coat. The coat is
shed twice a year, in the spring and fall, and is replaced by a
lighter or heavier growth, depending upon the season.
(6) The sebaceous glands secret an oily substance. This
fluid softens and waterproofs the hair and gives the coat the
gloss that is seen in healthy animals. It also keeps the coat
and surrounding skin flexible.
HIPPOLOGY..
15
(c) The sweat glands are groups of cells which excrete
sweat through tubes which communicate chiefly with the
outside surface of the skin. Sweat consists of water, various
salts, and waste material from the blood. It evaporates on
the surface of the skin and assists in regulating the temper-
ature of the body.
a. The foot consists of four parts; the bones; the elastic
structures; the corum; and the hoof, the protective organ
of the foot.
(1) The bones of the foot and pastern are the first
phalanx (long pastern bone), the second phalanx
(short pastern bone), the third phalanx (coffin
bone), and the navicular bone. Of these the first
two require no description. The third phalanx
or coffin bone is entirely within the hoof which it
resembles in shape. It has four surfaces for ar-
ticulation. It has numerous small openings for
the passage of blood vessels and nerves. It bears
on its surfaces roughened areas for the attachment
of tendons. The navicular bone (distal sesamoid)
is shuttle shaped and lies behind the second and
third phalanx with which it articulates. The deep
flexor tendons of the foot pass over its lower
surface.
(2) The cartilages of the third phalanx also known as
the lateral cartilage are elastic plates of cartilage
attached one to either wing of the bone. They
project backward and upward, their upper borders
extending above the hoof, where they may be felt
beneath the skin above the coronet at the heels.
The plantar cushion, the principle elastic struc-
ture of the hoof, is a wedge shaped pad, situated
above the frog, below the deep flexor tendon of the
foot, and between the cartilages of the third pha-
lanx. The cushion acts as a buffer to the foot and
prevents jar.
2
16
HIPPOLOGY.
.
T
YA
(3) The corium of the hoof is the highly vascular part
of the dermis of the skin which completely covers
the coffin bone; the digital cushion and a large sur-
face of the cartilages of the foot. It furnishes
nutrition to the hoof, and is divided into five parts
which nourish corresponding parts of the hoof.
(4) The hoof is the horny covering of the foot. It is
divided into three parts, the wall, sole, and frog.
(a) The wall is that part of the hoof which is visible when
the foot is placed on the ground. It covers the front and
sides of the foot and is bent abruptly forward and inward
at the heels to form the bars. The latter appear on the
bottom of the foot as horny ridges which extend forward
and inward toward the point of the frog. The bars secure a
solid bearing for the back part of the foot; they give strength
to the hoof; and being a part of the wall are intended to
bear weight. The wall is divided for study into the toe,
quarters, and heels. The toe is the front part of the wall.
The quarters extend backward from the toe to the heels.
The heels are the hindermost part of the foot. They are
located at the point where the wall bends inward to become
the bars. The external surface is smooth with a thin layer
of soft horn called periople. A thin layer of horny scales
extends from the periople to the bottom of the foot which
gives to the wall a glossy appearance. The internal surface
is concave from side to side and presents about 600 thin,
white plates of horn called laminae extending to the bottom
of the wall. The upper or coronary border is thin and its
outer surface is covered by the periople. The inner surface
is hollowed out to form the coronary groove. Nutrition is
supplied to the hoof by the five corium. The lower or gřound
border comes in contact with the ground and is the párt to
which the shoe is fitted. Its inner surface is united with the
outer border of the sole by a soft, white horn, which appears
on the bottom of the foot as the white line.
my
(6) The sole is a thick half moon shaped plate of horn
forming the greater part of the bottom of the foot. The use
of the sole is to protect the sensative parts above it. It is
HIPPOLOGYSTTT
.
not intended to bear weight, except on a margin about 1%8
inch wide inside of the white line..
(c) The frog is a wedge shaped mass of soft horn which
occupies the V shaped space bounded by the bars and sole,
and extends below these on the bottom of the feet. On the
lower or ground surface are two ridges separated behind by
a cavity called the cleft, and joined in front to form the
point of the frog. The base or posterior extremity has two
round prominences called the bulbs of the hoof. Between
the sides of the frog and the bars are two cavities called the
commissures. The frog protects the sensative structures
above, acts as a pad in assisting the digital cushion in break-
ing jars, and prevents the foot from slipping. The frog stay
forms a firm union between the frog and the corium above.
It may also assist in the expansion of the foot by its action
upon the digital cushion when the foot comes in contact
with the ground.
.
yielding joint (coffin joint), an elastic wall, the rubber like
frog, the digital cushion, and the more or less yielding sole.
The digital cushion and the frog are compressed between the
ground below and the structures above, a fact which causes
them to spread sidewise, carrying with them the cartilages
and bars and the wall at the quarters. This is called expansion
and amounts to about 1/25 of an inch total increase in width
of the foot at the heel.
c. When weight is removed from the foot, the digital
cushion and frog return to their normal shape, and the car-
tilages and quarters move inward to where they were before
expansion took place. This is called contraction. The
benefits derived from these movements are many; they
diminish jar and shock to the foot and leg, and prevent the
evil results of concussion; they increase the elasticity of the
entire limb, and assist in the circulation of the blood in the
foot.
SECTION II.
CONFORMATION.
Paragraph
Head and neck .....
.
.
.
..
.
..
.
.
..
.
.
..
..
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
..
.
..
.
.
.
7
18
HIPPOLOGY.
D
OAV
.........
.
..
......................
1
Ninaquarters
...................................
19
YO
16. Head and neck.
a. Head-clear cut, lean, straight and of proportionate
size.
6. Forehead—broad, full and flat.
c. Face-straight. When convex a horse is said to
have a Roman nose. A concave or hollow face is called
a dish face.
d. Lower jaw—wide and strong with ample space be-
tween its branches for the larynx.
e. Muzzle—this region includes the nostrils and the
lips.
f. Lips--small, thin and firm.
g. Nostrils—large and free from coarse hairs at en-
trance.
h. Eyes—large, clear, bright, prominent and free from
cloudiness or spots; lids thin, well open and evenly
curved.
1. Ears-medium size, pointed, fine, set moderately
close and carried erect.
j. Poll-smooth and free from enlargements and scars.
k. Throat-clean and free from swollen or enlarged
glands.
1. Neck-of moderate length, well muscled, clean, well
arched, nicely set on and not too narrow directly in rear
of throat; windpipe large and prominent. A neck
with a concave upper border is called an ewe neck.
m. Mane-fine and silky. i
n. Juglar channel—free from enlargements, smooth,
and clean.
II
17. Forehand.
a. Withers-extending well back, muscular neither too
high nor too low, and free from scars.
b. Shoulders-for riding horses, long sloping and well
muscled; for artillery or draft horses they should be more
nearly upright and their front line clearly marked with a
smooth even surface for the collar.
HIPPOLOGY.
19
C. Arms—short, muscular and set well forward..
d. Elbows/large and long and clear of the chest.
e. Forearms—long, broad and well muscled.
f. Knees--straight, broad, deep and free from puffiness,
scars and swellings. A knee bent backward is called a
calf knee. The opposite condition is known as knee sprung
or over in the knees.
g. Cannons—short, broad, flat and of uniform size.
h. Tendons-smooth, and well set back. If smaller below
the knee than elsewhere the leg is said to be tied in below
the knee.
i. Fetlocks-wide, smooth, well supported, and free from
puffy swellings.
j. Pasterns--of moderate length, smooth and free from
enlargements, forming an angle of 45 degrees or fifty
degrees with the ground.
k. Feet-of proportionate size, uniform and circular;
heels wide and 1/3 the height of the toe; walls smooth and
free from cracks, fissures and rings; bars strong, sole con-
cave, frog large and elastic; horn dense and tough.
1. Legs-viewed from the front, vertical, with toes point-
ing straight to the front, viewed from the side, slightly
inclined to the rear. When the toe points obliquely forwarı
and inward the animal is said to be pigeon-toed. The
opposite condition is known as toe out or splay-foot.
18. Body.
a. Breast and chest-of moderate width and considerable
depth for riding horses. Both deep and wide for draft
types. The girth is the circumference of the body at the
chest. It should be large.
b. Ribs-long, well arched, close together; last rib close
to the point of the hip.
C. Back-short, straight, broad, well muscled, and frez
from enlargements and scars. A concave back is called a
sway back; a convex back is called a roach back.
d. Loins-broad, short, strong and well muscled.
e. Flanks—close, full and deep. .
f. Underline of chest and belly—long and well let down,
20
HIPPOLOGY.
When the line passes obliquely upward and backward the
horse is said to be herring gutted.
19. Hindquarters.
a. Croup-long, rounded and sloping slightly downward.
When it drops and becomes narrow below the tail the horse
is said to be goosed rumped.
Haunchand (point of the hip)—not too prominent,
yet not dropped or sunken.
c. Dock-large and muscular.
d. Tail-set fairly high and carried well away from the
body; hairs fine and silky.
e. Thighs and buttocks—long and muscular, muscles ex-
tending well down into the gaskin. When the muscles of
the inner side of the thighs are but little developed, the
horse is said to be split up behind.
f. Stifles-large, broad, well muscled, and free from
puffs.
g. Gaskins-long, broad and musclar.
h. Hocks-large, wide, deep from front to rear, smooth,
well supported, free from puffs and bony enlargements;
point prominent, clean and standing well away from the
joint. The hocks should stand well apart, but not enough
the hocks stand too closely together and the hind feet well
apart, the animal is said to be cow hocked. Sickle hock is a
term given the hocks that appear to be overly bent when
viewed from the side.
i. Cannons—short, wide, and flat; tendons smooth and
well defined, and the line from the point of the hock to the
fetlock straight, and nearly perpendicular.
2. Fetlocks-large, wide, well supported, and free from
puffy swellings. When the fetlock is inclined too far for-
ward, the condition is called cocked ankle.
k. Pasterns of moderate length, large, free from en-
largements, and inclined at an angle of 50 to 55 degrees
with the ground.
1. Feet-same as fore feet, except the shape is oval, the
sole more concave, and the wall more nearly vertical.
HIPPOLOGY.
SECTION III
HEALTH, DISEASES AND INJURIES
Paragraph.
Health ...............
Diseases and lack of condition ...
Care of the sick and injured .....
Contagious diseases .....
Injuries of service animals .......
Wounds ....
Diseases and injuries of muscles, tendons,
......
ligaments ..................
Bursal and synovial enlargements .......
Diseases of the digestive system
Common diseases and injuries of the foot and limb
Administration of medicines ........
...............
...............
20. Health.
The indications are as follows: head and ears
alert; eyes bright; appetite and spirit good; body well
filled out; muscles firm and standing out; skin elastic;
coat bright; the animal standing on all four legs or
resting a hind one; droppings moderately firm and not
slimy; urine bright yellow, rather thick, and passed in
moderate amounts; and no undue fatigue or profuse
sweating after ordinary exercise.
TTT
21. Diseases and lack of condition.
a. The indications are as follows: head and ears
drooping; eyes dull, partly closed, or watering; coat
dull or staring; partial or total loss of appetite; tem-
perature elevated; easily fatigued; loss of flesh; dung
hard, coated or very soft and sometimes of offensive
odor; urine excessive or insufficient and passed with
difficulty; profuse sweating without cause; pointing a
fore foot; stiffness of gait; limping; excessive stumbling;
labored or accelerated breathing; abnormal color of
mucous membrane; local heat or tenderness of certain
parts; skin eruptions; itching; uneasiness or distress;
unusual nasal discharge; suspicious sores, etc.
b. Troopers and drivers should watch their animals
carefully and report any suspicious indication to the
stable sergeant. If any animal is passing a consider-
able amount of whole grain in his droppings, and if
22
HIPPOLOGY.
he fails to clean up his feed, he usually has something
out of order about him and should be carefully examined
and watched.
C. The early detection of indications of disease and
the necessary action promptly taken is of far greater
importance than any treatment that can be given once
the disease has developed. Often the detection and
isolation of one animal suffering from a communicable
disease means the saving of thousands of dollars in horse
flesh and the prevention of an animal shortage which
would have disastrous results.
1
22. Care of sick and injured.
a. Nursing. By nursing is meant the prompt and well
directed attention to the comforts and needs of the
patient. Good nursing is therefore of great importance
in the care of the sick and injured.
b. The stall. The first and most important point is to
place the sick animal in a clean, well ventilated box stall.
Clean bedding should be provided and kept free of ma-
nure and moisture. Care should be taken to avoid
drafts, at the same time allowing for sufficient air.
c. Horses suffering from diseases of the nervous sys-
tem such as tetanus or spinal meningitis require absolute
quiet and should be removed as far as possible from all
noise. One attendant should care for these cases, as a
change in attendants may cause excitement and thus
increase the severity of the disease. A horse suffering
from colic should have enough bedding under him to
prevent injury from rolling and a box stall large enough
to permit him from becoming cast. In the field, sick
animals should be cared for apart from the others and
made as comfortable as circumstances will permit.
d. Clothing Clothing when required should be pro-
vided according to the season. It should be light in
weight as well as warm and should be aired, dried and
brushed at least once a day.
€. Bandaging for warmth. When circumstances re-
quire it the legs from the knee down should be hand
n
HIPPOLOGY.
23
1
I
.
rubbed, and bandaged with flannel bandages, being careful
to adjust the bandages so that circulation will not be
interfered with. Bandages should be changed and the
legs hand rubbed twice a day.
f. Shoes. Animals which are likely to remain on sick
report for some time should have their shoes removed.
g. Feeding sick animals. Only the choicest foods suit-
able to the requirements of each case should be pro-
vided. The grain ration must be reduced, and the ap-
petite tempted with specially prepared foods. Fresh
green grass, bran mashes, carrots or steamed oats do
very well. Green alfalfa or cured alfalfa which has
been soaked for an hour or two in clean water to which
has been added a small quantity of salt, is usually rel-
ished greatly.
(1) A lump of rock salt should be kept in the manger
at all times. Food should be given often and only in
such quantity as the patient will readily eat. The un-
eaten portion should be at once removed and the manger
washed clean. Feed should always be placed within
easy reach of the patient. Food that is wet, such as
bran mashes or steamed oats, soon sours in warm weather
and attract flies. In cold weather it is apt to freeze.
Eaten in either condition serious intestinal diseases may
result.
(2) Horses suffering from colic should have all food
removed for twelve hours and fed only limited quantities
for the next twenty-four hours. Watering sick horses: a
supply of fresh clean water should be kept within easy
reach of each patient and changed at least three times a
day.
(3) Buckets, feed boxes, mangers, and all utensils used
in or about sick stalls must be kept absolutely clean.
h. Grooming sick horses. Horses that are weak and de-
pressed should not be worried by unnecessary grooming.
Such animals should be carefully hand rubbed or wisped
once a day, and their eyes, nostrils and docks wiped out
with a soft cloth. The feet must also be cleaned. Animals
only slightly indisposed should be groomed in the usual
24
HIPPOLOGY.
way. Animals with tetanus (lockjaw) should not be groom-
ed.
i. Injured horses also require careful nursing, quiet and
rest. In some cases it becomes necessary to restrain the
animals in such a way that the injured part can be pro-
tected from the animals' biting or rubbing it. This is
accomplished by means of the cross tie, neck cradle or side
rod. The single tie or common halter shank often answers
this purpose. A level stall and the removal of shoes are
necessary where injuries to the feet or tendons occur.
23. Contagious diseases.
a. The contagious diseases encountered most frequently
in the service are:
(1) glanders
(2) lice
(3) influenza
(4) mange
(5) eczema (dhobie itch)
(6) pneumonia (some forms)
(7) ringworm
(8) strangles
(9) surra
b. All of the above mentioned conditions require
isolation. By isolation is meant separating from other ani-
mals and placing the sick animal by itself.
C. By quarantine is meant the period during which ani-
mals suffering from contagious diseases are kept away
from those known to be healthy. It also means the deten-
tion and isolation of animals coming from places infected,
or suspected of being infected, with contagious diseases.
No fixed period of quarantine exists for all cases. The
length of quarantine depends upon the nature of the disease.
As a general rule twenty-one days is the minimum time.
To be of value quarantine must be perfect. Not only must
diseased animals be quarantined; but all animals gnown or
diseased animals be quarantined; but all animals known or
be included. Quarantine pens should be located at least 200
yards from susceptable animals.
HIPPOLOGY.
25
d. Disinfection is the destruction of organisms causing
contagious and infectious diseases. This may be accomplish-
ed by the use of sunlight or heat and certain chemical
agents. For details of accomplishing disinfection, the pro-
Stable Sergeants, U. S. Army, 1917.”
24. Injuries of service animals.
a. Capped elbow (shoe boil)
(1) Causes—a bruise at the point of the elbow usually
produced by lying upon a hard unbedded floor.
(2) Symptoms a hot, painful swelling at the point of
the elbow.
(3) Treatment-apply cold water preferably from a
hydrant and hose for 20 minutes at a time three times a
day. White lotion applied liberally after the cold water
treatments aids greatly. After the inflamation has been
reduced paint with tincture of iodine once a day or apply a
blister. Should an abscess form and be lanced or burst,
syringe out daily with an antiseptic solution. Operative
measures must be left to the veterinarian. Preventions
keep the stall floor level and provide plenty of bedding.
6. Capped hock. (1) Cause—a bruise to the point of the
hock caused by lying upon hard floors and by kicking
against the stall or other hard objects.
(2) Symptoms a hot painful swelling at the point
of the hock.
(3) Treatment-same as for capped elbow.
(4) Prevention—if due to kicking in the stalls pad the
heel posts with sacks stuffed with straw. If due
to lying on a hard floor provide a good bed.
C. Fistulous withers.-An abscess in the vicinity of the
withers having a chronic discharge of pus from one or more
openings. It may involve the soft structures only or it
may extend to the bones.
(1) Cause-bruises usually from the collar or saddle.
(2) Symptoms--a swelling usually very painful locat-
ed at the withers. A small opening having a dis-
26
HIPPOLOGY
charge of pus may be present. A small abscess
with a soft center which resembles a common boil
may be noted.
(3) Treatment-In the early stages discontinue the
use of the saddle and apply cold packs, white
lotion or tincture of iodine. If no opening exists
relief may be obtained by the use of the above
mentioned methods. As this condition is very
difficult to treat it is advisable to put the patient
in the hands of a veterinarian at the earliest possi-
ble moment.
d. Poll evilman abscess in the region of the poll.
(1) Causes-bruises caused by the animal striking
the head against some overhead object, by a blow
or from pressure due to halter pulling.
(2) Symptoms and treatment-same as for fistula of
the withers.
e. Rope burns. Abrasions or lacerations usually at the
back of the hind pasterns.
(1) Causes-getting the foot over the halter roº,
picket line or lariat. It is generally the result
of leaving the halter shank too long in tying.
(2) Symptoms—the injury may be a simple chafe of
the skin or it may involve the underlying tendons
and ligaments.
(3) Treatment-trim away all torn and ragged edges,
clean the wound thoroughly and apply an anti-
septic. Should the parts become hard, dry and
painful they may be softened by daily applications
of zinc oxide ointment.
f. Inflamation. A condition into which the tissues of
the body enter as a result of an injury.
(1) Symptoms-pain, heat, swelling and redness.
(2) Occurance-may occur on any part of the body.
(3) Treatment-bathe or irrigate the inflamed area
several times daily with cold water. When the
parts will admit it, cold packs may be applied. .
25. Wounds.
A. A wound is an injury to any part of the body involv-
ing a separation of the tissues of an effected part. Wounds
I
HIPPOLOGY
are classified as incised, lacerated, punctured, bruised and
gunshot.
b. General treatment of wounds. The first step is to
stop or control the flow of blood. This is accomplished
either by means of a silk thread around the blood vessel,
a compress or clean cloth pack applied to the wound, a
tornequet applied above the wound or by the application of
cold water or certain chemical agents.
C. When bleeding has stopped the hair should be re-
moved from the edges of the wound and all dirt and foreign
material removed by washing with warm, clean water to
which has been added an antiseptic. Small pieces of
cotton should be used to swab a wound and should be dis-
carded after use and not put again into the solution.'
d. Tincture of iodine, iodoform, boracic acid or a solution
of creolin or liquor creasolis do very well as antiseptics for
wound treatment.
e. Sutures (stitches) may be as a rule dispensed with,
Occasionally a wound is of such a character that stitches
are necessary. This surgical procedure should be done by
a veterinarian.
f. In all wounds drainage is necessary for the removal
of serum and pus that would otherwise accumulate. The
escape of this material must be provided at the lowest part
of the wound.
g. All wounds should be treated with an antiseptic dress-
ing which hasters recovery and makes for cleanliness.
Gauze, cotton, oakum, antiseptic powders and tincture of
iodine are used for this purpose.
h. After care. All wounds should be kept dry and dress-
ings should changed only often enough to keep the wound
clean. As little washing as possible should be done and
the parts sopped rather than rubbed when applying dress-
ir gs or antiseptics. A new dressing should be applied after
each treatment.
i. Punctured wounds of joints and tendon sheaths.
Punctures of the synovial membranes or tendons which
allow the joint oil to escape are always of a serious nature
and frequently result in open joints. These conditions
2.
28
HIPPOLOGY.
should be treated by a veterinarian as the structures in-
volved are delicate and a thorough knowledge of anatomy
is required.
j. Bruised wounds and abrasions. Uņder this heading
are considered sore backs and sore shoulders.
(1) Causes—friction from improperly fitted equip-
ment.
(2) Symptoms-hard, hot, painful swellings appear-
ing usually within an hour after removal of the
gear. They can usually be best detected by rubb-
ing the hand over the area when swelling and
tenderness may be detected. As a result of
pressure certain areas may become bloodless, dry
up, and become dead and leatherlike. The dead
piece of skin is called a sitfast and usually requires
surgical removal.
(3) Treatment ascertain and remove the cause.
Rest the animal and apply cold irrigations and
antiseptics. Slight galls, chafes, or abrasions
are treated with white lotion, zinc oxide ointment
or powdered boracic acid.
(4) Prevention-adjust carefully all gear, keep the
parts of harness or saddlery that come in contact
with the skin clean, dry, and free from foreign
material, sit properly in the saddle, dismount fre-
quently and look to the adjustments of the gear.
26. Diseases and injuries of muscles, tendons and liga-
ments.
a. Sprains are injuries due to excessive exertion. They
effect muscles, tendons and ligaments, the fibres of which
are stretched or torn, causing inflamation, sometimes fol-
lowed by contraction and in muscles atrophy (wasting
away).
(1) Causes-improper shoeing, blows, violent efforts
and long continued exertion.
(2) Symptoms-lameness corresponding to the sever-
ity of the injury, swelling, heat and pain.
(3) Treatment-cold water applications and wet band-
HIPPOLOGY,
. 29
ages during acute stages. When acute inflamation
has subsided apply strong lináments or a blister.
b. A specific example of sprain is one which occurs at
the back and lower part of the hock known as curb. This
rarely causes permanent lameness but constitutes an un-
soundness and a blemish, therefore rendering the animal
of less value and service.
11
27. Bursal and synovial enlargements.
Under this heading are described bog spavin, thorough-
pin and windgalls or windpuffs.. These enlargments are
chronic, non-sensative conditions that rarely cause lame-
ness but constitute blemishes.
a. Bog spavin--a distention of the joint capsule of the
hock, due to the presence of an abnormal amount of synovia
which causes the capsule to bulge outward and forward.
(1) Causes- long continued work, particularly at
jumping, pulling and galloping.
(2) Symptoms—a soft puffy swelling situated in front
and a little to the inside of the hock. It is
usually a chronic condition and lameness rarely
occurs,
(3) Treatment—not usually necessary. If the parts
are hot and painful, give rest and reduce the in-
flamation by cold irrigations. After a week of
this treatment apply tincture of iodine once a
day for 10 days. This failing a blister should be
used.
b. Thoroughpin—a condition usually associated with bog
spavin.
(1) Causes-same as bog spavin.
(2) Symptoms—a soft fluctuating swelling at the
upper and back part of the hock, between the
point of the hock and the lower end of the tibia.
(3) Treatment-seldom required—same as bog spavin.
C. Windgalls (windpuffs) of the fetlock. A distension
of the synovial bursae of the flexor tendons at the back
of the fetlock joint.
30
HIPPOLOGY.
(1) Symptoms—soft puffy swellings about the back
part of the fetlock.
(2) Causes and treatment-same as for bog spavin.
28. Diseases of the digestive system.
a. The chief disease of the digestive tract is colic, of
which there are various forms. No attempt will be made
here to different ate or classify colics. The general causes,
symptoms, treatment and preventions are as follows.
bio Colic is defined as the manifestation of abdominal
pain.
(1) Causes— improper foods such as musty or moldy
grain, sour bran, green feeds, clover, alfalfa, and
corn, too great an amount given at a feed, in-
testinal parasites, cold water in too large amounts,
II
feeding and foreign bodies.
Symptoms—any combination or any one of the
followirg symptoms may be noted depending up-
on the kind of colic that exists and to its severity:
sudden attacks of pain manifested by pawing,
walking about restlessly, having a tendency to
lie down and get up, rolling, sweating about the
ears and flanks, or over the entire body, labored
breathing, bloating and an anxious expression of
the contenance.
tine in 1/2 pint of linseed oil as a drench. Repeat
in 30 minutes if animal is not easier; or a mixture
composed of camphor gum 6 oz., carbolic acid 2
oz, and gylcerine 12 oz. Give this in 1 oz. doses
with a dose syringe and repeat in one, three or
four hours if necessary. It is always a good plan
to introduce into the bowel through the anus from
2 to 4 gallons of lukewarm soapy water which
stimulates their action. In all cases of colic
iti is advisable to place the animal under the
care of a veterinarian at the earliest opportunity
as relief must be promptly accomplished to avoid
a fatal termination. Relief is usually obtained
HIPPOLOGY,
31
by the administration of a quick acting purgative.
(4) After care-animals that recover from colic should
be given a physic bolus and well cleaned out be
fore being put back to duty. They should be
fed nothing for twelve hours after the pain ceases
and they approach the normal, and 1/2 the normal
ration for the next twenty-four hours. A small
bran mash as the first grain ration is very good
in these cases.
(5) Prevention-systematic stable inspection, the
presence of a commissioned officer at stables
during feeding and watering of animals and col-
stant observation of animals at work and at rest
will greatly assist in the prevention of this trouble.
Allow only clean, wholesome, pure untainted food
and water to be fed and see that it is offered
regularly. After hard work when animals are
warm and fatigued allow sufficient time to elapse
for the animal to cool out before being fed.
W
29. Diseases and injuries of the foot and limb.
a. Spavin-Bone spavin is a disease effecting the bones
of the hock joint and usually appears as a bony enlarg-
ment on the inner and lower part of the hock.
(1) Causes—violent strains in rearing, jumping, pull-
ing or galloping and severe rapid work. Tied
in hocks and sickle-shaped hocks are more likely
to suffer than those that are broad and well de-
veloped.
Symptoms-lameness usually accompanies the de-
velopment of spavin. Abony enlargment may
be noticeable in the early stages but usually de-
velops later. The animal tends to place the toe
of the affected limb on the ground before the
heel. The gait carries an exaggerated hip action.
Animals usually manifest this lameness im-
mediately after a rest and in some cases gradually
warm out of the lameness.
(3) Treatment-remove the shoe and level the foot,
place animal on a level floor and apply cold baths
32
HIPPOLOGY.
and packs to hock for one week. Apply a strong
blister and give absolute rest for from four to
six weeks. This treatment failing the application
of the actual cautery (firing iron) is indicated.
Spavin is a serious unsoundness.
b. Ring bone. A ring bone is a bony enlargement occur-
ing in the region of the long and short pastern bones. It
occurs more frequently in the front legs than in the hind
ones.
(1) Causes-sprains, bruises, hard and fast work and
penetrating wounds involving the periosteum; im-
proper shoeing, such as toe too short or leaving
the heel too high, or leaving one side of the hoof
wall higher than the other.
Symptoms—lameness, which may disappear with
exercise, is usually the first symptom. Later, there
appears a hard painless swelling over which the
skin is freely movable.
(3) Treatment-remove the shoe and level the foot.
Use cold baths and cold packs for a week or ten
days then apply a strong blister. This failing
the actual cautery is indicated. Ring bone is
also a serious unsoundness..
C. Side bone. Side bone is a condition in which the
lateral cartilages of the foot have turned to bone. This
condition more often affects the front feet and the outer
cartilages suffer more frequently than the inner ones.
(1) Causes-concussion produced by hard work and
hard roads; allowing the feet to become too dry,
mechanical injuries, lack of equal pressure and
leaving the heel too high in shoeing.
(2) Symptoms—a hard unyielding condition of the
cartilages of the foot with or without lameness.
(3) Treatment necessary only when the animal is
lame. Same as for spavin and ring bone. This
condition constitutes an unsoundness.
d. Splints. Splints are bony enlargements appearing
TI
seldom occur on the hind leg.
HIPPOLOGY.
33
1
h
(1) Causesfast work and hard roads, interferring
and unequal distribution of weight on leg.
(2) Symptoms—in the early stages there is a slight
swelling, heat, pain on pressure, and more or less
thickening. Lameness may or may not occur.
Lameness usually disappears in the later stages
and the swelling becomes hard.
(3) Treatment necessary only when the animal is
lame. Remove the shoe, level the foot, shower the
part with cold water daily and do up in a white
lotion pack. When the inflammation has subsided
apply a strong blister allowing the animal a
months rest.
(4) This condition is a blemish and is considered an
unsoundness when animal is lame or the splints
located near the knee.
e. Quittor. A chronic inflammation of the cartilages of
the foot and their surrounding structures, characterized
by the presence of one or more openings (fistulas) from:
which there is a continuous discharge of pus.
(1) Causes-treads on the coronet, suppurating corns
and punctured wounds of the sole.
(2) Symptoms-heat, swelling and tenderness in the
region of the coronet and heel. There may be a
discharge of pus if the condition is of long stand-
ing. There is usually lameness.
(3) Treatment-rest-treat according to the nature
of the cause: Inject in the sinus tincture of
iodine and apply a one to 1000 strength bichloride
of mercury pack under a bandage. This treat--
ment failing an operation is necessary.
f. Thrush. A disease of the frog characterized by an
offensive odor and a softening of the horn.
(1) Causes-mud and filthy condition of the animal's
standings.
..(2) Symptoms--a stinking discharge from the cleft of
the frog. The horn becomes underrun and loosens an.
the sensitive structures are exposed. Lameness appears
only in severe cases.
lin
-
II
34
HIPPOLOGY,
(3) Treatment-clear dry standings are essential.
Remove all loose underrun tissue and clean the frog
19
(1
Pack with the three sulphates or pure creolin.
g. Nail pricks. Punctured wounds of the frog and
sole occur from the animal stepping on nails, snags,
glass or other sharp objects. Nail pricks are of the
most importance. In shoeing nails may be driven di-
rectly into the sensative structure (direct pricking)
causing immediate lameness or they may be driven so
close to the sensative structures that pressure occurs.
In the latter condition lameness may not occur for sev-
eral days.
(1) Symptoms_lameness more or less severe-the
foot is hot, and throbbing of the digital arteries may be
felt. Pressure to the injured spot causes pain. If an
animal goes lame immediately after shoeing a direct
prick should be suspected.'
(2) Treatment-Clean the foot thoroughly, remove
the nails one at a time and examine them carefully for
moisture, pus, or blood. Test each nail hole separately
for sensitiveness. If the nails are found to have pro-
duced no injury examine the frog and the sole. When
the wound is located pare away the horn from the edges,
remove the offending object if present and establish free
drainage. Clean the wound thoroughly with a strong
antiseptic solution, dry with clean cotton and inject tinc-
ture of iodine into the wound. The foot is then bandaged
and the animal placed in a clean dry stall. Repeat the
cease. The wound is then packed with tar and oakum
and the animal reshod. Rest the animal during period
of treatment.
h. Corns, A corn is a bruise to the sensative sole
between the wall and the bar. Corns occur usually in the
fore feet. Corns may be dry or suppurating. A dry
corn is one in which the injury is but slight, and where
nothing but the staining of the horn with blood remains
HIPPOLOGY.
35
TAY
to indicate that an injury has existed. A suppurating
corn is one which pus has formed.
(1) Causes-fast work on hard roads, improper
shoeing and sole pressure.
(2) Symptoms-lameness may or may not be pre-
sent. When present there is heat and pain in
the injured quarter. . The deeper layers as the
hoof is pared are of a purplish or reddish color.
Should supparation threaten marked lameness
exists. The foot is quite hot and mechanical
pressure causes great pain.
(3) Treatment-level the foot and correct any faults
that may be detected. If the fuoi is hot and
painful stand the animal in cold water until the
inflamation subsides. This failing apply hot
poultices until the hoof softens and pus appears;
then establish drainage, cleanse the parts thor-
oughly and apply tincture of iodine. Bandage
the foot and place the animal in a clean dry
stall. Dress the wound daily until pus and sore-
ness disappear then plug the corn with tar and
oakum and shoe with a bar shoe.
(3) Corns in which no tenderness is found can be
pared out and the animal reshod, being careful
that the shoes cause no pressure directly over
the seat of the trouble.
30. The administration of medicines.
Medicines may enter the body through the following
channels: by the mouth; rectum, skin, lungs and upper
air passages and by the injection into a vein. For details
of this work see Chapter V "Manual for Stable Sergeants
· U. S. Army, 1917."
SECTION IV.
AGE AND HEIGHT, COLORS AND MARKINGS
Paragrapili.
31
..
.
.
..
.
.
..
.
.
..
.
..
.
.
..
..
..
.
.
.
.
Determination of age ....
Measurement of height ...........................
Colors and Marking's .............................
32
33
36
HIPPOLOGY.
31. Determination of a'ge by the teeth.
a. The age of horses and mules is determined by the
appearance of the incisor teeth. Certain changes take
place in the wearing of table surfaces and the general
shape of the incisors which serve as a guide. As animals
in the military service under five years of age are rarely
encountered, a brief description of the teeth from five
years to twelve only will be given. After an animal has
passed the twelfth year, it is very difficult to tell the exact
age by the appearance of the teeth.
(1) Five years old. The animal should have a full
mouth, i. e., all the incisors should be perma-
nent teeth, the milk teeth having all been shed
at this time, all of which are up and wearing.
All cups should be present.
(2) Six years old. The cups wear out of the center
pair of lower incisors at this age. Cups should
appear in all other incisors.
(3) Seven years old. Cups wear out of lateral or
middle pair of incisors at this age but should
appear in the corner incisors.
(4) Eight years old. Cups wear out of corner inci-
sors at eight years old.
(5) Nine years old. The cups wear out of the
central incisors of the upper jaw at this age.
(6) Ten years old. The cups wear out of the lateral
middle upper incisors between ten and eleven
years.
(7) Eleven years old. The cups wear out of the
corner upper incisors at this age or between
eleven and twelve years old.
(8) Twelve years old. An animal this age should
show no cups in the incisors and is called smooth
mouthed.
6. Quality of teeth, kind of food given and the way
the teeth fit together must be considered in ageing horses.
C. Teeth may wear very unevenly and be deceptive.
The upper incisors are considered less reliable as to the
disappearance of the cups than are the lower.
HIPPOLOGY.
37
32. Measurement of height.
a. Animals are measured as to height in terms of
hands. A hand is four inches in length.
b. In measuring have the animal stand on level ground
with all four feet bearing the body weight, erect with
head up.
C. The measurement is taken with a measuring stick
graduated into hands having a horizontal movable cross
piece which is used at the top point. The base of the
stick is placed just back of the front heel, and should
come as near as possible to the elbow joint in passing
upward to the point of the withers where the measure-
ment is taken. The cross piece is then rested on the
horse's withers and the height taken from the position of
the cross piece on the graduated stick.
d. Service animals vary usually from fifteen to sixteen
hands and three inches in height.
33. Colors and Markings.
llo animals are described as being of the following solors:
(1) Black (Jet Black)
(Rusty Black)
(2) Chestnut (Light Chestnut)
or Sorrel (Dark Chestnut)
(3) Bay (Light Bay)
(Dark Bay)
(4) Brown
(5) Gray Light Gray)
(Dark Gray)
(Iron Gray)
(Flea Bitten Gray)
(6) White
(7) Mouse
(8) Roan (Strawberry Roan)
(Blue Roan)
(9) Piebald—White and Black patches
TTY
38
HIPPOLOGY.
.
.
b. The following terms are used with reference to mark-
ings.
(1) A star is a small area of white hairs on the fore-
head..
(2) Race designates a small white strip down the face
usually in the center and is called a short race when
it does not reach the nose.
(3) Snip designates a white mark between the nostrils.
(4) Blaze designates a broad white splash down the
face.
(5) White face means that the face is white from fore-
head to muzzle.
(6) Silver mane and tail designates the reflection of
white in these appendages.
(7) White pastern means that the white extends from
pastern to and including the coronet.
(8) Quarterstocking means that the white hairs extend
from the coronet to and including the fetlock.
(9) Halfstocking designates the leg white from the
coronet to an inch or two above the fetlock.
(10) Threequarter stocking means that the white hair
extend to midway between the fetlock and knee
or hock.
(11) Full stocking designates the leg white to and in-
cluding the knee or hock.
(12) Black points means black mane, tail and extrem-
ities.
(13) Ray designates the dark line found along the back
of some horses and many mules.
(14) Cross designates the dark line over the withers
from side to side.
(15) White hairs is a term designating a few white
hairs on the forehead, at the junction of the neck
and withers, on the shoulders, over the yees,
back, and the like.
OV
ers
1
TXT
VY11
HIPPOLOGY.
SECTION V.
VICES, RESTRAINT AND CONTROL.
Paragraph.
34
Stable vices
Restraint and control .......
35
34. Stable vices.
a. Stables vices are objectionable habits of horses, prac-
ticed while idle, as in the stable or on the picket line,
and caused usually by nervousness and restlessness, but
not infrequently by poor stable management.
b. As a general preventative to their contraction, the
animals should be kept occupied and out of the stables as
much as possible during the day.
c. The most common ones are: weaving, windsucking,
cribbing, biting, kicking against the stall, gnawing the
woodwork, eating dung, greedy feeding, tearing blankets,
and halter pulling. Most of these when once acquired
are incurable, but they can be partially or wholly prevent-
ed temporarily at least.
(1) Weaving is a nervous habit in which the animal
rocks to and fro continually, similar to a bear
kept in confinement. Such animals should be
kept tied short and out of sight of other animals
which might contract the habit. Weaving is
incurable.
(2) Windsucking or. cribbing are nervous habits
closely related. In windsucking an animal
swallows air by arching the neck, drawing the
head toward the chest and giving a gulp. The
cribber or crib biter accomplished the same end
by catching hold of the manger by his teeth to
obtain a pull, and as he gulps emits a grunt.
Both of these vices are incurable and are apt
to be acquired by other horses stabled nearby.
They may be prevented by the use of a broad
strap fitted tightly around the neck with a
small wooden or leather gullet plate stitched
on so that it projects on each side and sticks
W
40
HIPPOLOGY.
into the throat when the neck is bent. Another
method which often succeeds is to buckle a nar-
row leather strap around the neck rather tight-
ly. Neither of these will effect a cure, only a
temporary prevention. Cribbers always show
by the wear f their incisors the effects of the
habit. Indigestion and colic frequently result
from these vices.
(3) Biting is a vicious habit seen most frequently in
stallions. It is usually the result of animals
being teased by men in a playful way, but once
acquired, a dangerous vice. As a preventative
the teasing must be stopped and if an animal is
dangerous only one man should handle him, his
regular groom, who must be unafraid of him.
The danger may be lessened by the use of a
leather muzzle, or thick wooden bit, or a side
stick. The side stick is a short stick attached to
the ends of the headstall or surcingle..
(4) Kicking against the stall is a habit usually ac-
quired through lack of work. Animals with
this habit are apt to injure themselves and
others. The danger of injury may be lessened
by padding the stalls and providing kicking
boards. It may be cured by using a short chain,
one end of which is attached to a hobble placed
around one rear pastern, the other end attached
to a small wooden ball.
(5) Gnawing the woodwork is a restless habit of
animals kept tied up without work, or when de-
prived of hay. The cure is plenty of hay. The
prevention is to wrap the woodwork with wire
or cover it with tin. When used, the wire or
tin must be watched carefully to guard against
injury to animals from loose ends.
(6) Eating dung is habitual with some animals and
may be classed as a vice. It is a morbid ap-
petite resulting from poor condition caused by
HIPPOLOGY.
41
chronic indigestion Animals in fit condition sel-
dom form the habit. The only prevention is to
keep the animal tied so that he cannot reach his
own or other animals' droppings.
(7) Greedy feeding is caused by natural greed or
nervousness. A greedy feeder eats as fast as
he can, grasping huge mouthfuls at a time and
throwing his feed with his muzzle out of his
box onto the ground and eating it from the
ground. This results in indigestion, the bolting
of feed, eating dirt and trash, and is wasteful
on account of the large amount of forage lost.
The preventions are: to place several stones, the
size of a goose egg in the feed box; to feed
TTY
half inch mesh inside of the box and resting on
the grain; or to feed in a wide bottomed feed
box or manger. Any of these will make it dif-
ficult for the animal to take large mouthfuls of
grain or to throw it out.
(8) Tearing blankets is an expensive habit. The
only prevention is a leather muzzle.
(9) Halter pulling is also an expensive habit, and
a troublesome one. The vice is usually con-
tracted by the use of weak halters and ropes,
and animals become frightened so that they
break away. Tying with the reins is apt to have
the same effect. The animal soon learns that
he can do it, and then it is very likely to be.
come habitual. Once a confirmed halter puller
it is usually a permanent vice. As a preventa-
tive, use box stalls or a very heavy neck strap
and tie rope. It is sometimes cured by tying
a piece of rope around the animal's barrel just
in rear of forelegs, from which is run the
rope up between the legs through the halter
ring and to manger or picket line. After a few
attemps to pull away he will probably give up.
HIPPOLOGY.
This should be applied for several days, and
then for a time use just a light corú tied around
the barrel as a reminder.
35. Restraint and control.
1
1
In the management of animals, both in field and gar-
rison, restraint is sometimes necessary. The methods
are varied and the one to be used depends largely on the
disposition of the individual animal and what is to be ac-
complished. Animals are restrained by the use of the
twitch, war bridle, blind, muzzle, cradle, side rod, cross
tie, knee strap, casting rope, slings, hobbles, stocks and
operating table. Always select the mildest and least
dangerous method that will accomplish the end.
1112
yt
A. The twitch, perhaps, is the handiest and most com-
mon method of restraint, and is the most effective in the
majority of cases as a simple measure but should always
be used with great caution and only when necessary. It
is a very powerful instrument capable of inflicting great
pain, disfiguring animal's faces, and causing even lasting
injury. As it shuts off circulation in the lip, it should
never be used for any considerable length of time con-
tinuously, and never with greater force than is absoultely
necessary. It is easily made by running a piece of small
rope or rawhide through a hole in the end of a rounded
piece of wood, 2 to 5 feet long, such as a pitch fork or
ax handle, and tying it into a short loop.
b. (1) The war bridle is perhaps the one method of
restraint which is the least likely to do harm to the ani-
mal or to make him afraid of its future use. When
properly used its effects are lasting and beneficial, making
the animal quieter, more tractable and more amenable
to discipline. It is made and applied as follows: take
about 20 ft. of 5/16 inch three strand hemp rope, and
make a four inch loop at one end. To apply, stand on
the near side of the horse, place the loop in the mouth
inclosing the tongue and lower jaw, carry the rope up on
HIPPOLOGY.
43
the off side, over the poll and down the near cheek to
about opposite the eye, then double back on the poll
leaving a bight hanging, pass the running end of the rope
through the mouth between the upper lip and the gum,
and up through the bight on the near cheek, then down
through the lower part of the loop. Draw the end snug
without changing position of the bight. A moderate pull
on the rope tightens the bridle, producing pressure on the
poll and to a lesser degree on the mouth. This has a
strong moral effect, inducing the animal to stand quietly.
(2) The attendant should not pull the rope unduly
tight but always use moderate tension and with a little
twitching to attract the animal's attention. Its use is
especially adapted to the training of young animals to
be shod and in handling the heads of very nervous ani-
mals.
c. The blind is often of value as a means of restraint for
nervous or vicious, animals. It is made in the form of a
hood or of a piece of leather broad enough to cover the
eyes, and provided with leather strings for fastening to the
halter.
d. The neck cradle is useful in case of a wound to prevent
further injury by the animal's chewing or tearing the in-
jured part. It is made of from eight to twelve pieces of
hardwood about 1 1/3 inches in diameter and about eighteen
inches long, pierced at each end by a hole through which is
passed a cord or small rope. The rods are kept three or
four inches apart by knots in the rope. The ends of the
rope are tied on the upper border of the neck and so
adjusted that the upper ends of the rods are just back of
the lower jaw, the lower end resting on the shoulders at
the seat of the collar.
e. The muzzle as a means of restraint is useful to prevent
an animal eating bedding or chewing or tearing the dressing
from a wound. They are best made of leather and attached
to the halter rings or fastened by straps attached to the
muzzle and passing over the poll.
44
HIPPOLOGY.
f. The side rod is used for vicious animals while groom-
ing or to prevent an animal from doing injury to a wound.
It is made from a round wooden rod from 31/2 to 4 feet in
length, with a small cord or strap at each end, one for at-
taching to the noseband of the halter, the other to the
surcingle.
g. The cross tie is useful to prevent an animal from
chewing a wound or dressing, and from lying down when
it is desired to keep him standing. It consists of tying the
head in an elevated position, with two tie ropes, one from
either side, and both tied to opposite sides of the stall.
h. The knee straps are useful when it is necessary to fix
a foreleg for an operation or for shoeing. A strap or rope
is used to secure the pastern to the forearm. The leg is
well bent at the knee and the rope or strap, with a loop at
one end, is passed over the pastern, the free end passed
around the forearm and back to the pastern drawn tight
and tied or buckled.
i. The side line is a means of restraint commonly used
in securing a hind leg. It is made of 3/4 inch rope about
20 feet long and a leather hobble provided with a ring. One
end of the rope is secured around the animal's neck by a
loop or non-slip tie, the free end is passed throught he
hobble ring or around the pastern, and carried back through
the loop around the neck; then the leg is brought forward
and held in the position desired by the attendant. If neces-
sary the leg can be brought backward and securely held
by fastening the free end of the rope to the hobble, and
pulling the leg backward, one attendant grasping the leg and
holding it in the desired position and another keeping the
rope taught.
1. (1) The casting rope is perhaps the most useful means
of restraint considering the various uses to which it may be
put. Often in the field it may be necessary to secure an
animal for an operation or in rare cases for shoeing, and
no other suitable means of restraint are available. It is
made of 3/4 inch rope about 30 feet in length. This is
doubled and from '3 to 4 feet of the doubled end tied in
HIPPOLOGY,
45
a non-slip loop, which is passed over the horse's head and
adjusted about the neck. The free ends are passed back-
ward between the forelegs and around the rear pasterns
and through the rings of hobbles if used, thence upward and
-back through the loop at the neck. A strong mar should
hold the horse by the head and one or two assistants grasp
the free ends of the rope and take the ainmal off his feet.
Casting can be done with the least effort if one foreleg is
fixed off the ground with a knee strap. If it is desired
to cast on a particular side, it can be done by the at-
tendant's pulling in a forward direction on that sige, the
others pulling in the oppsite direction. When down, the
man at the head should grasp and hold the head firmly
against the ground, while another should draw the legs up
tightly at the side and secure them by a double half hitch
made of the free ends of the rope. When one side is
secured the animal may be rolled over and the other tied
in a similar manner.
(2) There are various forms of casting harness made
from ropes and leather, but the principle of all is similar
to the one described above.
k. The English hobble is sometimes used for casting. It
consists of four leather hobbles with rings. A chain or
rope is attached to one front hobble then passed through
the rings of the others and back through the first ring.
The animal is cast by pulling the rope and drawing all
four legs together. When down the rope is secured. This
is not a popular method of casting if work is to be done upon
the feet and limbs, as it does not place them in suitable
position.
: 1. Stocks are build for operating upon animals, for re-
straint in applying dressings, and for shoeing. Their use
for the last named purpose should be discouraged, as an
animal confirmed to their use cannot be shod in any
other way, and there is always danger of injuries. The
war bridle, if used properly, will take the place of the
stocks.
46
HIPPOLOGY
m. The sling is a useful means of restraint and often
à necessary one in case of severe injury and inability to
support the weight on all four legs, and when it is desired
to keep the animal in a standing position. It is made of
broad, strong canvas fitted about the animal's chest and
abdomen, and fastened to it are straps from both a breast
collar and breeching. Ropes attached to the free ends of
the canvas run to blocks and tackles and support the weight
of the animal. The raising must be effected so as not to
take the feet from the ground, but just enough to ease the
weight from them. When this is accomplished, the pulleys
should be locked or the free end of the rope securely tied.
SECTION VI.
CARE OF REMOUNTS
Care of remounts ....
Paragraph
36
36. Care of remounts.
a. Remounts require special care and attention upon
receipt by an organization. They should be segregated and
given a careful physical examination by the attending veter-
inary officer. All the sick should be placed apart from the
well and given special care and treatment. They should
be held in quarantine until released by the veterinarian in
charge. This period can only be judged with safety by such
officer. It varies with different conditions and different lots
of animals. In the case of those which are matured it may
be of short duration (two or three weeks) and again with
very young animals it may be 60 days or more. Young
animals invariably undergo a period of acclimation and
sickness and until this period is passed but little can be done
toward training or conditioning.
6. Following the purchase of remounts the time neces-
sary to cover the period of sickness, conditioning and train-
ing will average about six months. Before this has elapsed
but little can be expected in the way of hard work. The
general practice of a graded system of exercising and con-
HIPPOLOGY:
47
ditioning is particularly applicable to new animals; and
good knowledge of horse mastership is of great advantage.
Due to the fact that this class of animals after purchase
and shipping is in the softest possible condition, only by a
systematic course in feeding can the best possible results
be obtained with the least possible delay. It is not neces-
sary to defer the training until the end of all sickness,
since to do so would be a loss of time, but a working is-
olation can be affected and work started on all those not
sick at the earliest practicable date.
C. Remounts received from remount depots are presum-
ably clean and free from shipping fevers, and in all pro-
bability are stronger and in better condition than those
shipped directly from purchasing points. It is; however,
the wisest plan to isolate all new animals received by or-
ganizations until their freedom from disease is proved..
SECTION VII
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS.
Paragraph.
General instructions ....
37. General instructions.
a. Kindness is best policy. Far better results are obtain-
ed from animals by kindness than by rough treatment.
Nearly all bad horses are made so by brutal handling.
b. Horses and mules are animals, not machines. They
have feelings the same as humans, and should be treated
with consideration.
C. Horses are strong when properly cared for. They can-
not provide for themselves. If neglected they suffer, and
their service is lost.
d. An animal is no stronger than his weakest part. It
will avail nothing for him to have wonderful muscles and
poor feet. Every part must be cared for.
e. The human voice has great effect on animals. They
read emotions by the tones used. Control can be increased
50 percent by using "voice". Cultivate the habit of talking
48
HIPPOLOGY
1
to animals, they understand more than is commonly at-
tributed to them.
f. Always speak on approaching an animal to attract his
attention, so as not to startle him.
g. Horses and mules are naturally timid. Gain their
confidence and respect by gentleness, patience and per-
sistence.
h. Never punish an animal in anger. It would only be
satisfying a brutal instinct. Most faults committed by
them are through lack of understanding or fear, seldom
thru viciousness. If punishment is necessary it must follow
the offense immediately and then be commensurate with
the offense.
į. Reward gains far more than punishment. In train-
ing always reward a correct performance, no matter how
slight. It is the only means of telling an animal, “well done."
j. Every animal is an individual and must be studied
and treated according to his needs. There is no greater
mistake than treating them like so many biscuits in a pan.
k. Feed animals so that they may get the best value
from their rations. Feed clean food, properly prepared,
frequently, and in small quantities.
l. Feed animals so that they will not be injured—never
when they are heated.
mi. Water animals rationally. They should have all they
want to drink. Never water heated animals unless the ex-
ercise is to continue immediately. Never water after feed-
ing, wait an hour. Before feeding is the best time.
n. Work animals rationally, never to exhaustion. If
hard work is to be expected, have them in condition to
perform it.
0. Keep animals well by proper care, don't wait till they
become sick and cure them. Prevent sickness, and cures
will be unnecessary.
p. Give animals clean stalls and clean beds. They will be
healthier, rest better and serve better.
q. Save them from exposure, by proper shelter. They
will last longer and require less food.
HIPPOLOGY.
49
r. Keep them from standing in mud. Few things will
break them down more quickly.
s. Groom animals thoroughly and keep them trimmed.
They will be far healthier and stronger and their appearance
will be a matter of pride to those handling them.
t. Keep equipment in top shape. It will last longer and
be a real satisfaction to the user.
i
38
CON
1
11
SECTION VIII.
PRINCIPLES OF HORSESHOEING
Paragraph.
Importance of shoeing ...............
Preparation of the foot ....
39
The shoe ...............
Fitting the shoe ......
Nailing the shoe .....
General provisions .......
Inspection of shoeing .........
38. Importance of shoeing.
a. This is the most important but often neglected part of
animal management. The old saying "No feet, no horse,"
always has been and always will be true. A horse is no
better than his feet, and constant care and intelligent care
is required to keep them in condition.
b. Every officer in charge of animals must continually
watch the condition of their feet and see that they receive
the proper care. Every enlisted man who rides or drives
an animal must do the same, reporting promptly to his
squad leader or stable sergeant any need for attention, no
matter how slight. A loose shoe, if reported at once, can
be tightened, while if neglected it will probably be lost, and
very possibly cause lameness.
C. Bad and indifferent shoeing so frequently leads to dis-
eases of the feet and to irregularities of gait which may
render a horse unserviceable, that a brief discussion of the
principles of shoeing healthy hoofs is presented so as to
show when an animal is properly shod and to avoid the
more serious consequences of improper shoeing.
39. Preparation of the foot.
a. With the horse standing evenly on his feet, examine the
foot and pastern axes to determine if any changes are to be
50
HIPPOLOGY.
MI
made beside the removal of surplus growth of horn. With
the hoof knife pare away the dead horn near the white line
until live horn is reached, being careful to go no farther
back than the last nail hole. The knife should never be
used on the bars or frogs. The bars strengthen the hoof,
and assist in its expansion, cutting, therefore weakens them
and prevents them from performing their function.
b. To remove surplus horn use the nippers lowering the
toe first, as in this way the foot can be better put at the
proper angle and heel calks avoided in case the procedure
was begun at the heels and too much horn taken away. The
foot should be prepared so that is will approach as nearly
as possible a state of nature. Trimming, therefore, should
be done only as much as is absolutely necessary for the
purpose of fitting and receiving the shoe.
C. Leveling the foot is done with the rasp using the rough
side to smooth off the foot where the nippers have been
used. To avoid removing too much of the horn take the
foot in both hands and press on the sole with the thumbs.
If the sole yields ever so slightly no more horn should be
rasped away. Each half of the foot is treated in the above
manner and the operation should be done slowly and care-
fully. The level of the foot is determined by sighting over
the bearing surface and placing the rasp thereon. Place
the foot on the ground and examine it carefully from all
sides to determine if it stands at the proper angle; if the
quarters are of equal height; and if the foot is broken out
or broken in. If these conditions are not correct they should
be corrected before proceeding further.
40. The shoe.
a. The shoe should be so constructed that it follows the
line of the foot. If the foot is broken the shoe should
follow the original line of the foot. The upper and lower
surfaces of the shoe should be wider at the toe than at the
heels. The length of the shoe is regulated by the bulk of
the frog, and the thickness of metal is made sufficient to
wear about a month. Four sizes of machine made shoes
are used in the service. The ground surface of the shoe
HIPPOLOGY,
should be level. That portion of the upper surface of the
shoe which presses against the bearing surface of the foot
must also be level, smooth, and accurately shaped to sup-
port it. When the upper shoe surface is wider than the
bearing surface the inner edge must be concaved to avoid
excessive sole pressure. Care must be taken to concave
only enough to remove sole pressure as small pebbles, dirt,
etc., which might collect and lodge between the shoe and
sole would cause a pressure in spots which is very
harmful. The outer edge of the upper surface should be
slightly rounded which adds to the appearance, produces a
better fitting shoe and aids in preventing cutting if the
horse travels close. The crease of the shoe should be uni-
form in width and about 2/3 the thickness of the shoe.. The
crease is an aid in the prevention of slipping.
b. Nail holes should be punched to fall over the outer
edge of the white line.
C. Clips are semicircular bars drawn up from the outer
edge of the shoe to prevent its slipping and when on the
side or toe assist the nails in holding the shoe in place
Calks are projections on the ground surface of the shoe
either heel or toe which in the normal horse are for the
purpose of securing firm footing.
1
41. Fitting the shoe.
The shoe is fitted to the foot before nailing and any ad-
justments which are necessary for a proper fit are made
before the nails are driven. This insures the adjustments
being made on the shoe and not on the horse's foot. There is
always a tendency for horseshoers to nail the shoe and
correct irregularities by using the rasp to make the foot fit
the shoe. This is harmful to the foot. Shoes should always
be made to fit the foot rather than the foot rasped to fit the
shoe after it is nailed.
42. Nailing the shoe.
Q. Horseshoe nails of the service are machine made and
come in sizes 4, 5, 6, 7. One side of the nail is flat; the
other side is concave and has a bevel near its point. As the
52
HIPPOLOGY.
bevel enters the horn it forces the point of the nail in the dir-
ection of the other (flat) side. Therefore the nail is always
driven with the flat side toward the outside edge of the
shoe. The outside edge of the white line is the proper place
to start nails, and shoes should be fitted with that end in
view. Nails when started come out evenly, low, and at a
strong angle. Nail heads should be sunk in the crease until
flush with the ground surface of the shoe in order to pre-
vent wearing off, thereby causing a loose shoe, and to in-
sure a level ground surface.
b. The shoe is placed upon the bearing surface of the
foot, and the nail usually started in the third nail hole. It
is driven with the nailing hammer. As the point of the nail
comes through the wall it is turned downward and wrung
off with the claws of the hammer close to the wall. The
second nail is driven on the side opposite the first. Eight
nails are usually used on a normal hoof.
C. After all nails have been driven and the points wrung
off the heads are hammered well into the crease of the shoe.
d. A clinching block is then placed under a nail point and
the nail head again hammered. This forms the clinch which
aids in securing the shoe to the foot. Clinches should be
smooth with the wall and should be run over with the
rasp to remove the rough edges. When finished the clinch
should be slightly longer than the width of the nail at the
point where it comes from the wall.
e. The outside wall of the foot should never be rasped.
f. After the shoe is nailed on, the foot should be allowed
to rest on the ground and another careful examination
made.
43. General provisions.
a. Every mounted unit should have one or two trained
horseshoers, and one or two understudies in training.
b. A shoeing roster should be kept showing when and
what shoeing was done for each animal.
C. An average day's work of thorough shoeing is about
eight feet shod with new shoes. If many old shoes can be
reset, i, e., the shoes pulled off, feet trimmed down and
HIPPOLOGY,
shoes replaced, considerably more than eight can be done.
If special or pathological shoes are required, not so
many can be expected.
d. No shoe should be allowed to remain on an animal's
foot longer than thirty days. The wear on the shoe depends
upon the nature and the amount of work and the kind of
roads or terrain over which it is performed.
e. Macadam roads and rocky soil will cause the shoe to
wear much faster than soft roads and turf. But the growth
of horn is approximately the same in all cases, and after
a month's growth the horn is too long and needs taking
down.
f. The resetting of old shoes whenever it is justified by
the amount of wear left in them, is recommended as an
economical measure.
g. The horseshoer knows from his shoeing roster exactly
when each animal must be shod to conform to the thirty
day requirement. He should inspect the feet of all animals
daily, preferably at."stables," and attend to any that need
shoeing. He should also care for those specially reported
to him
h. When the soil, the nature of the work, and the con-
dition of the feet permit, it is advisable to remove the shoes
and allow the animals to go barefooted. Going barefooted
rests the feet, favors free expansion, toughens the horn,
and assists nature in restoring the foot to its natural con-
dition. However the feet must have sufficient horn to allow
for wear.
i. On removal of shoes the feet must be trimmed slightly
to prevent splitting or splintering of the horn.
j. It is only very rarely that horses can be permitted to
go barefooted in the field, as there is too much uncertainty
as to what work troops may be called upon to do at short
notice.
k. On going into the field troops should, whenever pos-
sible, start out freshly shod, and each man should have an
extra fitted front and hind shoe with sufficient nails, for
each horse. The field shoeing kit should never be left
behind unless absoultely unavoidable.
54
HIPPOLOGY.
1. Any animal losing a shoe on the march must be at-
tended to then. If neglected, lameness will almost surely
result.
44. Inspection of shoeing.
1
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a. Organization commanders and platoon leaders should
inspect all animals under their command daily. At stables
they should inspect the animals freshly shod, the stable
sergeant and horseshoer being present for this inspection..
bi The horse should be examined on a level floor, aş
otherwise it is impossible to determine whether he is stand-
ing correctly or not.
C. The following points should be carefully noted and
any improper or carelessly shod animal returned to the shop
the next day.
(1) Pastern and foot axes.-View the foot from the
front and side to determine whether the axes are correct.
(2) The fit of the outline of the shoe.-Does it cor-
rectly follow the outline of the wall to the last nail hole, and
from there extend outward, allowing proper space for ex-
pansion? Note particularly whether the wall has been
rasped to fit the shoe.
(3) The toe clip.—Is it in the center? Is it of suffi-
cient strength, height, properly finished and seated ?
(4) The nails.-Are they evenly driven the proper
height and distance apart? Have any old stubs been left
in the wall?
(5) The clinches.--Are they of proper size? Are they
well turned and set in? Are they smoothed off and not
rasped sufficiently to weaken them?
d. The foot should then be raised and the examination
continued in the following manner:
(1) The shoe.--Is it proper size and weight? The
last nail hole not farther back than the bend of the quarter?
(2) The preparation of the foot. Has enough horn
been removed? Has too much been removed? Is the foot
level?
U
HIPPOLOGY.
55
(3) Bearing surface of the foot. Does the shoe rest
evenly on the wall, covering the buttress and showing no
air spaces at any point?
(4) Concaving the shoe.Is the shoe properly con-
caved ? No sole pressure at any point?
(5) Use of the knife.--Has the knife been used on the
bars, sole, or frog?
(6) The nails.--Are they well seated in the crease?,
Are they the correct size? Are they all the same size?
(7) The heels of the shoe.- Are they the correct width
and thickness, properly rounded, without sharp edges or
points? Is their length even with the bulb of the frog?
e. In case where animals have been shod with calk shoes,
the following should also be noted:
(1) Toe calk.—Is it properly secured and of proper
height and length?
(2) Heel calk.--Are they of same height as the toe
calk? Are they properly turned and finished ?
f. After becoming accustomed to daily inspection, the
time necessary should not exceed five minutes for each horse.
415.1
,AU
INFANTRY
WEAPONS
(CONFERENCE)
CONFERENCE:
Infantry Weapons.
First Section.
BY:
DATE TO CLASS:
Advanced Course, 11 Jan., 24.
Company Officers Course, 10 March, 24.

HEOLLODV
neu
VA
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
DEPARTMENT OF MILITARY ART
1923-1924.
37–Benning, Ga., 1-16-24-2250
INFANTRY WEAPONS..
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SECTION I. Purpose and scope of conference .......
II. Bayonet ................
Ill. Pistol -------------------------...
IV. Rifle
V. Automatic rifle ..................
VI. Machine gun
VII. 37 mm gun
VIII. 3” trench mortar ...............
IX. Grenades .................................
X. Tanks ..........
XI. Accompanying artillery ..........
XII. Development of weapons .........
Paragraphs.
1 - 3
4-7
8 -11
12-15
15-19
20-23
24-27
28-31
32-35
36-39
40-42
43-44
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SECTION I
PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF CONFERENCE.
Paragraph.
Definition
Methods of presentation ............
Results desired
COM
1. Definition.
The term “Infantry Weapons" includes all combat
weapons provided in infantry organization tables. They
are: the bayonet, pistol, rifle, automatic rifle, machine
gun, 37 mm gun, 3 inch trench mortar, grenades, tanks,
and accompanying guns and batteries when attached to
infantry units.
2. Methods of presentation.
In the presentation of this subject the following se-
quence where applicable, will be followed in considera-
tion of each weapon
a. Mission of weapon, as determined in the Office of
the Chief of Infantry and promulgated in letter from that
office under date of September 13, 1923.
INFANTRY WEAPONS
·
b. Classification of weapon according to angle of fire.
(1) High angle.
(2) Low angle.
c. Characteristics of
(1) Weapon.
(a) Trajectory.
(b) Rate of fire.
(c) Accuracy.
(d) Calibre.
(2) Projectile.
(b) Radius of action.
(c) Penetration.
d. Powers and limitations.
(1) Range.
(2) Effect of fire.
(3) Vulnerability.
(4) Mobility as affected by
(a) Weight.
(b) Means of transportation.
(c) Service in action.
1. Team or individual.
2. Ammunition supply.
e. Tactical use.
(2) Defensive.
3. Results desired.
The student, in his course at this school, will become
intimately familiar with each individual weapon. This
conference is designed to give a short resume of such in-
bined use of all the weapons capable of being used at
the same time.
There are two ideas extant as to the proper combined
use of high angle weapons and flat trajectory weapons
in the attack. One of these advocates the use of the flat
INFANTRY WEAPONS
trajectory weapon to keep the enemy in his trenches and
dugouts until the attacker can approach to a position from
which the fire of the high angle weapons can be m.iile ef-
fective. The other holds that the proper combination is
to utilize the high trajectory weapons to drive the enemy
from his trenches into the open where he will beconie a
proper target for weapons having a flat trajectory. Each
method has its uses, and there can be no clear cut rule
as to when to use one method and when the other. Ex-
isting circumstances at the time and place of the action
will determine which method to use. The result desired
in this conference is to help the student to realize the
tremendous power capable of being exerted by an in-
fantry organization.
A lack of this realization, together with a lack of knowl-
edge of the powers and limitations of the various arms,
was responsible for many errors in the recent war. Some
officers failed to get full value from their organizations
from ignorance of thcir polv€rs; others imposed impos-
sible tasks due to ignorance of thº limitations of the
means at hand.
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SECTION II
THE BAYONET.
Paragraph.
Mission .....
Description .........
Powers and limitations ......
Tactical uses ---
Osorio
i
4. Mission.
To furnish the rifleman with an individually carried
and served emergency stabbing sidearm, attachable to
the service rifle; effective against personnel within the
individual reach; and giving him confidence to close with
the adversary individually or in mass.
5. Description.
It is at once apparent that this weapon cannot be clas-
sified according to the proposed scheme, as it is not a
INFANTRY WEAPONS
fire weapon. No detailed description is necessary. The
present weapon fulfils all the requirements of its mis-
sion.
6. Powers and limitations.
The radius of effective use of the bayonet is 6 to 8
feet. Its effect is deadly as evidenced by the fact that
few men, wounded with the bayonet, ever find their way
to the hospitals. Its light weight makes its mobility the
same as that of the soldier. It is an individual weapon
and requires no ammunition.
7. Tactical uses.
The bayonet is equally useful on the offense and the
defense. The soldier should be so trained as to arouse
his determination to come to close quarters with the
enemy and use the bayonet as soon as possible. In sur-
prise or night attacks or combat in woods at close range
the bayonet should be relied upon to the exclusion of fire
action.
SECTION III
THE PISTOL.
Paragraph.
ws
.
............-
--.--
-...-..
..----
----
-
-..
Mission
Classification and characteristics
Powers and limitations
Tactical use
.
fant
8. Mission.
To furnish an individually carried and served emerg-
ency magazine fire arm of flat trajectory capable of de-
livering semi-automatic slow and rapid fire up to 75
yards against stationary or moving visible targets and
capable of being fired from a halt or while in motion.
i
A
9. Classification and characteristics.
a. The calibre 45 automatic pistol now in use fulfils all
requirements as set forth in the mission. It is a flat
INFANTRY WEAPONS
trajectory weapon of limited range, effective beyond 50
yards only in the hands of thoroughly trained individuals.
b. Characteristics.
(1) Flat trajectory.
(2) Has been fired at the rate of 21 rounds in 12
seconds.
(3) Inaccurate except in the hands of an expert.
(4) Calibre 45.
The high velocity and large calibre of the bullet gives
it considerable stopping and disabling effect.
.
10. Powers and limitations.
a. Range, not effective over 100 yards.
b. Not easily put out of action.
C. Carried by individual with considerable supply of am-
munition.
11. Tactical use.
The pistol is valuable when troops closely approach
each other and before they become intermingled. It is
valuable when a sudden emergency gives insufficient
time to use the rifle. If used after troops become inter-
mingled care must be taken to limit its effect to the
enemy.
SECTION IV.
THE CALIBRE 30 U. S. RIFLE.
Paragraph.
12
-
.
-
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-
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-
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13
Mission
Classification and characteristics
Powers and limitations ..............
Tactical uses
14
5
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12. Mission.
To furnish an individually carried and served maga-
zine firearm of flat trajectory, capable of delivering accu-
rate, slow and rapid direct fire, including tracing effects,
up to 1000 yards, against stationary or moving visible
or concealed targets as well as effective fire up to 600
INFANTRY WEAPONS
yards against personnel protected by any armor plate
that can be carried by individual infantrymen, capable of
being fired from a halt or while in motion, and permitting
the attaching of a bayonet.
1.
13. Classification and characteristics.
d. The Cal. 30 U.S. Rifle Model 1903, now in use, fulfils
the requirements as stated in the mission. It is a low
angle, flat trajectory weapon capable of firing 10 to 25
aimed shots in one minute, depending on the range. It is
the most accurate military rifle known and is surpassed
in this respect by buti a very few hand-made, specially
constructed weapons.
b. The bullet of the present type has all the qualities
desired for purely rifle fire. Tracer bullets are provided
for purposes of range finding and target designation. It
has a muzzle velocity of 2700 feet per second. Direct
or ricochet hits are required for disabling effect. The
penetration is sufficient to be capable of rendering prac-
tically useless any armor that) can be carried by the in-
dividual, by a direct hit.
14. Powers and limitations.
a. The rifle is sighted up to 2850 yards. Its extreme
range is much greater. The effective range, however, is
taken as 1000 yards. Beyond 600 yards, effective fire
by individual riflemen is the exception rather than the
rule.
b. The high velocity of the bullet makes its disabling
effect very great and a hit of any kind usually means a
casualty.
c. The simple and sturdy construction of the rifle renders
it practically proof against minor defects and it is not
easily put out of action
d. Its mobility is the same as that of the soldier as he
is able to carry the weapon and a supply of ammunition
sufficient for an ordinary day's action.
INFANTRY WEAPONS
15. Tactical uses.
The rifle is the infantryman's primary weapon, and,
with the bayonet, should constitute his main reliance in
combat, offensive or defensive. His skill in its use must
be limited only by the time available for training. He
must keep it constantly with him and must be taught to
care for and value it as he values his life, for his life will
ofiten depend on its condition and upon the skill with
which he can use it.
mi
SECTION V.
THE AUTOMATIC RIFLE.
Paragraph.
16
17
Mission ....
Classification and characteristics ..........-
Powers and limitations ..............
Tactical use ----
18
19
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1
16. Mission.
To furnish an individually carried and served magazine
firearm of flat trajectory; sufficiently light for bearer to
accompany the infantry squad; capable of delivering a
high rate of automatic or semiautomatic direct fire, in-
cluding tracing effects, up to 1000 yards, against station-
ary or moving, visible or concealed targets, including air-
craft, as well as effective fire up to 600 yards against
personnel protected by any armor plate that can be car-
ried by individual infantrymen and capable of being fired
from a halt or while in motion.
1
1
17. Classification and characteristics.
a. The automatic rifle differs from the service rifle in
the following particulars: Its operation is automatic and
it can therefore deliver a greater volume of fire, 40 rounds
per minute being about the maximum.
b. It resembles the rifle in character, in that the trajectory
of the bullet, degree of accuracy for single shots, and the
ammunition used, are the same.
10
INFANTRY WEAPONS
18. Powers and limitations.
The range of the automatic rifle and the effect of its
fire, single shots considered, are the same as those of the
rifle. Its increased volume of fire makes the fire more
effective under certain conditions. It is more vulnerable
than the rifle on account of its more complicated con-
struction and because it is subject to cessation of fire, due
to jams. Its greater weight and ammunition consump-
tion affect its mobility on the offensive.
U
19. Tactical use.
The automatic rifle is a valuable addition to the squad,
more so on the defensive than on the offensive. On the
offensive it supplies the necessary fire power to enable
the squad to advance under cover of its protection and
to cover exposed flanks of advancing troops. On the
defensive it is utilized principally for flank defense to
cover localities that cannot be included in the machine
gun plan. The automatic rifles of a section or platoon
are not grouped. Where the fire of two or more auto-
matics is required, two or more squads are assigned to the
mission. The automatic rifle is a component part of a
squad and should be habitually so used.
SECTION VI.
THE GROUND TYPE OF MACHINE GUN.
Paragraph.
Mission ..............
Classification and characteristics ...
Powers and limitations
Tactical use
con
20. Mission,
To furnish a team served firearm of flat trajectory
capable of delivering a large volume of accurate, sus-
tained, automatic, direct or indirect fire up to 3500 yards,
including tracing effects up to 1500 yards, against sta-
tionary or moving, visible or concealed targets, including
INFANTRY WEAPONS
aircraft, as well as effective fire up to 600 yards against
personnel protected by any armor plate that can be car-
ried by individual infantrymen; its dispersion being small
enough to permit overhead fire; to be normally trans-
ported by animal draft or in a vehicle; and to be suf-
ficiently mobile to accompany the infantry battalion.
XY
21. Classification and characteristics.
The Browning, 30 Cal. machine gun, now in use, par-
takes of the nature of both high angle and low angle
weapons, the high angle being used at the longer ranges,
and is made possible by a characteristic not found in
other small calibre weapons, viz: the fixed mount. Other
characteristics of the machine gun, except the water cool-
ing system, are found in the rifle and automatic rifle.
The trajectory, accuracy and calibre are identical in all
three. The automatic principle is found in the automatic
rifle. The qualities of the projectile are the same. The
machine gun differs from both in that it has a water
jacket to prevent excessive heating. Due to the fixed
mount, the fire of the machine gun can be controlled and
made effective at a greater range. The rate of fire is
much greater than either the rifle or auto rifle.
O
171
17
22. Powers and limitations.
a. Range.-The effective range is given as 2500 yards.
In the mission as quoted above the desired range is given
as 3500 yards. The reason for this desired increase
is that the light artillery in an attack is pushed forward
to within 3000 yards of a position and a defender nat-
urally wishes to be able to reach these positions with all
fire possible.
b. Effect of fire.—Machine gun fire is seldom effective
against materiel. Its greatest effect is against personnel.
For this reason its principal use is against infantry as
the only personnel likely to be dangerous or to come in
contact with friendly troops. However, when it is pos-
sible to locate hostile artillery or other weapons within
· 12
INFANTRY WEAPONS
C
TA
range, machine guns can make their service extremely
hazardous or impossible by fire on their personnel. By
the use of high angle fire it is possible sometimes to reach
areas used by the enemy for reserve elements, or to pre-
vent the use of roads, paths, or communication trenches.
C. Vulnerability.-Being small, the machine gun is dif-
ficult to locate and hard to hit. It is 'quickly moved
from place to place to avoid hostile fire. Ordinarily it
requires a directi hit from a weapon of larger calibre to
put a machine gun out of action. However, the water
jacket is easily pierced by bullets or shell fragments and
if atrick the gun is rendered almost useless until the aper-
tures can be stopped up and the jacket refilled. A
machine gun in action quickly draws hostile fire. For
this reason changes in position must be provided for and
rapidly made when necessary, if the gun is to be kept in
action.
d. Mobility.—The weight of the gun with tripod renders
it less mobile than the weapons so far considered. It is
transported on a cart, though it may be carried short
distances by hand. They also affect its mobility as a cart,
whether animal or hand drawn, cannot advance over the
same ground as the individual soldier in all cases. The
machine gun is team served, that is, it requires more than
one man to operate it and keep it supplied with ammuni-
tion. It consumes ammunition at an incredible rate and
this requires more transport to supply. All these factors
tend to decrease its mobility.
e. All around traverse.-The all around traverse makes
the machine gun the ideal weapon for firing to a flank.
It can immediately change its direction of fire by any
number of degrees and be just as effective in the new
direction. With a line of riflemen changing the direction
of fire is a difficult operation.
Y
1
1
23. Tactical uses.
To give a full discussion of the tactical uses of machine
guns would require a complete dissertation on modern
INFANTRY WEAPONS
tactics which is beyond the scope of this conference.
Therefore, only the most important uses are mentioned.
a. Offensive. In the offensive the principal missions
of the machine gun are:
(1) To support the advance of the riflemen by sup-
plementing the fire of other weapons and
(2) To assist the riflemen in holding ground gained.
In accomplishing these missions fire may be direct or
indirect and may be delivered not only againstų the enemy
directly in front of the attacking riflemen, but also against
hiš supports, reserves, and aircraft. Machine gun support
should be continuous throughout the engagement. In the
offensive full utilization is made of the fire power of all
machine guns, both those with assault battalions and,
whenever possible, those with reserve battalions. The
fire power of machine guns properly co-ordinated with
each other and with the artillery and howitzer company
weapons produces a tremendous effect and materially
influences the results obtained.
Each assaulti battalion is always accompanied by its
machine gun company. The battalion commander
should make full use of its fire power in carrying out his
attack. The method of employing the machine guns in
supporting the attack of the battalion depends greatly on
the terrain. The most desirable support by fire is direct
overhead fire. This can be used, generally, where the
ground is rolling. Where the ground is so flat as to make
this kind of fire impracticable one of the following forms
must be used :
(1) Indirect fire; or direct using indirecti laying for
calculating safety angles.
(2) Fire through gaps in the line.
(3) Fire from the front line.
(4) Fire from a flank.
The first method is practicable, but would seldom be
employed unless artillery support or support from ma-
chine guns of reserve battalions is lacking. To employ
this method the machine guns must be several hundred
TI
14
INFANTRY WEAPONS
yards in rear of the rifle elements to provide safety clear-
ance, and by the time fire must cease the machine guns
would be so far in rear of the rifle companies that con-
siderable time would elapse before they could make up
the distance and their fire again be available for support.
The second method is practicable where gaps occur
but fire is restricted by troops on the flanks of the gaps.
The third method is practicable as a preparatory fire
at the beginning of an engagement, or during a tem-
porary halt in the advance when the enemy's fire will
permit the gunners to reach the front line with guns and
ammunition. This method may be employed also in
woods where it is desirable to smother them with fire
prior to an assault, to sweep them with fire from the front
line while passing through, or to assist in gaining fire
superiority by concentrating on important targets before
moving forward from the woods.
The fourth method is most practicable and one which
should always be sought either in flat or rolling country.
When positions for enfilade fire can be obtained the ma-
chine guns are able to give advancing troops the utmost
support. A battalion which advances faster than those
on its flanks frequently finds opportunities to assist the
advance of neighboring units by enfilade machine gun
fire. Every opportunity of this kind must be taken ad-
vantage of. Frequent opportunities of this kind during
the World War were neglected, resulting in slowing down
the whole force.
When none of the above methods can be utilized, or
when serious enemy resistance ceases or is improbable
the machine gun company follows the battalion with guns
in carts until the situation is such that they can be util-
ized.
6. Defensive.—On the defensive the principal missions
of the machine guns are:
(1) To deny certain ground to the enemy.
(2) To break up his attack.
(3) To support the counter attacks of the riflemen.
O
INFANTRY WEAPONS
* 15
The ability of the machine gun to open heavy, well-
controlled, surprise fire from a concealed position, either
by day or night, makes it especially valuable for de-
fense. There must be complete cooperation between ma-
chine gun and rifle units to secure the best results.
The use of machine guns in the defensive differs to a
usually obtainable from which enfilade or oblique fire
can be brought against hostile troops, whereas in the
offense frontal fire is, of necessity, the rule.
In defense, most of the machine guns in and in front
of the regimental reserve line are given two missions-a
direct fire or battle mission, and an indirect fire or bar-
rage mission. The guns are sited for the all important
battle mission. This is to cover a distinct sector (usually
the front or flanks of a combat group or strong point) by
direct fire whenever the enemy appears within it. This
sector should not ordinarily be greater than 45 degrees.
Fire is opened whenever hostile troops appear in the
sector in such numbers as to offer a remunerative target.
Small groups are left to the riflemen to dispose of, due
to the necessity of keeping the location of the gun con-
cealed as long as possible. When, in spite of the fire of
the machine gun, the enemy is able to advance in its
sector in numbers the gun is laid and held on one line
called its “battle line of fire.” The guns are so sited that
the "battle lines” form a belt of fire, continuous if pos-
sible, across the front of the position. Hostile troops
advancing through this belt are subjected to enfilade or
oblique fire from one or more guns. The battle line of
a single gun should not be more than 300 or 400 yards
where stubborn defense is to be made. Where the mis-
sion is a delaying one the battle line may be as great as
600 yards for single guns. In some cases the terrain
may prevent laying lines of more than 150 yards. In
such cases more guns must be used or the intervals coy-
ered as effectively as may be by automatic rifles and other
weapons. On the defense, direct, frontal fire is seldom
INFANTRY WEAPONS
used except when necessary to cover roads, bridges or
other features of special importance or in concentrations
on a single objective.
All machine guns cannot be used for front line de-
fense, as some must be disposed to:cover intervals in the
front line in case the enemy breaks through, and to sup-
port counter attacks. When guns are sited every effort
is made to conceal their locations to prevent their early
elimination by artillery fire before the full effect of their
fire can be brought against an attacking force.
The machine gun thus forms the backbone of the de-
fense. Obstacles are so placed as to hold the enemy
under its fire in its battie line. The guns must not be
so isolated as to render them liable to be put out of action
before compensating results can be secured.
It must be remembered that machine gunners are not
armed with rifles and require sufficient protection to pre-
vent them from being surprised. Machine guns placed
in depth and supporting each other by flanking fire, when
properly supported by riflemen can stop any attack which
is not thoroughly prepared by artillery and tanks.
SECTION VII.
THE 37 MM GUN.
Paragraph.
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Mission .....
Classification and characteristics
Powers and limitations ...
Tactical uses
24. Mission.
To furnish a team served firearm of flat trajectory cap-
able of delivering a high rate of accurate high explosive
direct or indirect fire up to 2000 yards, against station-
ary or moving, visible or concealed targets, as well as
effective fire up to 600 yards against tank armor; to be
normally transported by animal draft or in a vehicle,
INFANTRY WEAPONS
17
and sufficiently mobile to accompany the infantry bat-
talion.
25. Classification and characteristics.
The 37 mm gun at present in use fulfils most of the
requirements stated in the mission above. It is slightly
defective in range but will doubtless be improved to over-
come this defect. It is a flat trajectory weapon of great
accuracy up to 1800 yards. Its calibre, 37 mm, permits
the use of an explosive shell, which has a small bursting
radius, which practically requires a direct hit to be ef-
fective. It can be fired for short periods at a rate of 20
rounds per minute. In action it quickly draws artillery
fire and must be prepared to move rapidly and frequently.
For this reason it is generally fired from its wheel mount.
It can be fired from tripod mount and is more easily con-
cealed and protected when on this mount.
Y
I
26. Powers and limitations.
The range of the gun is 1800 yards and as it is seldom
practicable to locate it in the front line, either in offense
or defense, its effective range decreases as much as its
location is withdrawn from the front line. The character
of its fire is such as to make it most effective against
machine guns which are definitely located, tanks, trench
mortars or wheel transportation. It should seldom be
used against personnel alone, as to do so unnecessarily
reveals its location and makes its movement imperative
or its destruction probable.
.
27. Tactical uses.
The 37 mm gun is a weapon of opportunity and must
be kept well forward in the attack in order to make use
of its fire when machine guns are located which would
cause losses to the advancing infantry. It is a battalion
weapon and is habitually attached to each assault bat-
talion. On the defensive it's target is usually a definitely
located machine gun or tank. If not concealed the flash
of discharge will disclose its location, especially at night.
18
INFANTRY WEAPONS
SECTION VIII.
THE 3" TRENCH MORTAR.
Paragraph.
.....
.
.
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-
-
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Mission ........
Classification and characteristics ...........
Powers and limitations ...
Tactical use
30
1
28. Missions.
To furnish a team served firearm of high angle trajec-
tory capable of delivering accurate high explosive direct
or indirect fire at ranges of 400 to 1800 yards against
visible or concealed stationary targets, to be normally
transported byanimal draft or in a vehicle and sufficient-
ly mobile to accompany the infantry battalion.
1
29. Classification and characteristics.
The mortar at present in use fulfils the requirements
of the mission with the French type of ammunition. With
our own ammunition its range does not exceed 800 yards.
However, in case of hostilities there is no reason to be-
lieve that the American type of ammunition would be
adhered to exclusively, if used at all. The weapon uses
high angle fire excluively; can sustain a rate of 20 rounds
per minute for short bursts; has a calibre of 3 inches;
and is sufficiently accurate to drop shells near enough
to located targets to bring them within the bursting radius
of the projectile. The projectile is filled with high ex-
plosive and has a bursting radius of about 30 yards,
some fragments being effective at much greater dis-
tances. A certain percentage of smoke shells are issued
for use under favorable conditions. The projectile has
little penetration, but its wide bursting radius makes it
useful against personnel as well as materiel.
30. Powers and limitations.
Range varies from 400 to 1800 yards, according to
propelling charge and elevation. Its dispersion is no
greater than that of light artillery, and like light artillery
INFANTRY WEAPONS
19
projectiles should be kept 200 yards in advance of our
own troops to prevent casualties. The mortar is not
easily put out of action except through decimation of its
personnel, but like the 37 mm gun, it promptly draws
enemy artillery fire and must be well protected or rtady
to make rapid and frequent moves.
2
31. Tactical use.
Like the 37 mm gun, the mortar is a weapon of oppor-
tunity, though opportunity for its use will occur much
more frequently. Care must be exercised against using
it too freely as the ammunition is heavy and rapidly con-
sumed. The mortar must advance with assault battalions
to get its maximum advantage and is habitually attached
thereto. On the defensive the mortar must be well con-
cealed and must reserve its fire until proper targets pre-
sent themselves. It, like the machine gun and 37 mm gun,
should not be so located as to cause combat groups to
suffer casualties from the fire these weapons draw upon
themselves.
SECTION. IX.
GRENADES.
Paragraph.
Mission --------------------------
Classification and characteristics .............
Powers and limitations
Tactical use
VIIS
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IDC
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32. Mission.
To furnish an individually carried and served combina-
tion hand and rifle projected bomb, giving fragmentation,
smoke, gas, or incendiary effects against stationary or
moving, visible or concealed targets within the throwing
range of the human arm, or from 100 to 400 yards, de-
pending on the method of projection.
2
33. Classification and characteristics.
The grenade is a high angle weapon and is classified
according to the method of projection as a hand grenade
INFANTRY WEAPONS
Y
or rifle grena'de. Hand grenades are also classified ac-
cording to tactical use as offensive, defensive, incendiary,
phosphorus, gas, and smoke. There are two methods of
detonation, percussion and time fuse.
The defensive grenade depends for effect upon frag-
mentation and in its use the thrower requires protection
as the fragments are effective at greater distances than
the weapon can be thrown. The offensive grenade de-
pends on the force of the explosive, is effective within
7 yards and can be used in the open. The effect of either
kind is greater in trenches or confined spaces than in the
open.
The rifle grenade has a range of from 50 to 400 yards.
Experiments are being made to develop one type of
grenade which can be used as a hand or rifle grenade.
34. Powers and limitations.
The grenade is an emergency weapon and is called
into use, generally, when other means have failed, or to
supplement the action of other weapons. Their weight
and limited application prevent extended use except in
the unusual case of having a plentiful supply on hand.
They should be reserved as a weapon of last resort. They
must be carefully handled and only trained personnel
permitted to use them as in the hands of untrained men
they are as dangerous to friendly forces as to the enemy.
35. Tactical use.
Grenades are used on the offensive to put machine guns
out of action as well as against the personnel of combat
groups which hold up the advance. They are also useful
in cleaning out dugouts and shelters and in mopping up
trenches in which groups of hostile forces take shelter
during an attack. On the defensive grenades are used
against personnel approaching within range. This úse,
however, requires a plentiful supply and thorough train-
ing in their use.
INFANTRY WEAPONS
SECTION X.
TANKS.
Paragraph.
36
Mission ..
Classification and characteristics
Powers and limitations .......---------------------
Tactical use ...---
37
1111
36. Mission.
To furnish a team served motor vehicle reasonably ar-
mored against small arms fire and shell fragments, armed
with machine guns and small calibre cannon, capable of
moving off roads through ordinarily dense forest and
across organized terrain; sufficiently mobile to accompany
the advanced elements of the infantry division and with
a cruising radius of 50 miles.
ni
.
37. Classification and characteristics.
The tank is classified according to size as light or heavy,
otherwise known as the Renault and the Mark VIII. The
tank is a self contained unit in that it combines power,
personnel, armament and ammunition supply. It com-
bines the essential elements of offensive action, fire and
movement. Its characteristics as to fire depend on the
weapons with which it is equipped.
38. Powers and limitations.
Range and effect of fire is determined by the weapon
employed, but it is limited by the fact that the weapons
cannot be elevated or depressed as much as in the open
and to obtain lateral field of fire the tank itself must
change direction. The speed of the tank is from one to
five miles per hour under its own power and depends on
method of transportation up to point of employment. The
light tank is transported by truck and the heavy tank
by ralil. Therefore, railroads or roads are essential to
get them forward for tactical use.
Tanks cannot operate in marshy ground on account of
their weight. For the same reason' bridges must be care-
0
22
INFANTRY WEAPONS
fully tested, or strengthened before attempting to cross.
The light tank is so constructed that it will cross a ditch
up to 6 feet in width, climb a verical wall 3 feet high,
knock down trees up to 8 inches in diameter and ford a
The heavy tank will cross a ditch 18 feet wide if sides
are firm, will surmount a 5 foot vertical wall, and ford
à stream 2721 feet deep with firm banks and bed. It will
fell trees up to 2 feet in diameter but should not be used
for this purpose. Heavy woods will stop either type of
tank. Both types will climb a slope of 45 degrees in firm
dry earth or about 10 degrees in wet earth. They travel
best on flat or slightly brolling terrain where the treads
penetrate not more than one inch. They cannot operate
over ground cut up with numerous slopes and gullies,
nor strewn with large boulders. Natural features, there-
fore, determine the feasibility of tank operations.
TITT
2
39. Tactical use.
The tank is essentially a weapon for offensive opera-
tions. It is used in, or in front of advancing lines of in-
fantry to overcome obstacles,create paths through wire,
and to overcome machine gun nests. It is not used in-
dependently, but is always attached to infantry assault
units. The lowest unit of which the tank forms a com-
ponent part is the division, which contains a company of
light tanks. In its tactical use, however, the division
never employs the tank company, except to attach it
to one or the other of the infanry brigades. Otherwise
the company is held in reserve. Removal of the tank
weapons for use in defensive organization of the ground
is not permissible, as it destroys the availability of the
tank for its only possible use in defensive situations,
namely, counter attacks.
Either in offensive actions or in counter attacks on the
defensive the tank is only used in closely co-ordinated
actions in conjunction with all other arms available. To
attempt to use them otherwise is simply to sacrifice them
without compensating results.
A
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INFANTRY WEAPONS
23
SECTION XI.
ACCOMPANYING ARTILLERY.
When attached ........
Accompanying battery and accompanying gun ..........
Functions of infantry commanders ....
Paragraph.
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40. When attached.
Light artillery is not essentially an infantry weapon,
but circumstances will sometimes require the guns or even
batteries be atttached to infantry battalions and regi-
ments. This will usually be when the attack has pro-
gressed to a point such that preliminary arrangements
could not have provided for proper artillery support,
or when the support fails to be effective due to the ex-
igencies of the action. Such failures ensue most often
when the advance has been more rapid and deep than
could have been foreseen, or when means of communica-
tion or observation fail. It must be remembered that
this attachment is exceptional.
Y
niin
.41. Accompanying battery and accompanying gun.
a. (1) Accompanying batteries are batteries employed
as units under infantry brigade or regimental com-
manders.
(2) The mission of accompanying batteries includes
attack of stronger points of resistance, defense against
local counter attacks, and firing on hostile reserves (ex-
ceptional).
(3) Fire is habitually by direct observation from near
the battery position and on specific objectives.
(4) Ranges normally used are 2500 yards and less.
b. (1) Accompanying guns are guns engaged as single
pieces under the orders of the infantry battalion com-
manders.
(2) Accompanying guns attack hostile machine
guns, tanks, strong points or other specific targets.
IT:
A
24
INFANTRY WEAPONS
(3) They may fire from positions in the open or
from masked positions with observation near the gun.
(4) Normal ranges from 600 to 2000 yards.
<
42. Functions of infantry commanders.
Functions of infantry commanders having either ac-
companying guns or accompanying batteries attached
to their units, consist generally of indicating missions and
supplying information as to enemy and friendly disposi-
tions, leaving technical details and methods to the ar-
tillery commander.
Artillery attached to infantry units is usually so at-
tached for a definite time or for a definitie mission. If
the orders attaching the artillery do not provide for its
relief, infantry commanders should inform higher com-
manders when the necessity for its attachment has ceased
to exist.
SECTION XII.
DEVELOPMENT OF WEAPONS.
Paragrapn.
Past development
Present tendency
43
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VV
43. Past development.
The earliest infantry weapons were of the high angle
type and they predominated even after the invention of
gun powder until comparatively recent times. They were
discarded to a great extent with the development of the
modern flat trajectory weapons until recalled by the in-
creased use of temporary or field fortifications. The de-
struction of obstacles and trenches in preparation for at-
tack by use of the highly developed flat trajectory weap-
ons was too costly and took too much time. It also pre-
vented the close approach of attacking forces while the
destruction was in progress. These considerations led
to the recall and higher development of the high angle
10U
INFANTRY WEAPONS
25
weapons. The combined use of the two types reached
its highest development at the close of the World War.
44. Present tendency..
The present tendency is toward a higher development
of both types of weapons. By an improved type of bullet
it is hoped to increase the range of the machine gun to
5000 yards. Experiments are in progress to develop
one type of grenade for use as both hand and rifle gren-
ade. It is hoped to increase the range of both the 3 inch
trench mortar and the 37 mm gun. It is pretty safe to
predict that the tank is only in the infancy; of its de-
velopment.
There is a tendency, now, as after all wars of magni-
tude, to prediict that future struggles will be decided by
entirely new means and elements, or the development of
a hitherto minor 'means of offense. In view of former
failures of radical departures from tried means, it is a
pretty safe assumption that future wars will be fought
and won by the sturdy physique and unconquerable will
of the infantryman and the weapons which he has learned
to wield with such good effect. The tendency of experi-
ment and research should, therefore, be rather toward
making them of more simple design and greater effective-
ness than toward the development of other means of un-
tried value and doubtful efficiency.
415,1
И.
A !
U, ,
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL ,
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA
MAILING LIST
1927-1928

U
SHAUR
GOLLOW
ulu
ennis
D
A GENERAL DISCUSSION OF
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
REFERENCE TEXT
THE INFANTRY SCHOOL
FORT BENNING, GEORGIA
A GENERAL DISCUSSION OF DEFENSIVE COMBAT
YA
VIIIVöl ..........
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REFERENCE TEXT
Paragraphs
GLOSSARY
SECTION I General considerations ....
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II Classes of defensive combat ............ ............. 8-10
III Forms of defensive combat
11 - 16
IV Selection of defensive positions
17 - 19
V Deployments and frontages
20-23
VI Organization of battle position .............
24 - 41
VII Outpost area .........
42 - 45
VIII Employment of infantry weapons and artillery 46 - 52
IX Procedure in organization for defense ........... 53 - 60
X The defensive battle
61 - 62
INDEX
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987--Eenning, Ga., 6-2-27—2,500
GLOSSARY
LII
Active defense. See defense, active.
Approach. See trench, approach.
Approach trench. See trench, approach.
Area, battle. That part of a defensive system in which the main
body is disposed for combat. It includes the battle position, its local
security, and the localities occupied by local reserves (brigade and
division) and by artillery, in rear of the battle position.
Area, outpost. That part of the area in front of a battle position
in which a part of the defensive force is disposed for observation
and security and for delaying or disorganizing general attacks. It
consists of mutually supporting organized tactical localities, or a
more or less fully organized position. A line of resistance is always
prescribed.
Assault. The final phase of an attack against any particular ele-
ment, wherein the offense moves forward to determine the issue by
close combat.
Assault line. A line of assault units.
Assault unit. A unit committed to the attack, and intended to
execute the assault. See also front-line unit.
Band of fire. See fire, band of.
Barrage. A barrier of fire produced, except for the antiaircraft
barrage (see note, just below), at the forward end of the trajectory,
and designed to be laid on an area close to friendly troops, irrespective
of the presence of the enemy therein, its purpose being to screen and
protect the friendly troops by inflicting losses on the enemy and by
impeding and preventing his movement or fire. Barrages may be
moving or fixed, and may be used offensively or defensively. See
also concentration.
(NOTE.-An antiaircraft barrage is one designed to intercept the
flight of hostile aircraft. The exclusion of all but the for-
ward end of the trajectory obviously does not apply to this
type of barrage.)
Barrage, einergency. A standing barrage for which data have been
prepared by a battery, for the purpose of reinforcing or otherwise
supplementing the normal barrage of some other battery, or of
covering a part of the front not otherwise covered. These barrages
are delivered when called for in the manner prescribed in the barrage
plan. They are designated "Emergency Barrage No 1”, “Emergency
Barrage No 2”, etc. See barrage, standing.
Barrage, normal. The standing barrage of primary importance
for which a battery, when not firing on other missions, is kept
constantly laid. It is the barrage which, without further orders,
is fired on call, usually on signal Prom the appropriate area, and it
is the barrage fired in case of a general attack. See barrage.
standing.
Barrage, standing. A defensive stationary barrage. .
Battalion, combat. See front-line unit.
Battalion reserve line. See line, battalion reserve.
(iii)
i
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Battle area. See area, battle.
Battle position. See position, battle.
Battle position, reserve. See position, reserve battie.
Belt of fire. See fire, belt of.
Boundary, rear. A line limiting an area at its rear. Examples
include the rear boundary of the theater oſ operations and of the
combat zone. The rear boundary of the combat zone is also that of
each army operating therein. Rear boundaries of all other combat-
unit areas, except for elements within a division, are announced by
the next higher authority, and this prescription automatically requires
that all combat and service elements of the unit concerned-aside
from exceptions specifically authorized—be placed in advance oỉ the
designated line. For units within a division, the rear boundary
includes their rearmost combat elements only and is not generally
announced in orders.
Boundary, sector. A line limiting a sector at its right, left, or rear.
See boundary, rear. The right and left boundaries of a sector are
are usually prescribed in orders, whereas rear boundaries are seldom
announced in orders lower than those of a division.
Center of resistance. An organized tactical locality consisting of
two or more strongpoints, so disposed as to provide for all-around
defense, under unified command and usually garrisoned by a bat-
talion of infantry reinforced by infantry cannon.
Class of defense. See defense, class of.
Combat battalion. See front-line unit.
Combat company. See front-line unit.
.Combat group. See combat post.
Combat outpost. See local security.
Combat platoon. See front-line unit.
Combat post. The smallest organized tactical locality in the de-
fense, its garrison varying from a few men to a rifle platoon. The
garrison is always prepared to resist attack from the flanks and,
when practicable, from the rear. A similar expression, "combat
group?', used in the same sense, or to indicate the garrison of a
combat post, will be found in many texts.
Communication trench. See trench, communication.
Company, combat. See front-line unit.
Complete trench. See trench, complete.
Concentration. Fire produced by projectiles directed upon a com-
mon target. A concentration differs sharply from a barrage, as the
latter is a barrier of fire laid on an area irrespective of the presence
of the enemy therein, whereas the former is directed upon some
designated target.
Connecting group. A patrol detailed to operate in an interval in
order to maintain connection with an adjacent unit and to furnish
information as to the situation.
Counterattack. An attack launched by part of a force against an
attacking element, with the purpose of relieving pressure; or an
attack launched by part of a defending force to regain portions of
the defensive area which have been captured by the enemy. .
Counterpreparation. Prearranged fire, to be delivered while the
enemy is forming for attack, with the object of breaking up his
formations and preventing the attack from being launched. Such
fire may be delivered by infantry, weapons as well as by artillery
Defense, active. That class of defense designed to gain a tactical
victory by developing and temporarily containing the enemy, and
then striking a decisive blow.
(iv)
Defense, class of. The method of conduct of defensive combat as
determined by the mission of the defending force and by the enemy's
situation. The classes of defense include the active defense and the
passive defense.
Defense, deployed. That form of defense in which troops are
deployed on the terrain without the thorough preparation of the
ground for defensive purposes.
Defense, form of. The character of the defense as determined by
tactical dispositions and measures taken for defensive combat. The
forms of defense are the deployed defense, the position defense, and
the zone defense.
Defense, passive. The class of defense designed solely to hold a
specified area, position, or front against attack,
Defense, position. That form of defense utilizing a single well-
organized position.
Defense, zone. That form of defense in which the organization of
the ground and of the garrison is extended in depth by utilizing an
outpost area, a battle position, and—if desired—one or more reserve
battle positions. The successive positions may be connected by one
or more switch positions.
Defensive position. See position, b.
Defensive system. A series of organized areas arranged in depth
for coordinated use in the defense of a given front.
Delaying position. See position, delaying.
Deployed defense. See defense, deployed.
Emergency barrage. See barrage, emergency.
Final protective line. A predetermined line along which, in order to
stop assaults, it is intended to place flanking fire, preferably grazing:
-fire which is delivered on the automatic principle, is fixed as to
direction, and also as to elevation if the contour of the ground permits,
and which is capable of delivery regardless of adverse conditions
of visibility. An endeavor is made to obtain continuous grazing
effect with fixed fire, but in some situations the line so covered will
not be coitinuous on account of terrain features. The machine gun is
the only weapon now available which fulfills these conditions.
Fire, band of. Fire, grazing at least in part and preferably from
the muzzle to the farther end of the beaten zone, delivered by one
or more pieces with the same mission, and by a weapon of such
character that a single piece produces a cone so dense as to make
it probable that a man will be hit when crossing the line of fire at
top speed. An important use of bands of fire is their delivery along
final protective lines (q. v.).
Fire, belt of. A barrier of fire produced by the combination of
two or more converging bands of fire, having no gaps large enough to
endanger the tactical integrity of the defense. The ideal situation
is that where one belt of fire having no gaps whatsoever stretches
along the front and flanks of the given defensive position.
Fire support, inutual. See mutual fire support.
Fire trench. See trench, fire.
Form of defense. See defense, form of.
Front. The space occupied by a given element measured from
one flank to the other, including interior intervals.
Frontage. The lateral dimension of the area of responsibility of
a given elementi in attack, for example, the width of its zone of
action; in defense, the width of its sector.
Front line. See line, front,
Front-line unit. A unit located on the line of the most advanced
elements-exclusive of local security-of a defensive position or of
an assault formation. Examples include front-line units in the out-
1
post position, the battle position, and the various reserve battle
positions. Appropriate variants of this term are the expressions
“front-line battalion", "front-line company”, and “front-line platoon”.
The corresponding terms “combat battalion”, “combat company”, and
“combat platoon” will be found in various texts on defensive combat.
See also assault unit. An assault unit becomes a front-line unit in
the attack as soon as its forward elements reach the line of the
most advanced elements-exclusive of local security-of the assault
formation.
Ground, organization of the. See organization of the ground.
Group, combat. See combat post.
Group, connecting. See connecting group.
Limiting point. The point of intersection of the right or left bound-
ary of a sector with one of the lines of a defensive position, its purpose
being to insure the junction, on a boundary, of the corresponding
lines of adjacent sectors.
Line, assault. See assault line.
Line, battalion reserve. One of the lines of the battle position or oi
any reserve battle position, established by the strongpoints of the
reserve elements of battalions holding the line of resistance.
Line, final protective. See final protective line.
Line, front. The line formed by the most advanced elements-
exclusive of local security-in any given situation. See front-line
unit.
Line of resistance. The line on which the principal resistance of a
position is to be made.
Line of resistance, main. The line of resistance of the battle
position.
Line, regimental reserve. One of the lines of the battle position
or of any reserve battle position, established by the organized tactical
localities prepared for occupation by the regimental reserves.
Line, support. One of the lines of the battle position or of any
reserve battle position, established by the combat posts (q. v.) of
the supports of companies holding the line of resistance.
Locality, tactical. See tactical locality.
Local security. a. The protection which an element obtains through
the use of small detachments so disposed as to provide immediate
close protection for the element concerned.
b. The protective elements utilized for the purpose indicated in a.
In a more specific sense, this term is used to indicate the protective
elements disposed in the immediate front of the main line oỉ re-
sistance. Another expression, "combat outposts”, used in this same
particular sense, will be found in certain texts.
Main line of resistance. See line of resistance, main.
Mutual fire support. Reciprocal protection of the front, rear, or
flanks of adjacent organized tactical localities, by the fire of their
garrisons.
Normal barrage. See barrage, normal.
Observation post. A station, sometimes especially prepared or im-
proved for the purpose, which is designed for or used for observation
of the enemy, of our own troops, or of the ground.
. Obstacle. Any feature, either natural cr artificial, which hinders
approach to a position. Obstacles are classified as protective and
tactical.
Obstacle, protective. An obstacle designed to prevent the sudden
entrance oſ hostile forces into the works of the defense.
Obstacle, tactical. An obstacle designed to hold the attacker under
the fire of the weapons of the defense.
(vi)
Organization of the ground. The adaptation of selected terrain for
defense by the construction of works for the purpose of interfering
with and delaying hostile attacks, primarily by the delivery of fire;
of providing protection from hostile fire; and of facilitating com-
mand, movement, supply, and evacuation.
Outpost area. See area, outpost.
Outpost, combat. See local security.
Outpost position. See position, outpost.
Parallel. A parallel trench. See trench, parallel.
Parallel trench. See trench, parallel.
Puissive defense. See defense, passive.
Platoon, combat. See front-line unit.
Point, limiting. See limiting point.
Position. a. The location of a command, and its disposition thereat.
For example, an assembly position, a covering position, or a position
in readiness. For example, also, the position of an artillery com-
mand, which may be defined as the area occupied by all the combat
elements thereof, disposed for combat; more specifically, the position
of the guns.
b. A defensive position; a belt of terrain occupied or organized
for defense.
Position, battle. A defensive position on which the main effort of
the defense is concentrated. When thoroughly organized it consists
of four "lines" or strips of terrain (each including organized tactical
localities), as follows: main line of resistance, support line, bat-
talion reserve line, regimental reserve line.
Position defense. See defense, position.
Position, defensive. See position, b.
Position, delaying. A position in which a delaying action is fought
or is to be fought.
Position, outpost. A defensive position located in the outpost area
to provide observation and security and to delay or disorganize
attacks.
Position, reserve battle. A position selected for use as a battle
position in case of unsuccessful defense of the battle position. It may
be merely selected, or it may be organized wholly or in part. It
should be located at such distance in rear of the battle position as
to be beyond effective range of light artillery utilized against the
latter.
Position, switch. A defensive position, oblique to the front, con-
necting other positions of a defensive system to each other. Its
purpose is to prevent hostile penetrations from being exploited to the
flanks, and to serve as a base of departure for counterattacks.
Post, combat. See combat post.
Post, observation. See observation post.
Protective line, final. See final protective line.
Protective obstacle. See obstacle, protective.
Rear boundary. See boundary, rear. .
Regimental reserve line. See line, regimental reserve.
O
Reserve line, battalion. See line, battalion reserve.
Reserve line, regimental. See line, regimental reserve.
Resistance, center of. See center of resistance.
Resistance, line of. See line of resistance.
Resistance, main line of. See line of resistance, main.
Sector. A subdivision of a defensive position or of a defensive
system, assigned to a commander as an area of responsibility. It
is delimited laterally-except on exterior flanks—by lines approxi-
mately perpendicular to the front, and at the rear by a rear boundary.
(vii)
To the front the area of responsibility extends to the maximum
effective range of the weapon of longest range with which the gar-
rison is armed. See boundary, sector, and boundary, rear.
Sector boundary. See boundary, sector.
Security, local. See local security.
Standing barrage. See barrage, standing.
Strongpoint. An organized tactical locality consisting of two or
more combat posts (q. v.) under unified command, disposed laterally
or in depth, or both, and usually garrisoned by a rifle company. It
is generally so prepared as to provide protection to the front, the
flanks, and, when possible, to the rear.
Support line. See line, support.
Support, mutual fire. See mutual fire support.
Switch position. See position, switch.
System, defensive. See defensive system.
Tactical locality. A terrain area which, because of its location or
configuration, possesses tactical significance in the particular circum-
stances existing at the time. On the defensive it inay be any area
which, because of its relation to a defensive organization in general,
may well become a part thereof; preferably it should possess natural
defensive strength. Examples of organized tactical localities are
combat posts, strong points, and centers of resistance (q. 2.).
Tactical obstacle. See obstacle, tactical.
Target, transient. See transient target.
Irace. The projection on the ground of one of the lines of a de-
fensive position; or, for trenches, the line where the front interior
slope of a parallel or the right slope of an approach intersects the
natural ground surface.
Transient target. A target visible only for a period or succession
of periods so brief as to afford a very limited time for adjustment
and fire for effect.
Trench, approach. Also called an approach. A trench intended
to provide protected communication between the front and rear ele-
ments of a defensive position. Approach trenches are generally of
the circulation type, but parts of them or, in unusual cases, entire
lengths may be constructed as fire trenches. Again they may be in
part or altogether of the complete type. See trench, complete.
Trench, communication. A trench intended primarily for circula-
tion within a defensive position, both perpendicular and parallel to
the front. In the former case it is an approach trench. In the latter
it connects the organized tactical localities along the se eral lines
of the position; see also trench, parallel.
Trench, complete. A type of trench constructed with a view to
facilitating both circulation of personnel and delivery of fire.
Trench, fire. A trench constructed to facilitate the delivery of
small-arms fire.
Trench, parallel. Also called a parallel. A trench the general
direction of which is parallel to the front. Parallels are generally
constructed as fire trenches. Parts of them, however, may be purely
communication trenches. Again they may be--in part or entirely-
of the “complete” type, permitting both fire and communication.
See trench, complete.
Unit, assault. See assault unit.
Unit, front-line. See front-line unit.
Zone defense. See defense, zone.
(viii)
SECTION I
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
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Scope of discussion ........
Strategical and tactical defensive ................
Defensive operations ...
General principles of defensive combat ...............
General measures employed in defensive combat .....
General distribution of troops for defensive combat
Conduct of defensive combat
wosor HA CONHO
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1. Scope of discussion.
This discussion covers the principles and the tactical
details of defensive combat. It includes only such strategi-
cal principles and considerations as seem necessary to ex-
plain the use and conduct of defensive combat and the tacti-
5
2. Strategical and tactical defensive.
a. The defensive, as a general term, includes both strate-
gical and tactical phases. The strategical defensive deals
with the conduct of campaigns and operations. The tacti-
cal dcfencire, however, deals primarily with the leading
of troops in defensive combat.
b. A number of principles apply both to the strategical
and the tactical defensive. Others apply to one, and only
partially or indirectly to the other. Still others apply to
pawag
1771
f
therefore, care should be taken not to confuse strategical
defensive principles with tactical defensive principles.
Strategical principles apply to the conduct of campaigns
and operations, and to the leading of forces so as to place
them in a general locality and direction favorable for man-
euver, combat, and supply. Tactical principles apply par-
ticularly to the handling of troops in combat.
YT
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
3. Defensive operations.
a. Defensive operations may have one or more of the
following purposes :
(1) Hold the enemy in check while one's own forces are being
concentrated and prepared for action
(2) Economize troops and avoid decisive action when a decision
is not sought, in order that as large a force as possible may
be held out for the decisive blow
(3) Keep the enemy out of territory which is of tactical, stra-
tegical, or political importance, thus limiting his freedom
of maneuver
(4) Exhaust the enemy's strength and resources by drawing
him away from his source of supply.
b. The advantages of defensive combat are that it usual-
ly permits :
(1) Choice of ground
(2) Organization of the ground
(3) Highly organized fires.
C. The disadvantages of defensive combat are:
(1) Surrender of the initiative
(2) Tendency to lower the morale and the offensive spirit of
troops
(3) Limitations imposed on plans of maneuver.
02
On
11
4. General principles of defensive combat.
a. A number of the general principles governing offen-
sive combat apply also to the defensive. Among these are
simplicity of plan, combined employment of all forces, con-
centration of effort at the decisive points, economy of force,
disposition in depth, continuous reconnaissance and se-
curity, the employment of fire power and shock action, use
cf the terrain, tactical surprise, and the factor of morale.
b. There are also a number of principles which, in gene-
ral, apply to defensive combat alone. These include the
following:
(1) Defensive combat should be resorted to only when it is neces-
sary to give combat, and when the situation and mission
do not permit or require the offensive
Except when compelled by the situation to defend tempor-
arily, defensive combat should be employed only to conserve
the strength of forces and to retain freedom of action
(3) Defensive combat in general may be conducted with fewer
troops in a given situation or on a given front than can the
offensive; hence, it may be advantageously employed when
compelled to give combat at a time when, or place where,
a decision is not scught
(4) Defensive combat is always secondary to offensive; therefore
no more troops than necessary should be assigned defensive
.
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
missions, so that as large a force as possible may be avail-
able for the offensive. Similarly, troops assigned defensive
missions should be prepared at all times to assist those as-
signed to the offensive, or to change promptly from one to
the other.
(5) The tactical principles of mobile warfare should govern
the training of troops, their organizaticn, equipment, a :)
general dispositions for defense. Whatever the elaboration
or special measures adopted to meet the defensive charac-
ter of operations, they should not be such that the organi-
zation, tactical groupings, and conduct of the defensive
are disrupted at the moment when the enemy breaks through,
nor should they be such that troops on the defensive are
unable to assume the offensive promptly.
TY
5. General measures employed in defensive combat.
a. The offensive has the initiative. It locates and de-
· velops the defensive force, or the defensive position or zone,
and launches the attack. The attack may be directed
against the whole or against a large part of the defensive
forces, position, or front, but the main effort is concen-
trated against a decisive point. The main effort may take
the form of a penetration and envelopment, or a turning
movement.
b. The defensive applies countermeasures against those
employed by the offensive, and these are, in general, the
same to meet all forms of attack. The extent to which, and
the manner in which they are applied, however, depend up-
on the general purpose of the defensive combat. These
measures include the following:
(1) Deciding the form and class of defense (see glossary)
(2) Locating and maintaining contact with the hostile forces
(3) When practicable, selecting, occupying, and organizing fa-
vorable positions or zones for defense
(4) Developing and delaying the hostile advance or attack
(5) Repulsing the hostile attack
(6) Arresting and confining penetrations or envelopments
(7) Expelling penetrations or repulsing envelopments by counter-
attack (see glossary).
I
1
fond
M
6. General distribution of troops for defensive combat.
a. In carrying out defensive measures, a general dis-
tribution of troops similar to that in offensive combat is
employed. For defensive combat, an independent force
uses three elements arranged in order from front to rear
as follows (see Figure 1):
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
(1) Outpost forces. These ar: located by an outpost area (see
glossary) and consist of observation and security detach-
ments. In some situation they are charged with specific
resisting and delaying missions.
(2) Holding forces (a) These are located in the zone of prin-
cipal resistance, or the battle position (sea glossary), and
consist of the units assigned to the defense of the battle
area (see glossary). They consist of such local security de-
tachments (see glossary: local security) as are necessary for
supports, and of battalion, regimental, brigade, and division
reserves. Units down to the brigade and, at times, the regi-
ment, assigned to sectors for defense, usually furnish the
outpost and holding forces for their own sectors and, in ad-
dition, such security detachments for local protection of their
own front and flanks as may be necessary.
(b) The holding forces develop, delay, and repulse attacks. They
limit and confine penetrations within, or adjacent to, their
own sectors when they cannot expel them with the means
available, and they prepare the way for counterattack. Final-
ly, they support counterattacks by fire and movement. Each
element of the holding forces and each unit of these elements
uses its local reserves for the defense of its sector or area.
General reserve. This consists of units designated as re-
serves by the commander of the entire force. It protects
the flanks of the holding forces. If necessary, also, it assists
them in limiting or confining penetrations and envelopments.
Its most important mission, and one for which its strength
is conserved, is to carry out counterattacks or to initiate
the counteroffensive. When a unit of the holding forces is
exhausted or disorganized, units of the reserve may relieve
it, thereby maintaining the strength of the defensive organi-
zation.
b. If the situation demand such action, a covering force
is located in advance of the outpost area. The purposes of the
covering force are to maintain contact with the enemy and
to secure the time necessary for the deployment of the main
body and the organization of the ground. Its main efforts
are in general limited to developing and delaying the hostile
advance by causing early deployment. This is accomplished
by covering the main roads and routes of advance. It
fights a delaying action, but should not become so seriously
engaged as to require reenforcements to execute its as-
signed mission. Although the covering force may organize
tactical localities for use in its delaying action, no regularly
organized position is contemplated. When withdrawn, it
retires along predetermined routes, generally on the flank,
and usually becomes part of the general reserve. The
strength and composition of the covering force are such
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
5
and a
as to enable it to accomplish its mission. It may consist
of a force of all arms.
C. The retention of the battle position is essential to a
successful defense, and plans for defensive combat are based
on holding it at all costs. It contains four lines of works
paralleling the front, with variable distances between them.
It may have a depth from the line of resistance to the
regimental reserve line, of from 800 to 1800 yards. The
line of resistance (see glossary) of the battle position is the
main line of resistance (see glossary) of the whole defen-
sive system (see glossary), and serves as the base or re-
ference line which regulates the location of all the elements
of that system. Tactical localities (see glossary) to be
organized for defense are so selected as to take advantage
of natural and artificial features of the terrain, and to afford
mutual support and cooperation in defense. Machine guns
provide fire for the front and flanks of the larger tactical
localities, and automatic rifles furnish similar protection
closer in and for the smaller localities. Artillery, disposed
in depth in rear of the main line of resistance, protects
the front and sometimes the flanks of important tactical
localities by defensive fires thickened by fire (both by direct
and indirect laying) from machine guns located on the
rear lines. Portions of the front not covered by artillery
and machine-gun fires are cared for by automatic rifles
and trench mortars.
1
UVY
7. Conduct of defensive combat.
a. The important methods employed in defensive combat
are the same as those in offensive. These include the
following:
(1) Movement and fire power
(2) Shock action
(3) Use of natural and artificial features of the terrain, includ-
ing fortifications
(4) Surprise.
6. Full and effective employment of movement and of
coordinated fire power, by all arms, is of prime importance
in defense. Coordinated action is employed as follows:
(1) To delay, disorganize, and, if possible, to repulse å hostile
attack before it reaches the main line of resistance .
ON
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
(2) To assist in repulsing the assault
(3) To assist in arresting and pinning to the ground hostile
penetrations or envelopments
(4) Finally, to deliver counterattacks and to support them.
C. Shock action is essential to the successful conduct of
the defense. It is the ultimate means employed for check-
ing an attack and is used as follows:
(1) To repulse hostile assaults
(2) To drive home the counterattack.
d. Observation, concealment, and the use of cover, es-
sential to the proper conduct of defensive combat, are
facilitated, to a great extent, by the use of the terrain and
cf fortifications. The natural and artificial features of
the ground are utilized to supplement the tactical organiza-
tion of the defense. They provide facilities for observation,
control, and development of coordinated fire power. They
give cover and concealment, facilitate the maintenance of
signal communication and safeguard the avenues of
circulation. They furnish obstacles to assist in delaying
and blocking the hostile advance and attack. For-
tifications, of course, greatly improve and supplement
these facilities. If the defensive area be properly selected,
the defense obtains a material advantage over the attack
in these important factors.
e. Surprise is employed to increase the effectiveness of
movement and fire power. It is obtained by denying the
enemy entrance to areas which furnish observation essential
for the control and development of his fire power, by con-
cealing the location and movement of the elements of the
defensive, and the location, direction, time, and intensity
of counterattacks. An essential consideration is to keep
the enemy in doubt as to the character of the resistance
which he will encounter, and of the location of the position
on which the principal defensive effort is to be made.
UU
YT
SECTION II
CLASSES OF DEFENSIVE COMBAT
Parigrad
--
--
Classification .....
Conduct of active defense ....
Conduct of passive defense ....
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
8. Classification.
According to the mission of the force employed and the
situation, defensive combat may be classified as follows:
(1) Active defense. This seeks to gain a tactical victory by tem-
porarily developing and containing the enemy and then strik-
ing a decisive blow by assuming the offensive (see glossary).
(2) Passive defense. This seeks to hold a specified arza, posi-
tion, or front against hostile attacks, with no intention of
employing a decisive counterblow to gain a decision (see
glossary).
.
RI
9. Conduct of active defense.
A. UNDERLYING PRINCIPLE.—The underlying prin-
ciple in the active defense is to develop and contain,
temporarily, the opposing hostile force, place it at a dis-
advantage, and then gain a tactical decision by striking a
decisive counterblow. The active defense is, therefore, a
defensive-offensive action. The defensive phase is tempor-
ary. It may be forced on the commander by the situation,
or it may be chosen for the purpose of developing the hostile
force and taking advantage of its weak points. The offen-
sive element is of primary importance.
6. THE CRISIS.—The crisis in the active defense comes
with the decisive counteroffensive which changes the action,
at least on that part of the front where the counterblow is
struck, from the defensive to the offensive. Upon the com-
mander cf the force as a whole, falls the responsibility of
selecting the moment when this change is to be made, of
determining the location and direction of the decisive blow,
and of having at hand the necessary means to effect it. The
strength of the force as a whole should be conserved for
this purpose, and all units should take part or cooperate.
10. Conduct of passive defense.
a. UNDERLYING PRINCIPLE.-The underlying prin-
ciple in the passive defense is to deny the enemy important
tactical, strategical, or political areas, by holding a posi-
tion or front for the length of time required by the mission.
In the passive defense, no decisive counterblow to gain a
decision is contemplated. The defense accomplishes its
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
TI
VYI
mission by holding the position or zone for the required
' length of time, with or without combat.
6. THE CRISIS.--The crisis in the passive defense
comes with stopping the hostile attack, and capturing or
ejecting penetrating forces or repulsing envelopments. All
dispositions for the defense, and the conduct thereof, have
these objects in view.
W
SECTION III
FORMS OF DEFENSIVE COMBAT
Paragraph
11
(
Dispositions for defensive combat ..................
Deployed defense ..........
Position defense .................................
Zone defense ................
Influence of class of defense
............
Influence of size of forces
7 HA CON
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any
O
NY
11. Dispositions for defensive combat.
The mission assigned to an independent force is generally
determined by strategical considerations. The mission and
the enemy situation together determine the time when,
and the place where, defensive combat should be under-
taken. The plan of defense includes tactical dispositions,
coordination of the defense, and organization of the ground
(defensive works, see glossary). Tactical dispositions
comprise the deployment of troops and their grouping for
battle. Coordination of the defense refers to arrangements
for coordinated fire power and shock action and for mutual
support and coorderation. Organization of the ground com-
prises the construction of obstacles, the preparation of
protection from hostile fire, and the development of facili-
ties for command, supply, and evacuation, all in accordance
with the dispositions of the troops for carrying out the
defensive plan. This plan is influenced by a number of
considerations, the principal ones being: the class of defen-
sive combat (active or passive) decided upon; the size of
the defending force; the time available; the probable dura-
tion of defensive operations; the configuration of the
CY
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
CZYT
TY
21
1
ground; and the enemy's strength, particularly in artillery.
Based on the foregoing and other considerations, the plan
of defense provides for defensive combat in one of the
following forms (see glossary):
(1) Deployed defense
(2) Position defense
(3) Defense zone.
12. Deployed defense.
The deployed defense (see glossary) is employed in situa-
tions where it is necessary to pass to the defensive quickly
in order to oppose impending 'offensive action on the part
of the enemy. Such situations arise in meeting engage-
ments, in delaying actions, and in cases when offensive
operations have been stopped by the enemy's resistance.
This is an emergency measure, the terrain actually occupied
being utilized to the best advantage, and existing tactical
dispositions modified only as the circumstances permit.
Preparations for defense are limited to the construction of
small individual trenches, and partial arrangements for
coordinated fire and shock action, mutual support, and
cooperation. In it, the control of the troops is more de-
centralized, and the frontages held are usually not as great
as in other forms of defense. This lessening of frontages
results from the fact that the organization of the ground
is not as thorough in the deployed defense and because it
is often assumed from the attack formation.
13. Position defense.
A. The position defense (see glossary) is a form in which
the tactical dispositions are strengthened by the use of
one well-organized position on which the primary defense
is conducted. It is employed when the defender has time
before meeting the attack to select a suitable position, oc-
cupy it, and organize the ground deliberately, including its
strengthening by intrenchments and obstacles, as well as
arrangements for the complete and coordinated develop-
ment of the combined power of his artillery and other
weapons. In general, a period of six hours is taken as the
miniumum time required for this purpose, after the work
i
L
10
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
(2) Whens as to demanimmediate
brand
1
has been planned and staked out, the position occupied,
and the troops equipped and supplied for the task at hand.
b. The position defense is employed in situations such as
the following:
(1) When the need for immediate defensive measures is not so
pressing as to demand the assumption of a deployed defense
(2) When, a successful deployed defense having been made, it
is not desired to assume the offensive
(3) When the assumption of a zone defense is unnecessary or
impracticable.
c. When the situation requires the employment of the
position defense by forces larger than a division for an
extended period, the battle position may be supplemented
by a defensive line in rear, which is occupied by corps re-
serves to protect corps artillery and to limit penetrations.
Such a line may consist simply of a belt of obstacles and
mutually supporting strongpoints.
d. The essential difference between the deployed defense
and the position defense lies in the completeness of the
defensive organized fires and deliberate ground organiza-
tion in the two cases. In the latter it is complete as re-
gards organized fires and deliberate ground organiza-
tion, including fire emplacements and obstacles, whereas
in deployed defense it is incomplete.
14. Zone defense.
d. The zone defense (see glossary) is a form which
provides for defensive combat in considerable depth. With
this object in view, a number of successive positions are
selected and combined into a defensive system organized
in accordance with the requirements of the particular situa-
tion and the time available.
b. A defensive zone consists essentially of a bat-
tle position covered by an outpost area, the latter
being organized not only to prevent hostile reconnaissance
and to check minor attacks and raids, but also to develop,
disorganize, and delay serious hostile attacks before they
can reach the battle position. The organized outpost area
serves as a buffer to take the initial shock of the hostile
attack, and to deprive it of momentum so that by the time
it has reached the battle position it will be uncoordinated,
i
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
Ci
1
T
bord
inadequately supported by artillery, and incapable of
penetrating the battle position without reorganization. The
delay which the resistance of the outpost force is able to
effect enables the higher commanders to determine where
the hostile main effort is being made and to take steps to
meet it by use of reserves and additional artillery support.
c. In order to facilitate the conduct of a mobile defense
and to provide for a continuation of resistance in rear of
the area selected for the battle position, one or more suit-
able positions are selected with a view to their utilization
as reserve battle positions. Usually one such position is
selected and organized to whatever extent the time available
permits. A position of this character is always necessary
when a prolonged defense is contemplated, and is in such
a case an essential part of the defensive zone. For import-
ant fronts, more than one reserve battle position may be
provided. They are, in general, located at such a distance
from the battle position or reserve battle position next in
front that, after a successful attack on the latter, the
enemy would have to displace the bulk of his artillery for-
ward in order to attack successfuly the position in question.
d. In addition to the several organized areas of a defen-
sive zone paralleling the front, additional strips of terrain
called "switch positions” (see glossary), oblique to the front
and connecting the forward positions with those in rear,
mey be utilized on parts of the front where it is of special
importance to limit the effect of a possible hostile penetra-
tion and to preserve the continuity of the defensive system.
They also serve as lines of departure for delivery of counter-
attacks.
e. The essential difference between the position defense
and the zone defense lies in the fact that in the former there
is but a single position organized for serious resistance,
while in the latter there are two or more. The conduct
of the defense in the latter case aims at a disjointing of
the attack by serious resistance on a position forward of
the main line of resistance.
.
w
12
CY
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
V
15. Influence of class of defense.
Determination of the form of defense to be employed in
a particular situation is influenced to a marked degree by the
class of defensive action, whether active or passive, decided
on. The active defense, from its nature, presupposes the
availability of adequate reserves to avoid defeat, and em-
ploys defensive combat merely to bring about a favorable
opportunity for offensive action. Organization of the
ground is carried out only to the extent dictated by the
necessity of economizing troops for the return to the offen-
sive. The passive defense, on the other hand, having for
its object the retention of the area occupied, and securing
the maximum economy in the use of troops, makes use of
organization of the ground to the greatest extent possible.
The zone defense contemplates the greatest development
of organization of the ground for defense, and is ordinarily
employed in passive defense when other considerations
permit.
1
1
16. Influence of size of forces.
The zone defense is intended, primarily, for the passive
defense of extended fronts where an enemy, deprived of
the possibility of maneuvering against the flanks of the
defender, will attempt to penetrate the defensive system on
a selected portion of the front by a powerful concentration
of fire and shock action. Its employment, therefore, gen-
erally will be restricted to the army and the army group. Its
use by an independent corps is limited to situations which
compel a hostile attempt at penetration, and by an independ-
ent division to the very exceptional situation where both
flanks are protected by strong natural obstacles and the
frontage permits a disposition in great depth. In a passive
defense, therefore, the position defense usually is employed
by divisions and smaller units when acting alone and when
available time permits. It is likewise used by an independ-
ent corps when the situation does not permit the zone
defense. In an active defense, or in a passive defense of
short duration, or in a delaying action, the army may employ
TXT
17
DEFENSIVE '
KIL
13
COMBAT
the position defense. The greater time and space factors
involved in the operations of an army generally preclude
the necessity of employing a deployed defense.
SECTION IV
SELECTION OF DEFENSIVE POSITIONS
Paragraph
General considerations
Influence of class of defense ........
Influence of form of defense ....
O
17. General considerations.
A. The general location of the position or area in which
the defensive battle is to be fought is determined by strate-
gical considerations and by the situation, particularly the
mission. The detailed location and organization are deter-
mined by tactical considerations. The situation, including
the mission, generally imposes more or less definite limita-
tions with respect to the locality where resistance may be
offered; but within the latitude fixed by these limitations,
the commander selects the area that affords the defending
forces opportunity to deliver combat under the most favor-
able conditions.
6. Important tactical considerations governing the de-
tailed location of the area selected for defense are the fol-
lowing:
(1) The class of defense, active or passive, influences the loca-
tion and character of the position required, and the relative
strength of the holding forces and reserves
(2) Special defensive cperations, such as delaying action, de-
fense of a river line, or defense of a defile, also influence
the location and character of the position required
(3) The extent of front to be held is a factor. This is determined
by the strength of the defending force; the relative strength
of the holding forces and reserves suitable for the class of
defense employed; the proper frontages to be held by each
unit of the holding forces; and the character of the terrain
and the time available for increasing, by artificial means,
the defensive strength of the terrain occupied.
(4) The flanks of the position should be protected. This is ef-
the position over the ground on the flank, or by the location
of reserves and lank detachments. Flank detachments may
organize isolated tactical localities which serve as points
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
on which to extend the defensive system to the flanks or as
pivots of maneuver for counterattacks.
(5) (a) The considerations which exercise the greatest influ-
ence on the selection of the area to be defended and the
location of the main line of resistance are: facilities for
observation; facilities for the development of the coordinated
fire power of artillery and infantry weapons; cover, includ-
ing concealment from hostile observation; good routes for
supply, evacuation, and movement; the location of natural
obstacles; and consideraticn of the necessity for dispositions
in depth
(b) Good observation, particularly for command purposes and
for the control of artillery and machine-gun fire, is of the
highest importance and must, as far as practicable, be se-
cured for the defense and denied to the enemy. Pians for
the organization of the ground must insure the retention
of observation points vital to the defense.
(c) A good system of fire which provides fr the coordinated
employment of artillery and infantry weapons is an influen-
tial element in the defense and has an important effect on
the location of the positions. The system of fire is so arranged
as to provide the following:
(i) An area covered by artillery fire alone
(ii) An area covered by the combined fire of artillery and infantry
weapons
(iii) An area fully covered by infantry fire alone (close in front
of the main line of resistance)
(iv) Arrangements for the continued employment of artillery and
infantry fire within the area to be defended in case part of it
is occupied by the enemy
Observation for artillery and machine guns, a clear field of fire
for infantry at close and medium ranges, and disposed in depth
for both infantry and artillery: these are essential for the
complete development of fire power.
(d) Cover, including concealment of the defensive organization
from hostile observation, and particularly the location of
the battle position, is of great importance; so is the con-
cealment of rear elements and of preparations for counter-
attacks. Advantage is taken of woods, hedges, villages, and
other terrain features, supplemented by the use of camou-
flage to conceal defensive dispositions. Concealment froin
ground and air observation enables the defender to act with
the effect of surprise The visible lines of the defensive sys-
tem must not betray the defensive disposition but must rather
serve as a mask for concealing the real defensive organiza-
tion. It is practically impossible to conceal extensive trench
systems. In such cases, the network of trenches, supplemented
by dummy trenches, will prevent the enemy from determin-
ing accurately just what part of the defensive system is
held as the battle position or where the defensive elements
are installed.
(e) Routes of communication are of importance to the defensive
for supply and evacuation as well as for the prompt move-
ment of reserves to various points of the area to be defended.
Their relative importance increases in proporticn to the
size of the forces employed.
(f) Natural obstacles, such as rivers, woods, or swamps, will
frequently determine the general location of defensive posi-
tions. The location of obstacles to the approach of tanks
may influence the siting of the main line of resistance,
DEFENSIVE ΤΙΙη
15
COMBAT
(g) The necessity for continuous defensive action by means of
fire and for the maneuver of reserves requires that the area
selected for defense shall have a certain amount of depth.
The actual depth will depend on the terrain, the size of
the force employed, and the character of the defense.
(h) These considerations require the location of important de-
fensive positions, such as the battle position, on ground over-
looking the terrain to the front. Lines of resistance of posi-
tions usually will be placed near the military crest of com-
manding ground, and should be so located as to afford ade-
quate protection to observation points important to the de-
fender, especially the artillery observation posts. In certain
cases, a location on the reverse slope may prove necessary
or advantageous provided the terrain in rear affords ade-
quate observation to insure covering the ground in front of
the main line of resistance with an effective artillery fire.
When the main line of resistance is located on the reverse
slope, the restricted field of fire is in some measure com-
pensated for by concealment from hostile ground observa-
tion and by the resulting protection from effective hostile
artillery fire (see Figure 3). Terrain affording good re-
verse-slope positions as just indicated is exceptional, and
will in general be practicable in a few isolated localities only,
forward-slope locations being the general practice. The lines
of resistance and other lines of a position generally follow
the contour of the ground, but avoid pronounced salients,
as these are a source of weakness. Slight irregularities, on
the other hand, are an advantage, as they assist the de-
velopment of flanking fire covering adjacent sectors.
(i) On certain parts of a defensive front, suitable terrain is
not always available, and troops are frequently required to
hold ground not particularly adapted to the purpose, in
order to insure the defense of the front as a whole. The
weak points in these situations are strengthened by appro-
priate dispositions.
YTV
18. Influence of class of defense,
a. The underlying principle of the active defense is to
break up the hostile attack and to gain a tactical decision
by assuming the offensive. The position selected should
be suitable for the object in view. It should favor a for-
ward maneuver and allow the cooperation of all arms in
the decisive blow. The ground in front should be free from
serious obstacles or difficult terrain which would hinder the
defenders when they pass to the offensive.
b. The position or zone selected for passive defense should
be naturally strong. Since the idea of a decisive blow is
absent, every advantage is taken of obstacles, both natural
and artificial, and of other negative measures both in
advance of and within the position, that may hinder or
16
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
YU
TO
disorganize a hostile attack. Within the position or zone,
however, such measures must not interfere with counter-
attacks. It is desirable to have the flanks protected by
natural obstacles. In the absence of obstacles, the terrain
on the flanks must be protected by reserves and flank detach-
ments. This ground should also be under observation from
within the position, in order that a hostile envelopment
or turning movement may be fired upon. The position
selected should be such that the enemy cannot turn it, and
so reach the important tactical or strategical area to be
protected, in time to prevent the accomplishment of the
mission of the defending force.
yn
II
i
19. Influence of form of defense.
a. In deployed defense, little or no time is available for
organizing the ground. The position is sited to take full
advantage of the existing natural and artificial features
of the terrain for observation, for cover (including con-
cealment), and for obstacles, with very little improvement.
b. In the position defense, however, sufficient time is
available for the selection and organization of the position.
The existing natural and artificial features of the terrain
may be so combined with the organization of the ground
that the most favorable locations are secured for the vari-
ous lines of the position.
C. In the selection of the area for zone defense, con-
sideration must be given not only to the location of the
battle position but also to the necessity of locating the out-
post area, the reserve battle position or positions, and the
switch positions, so that all may be combined into a com-
plete and well-balanced defensive system.
TI
SECTION V
DEPLOYMENTS AND FRONTAGES
Paragraph
20
1
General .-
Deployments .....
Frontages -------------
Sectors
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DEFENSIVE COMBAT
20. General.
a. Deployments for defensive combat are similar in most
respects to those for offensive, and are governed to a great
extent by the same general principles. In offensive combat
the attacking force attempts to defeat and overrun its
opponent. In the defensive, the defending force develops
the attack, attempts to repulse it, and, when necessary or
desired, strikes a counterblow. Fundamental differences
in the deployments for these two classes of combat consist
principally in the fact that the defense makes more exten-
sive use of the terrain and of ground organization, and
develops fire power coordinated to a greater degree than
is the case in the offense. The use of advantageous terrain
and of ground organization usually permits a defensive
force to hold fronts greater than those covered in the main
effort of an attack.
6. Time and space factors in defense require more care-
ful weighing than in attack, because of the following con-
siderations:
(1) The several kinds of action employed in defensive combat
are likely to cause the fighting strength of the force as a
whole to be frittered away by parts in minor combat, before
the important and decisive moment of the engagement ar-
rives. By using proper precautions, however, this may be
prevented.
(2) (a) The defense must develop and delay the hostile attacks,
and when the situation, especially the time available, per-
mits, it must select the place where the decisive battle is to
be fought. In this, the important considerations are as fol-
lows:
(i) Location, character, and amount of resistance required to develop
and delay the hostile advance and attack
(ii) Time required for the troops to deploy and secure.coordinated
action of all branches and units
(iii) Location and defensive strength of the various positions to be
employed to meet the situation
(iv) Time required to organize the ground for defense.
(b) The advantages and disadvantages of accepting combat
on a forward position where the enemy may have equal or
greater advantages must be compared with those of fight-
ing on a rear position where the defense may be better pre-
pared
(3) The defense must be ready to meet the hostile main effort
on any and all parts of its front. This requires a careful
consideration of the following:
(a) Front to be held
(b) Strength and composition of the outpost forces
(c) Strength and composition of the holding forces
11
18
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
V
U
(d) Strength, composition and location of the general re-
serve
(e) Arrangements for moving the general reserve to, and
placing it in position for, action on any part of the front
C. (1) Piecemeal defensive action is to be avoided. The
force as a whole and each subordinate unit, so
far as the situation permits, are so employed and
assigned such missions that no part may be de-
feated decisively or disorganized before the crisis
of the defensive action arrives. No more and no
stronger detachments than are absolutely neces-
sary are made. The whole force, with its fighting
strength unimpaired if possible, is held available
to take part in the decisive phase of the combat.
(2) The holding of localities of marked tactical ad-
vantage in front of the main line of resistance
always involves a careful weighing of the advan-
tage to be gained against the probable sacrifice of
the troops employed as garrisons. When such
localities are to be held on account of the marked
tactical advantage that they give to the defense of
an entire sector or to the defense as a whole, ar-
rangements are made to assist the holding troops
by powerful fire support, particularly artillery,
from the forces defending the main line of resis-
tance. The attempt to hold localities beyond the
effective fire support of the main line of resistance
is always a questionable procedure. These con-
siderations apply especially to the defense of the
foreground of a defensive position, and to the de-
fense of the outpost area in a defensive zone.
21. Deployments.
a. A force is almost invariably disposed in depth, for
combat, as well as deployed in width. Tactical considera-
tions determine the strength, composition, and relative
location of the various elements, and the extent of front
(see glossary: front and frontage) of the deployments,
together with their resulting depth. The formations de-
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
19
manded by tactics are adapted to the terrain in a manner
that best provides observation, control, development of
coordinated fire power, mutual support, and cooperation.
6. Tactical considerations governing deployments are as
follows:
(1) Class of defensive combat employed (active or passive)
(2) Forms of defensive combat employed (deployed, position, or
zone)
(3) Tactical control of units of the command
Situation on the flanks—whether protected or exposed
Defensive advantages of the terrain, and the ground or-
ganization which may be made available
(6) Duration of defensive combat: i. e., the probable length of
time the action is to continue and the probable number of
attacks to be repulsed
(7) Extent of front which may effectively be covered by the
fire of infantry and of the supporting arms
Strength, composition, and density of the hostile attack
which may be made within the time considered, with special
consideration of the hostile artillery
(9) Relative morale and fighting efficiency of the troops of the
defense and of the attack.
c. (1) The class of defensive combat (active or passive)
required by the mission and the other elements
in the situation determines the relative strength
of the holding forces and the general reserve.
(2) (a) In the initial deployments for the active de-
fense, in order that as large a force as possible
may be held out as a mass of maneuver and placed
in position for the decisive blow, no greater
strength than is absolutely necessary should be
assigned to holding missions.
(b) In the active defense, the period of defensive
action varies according to the size of the force
involved. In independent forces as small as a divis-
ion, the period of defensive action is comparatively
short, and the extent of front held is quite limited,
so that all elements of the holding forces, as well
as the general reserve, may take part in the deci-
sive blow. The units of the holding forces may
be assigned narrow frontages in order that they
máy make an effectual change from the defensive
to the offensive, or wide frontages may
On
ATTY
20
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
TY
be weakly held in order that a stronger
general reserve may be held out. The opportune
time for the counterblow is of short duration; it
must be struck when the proper moment arrives.
Circumstances will generally require that the com-
mander move his reserve into position for this
purpose during daylight hours.
(c) The active defense requires a strong general re-
serve for the decisive blow. It is assisted by such
units of the holding forces as may take part or
cooperate. In deployment for active defense, it
is desirable to maintain tactical unity in the
general reserve, which must be capable of man-
euver to the fullest extent.
(3) (a) In deployments for the passive defense, since
the idea of a decisive offensive blow is absent, a
large part of the force may be employed as hold-
ing forces; hence a relatively wide position or
front may be occupied.
(b) In the initial deployments for the passive de-
fense, however, when the flanks are exposed and
the front on which the enemy is to make his main
effort is still undetermined, a large general reserve
must be held out to protect the flanks of the posi-
tion or zone and to meet envelopments. As soon
as the direction of the hostile main effort is deter-
mined, some of these reserves may be employed to
extend the position, or all may be utilized to pro-
tect the flanks by counterattack.
(c) The general reserves in the passive defense pro-
tect the flanks and assist in maintaining the posi-
tion or zone by counterattack. When necessary,
they assist the holding force in stopping and
limiting penetrations, as a preliminary measure to
the counterattack. They may also relieve the
units of the holding force when the latter become
exhausted or depleted, an important matter in a
prolonged defense.
haud
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
21
UWV
T
A
d. The form of defense employed affects the character
of the dispositions both in frontage and depth. In the
deployed defense, troops fight under more unfavorable cir-
cumstances than in other forms of defense in which more
time is available for organization. This is because they
lack the advantages accruing from more detailed coordi-
nation, from entrenchments, obstacles, clearing, and from
good routes for troop movement and supply; and, further,
because they have not become thoroughly familiar with
the position and its organization. The frontage assigned
the units of the holding forces must be relatively nar-
rower, and stronger reserves, especially local ones, are
required than when the position can be well organized.
Hence, to hold a given front under any given circumstances,
a greater strength is required in deployed defense than in
other forms. This deficiency in the resisting power of the
holding forces requires that the reserves be held closer to
the main line of resistance than in other forms of defense;
hence the depth of disposition is less. When the zone
defense is employed, the disorganization produced by the
action of the outpost forces prevents the hostile attack
from reaching the battle position as well coordinated as
would be the case were the position defense used. Therefore
deployments in zone defense may be on wider frontages
than in position defense. The resistance of the outpost
and holding forces gains time, and allows the reserves to
be farther to the rear. The depth of dispositions, there-
fore, may be greater in zone than in position defense.
e. Artillery of a force on the defensive is disposed in
depth to avoid loss from hostile artillery fire and, at the
same time, to execute its missions, to provide uninterrupted
fire, and to permit successive withdrawals even though an
attack may have penetrated well into the battle zone. Artil-
lery, other than antitank guns, that has been advanced to
the front of the battle position to enable it to carry out
distant fire missions in a defensive organization of con-
siderable depth, is withdrawn as the enemy attack progress,
to positions previously prepared in rear of the battle posi-
m
U1
TTT
ar
U
.
. 22
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
tion, so that, eventually, all the artillery remaining in ac-
tion is in position for defense of that position. To enable
them to place defensive fires close in front of the main line
of resistance, the guns must be at least 1500 yards in rear
of that line. Artillery positions for defense of the battle
position, as a rule, therefore, will be in rear of the regi-
mental reserve line.
NOTE.--For a detailed discussion of field artillery on the defensive,
see Training Regulations No 430_105, Tactical Employment of Field
Artillery, Section V.
NA
1
22. Frontages.
a. The frontage (see glossary) assigned should be small
enough to be held securely by troops available, and to allow
for the proper strength of the local and general reserves so
essential to the defense. It should be large enough to
avoid congestion and consequent losses as well as easy
envelopment by the enemy. The tactical principle which
requires economy of force in the assignment of units to
holding missions should not be violated either by the as-
signment of too great a frontage, thus forcing the employ-
ment of a larger number of units on holding missions, or
by the assignment of one too small, thus failing to give
units with holding missions the maximum frontage they
can effectively defend.
b. (1) In defense, as in attack, the frontage assigned to
any unit is, in general, based on its infantry
strength.
(2) The basis of assignment of frontages to large
units in defensive combat is that which can be
held by an infantry battalion occupying a center
of resistance (see glossary); therefore the front-
age assigned the infantry battalion becomes a unit
of measure in planning a defensive position. A
battalion at war strength can hold effectively a
frontage varying from 600 to 1200 yards. Any
frontage over 1200 yards reduces the efficiency of
the flanking fire of the available machine guns,
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
23
7
TA
YTYV
11
La
makes no provision for the battalion reserves, and
distributes the battalion over such an extent of
front that it may be unable, as a unit, to meet the
shock action of the hostile assault. The frontage of
any larger force, and hence the frontage of its
front-line battalions, is also limited by the ability
of the supporting artillery to furnish timely and
effective fire to cover the entire front. For these
reasons, a battalion will seldom be assigned a
frontage of more than 1200 yards in a position
which is intended to be held to the last, such as
the main line of resistance of a battle position.
In positions which are not intended to be held to
the last, such as an outpost position or a delaying
position (see glossary), it may be assigned a great-
er frontage, extending in some situations to as
much as 3000 yards. . All these figures are based
on war-strength units.
(3) Subject to the limitations noted above, the front-
age which can effectively be defended depends
on the natural defensive strength of the terrain,
and the amount of ground organization which can
be accomplished before the enemy's attack is
launched.
(4) The strong features of a position are, in general,
those parts in front of which the hostile approach
is exposed to observation and fire for a long dis-
tance. Units holding these features derive full
benefit from artillery and machine-gun support,
and therefore do not require the rifle strength
necessary for the defense of weaker sections. The
weak features of a defensive position, on the other
hand, are those which permit the covered approach
of attacking forces to within close range. Such
features require infantry garrisons of sufficient
strength immediately at hand to meet the hostile
forces in close-range combat. The assignment of
frontages to infantry units conforms to these prin-
24
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
ciples: those on the weaker parts of the front are
narrow; those on the stronger parts are wide.
In all positions, battalion frontages decrease in
accordance with the increase of tactical importance
of the sector in question. Before attack, the tac-
tical importance can be judged by the value of
the sector in the plan of defense, and this usually
hinges on the facilities for observation, the move-
ment of troops and supplies, flanking fires, and
the protection of the installations for supporting
fires.
23. Sectors.
a. The commander of a force on the defensive divides
his frontage into sectors (see glossary) and assigns them to
the several units for occupation, organization, and defense.
In thus subdividing his area, each commander in turn is
guided by the fact that important tactical localities, as far
as practicable, should be included within the sector of a
single unit. Therefore sector boundaries (see glossary)
should follow generally the natural lines which subdivide
the terrain.
b. Sectors are designated by the size of the unit occupying
them, and a sector may be further specifically designated
by the name of the unit assigned to its defense, as: "ist
Brigade Sector". In terrain organized for defense and
occupied for long periods, sectors, particularly those of the
larger units, may be designated by the names of some
prominent geographical features included therein, as:
“Gettysburg Sector".
c. Sector boundaries (see glossary) indicate the lateral
limits of the portion of the defensive front, for the defense
of which the unit occupying it is responsible. Broader
sectors are assigned units holding the naturally strong
portions of the front, and narrow ones to those defending
the weaker portions. Sector boundaries extend forward
of the front line sufficiently to include ground within effec-
tive range of the weapons of the force concerned, and thus
define the area which the unit occupying it is responsible
sin
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
25
for covering by fire in distant defense. The smaller units-
battalions, companies, and platoons-organize and hold tac-
tical localities within brigade and regimental sectors; their
responsibilities for defense are fixed by sector boundaries
which extend sufficiently to the front to define responsibilty
for distant defense by fire, and to the rear to include the
location of their rearmost combat elements.
d. It must be borne in mind that while the forward
extensions of sector boundaries define the responsibilities
of the several units for distant defense, the fire of units
for close defense cannot be restricted to lanes leading
straight to the front. Each unit must be given the definite
mission of covering the front of adjacent elements by fire
in close defense, especially at those points where the ter-
rain within the adjacent sector cannot be reached by the
M7
application of the principle of mutual support, dead spaces
are eliminated, and no part of the terrain immediately in
1
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fire of the defense.
SECTION VI
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27
28
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ORGANIZATION OF BATTLE POSITION
Paragraph
Relative importance and general organization
24
Designation of lines
Main line of resistance
26
Support line .............
Battalion reserve line
Regimental reserve line
Development of position
Centers of resistance
Strongpoints .............
Combat posts .............
Observation and command posts
Aid stations .....
Representation of defensive organization
Defense of intervals ............
Extent of command .........
Defensive works ................
Priority of work
Assignment of tasks to various infantry units and use of
attached troops ........
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Out A CON
37
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
24. Relative importance and general organization.
The battle position (see glossary) is the essential part
of any defensive system and, in the general case, is more
highly organized than any other. It consists of a belt of
ground, from a half-mile to a mile in depth, parallel to
the front and organized over its whole depth with more or
less fully developed works arranged roughly in four lines,
designated respectively from front to rear as: main line
of resistance, support line, battalion reserve line, and regi-
mental reserve line (see Figure 2).
si
TOT
.
25. Designation of lines.
a. The general location of the more important lines of
a defensive system is determined by the commander of
the force as a whole. The location of the other lines is
the responsibility of various subordinate commanders:
for example, the battalion commander prescribes the gen-
eral location of the support line for his front-line com-
panies; the regimental commander prescribes the general
location of the battalion reserve line for the front-line
battalions of the regiment; and the division commander
usually prescribes the general location of the main line of
resistance and the regimental reserve line.
b. The general location of any particular line, as deter-
mined by a commander in carrying out the procedure in-
dicated above, is usually made known to his subordinates
by the use of limiting points (see glossary), which are
the intersections of any of these lines with a sector bound-
ary. Since they are designated for each boundary, and
for each line, the subordinate commander is informed of
definite points through which he must, in deciding upon
the more detailed location, pass this line. This not only
secures for the higher commander the general location he
desires but also insures the necessary coordination of his
subordinate units with those adjacent.
c. Between the limiting points given him a commander
has latitude, within reasonable limits, in determining in
more detail the actual trace of a line for which he is respon-
~
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
sible: for example, the battalion commander, between the
limiting points prescribed by the regiment, decides upon
the actual trace of the battalion reserve line. In some
situations a commander may desire to indicate, in addition
to the limiting points, some further restriction: for example,
he may wish to include or exclude some particular locality,
and in such a case he could add such additional restrictions
as will insure the accomplishment of his purpose.
d. If, for any reason, limiting points are not given, it
becomes the duty of the commander concerned, through
personal reconnaissance and mutual agreement with adja-
cent units, to fix their location himself. Wherever practic-
able such topographical features as woods, hills, crossroads,
road junctions, clumps of trees, or other prominent land-
marks, are made use of in designating limiting points.
When the use of features of this kind is not practicable,
map coordinates may be used.
26. Main line of resistance.
a. DEFINITION.—The front boundary of the battle
position is its line of resistance (see glossary), and it is
the main line of resistance (see glossary) of the defensive
system. The line of resistance of the battle position, as
main line of resistance of the whole defensive organization,
becomes the base or reference line which governs the loca-
tion of all the elements of the system.
6. LOCATION.-The general location of the front to
be held defensively having been determined on, the site
of the main line of resistance is prescribed by designating
limiting points. Its position on the ground is given in
more and more detail as the orders for organization of the
terrain are issued successively by the several headquarters
from the higher to the lower. Its location is determined by
the following considerations :
(1) Providing in its front the most effective combination of
fire and obstacles for stopping enemy attacks
(2) Insuring the retention by the defender of terrain features
that afford him observation over the foreground and the in-
terior of the position; for the line of resistance must be so
28
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
O-
located that the fight will take place in front of, and riot
on, terrain features that are vital to the defense.
(3) Securing the best field of fire, taking advantage of natural
existing obstacles, and affording the best protection of im-
portant observation. Such a position will generally be found
on the forward slope of commanding ground, in the vicinity
of military crest. In certain cases, as has already been
stated, the reverse slope may prove advantageous provided
the terrain in rear affords adequate observation to insure
covering the ground in front of the main line of resistance
with effective artillery fire. When the main line of resistance
is located on the reverse slope, the restricted field of fire is in
some measure compensated for by concealment from hostile
ground observation, and the resulting protection from effec-
tive hostile artillery fire. Terrain that is favorable to a loca-
tion on tha reverse slope will be the exception, and such a
location in general will be practicable in a few isolated in-
stances only, on a defensive front. The use of the forward
slope is the general practice
C. TRACE.-(1) The main line of resistance, while
avoiding pronounced salients, follows in a general
way the contour of the ground, forming alternate
salients and reentrants, extending forward on the
spurs and back in the valleys. This irregular
trace (see glossary for definition of trace) affords
excellent opportunities for adjacent units to de-
liver enfilade fire in front of the line of resistance.
These fires should be carefully arranged for, since
it is most demoralizing to the attacker and most
heartening to the defender, for the offense to
come under a fire with which it is unable to close.
(2) The trace of the main line of resistance is affected
to a certain extent by the ability of the supporting
artillery to lay down an effective normal barrage
(see glossary). A trace that may be satisfactory
from the standpoint of infantry defense alone,
might not be suitable for close artillery support,
and consequently should be modified to insure the
best combination of these two factors.
(3) The final trace of the main line of resistance and
of all the other principal lines of a defensive or-
ganization should accurately be plotted on avail-
able maps, since a knowledge of their location is
important to all elements of the defense and parti-
0
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
29
A
cularly to the artillery, for the adjustment of its
defensive fires.
(4) Another factor to be considered in the actual
location of the main line of resistance is that of
the support line. A study of this line, as given
below in paragraph 27, indicates that in most
cases it should be so placed that its fire will supple-
ment that of the main line of resistance. In order
to secure this increase of fire power, it may be
advisable to place the main line of resistance far-
ther down the forward slope, thus obtaining a
second tier of fire. Whenever this use of the sup-
port is desirable and practicable, the location of
the main line of resistance must be considered in
connection with that of the support line.
d. CLOSE DEFENSE OF MAIN LINE OF RESIST-
ANCE.—The close defense of the main line of resistance
is effected by the fire of machine guns so located as to place
bands of flanking fire (see fire band of, in glossary)
along its front, by riflemen located in trenches
on or immediately in rear of the line, and by
defensive fires laid down a short distance in front by
artillery, light mortars, and machine guns from locations
in rear. These fires are carefully coordinated and consider-
ing the location of the obstacles, natural or artificial, in
front, are designed, as far as practicable, to cover the
whole front with a screen of fire. By far the greater
portion of the fire power of the infantry is placed on this
line. Hence, the ability of the defense to develop and main-
tain superior fire power is largely dependent on the in-
tegrity of the main line of resistance.
e. INFANTRY DISPOSITIONS FOR DEFENSE.—Dis-
position of the infantry for defense of the main line of
resistance is based, as a rule, on the assignment of sectors
of the front to battalions, each battalion occupying a tac-
tical locality, which, as a rule, it organizes as a center of
resistance (see glossary) for the defense of the sector to
which assigned. In organizing the center of resistance
1
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
the battalion disposes its rifle units usually by whole com-
panies, by assigning one or more of them to the close de-
fense of the line of resistance, and the remainder to the
battalion reserve. The machine-gun company is disposed
in depth over the center of resistance. The rifle companies
assigned to the close defense of the line of resistance occupy
tactical localities and organize them as strongpoints (see
glossary) which are made up of combat posts. These com-
bat posts (see glossary) are also organized tactical locali-
ties, some of them being located on the line of resistance
for its immediate defense and others along the support line.
OY
27. Support line.
a. The combat posts which are organized for the supports
of the front-line companies are located from 100 to 300
yards in rear of the main line of resistance; their garrisons
are the support platoons of front-line companies or, excep-
tionally, support sections of front-line platoons. The mini-
mum distance is fixed by the consideration that supports
should not be within the zone of dispersion of artillery fire
directed on the main line of resistance. The maximum is
determined by the necessity of keeping the supports within
effective supporting distance by fire and movement of the
front combat posts. The locations of the supporting combat
posts thus define a line which is called the “support line” of
the position (see glossary for definition).
b. In situations where the fire of the supports is not
needed for immediate defense of the main line of resistance,
and where the terrain permits, the supporting combat posts
should be located on the reverse slope. Hence, in localities
on a defensive front where the main line of resistance
occupies the military crest of a narrow ridge, the support
line is often in rear of the topographical crest.
c. The trace of the support line, as a whole, is regulated
by the higher commanders, battalion and regimental, only
to the extent necessary to insure coordination between the
elements of adjacent units located thereon. The use of limit-
ing points generally fulfills this consideration. Commanders
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
31
of front-line companies should be given the greatest latitude
possible, consistent with proper coordination and mutual
support between adjacent units, in the location of their
support combat posts.
KA
28. Battalion reserve line.
a. Ordinarily, one or more of the rifle companies of a
battalion organizing a center of resistance are placed in
battalion reserve. The company or companies thus dis-
posed are located by the battalion commander from 300
to 600 yards in rear of the support line. These distances
are arrived at from the consideration that within these
limits suitable locations for battalion reserves can gen-
erally be found that are sufficiently distant from the support
line to provide space for counterattack and still keep the
foreground within effective rifle range. The purpose of
the battalion reserve is to expel the enemy, by fire and
movement, from any portion of the sector held by its bat-
talion, which may have been occupied by the adversary.
Should the tactical situation prevent counterattack, the
reserves must stop or delay further enemy advances, and
accordingly must be prepared for defense to the front,
flanks, and rear. Hence the reserves organize strongpoints
(see glossary) for defense; and the line defined by the front
elements of these strongpoints is termed the "battalion
reserve line” (see glossary).
b. In order that the battalion reserves may cover the
foreground by fire, at least as far to the front as the sup-
port line, and may also be suitably located for mutual sup-
port of the reserve units of adjacent battalions, these bat-
talion-reserve strongpoints should have some of their com-
bat posts on the forward slope of commanding ground.
Between the strongpoints the battalion reserve line may be
located on the reverse slope, and this may be advantageous
for forming up under cover when a counterattack is to
be undertaken. Thus it is that the trace of the battalion
reserve line will often be partly on the forward and partly
on the reserve slope when the terrain conditions are favor-
VIT
YY
32
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
n
able. The trace of the line as a whole is regulated by the
regimental commander only sufficiently to secure coordi-
nation between adjacent units, the battalion commander
being given as wide latitude as possible in the location of
the reserve strongpoints. The prescription of limiting
points by the regimental commander usually takes adequate
care of this matter.
NOTE.-For further details concerning the battalion reserve see para-
graph 31 (Center of Resistance) and paragraph 32 (Strongpoints).
I
.
29. Regimental reserve line.
a. GENERAL-When a regiment is assigned the defense
of a sector of the battle position, it deploys with one or two
battalions as front-line units and two or one as reserve.
The primary mission of the regimental reserves is to main-
tain the integrity of the sector held by the regiment; their
principal means of so doing is the counterattack. As in
the case of the battalion reserves, when the tactical situa-
tion does not permit the counterattack, the regimental re-
serves must stop or delay the enemy advance to permit a
counterattack being prepared and delivered by brigade and
division reserves located farther in rear. Tactical localities
along the regimental reserve line must accordingly be or-
ganized as strongpoints for subborn defense, and occupied
and held by the regimental reserves in case the centers of
resistance in front are overrun by the enemy and counter-
attack is not practicable. From the viewpoint of the regi-
mental and higher commanders, the regimental reserve
line is next in importance to the main line of resistance
in that it furnishes a second line of defense, covers the
artillery, and enables the brigade and division reserves
to be assembled for a coordinated counterattack. (See the
glossary for a definition of the regimental reserve line).
6. LOCATION.-(1) Ordinarily, and when time per-
mits the necessary reconnaissance, the location of
the regimental reserve line is prescribed in the
orders of higher units, usually through the use of
limiting points. However, should time not permit
this reconnaissance, the regimental commander
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TIE DOOK SHOP
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
33
TITY
designates the line from the map, proper coordi-
nation being made with adjacent units.
(2) The line usually will be located from 400 to 900
yards in rear of the battalion reserve line, and
from 800 to 1800 yards in rear of the main line
of resistance, since within these limits a suitable
location can usually be found which covers the
foreground with effective fire at least as far as
the battalion reserve line. This provides suffi-
cient space in rear of the battalion reserve line
for counterattacks and permits machine guns locat-
ed on the regimental reserve line to place defen-
sive fires in front of the line of resistance. The
regimental reserve line is organized into mutually
supporting strongpoints, prepared, when practic-
able, for all-around defense.
C. TRACE.—The trace of the regimental reserve line is
determined primarily by the front elements of the strong-
points organized for its defense. Owing to the necessity
of covering the foreground by fire at least as far as the bat-
talion reserve line, and of rendering mutual support be-
tween adjacent strongpoints, some of the combat posts of
these strongpoints will be on the forward slope of command-
ing ground. In the intervals between strongpoints, the
line for the same reasons as in the case of the battalion
reserve line, may seek the reverse slope should the terrain
be favorable. The trace of the regimental reserve line,
therefore, may be partly on the forward and partly on the
reverse slope.
YTY17
TO
30. Development of position.
The battle position thus develops from a series of or-
ganized tactical localities arranged on four approximately
parallel lines with a depth from the main line of resistance
to the regimental reserve line of approximately 800 yards
as a minimum and 1800 as a maximum. Organization of
the ground first appears in the form of groups of isolated
fire trenches covered by obstacles, particularly along the
1
34.
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
line of resistance and support line, with some approach
trenches connecting them. Continued occupancy of the
battle position results in continuous lines of trenches, fol-
lowing the trace of the several lines, each line being protect-
ed by a continuous obstacle in its front and all four lines
of trenches being connected with each other by numerous
approach trenches. A large number of obstacles approxi-
mately at right angles to the front are constructed to
protect the flanks of the organized tactical localities.
TI
31. Centers of resistance.
a. A center of resistance (see glossary) is an important
tactical locality on which are placed the strongpoints which
form the organized portion of a battalion sector. The
defense of such tactical localities as these, along the main
line of resistance, is the basis of the infantry defense of
that line.
b. The maximum frontage assigned a battalion defend-
ing the main line of resistance depends upon the situation
(whether the position is to be held to a decision, the im-
portance of the particular front, or whether a change to
the offensive is contemplated) and the defensibility of the
terrain. Under favorable conditions of terrain where the
main line of resistance is to be held to a decision, the maxi-
mum frontage has already been announced as twelve hun-
dred yards. This is based upon the terrain, the condition
and effectiveness of the troops, the help to be expected
of the supporting weapons, and upon the number of machine
guns available. An extension of the frontage beyond twelve
hundred yards must necessarily weaken the effectiveness
of the defense, and should be decided upon only after
due consideration of the factors mentioned above.
. C. As the entire front of the sector will not be organized
and occupied, the center of resistance to defend the sector
will be placed on that portion of the locality considered
strongest, and in such a' way as best to defend the sector.
In order to avoid undue losses from overcrowding, the
actual organized area should not be less than 500 yards
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
35
1
TY
front by 400 yards depth; and lest there be
too great a dispersion of the garrison, a maximum front
of 1000 yards and depth of 900 should not be exceeded.
The defense of the unoccupied intervals between adjacent
organized localities is effected primarily by fire from the
latter (see glossary: mutual fire support). The better the
terrain is adapted to being covered by such fire,
the greater may be the intervals and the more
compact the organized localities. On the other hand, ter-
rain that is broken and that affords avenues facilitating
the advance of attacking troops, requires a greater ex-
tension of organized localities in order that all avenues
of approach may effectively be covered by fire; hence the
intervals are correspondingly reduced. For methods of
covering intervals, see paragraph 37 hereinafter. The in-
tervals between front-line strongpoints of a center of resis-
tance should not exceed 400 yards, and intervals between
centers of resistance should be in excess of 800. These
maximum distances are practical only under very favorable
conditions.
d. The center of resistance is garrisoned by a battalion
with one or more platoons of the howitzer company at-
tached. It usually has the support of artillery and, when-
ever practicable, machine-gun support from the regimental
reserve line.
e. The battalion commander usually receives from the
regimental commander the boundaries of the battalion
sector and the limiting points on these for the main line
of resistance and the battalion reserve line. Within these
limits he decides upon the location of these lines, deter-
mines the general location of the support line, and the
boundary between his front-line companies, and plans the
organization of the center of resistance, which usually
provides for one or two rifle companies as a holding force
in strongpoints on important tactical localities along the
main line of resistance. In placing these strongpoints,
he endeavors to cover the front of the sector and the in-
tervals, taking into consideration the frontage and in-
tervals appropriate to the situation. (The detailed or-
1
36
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
.
KT
ITY
ganization of strongpoints is covered in paragraph 32 here-
inafter). One or more rifle companies are placed in reserve
on the battalion reserve line. The battalion reserve is cap-
able of fire and shock action, has a certain amount of man-
euvering ability, and is the force which battalion commander
has available for the critical stage of the defense of his
center of resistance. Its most important mission is counter-
attack, if necessary, to preserve the integrity of the center
of resistance, or at times of the adjacent centers of re-
sistance, when action by front-line strongpoints and sup-
porting weapons has not stopped the attack. In consider-
ing this use of the reserve, the commander is guided by
the principles governing counterattack. Another use is
in holding or delaying action. For this mission one or
more tactical localities along the battalion reserve line are
organized, which are suitable for the reserve in stopping
or delaying further enemy advance by fire from position
when the situation, for any reason, prevents a counter-
attack. In this situation the fire power of the battalion
reserve can be used also to assist a counterattack by the
regimental reserve. The ideal location for the reserve is
one which permits it to cover the foreground, especially
the intervals between strongpoints, up to the support line,
by effective rifle fire and admits of defense to the flanks
and rear. The ideal will seldom be found and, considering
the terrain and probable enemy action, one or more posi-
tions rust be selected which cover the more important
portions of the front and probable avenues of enemy ap-
proach. The reserve troops, whenever practicable, are held
in a position of readiness under cover from which
they can go promptly and expeditiously to the proper place
for counterattacks or from which they can move into the
organized localities.
f. The machine-gun company is distributed over the front
and depth of the center of resistance in such a manner as
to develop its maximum fire power in front of the main
line cf resistance, including interlocking bands of fire
across the front, so as to cover the intervals on the flanks
1TY
.
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
VA
In
of the center of resistance and between the front-line com-
panies, to provide defense to the flanks, to check penetra-
tions, and to support counterattacks. The distribution
in depth is for the purpose of insuring continuity of ma-
chine-gun fire in order to check the advance of a penetrat-
ing force and prevent its expansion laterally until it can
be expelled by counterattacks. This disposition also assists
in supporting counterattacks and in protecting the battle
position against low-flying airplanes. Machine guns should
be located to enable them to be employed throughout the bat-
tle. During the early phases they should be able to fire on
hostile approaches; during the rifle fire fight they should
be able to place oblique fire on attacking lines; during the
assault, they should be able to place interlocking bands of
fire (see glossary) across the front of the center of re-
sistance. These requirements will usually cause the greater
part of a company to be located in the forward portion of
the area, a section and at times a platoon being placed on
the battalion reserve line. For their own protection and to
assist in protracted defense, machine-gun units are usually
put within strongpoints. For the tactical employment of
machine guns see also paragraph 47 hereinafter.
g. The attached howitzer platoon or platoons are as-
signed locations and missions by the battalion commander.
The howitzer-company weapons are located in the center
of resistance within effective range of the probable targets.
For the principles covering the tactical employment of
these weapons see paragraph 49 hereinafter.
h. Local security is usually placed along the entire front
of a command, and may be provided for by higher com-
manders. In most situations, however, the responsibili-
ty for covering the front and flanks of the center of re-
sistance by local security will devolve upon the battalion
commander. For details covering local security, see para-
gaph 45.
į. The battalion command post, aid station, and observa-
tion posts are provided for in accordance with the prin-
ciples given in paragraphs 34, 35, and 39. The determina-
38
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
LI
O
TIT
LIVI
tion of the boundary between front-line companies is based
upon the considerations given in paragraph 23.
j. The final location determined upon for the center of
resistance as a whole should conform to the following:
(1) The grouping of the troops into local-security, holding, and
reserve units should afford immediate security for the front,
and observation over the entire extent of the position and in
front of it. Furthermore, it shoudl facilitate control, co-
ordination of fire power, mutual support, and cooperation
within the sector to be defended. The coordination of fire
power and of shock action should include that with adjacent
centers of resistance, supporting weapons, and the units in
rear.
(2) The method of organizing the ground (trenches, obstacles,
clearing field of fire, and other means) should supplement
the tactical dispositions by obtaining the best cover, including
concealment, the most effective use of weapons and obstacles,
and the improvement of facilities for command, supply, and
evacuation
(3) The fighting power of ali units must be combined into a
powerfully coordinated whole, capable of effective resistance
in any direction, and of rendering mutual support to adja-
cent units.
Y
32. Strongpoints.
a. A strongpoint (see glossary) is composed of several
combat posts under unified command and disposed later-
ally or in depth, or both. The garrison is usually a rifle
company but may be a force varying from two platoons to
two companies, depending upon the terrain and other con-
ditions. Strongpoints on the main line of resistance always
extend in depth over at least two lines—the main line of
resistance and the support line. With a garrison of one
rifle company, a strongpoint, as a rule, will be organized
with two platoons on the main line of resistance and one
on the support line. However, terrain conditions may re-
quire one platoon on the front line and two in support. In
certain cases where a strongpoint is on an exposed flank,
or where the terrain favors an enemy penetration on the
flank of a center of resistance, or where a long narrow
ridge makes necessary such an organization, a front-line
strongpoint may be extended to the rear to include the
battalion reserve line. Such an organization is well adapted
for defense to the flank.
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
39
2
b. The combat posts on the main line of resistance within
a strongpoint are located on terrain features affording the
delivery of effective fire to the front, covering all ap-
proaches, and to the flanks covering the front of adjacent
combat posts and the intervening intervals. A fully or-
ganized strongpoint, having a mission which requires it,
should be capable of a protracted all-around defense. (See
Figure 4.)
C. When the terrain is favorable for it, the combat posts
on the support line should be located with a view to as-
sisting in the protection by fire of the flanks of the strong-
point and of the unoccupied intervals between combat posts,
and to guarding the strongpoint from envelopment. Their
location should also favor the delivery of counterattacks
within any portion of the strongpoint in case of an enemy
penetration. In a situation where the terrain affords a
position from which supporting fire can be delivered along
one or the other flank of the strongpoint, but not both, it
should be located for fire support on that flank thought
to be the more dangerous. When the support consists of
one platoon only, it is desirable to retain its unity so that
it may be used as a whole in counterattack. For this
reason and because of the fact that the control of units on
the support line during combat is less difficult than that
of elements on the front line, the support platoon, as a
rule, will be organized into only one combat post even though
it is desirable to extend its front slightly in excess of one
hundred and fifty yards. (Paragraph 33 covers dimensions
of combat posts.) The combat posts on the support line
are located on the reverse slope when the terrain does not
afford a favorable forward-slope position or when fire
support is not feasible. In the selection of the location of
the support, first consideration must be given to its primary
mission of organized counterattack. The combat posts
organized on the support line are the firing positions of
the support. They may be used within strongpoints as
positions for the delivery of supporting fire, as jump-off
positions for counterattacks, and as secondary lines of
117
1
TY
40
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
defense in case of necessity. When not needed in their com-
bat posts, supports may occupy positions of readiness in
near-by woods and ravines or on reverse slopes, where
they can be moved to the counterattack or to their combat
posts or other positions for fire support.
d. A company of two hundred men on the defensive can
effectively defend by its fire a frontage varying from 300
to 600 yards, depending largely upon the defensibility of
the terrain. In order to minimize losses from enemy fire,
the portion of this sector which is actually organized as
a strongpoint will generally not be less than 200 yards in
width by 200 in depth; and to avoid undue dispersion of
its garrison, it will usually not be greater than 400 yards
wide by 300 deep.
e. The command post of front-line strongpoints should
be placed either in the vicinity of the support line or be-
tween the support line and the main line of resistance. In
selecting the site, consideration should be given to:
(1) Communication to the combat posts
(2) Proximity to a good observation point
(3) Proximity to the support
(4) Cover and concealment.
The command posts for strongpoints on the battalion and
.
200 yards in rear of the line, and on an approach trench
when one exists.
f. A strongpoint establishes at least one observation post
located as near the command post as is consistent with
giving it not only a view of the company's sector and the
areas to the flanks but also of the terrain to the front, to
include the enemy's position when he is in close proximity.
When no location is available in which one observation post
can be established which covers this entire area, such a
post may be set up to observe the most important portions
of the area, or several may be established. The company
observation post is manned by the buglers, who are supple-
mented when necessary by details from the platoons, pre-
ferably from the support.
g. Strongpoints organized on the battalion reserve line
are located with a view to covering by fire the intervals
1
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
41
!
1
II
TI
between the flanks of the front-line strongpoints, stopping
any enemy penetrations through them, and ejecting by
fire and movement minor penetrations into the battalion
sector. Owing to the necessity of covering both the outer
and inner flanks of the front-line strongpoints by fire, a
strongpoint organized by a single company on the battalion
reserve line requires a considerable front, and this gene-
rally necessitates the deployment of all three platoons
abreast. In this case, à certain amount of depth may be
given it, particularly on the flanks, by an echelonment of
the flank platoons to the rear.
h. Strongpoints on the regimental reserve line are located
with a view to arresting by fire an enemy attack which has
overrun the centers of resistance, and for covering by fire
the intervals between, and the flanks of, the centers of
resistance. They must also be capable of mutual support.
These strongpoints are organized in depth similarly to
those of the front line, and should be capable, whenever
practicable, of an all-around defense.
¿. The organization and plan of defense of a strongpoint
by a front-line company should include the following:
(1) Main line of resistance
(a) The deployment of one or two platoons as a holding force
(b) Location of combat posts to secure the development of the maxi-
mum fire effect on the front, covering all approaches, and on the flanks cov-
ering the fronts of adjacent units and the unoccupied intervals
(c) Provision for mutual fire support and cooperation with adjacent
units
(d) Coordination of supporting weapons, including provision for the
protection of machine guns and the covering of dead spaces in their bands
of fire by the fire of automatic rifles
(e) Observation and concealment
(f) Coordination with the support
g) Effective use of obstacles
(2) Support
(a) Deployment of one or two platoons as a supporting force to be
used primarily for counterattack and to provide the maximum fire support
to the front line
(b) Cooperation with the combat posts on the main line of resistance
within the strongpoint, and with adjacent units
(c) Concealment of dispositions
(3) Local security. The detail of a local-security detachment
(when not provided by higher authority) with instructions
as to location, missions, and coordination with adjacent
units.
(4) Command post and observation post. The establishment of
a command post and observation post in accordance with
the principles discussed herein (paragraph 34).
(5) Trenches and obstacles
(a) Construction in accordance with the instructions contained in the
battalion order and the principles contained in paragraph 39
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
(b) Location of tactical wire in coordination with the final protective
lines of machine guns
(c) Determination of the number and location of approach trenches
(d) Establishment of the trace of trenches along the intervals between
comhàt posts
(e) Construction of wire around combat. posts and the strongpoints
(6) Coordination of fire and shock action
(a) Coordination of the fire of the combat posts on the main line of
resistance with
(i) Each other
(ii) Adjacent units
(iii) Supporting weapons
(iv) Supports
(b) Coordination of shock action to include:
(i) Support to be given a counterattack within either platoon
sector by the adjacent combat post
(ii) Support to be given by adjacent strongpoints
(iii) Support to be given by supporting weapons
(iv) Assistance to be given to the battalion reserve in case it coun-
terattacks
(7) Plans for counterattacks by the support
(a) Best use to be made of the terrain features
(b) Support to be given by adjacent units and supporting weapons
Part to be played by each unit and individual of the support
33. Combat posts.
a. A combat post (see glossary) is the smallest organized
tactical locality in the defense, its garrison varying from a
few men to a rifle platoon. It is so disposed as to cover by
fire a definite portion of the terrain, and its garrison is
always prepared to resist attack from the front, the flanks,
and, when practicable, from the rear. It is the organic
cell of ground organization; and the desirability of unity
of command and control indicates the platoon as its usual
garrison. In broken terrain, however, or when the platoon
has been given a wide sector, the necessity for covering by
fire the sector assigned may require the platoon to garrison
more than one combat post.
b. The usual deployment of the platoon in defense is in
one line, but two lines may be advisable in situations such
as the following:
(1) When the platoon is located on a flank of a defensive posi-
tion
(2) When the sector assigned the platoon is so narrow as to
prohibit deployment in one line
(3) When the field of fire is short and broken, enabling the at-
tacker to reach assaulting distance under cover
(4) When the platoon is acting alone.
c. Regardless of how the platoon is deployed (one or
two lines), the fundamental principles of the defensive
tactics of the units within the combat post are that each
shall be able to cover with fire its own front and flanks
X
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
43
TITY
and the fronts of adjacent units. When it is deployed in
two lines, those units in rear must also be able to cover the
flanks of the elements to their front. In general the rifle units
of a combat post are located in such a manner as to favor
the development of frontal and flanking fire. In order
that they may be able to deliver a maximum amount of
effective fire to the front and flanks, and, if necessary, to
the rear of the combat post, it may be advisable to locate
them on a line either parallel, oblique or perpendicular
to the general front.
d. In the early stages of a hastily assumed defensive
(as when an attack has broken down) when the machine
guns have not occupied their defensive positions, the plan
of defense must be temporarily developed upon the dis-
positions of the rifle units. Changes in these original dis-
positions will often have to be made in order to coordinate
them with the dispositions of the machine guns (see
Figure 5). When time and means are available for de-
liberate organization of the ground, the plan of defense
must be arrived at by such mutual adjustment between
dispositions of the rifle units and those of the machine guns
as to permit the full use of their combined defensive powers.
In accomplishing this adjustment, great weight must be
given to the utilization of the defensive fire power of the
machine guns.
e. (1) The rifle units within a combat post are dis-
tributed in groups of from four men to a squad,
the squad leader retaining command and control
even though there be two groups. He stations
himself where he can best conduct the fight of
his squad and at the same time keep in communi-
cation with the next higher leader. He is respon-
sible for and charged with the following:
(a) The proper fire distribution, fire control, and fire
discipline of his unit
(b) Proper distribution of ammunition within the unit.
(2) The maximum front to be assigned a squad in
defense is approximately 35 yards, but may be
as small as 20 to 25 feet if squad trenches are
and
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1
O
VA
HA
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
1
1
constructed. The interval between squads varies
from 5 yards to 150, usually being about 10 to 20.
On account of the fact that the squad is habitually
deployed on one line, it is said to have no depth.
f. (1) The section leader stations himself where he
can best conduct the fight of all the elements of
his unit. He must keep in close touch with each
of his squad leaders and should be able to see
as many as possible of the individual members of
his section. The section guide stations himself
where he can see the platoon command post and
at the same time keep in close touch with his sec-
tion leader, in order to relay any signals from the
platoon intended for the section leader. He also
assists the section leader in the organization of
the ground and the conduct of the defense. The
section leader is responsible for:
(a) Proper tactical disposition of his section
(b) Organization of the ground within his sector
(c) Fire distribution, fire control, and fire discipline of his
section.
(2) The maximum area to be occupied by a rifle sec-
tion in defense should rarely exceed 75 yards front
by 75 depth. The intervals between sections may
vary from 5 to 150 yards but they usually range
from 10 to 20.
tical disposition and employment of his unit, consistent
with the plan of defense of the next higher commander.
He is assisted by the platoon sergeant, who also is charged
with the responsibility of command if the platoon leader
becomes a casualty. Only three of the four runners are
stationed at the platoon command post; the other runner
is sent to the company.
h. A rifle platoon, when part of a larger force, can defend
with its fire a frontage of from 300 to 400 yards, provided
there be no exceptional terrain features to interfere. The
platoon occupies physically only a part of this frontage,
the remainder being covered by its fire. The area to be
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
45
1
occupied by a platoon as one combat post should not, as a
rule, exceed 150 yards front by 75 depth. When a platoon
must be disposed over a distance in excess of 150 yards
front, or when one of its elements is separated from other
units by a distance in excess of 50 yards, it is preferable to
organize the platoon as two combat posts because of the
difficulty of control by one leader. In this case the platoon
front should not exceed 250 yards. (This will explain the
reference in paragraph 32c). The interval between two
combat posts of the same platoon should not exceed 150
yards. In any case the depth remains constant, 75 yards.
¿. Combat posts, whenever possible, are enclosed by
obstacles, so located as to be effectively covered by the
fire of the garrison and yet not disclose its disposition. These
obstacles, ordinarily called protective obstacles (see glos-
sary), are located 40 to 100 yards from the post. They may
be either natural or artificial and, if the latter, simple in
construction.
j. In a situation where only a limited amount of time
is available for organization of the ground, the initial
defensive fortifications must, of necessity, be of a hasty
character, and are developed and improved as time permits.
Continuous fire trenches are dug to fit the deployment of
the squad, and as the front of a deployed squad is about
35 yards, their construction in the initial stages of organiza-
tion of the ground is practically impossible in a limited
time. Therefore the first shelter constructed by each squad
is either a single trench 20 to 25 feet long, capable of shelter-
ing the squad, or number of detached pits or "fox holes”
each capable of holding one or two men. The actual ar-
rangement of these trenches, or fox holes, will depend upon
the requirement for delivery of fire to cover properly the
squad sector, and also upon the necessity for proper control
of the squad. They are faced in the direction in which
the principal fire is to be delivered, and may be parallel to,
oblique to, or perpendicular to the front. Squad trenches
or fox holes when first constructed are not continuous, but
as time permits they are connected so as to form a continu-
ous trench, in order to facilitate control and to provide for:
CY
46
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
-
KT
protected circulation parallel to the front. (See glossary
definitions “parallels” and “approach” trenches). Approach
trenches are constructed approximately perpendicular to the
front in order to provide for covered circulation between
the front and rear elements of the platoon. They are also
of value as part of the combat organization if located on
the flanks and prepared for use as fire trenches (see gloss-
ary) as well as for circulation. Ordinarily only one ap-
proach trench is constructed within each combat post,
usually located on one flank and connecting the main line
of resistance with the support line. The initial steps to
be taken by the platoon leader in a hasty organization of a
defensive position are as follows:
(1) Provide for local security if not furnished by other units
(2) Clear a short field of fire if necessary; a field of fire 60 to
100 yards in depth is considered sufficient in the initial stages
(3) Secure cover for the elements of his platoon; fox holes or
squad trenches are dug or such cover as shell holes, ditches,
or embankments is utilized
(4) Assign sectors of fire to each squad and section
) Coordinate the fires of the platoon with those of adjacent
and supporting units and weapons
(6) Locate and construct protective obstacles when possible
(7) Establish the platoon command post
(8) Determine rånges to prominent points or objects in the
foreground and to the flanks.
k. In the initial stages of the enemy attack, the riflemen
and automatic-riflemen of the combat post open fire upon
favorable targets that appear within their sector of fire.
Leaders should not permit fire until the enemy is within
effective rifle range (about six hundred yards). If no
hostile troops be visible within sectors of certain squads,
it is the duty of the squad, section, or platoon leader to
shift the fires of those squads in order to assist other ele-
ments. When enemy targets appear in the sectors of squads
whose fire have been so shifted, however, it is the duty of
the squad, section, or platoon leader to cause those squads
to shift their fires back to their original sectors. During the
enemy attack the platoon leader, if the situation demand
and permit, can move elements of his platoon at will,
within his platoon sector.
1. As the enemy continues his approach, it will be found
that the fires of the rifle units will be proportionately in-
A 11
DEFENSIVE COMBAT :
47
.
creased. It is then that fire discipline, fire control, and
fire distribution are most important. In the latter stages
of the attack, the automatic rifle and the hand and rifle
grenade play a most important part: the former, through
the use of flanking fire, well directed and at its maximum
rate, can play havoc with an advancing line, while the latter,
both hand and rifle, is an excellent weapon against groups
of the enemy behind cover. If the enemy succeed in reach-
ing the position of the combat post, each must be ready for
close personal combat with the bayonet, pistol, rifle butt, or
any other means or weapons at hand. No man should leave
the position assigned him without competent authority.
Leaders must carefully watch for the least signs of weaken-
ing on the part of individuals, and no matter what the
losses nor how strong or near the enemy, they must hold
their units in position unless ordered to retire. Should
the platoon be forced to withdraw from its position, the
leader at the first opportunity reorganizes his command,
and then assists in the defense of the company sector
pursuant to the plans and orders of his company commander.
1
34. Observation and command posts.
a. OBSERVATION POSTS.--Observation posts should
be located so that the entire foreground and all the terrain
within the position itself are under constant observation.
Where this is not possible, they should be so sited as to
give a good view of the most important part of the front
occupied by a unit, and of areas of probable counterattack.
It is often necessary to have several observation posts for
the same unit. In locating such a post, the means of signal
communication with the unit command post must be con-
sidered.
b. COMMAND POSTS.-A command post should be
centrally located, and should be near the rear of the area
of the unit to which it belongs. Its location should facilitate
signal communication under all conditions, with all parts
of the area as well as with the command post of the next
higher unit. Shelter is necessary to enable the commander
Y
In
48
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
CD
and his staff to perform their duties in as nearly a normal
manner as possible at all times, but, in the initial stages of
organization, any construction required by observation and
command posts is of a more or less temporary character.
The guiding principle in the location of a command post
is that it must be possible to control the unit from that point.
1
LUI
35. Aid stations.
a. GENERAL.-Aid stations for the immediate care
of the sick and wounded are established by medical detach-
ments attached to regiments and smaller units. They are
designated as regimental aid stations and battalion aid
stations.
b. REGIMENTAL AID STATIONS.—(1) When the
regiment is operating as a part of a larger force
the regimental aid station is not ordinarily estab-
lished, but is held in a position of readiness in the
vicinity of the regimental command post. In this
situation the regimental surgeon exercises techni-
cal supervision over the work of the battalion aid
stations. The regimental aid station acts as a
small medical reserve unit for the regiment, and
cares for such casualties as may occur in the im-
mediate vicinity of the regimental command post.
(2) When the regiment is operating independently,
its aid station will usually be established. It may
become the common collecting point for all of the
sick and wounded of the regiment. In certain
situations it may be used as a small regimental
hospital until such time as the sick and wounded
can be cleared from the regimental area.
(3) Aid stations are cleared of sick and wounded by
collecting companies and ambulance companies
belonging to the medical regiment of the division.
When operating independently, brigades and regi-
ments will usually have elements of these com-
panies attached for the purpose of completing the
evacuation of the sick and wounded.
YA
T
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DEFENSIVE COMBAT
49
(4) When established, the site selected for the regi-
mental aid station should be on the line of natural
drift of walking wounded going to the rear, and
at the junction of the several litter-bearer routes
extending forward to the battalion aid stations.
A position near a road leading to the rear will
facilitate the more rapid evacuation of the station.
The site selected should provide protection from
enemy rifle fire and observation, both ground and
air; it should afford easy signal communication
with the regimental command post and should be
near a supply of wood and water. All locations
which are likely to become targets for enemy artil-
lery should of course be avoided.
TIYA
C. BATTALION AID STATIONS.-Aid stations for
front-line battalions are generally established on or in rear
of the battalion reserve line, located on the routes that would
naturally be followed by walking wounded on their way
to the rear and near a road to provide for evacuation by
ambulance when feasible. The position should afford the
maximum of security consistent with the efficient operation
of the station, a reduction of litter-bearer work to the
minimum, and ease of signal communication with the bat-
talion command post. It should have protection from enemy
rifle fire and from observation, both ground and air.
Proximity to water constitutes a distinct advantage.
Positions affording overhead cover should be selected when-
ever praticable, and they should progressively be improved.
Full use should be made of deep cellers, cement basements,
and well-protected dugouts in trench systems. The im-
mediate vicinity of crossroads, ammunition dumps, and
artillery positions should be avoided. In highly organized
positions aid stations will usually be located in the com-
munication trenches near their junction with the battalion
reserve line. The aid station of the battalion in regimental
reserve is held in readiness with its organization until
necessity for its use arises, when it is established in ac-
cordance with the preceding principles.
VITI
50
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
d. LOCAL AID POSTS.--In highly organized defens-
ive positions, local aid posts are provided. These are estab-
lished, one for each company by the first-aid men attached
thereto. It is usually located centrally and toward the
rear of the area occupied by the company which it
is to serve. Local aid posts are cleared of sick and wound-
ed by litter bearers of the battalion medical section. The
men thus removed pass through the battalion aid stations
and are cleared from the regimental area by the collecting
companies and ambulance companies of the medical regi-
ment.
TIT
36. Representation of defensive organization.
Organized tactical localities such as centers of resistance,
strongpoints, and combat posts—are shown in plans of a
defensive organization by means of ovals drawn to include
the tactical locality. The line forming the figures is so
drawn as to include within it the combat locations of all
the elements occupying the tactical locality. The forward
portion of the ovals should coincide with the line of the
position on which the locality is situated. The size of the
garrison is written inside the oval figure, or shown by
the proper conventional sign and in a manner similar to
that used in designating sectors. The locations of machine
guns, their sectors of fire and final protective lines, and the
main directions of fire for their most important missions,
are indicated by suitable conventional signs, and the loca-
tions and fire missions of weapons of the howitzer company
are similarly indicated. Defensive fires of supporting
artillery are also shown in this manner, and suitably num-
bered when necessary to insure prompt and accurate
designation by the infantry when called for.
OY
37. Defense of intervals.
The organization and occupancy of tactical localities of
limited area, instead of providing continuous lines in the
preparation of a battle position for defense, leave un-
organized intervals of greater or less extent between these
localities. These intervals, though unorganized, are de-
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
wn
fended by fire from adjacent tactical localities, including
those in rear, and where of sufficient width to permit it,
may be defended in part by the fire of artillery. (See
glossary: mutual fire support.) To assist in the de-
fense, obstacles in front of the main line of resis-
tance, and eventually in front of the other lines in rear,
are made continuous along the entire front. To prevent
infiltration by the enemy through the intervals between
organized localities, under cover of fog, darkness, or smoke,
small detachments from the garrisons of adjacent tactical
localities are located in the intervals to offer resistance to
any hostile movement through them and to give timely
warning thereof to the adjacent garrisons. When time
permits, a continuous trench system is elaborated, and
this assists to conceal those positions which are actually
occupied by the defense.
TY
FD
1
38. Extent of command.
The organized tactical localities occupied by the several
units on the defensive must not be confused with the ser-
tors assigned to these units for defense. A sector (see
definition in the glossary) is the area of ground for the
defense of which the unit is responsible. The troops as-
signed to defend the sector are not spread out over its
whole extent but are located in organized tactical localities
from which they can cover the sector by fire and by counter-
attacks when necessary. These occupy only a part of the
sector they defend. (See Figure 2.)
39. Defensive works...
a. GENERAL.—The execution of the more common
works of field fortifications, especially trenches, obstacles,
and cpen machine-gun emplacements, is an infantry re-
sponsibility. Generally speaking, the ground will be or-
ganized by the troops who are to occupy it. The infantry
must plan, locate, and construct its own defenses. Any
work that cannot readily be built by infantry troops with
their own equipment and under the supervision of their
own officers, must have a comparatively limited application
in mobile warfare. The troops having been assigned their
0
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DEFENSIVE COMBAT
respective missions for defense of the battle position and
having occupied their respective sectors, the construction
of the works necessary to protect them from hostile fire,
to delay the progress of an enemy attack, to facilitate the
use of their weapons, and to assist observation, command,
movement, supply, and evacuation of the defense, is under-
taken. The initial efforts in the organization of the battle
position are directed to securing, as quickly as possible, a
field of fire of at least 60 and preferably 100
yards for the line of resistance, cover for the units disposed
for immediate defense thereof, and a continuous obstacle
along the front. The works constructed consist of machine-
gun emplacements, trenches, obstacles, observation and com-
mand posts, and aid stations, of routes for supply, for troop
movements, and for evacuation, and of signal communica-
tions. The more common works employed, especially trench-
es and obstacles, have been standardized, both as to
dimensions and methods of construction. The use of these
standards facilitates training, reduces waste of labor and
materials, and produces better and quicker results. These
standards are not limited to situations where ample time,
tools, labor, and materials are available, but are flexible
and applicable to situations in mobile warfare, when the
infantry are limited to the tools on their own persons and
materials in the immediate locality. Even when digging
merely a simple rifle pit or fox hole for his individual use,
the soldier should know how to provide himself with a good
firing posision and good shelter in the least possible time.
ad
1
р
they can later be extended and joined to form a continuous
line of entrenchment conforming to the prescribed standards
for the effective delivery of fire, and providing for cover,
protected circulation, and drainage. The trace on the
ground of a continuous trench thus developed from a line
of fox holes will be irregular as compared to one that has
been completely traced before any work is done, but if the
operations have been properly supervised the resulting trace
will fulfill the essential requirements.
TTY
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
:53
b. MACHINE-GUN EMPLACEMENTS.—Machine-gun
emplacements, in a hasty organization, are simple pits,
capable of holding the gun and three men, and are care-
fully concealed from hostile ground and air observation,
generally by the use of natural materials.
C. FIRE TRENCHES.–Fire trenches (see glossary) are
located to fit the deployment, but as the front of a deployed
squad is about thirty-five yards, as has already been pointed
out, the construction of this length of trench in the initial
stages of organization of the ground is impracticable in
a limited time. Accordingly as already indicated, the first
shelter provided by each squad is either a single trench
twenty to twenty-five feet long, capable of sheltering the
squad, or a number of detached pits or “fox holes”, each
capable of holding one or two men. The actual arrange-
1
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TA
to cover properly the squad sector, and on those for proper
control. Squad trenches are faced in the direction in which
the principal fire is to be delivered, and may be parallel
or oblique to the general direction of the front. Those on
the flanks of a combat post are generally used to protect
the flanks and to cover the fronts of adjacent combat posts
and the intervening intervals. Squad trenches of a combat
post are constructed with intervals of greater or less extent
between squads. The average may be taken as 20 yards.
When the interval exceeds 50 yards, it is generally prefer-
able, in order to facilitate control, to separate the garrison
into two combat posts, as has already been pointed out.
Fire trenches, when first constructed, are not continuous,
but as time permits the squad trenches or fox holes are
connected first into combat posts and later into strong-
points, in order to form a continuous line. This facilitates
control, provides for protected circulation parallel to the
front, and prevents hostile infiltration. The fact that fire
trenches are not continuous at first, and the difficulty of
completely concealing defensive works from aerial observa-
tion, enable the enemy to determine the localities that are
occupied defensively and the location of combat posts and
strongpoints. But even though trenches in the open cannot
Y
54
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
TY
TA
be concealed from aerial observation, it is still possible to
make them invisible to the attacking infantry until they
have arrived at very close range; every effort should be
made to accomplish this by utilizing the terrain and natural
materials for camouflage. Woods, hedges, and other natural
objects should be used as much as practicable to conceal
the trenches, and use should also be made of dummy trench-
es to deceive the hostile observation. By excavation to
a depth of from 1 to 112 feet for the proper width
along the trace decided on for the final continuous line
of trenches, it is practicable to prevent the enemy from
determining accurately from airplane photographs what
part of the terrain is actually occupied.
d. APPROACH TRENCHES.-(1) In a battle posi-
tion, approach trenches are generally provided as
follows:
(a) Between the main line of resistance and the support
line, at least one for each platoon on the front line
(b) Between the support line and the battalion reserve
line, at least one for each company on the front line
(c) Between the battalion and regimental reserve lines, at
least one for each battalion on the front line.
(2) The approach trenches necessary for combat pur-
poses are constructed first. These are located along
the flanks of strongpoints and centers of resistance
and are sited for fire to the flank. They usually
have an obstacle on the exposed side.
e. SWITCH TRENCHES.—The trenches along the four
lines of a battle position, combined with the approach tren-
ches, generally are adequate for all-around defense, and
prevent easy exploitation to the flanks of an enemy penetra-
tion into the position. Certain cases will arise, however,
particularly between the battalion and regimental reserve
lines, where the construction of a switch trench may be
necessary to resist lateral exploitation. Such a trench
usually runs obliquely between these two lines and differs
from an approach in that it is located primarily for com-
bat, though it also can serve as a communication trench.
f. NATURAL OBSTACLES.-Streams, ponds, swamps,
and lakes are the most common forms of natural obstacles
n11
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
55
2
d
(Y
)
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1
1
which can be utilized to advantages in defense, though pre-
cipitous banks or cliffs sometimes serve the purpose ef-
fectively. The fact that the location of the main line of
resistance is generally along high ground overlooking water
courses, frequently permits the use of these streams as
part of the line of obstacles covering the front. While a
stream may be, in itself, of no special value as an obstacle,
the possibility of increasing its depth 'and width by the
use of dams at favorable points should carefully be studied
and made use of where practicable. Marshy ground, or
a stream with a depth of four feet or more, is a particularly
effective obstacle against tanks, and no opportunity for
providing an adequate obstacle to a tank attack should be
overlooked.
9. ARTIFICIAL OBSTACLES.-The majority of the
the obstacles used in the organization of a battle position are
artificial. Of these, the wire entanglement gives the best
results for the least expenditure of the time, labor, and
materials. Various types exist, low wire entanglement
and the double-apron fence being the most common forms
of fixed entanglements. These are very similar in con-
struction, the former being about knee-high and the latter
waist-high. Double-apron fence is by far the more effec-
tive of the two and should always be built when time and
materials permit. The only advantages of the low entangle-
ment are its comparative invisibility and the fact that it
requires less material. Fixed entanglements must be erect-
ed in place and may involve exposure of the workers to
hostile fire. In some situations it will be impossible to
see them, and in this case recourse is had to port-
able forms. These are made up in rear of the lines and
can be placed in position with a minimum exposure of
personnel. If sections are wired together or secured by a
few pickets, they form a very effective obstacle. The most
common types of portable obstacles are concertina spirals
and plain spirals. The latter are commonly used to "thick-
en” and increase the resistance of fixed obstacles. Port-
able obstacles, having been made up, can of course be placed
in position much more rapidly than fixed types.
S
Y
56
COMBAT
AT
DEFENSIVE US
h. PURPOSE OF OBSTACLES.--Obstacles are used for
two purposes, tactical and protective (see glossary). Tac-
tical obstacles are intended to hold the attacker under the
fire of the weapons of the defense. The continuous obstacle
along the front of the line of resistance, which is enfiladed
by the flanking fire of machine guns, and the location of
which is determined largely by the direction of their bands
of fire, is the best example of a tactical obstacle. Protec-
tive obstacles are intended to prevent the sudden entrance
of hostile forces into the works of the defense. The ob-
stacle surrounding a combat post is the best example.
1. LOCATION OF OBSTACLES.-The following prin-
ciples govern the location of obstacles :
(1) They must be covered throughout by the fire of the defense;
otherwise they are of no value
(2) Protective obstacles must not be so far from the trenches
that they cannot be kept under observation and control at
all times, especially at night; and must not be so close as to
permit an enemy to approach within hand-grenade range of
the trenches. A distance of from 40 to 100 yards from the
trenches is generally suitable.
(3) All obstacles should be concealed as much as possible from
hostile observation, particularly ground observation, by tak-
ing advantage of depressions in the terrain, of minor re-
verse slopes, tall grass, woods, and the like
(4) Centers of resistance and strongpoints should be pro-
tected by obstacles on their front and flanks; combat posts
should be surrounded completely. Although the obstacle in
front of the line of resistance is primarily for tactical pur-
poses and sited in broad zigzags, on many parts of the front
it is located with a view to serving also as a protective ob-
stacle; where this is not the case, additional obstacles for
protective purposes must be provided. Protective obstacles,
as far as practicable, should avoid exactly paralleling a fire
trench. In locating them, special effort should be taken to
avoid indicating the manner in which the ground is occupied.
(5) The protective obstacle in front of the line of resistance
is usually a continuous barrier except for occasional blinded
gaps for the passage of patrols. Within the position, how-
ever, openings should be left in obstacles to facilitate the
movement of the friendly troops in counterattack. Portable
obstacles should be at hand to close the gaps when the situa-
tion requires this.
(6) The standard obstacles are erected by a systematic proce-
dure in the form of a drill, with which all infantry units
should be familiar. The drill is simple and easily learned, and
insures, a great saving of time and avoidance of confusion.
j. ROUTES.-In a defensive position where roads and
trails do not exist or are inadequate, a sufficient number
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
57
be
A
must be constructed, or existing ones improved, in order
to provide adequate means for the prompt movement of
reserves, for bringing forward supplies and ammunition,
and for evacuation of wounded and of salvaged materials.
In defense, narrow-gauge railroads can be made use of in
some situations and are very valuable from a supply and
evacuation point of view. When a stream lies within a
battle area, numerous crossings, supplementing those at
the established roads, should be provided in order to facili-
tate the movement of troops across country and to give ad-
ditional means of crossing in case those on established
routes of traffic are shelled.
k. SIGNAL COMMUNICATION.-The defense admits
of a more intensive use of the means of signal communica-
tion than does the offense. All material available is used
to the limit to insure uninterrupted exchange of information.
Duplicate lines may be possible, and ordinarily lateral lines
to adjacent units are installed. An extension to the front
to include the front-line companies is desirable and in many
cases feasible.
kudo
YTT
40. Priority of work.
d. The priority of work in a particular situation is the
order in which labor on the various requirements for an
organized position will be commenced. It is based upon a
consideration of the relative importance of these require-
ments. In the ordinary situation, weight is given in the
following order:
(1) Observation
(2) Fire power
(3) Cover, including concealment
(4) Communications (routes)
(5) Obstacles and signal communications.
b. By prescribing a priority for the order in which the
various elements of the ground organization will be taken
up, the commander coordinates the work on the position
and insures its maximum efficiency under the particular
conditions of the situation. Good judgment is necessary in
formulating a plan which will govern the priority in con-
struction of the various elements of the position. Thus,
58
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
TITI
17
N
while observation is the most important single requirement,
natural facilities for this purpose frequently exist which
will serve for a hastily organized position. In open ter-
rain, trenches are usually of prime importance to fire
power, whereas on densely wooded ground a more im-
portant consideration might be the clearing of a field or
lanes of fire. The time required to construct the various
works also influences the plan. Trenches are the prin-
cipal element of work, and accordingly are usually under-
taken at the outset. The time available for work likewise
affects the plan. If time be limited, it will be advisable to
devote the principal effort to the elements for which no
natural facilities exist. For example, the natural routes
of communication may be accepted until more time is
available to improve them. The tools, material, and troops
available for work also must be considered in determining
the plan.
C. A good general rule is that in any situation when
time is lacking for a complete organization, work should
be so planned that if it must be discontinued at any time,
owing to the approach of the enemy, the position will have
the maximum strength it was possible to secure up to that
time. Usually it will be practicable to undertake several
of the more important elements of work simultaneously.
Thus the rifle troops may be assigned to trench work, ma-
chine-gun troops to machine-gun emplacements, headquar-
ters troops to command and observation posts, reserve or-
ganizations to clearing fields of fire, and to constructing
communication routes. In a deliberate organization, when
ample time is available, the work should be so conducted
that all elements will be completed simultaneously. Sub-
ject to the foregoing, and to the conditions in any par-
ticular case, the following list will serve as a guide for
the plan of work in the hasty organization of ground, all
units working simultaneously:
Observation posts
Machine-gun emplacements
Reasonable field of fire (at least 60 to 100 yards if procur-
able)
LY
ml
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
· 59
Rifle pits or squad trenches for lines of resistance and sup-
port lines
Obstacles along the front
Command posts and aid stations
Protective obstacles around combat posts on line of resis-
tance
Communication trenches forming part of the defensive or-
ganization between line of resistance and support line
Completion of trench system in front-line strongpoints
Completion of obstacles in front-line strongpoints
Fire trenches for battalion and regimental reserve lines
Communication trenches in rear af support line
Completion of trench system on lines of resistance and sup-
port lines
Obstacles for rear strongpoints
Improvement of command and observation posts and aid
stations
Improvement of routes of communication within the position.
41. Assignment of tasks to various infantry units and
use of attached troops.
a. The following tasks are appropriate to the strength,
equipment, and training of the various infantry units :
Rifle companies: trenches, obstacles, light clearings, small
shelters
0
(D
Howitzer company: preparation of emplacements, shelters,
and camouflage
Headquarters units: command and observation posts
Pioneer platoon: any tasks of special clearing, and construc-
tion of command posts for regiment; construction and improve-
ment of routes; special tasks requiring tools and training not
possessed by other units
Attached medical personnel: aid stations.
6. As the most important and urgent work is that which
falls to the lot of the rifle and machine-gun units organiz-
ing the forward lines of the position, other available troops
are usually attached to assist them. These may in-
clude infantry support and reserve units, combat-engineer
troops, and auxiliary engineer battalions, which should be
so assigned as to equalize the work and insure as nearly
as possible the simultaneous completion of important ele-
ments along the entire front. So far as practicable these
troops should be attached by company or larger unit, and
should work under the direction of their own officers on
one or a very few definite tasks, such as extensive clear-
ings. This will insure better results than if the attached
60
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
.
.
m
111
elements are scattered in small groups over a considerable
area and many tasks. When, however, no definite tasks
as outlined above exist and work to be done is of such a
nature that it must be closely coordinated with that of the
troops to occupy the position, it is better for the attached
elements to work under the direction of the commanders
of the units occupying the positions. While they may be
assigned to any work that is necessary, the following tasks
are appropriate to the various kinds of troops:
(1) Reserve infantry units. As the work in the front-line strong-
points is of prime importance, it will often be advisable
to use the reserves first to assist in this rather than to
assign them at once to the organization of the rear part
of the position. Rifle units assist rifle units, and machine-gun
units assist machine-gun units. They should be given large,
definite tasks.
Engineer troops. Ordinarily engineer troops attached to
a brigade should be utilized on work for the brigade as a
whole. The engineer regiment of a division may be attached
as a regiment to the infantry brigade having the heavier
task, or an engineer battalion to each brigade. The brigade
commander may then attach engineer companies to his regi-
ments, and these in turn may attach piations to battalicns.
Appropriate duties for the engineers are: the supply of
tools and materials to the infantry, heavy clearing, im-
portant obstacles, routes of communication, splinter and shell-
proof command and observation posts, machine-gun emplace-
ments, shelters and camouflage, and in general any difficult
work for which the infantry is not equipped.
Auxiliary engineer battalions. When assigned or attached
to divisions, these troops are usually attached by the divi-
sion commander to his engineer regiment, as this usually
insures the best results. However, in the judgment of the
division commander, companies of an auxiliary engineer
battalion may properly be assigned to the same tasks as
reserve infantry units. These companies have a strength of
250 men.
SECTION VII
OUTPOST AREA
Paragraph
42
General
Qutpost in deployed and position defense ...........
Outpost in zone defense ...
Local security
.................
43
44
45
42. General.
a. When a command occupies a defensive position, a por-
tion of the force is usually placed along the front and
penda
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
61
12
MY
flanks in what is known as an outpost area (see glossary).
The location of this area, the mission and strength of the
force, the method of organizing the area, and the conduct
of the outpost troops, are all dependent upon this situation
and vary considerably with the form of defense employed.
b. The division commander or the commander of an in-
dependent brigade or regiment when acting alone, in pro-
viding an outpost assigns a mission to the outpost troops,
gives definite instructions for their conduct in case of a
general attack, and prescribes the general location of the
outpost line of resistance. The strength and composition
of the outpost troops may be prescribed or limited by the
commander. However, the division commander may leave
this in position defense to the decision of brigade com-
manders, and they may in some situations allow regimental
commanders to determine the strength and composition of
the outpost for their sectors.
C. The troops for the outpost may in some cases consist
of a force under a single commander, such as a complete
regiment for the outpost of a division sector. In the usual
case, however, brigades or possibly regiments will send
forward battalions or companies to garrison that part of
the outpost area covering their sectors. In this case the
various sectors of the outpost are commanded by the com-
mander of troops garrisoning them. Troops for the outpost
area are usually taken from those in reserve. The sub-
division of the outpost into sectors with garrisons fur-
nished by the subordinate units, tends to avoid a mixing
of organizations and permits of better cooperation be-
tween outpost troops and units in rear.
43. Outpost in deployed and position defense.
C. In the deployed form, which is an emergency measure
where the defense is assumed quickly, it is seldom neces-
sary or practicable to organize an outpost area. In this
case the duties of the outpost are performed by local se-
curity or by a covering force.
b. In position defense, the conditions are such as to pre-
clude the complete organization of an outpost area and
the disposition of the outpost forces in great depth. The
VVD
Y
62
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
outpost forces can be expected, under the circumstances,
to afford only observation and the necessary security against
the enemy's reconnaissance, minor attacks, and raids, and
to give warning of impending general attacks. The re-
sistance of the outpost forces to general attacks will of
necessity be brief and only sufficient to cover their own
retirement. In such a case they are ordered to withdraw,
the decision as to the time being usually made by the
senior commander of all troops, as the local outpost com-
manders are not able to determine whether any attack by
the enemy is local or general.
c. The location of an outpost line of resistance is pre-
scribed in order to secure coordination between the infantry
and artillery. One of the essential considerations in se-
lecting the location of this line is the desirability of keep-
ing the enemy in doubt as to the character of the first
resistance to be encountered. It is so sited as to hold suit-
able observation points overlooking the foreground and
to afford facilities for keeping reconnaissance parties and
local attacks of the enemy at a distance. When the situa-
tion permits, the outpost area will be located with its line
of resistance from 1500 to 4000 yards in advance of the
main line of resistance. The lesser distance is determined
by the fact that the outpost should prevent the emplace-
ment of hostile machine guns and light mortars within
effective range of the main line of resistance, and the
greater by the consideration that artillery located in rear
of the battle position should be able to place effective fire
in support of the line of resistance of the outpost. These
fires will include defensive concentrations and counter-
preparation fires to the maximum effective range beyond
the outpost line of resistance. A location of the outpost
well to the front is desirable, inasmuch as the farther away
the enemy is kept from the battle position, the less effective
will be his reconnaissance and observation of the dis-
position for defense and the greater his uncertainty as to
the exact location of the main line of resistance. His
artillery fire directed on the battle position will be cor-
respondingly less effective. A location of the front line
-
TITI
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
63
1500 to 2000 yards in advance of the main line of re-
sistance in the general case will provide sufficient depth
tc organize an outpost area.
d. The outpost forces organize tactical localities along the
outpost line of resistance to assist them in the accomplish-
ment of their mission (see Figure 1). The machine guns
assigned to the outpost are kept to the minimum. They
are not sited primarily to give close protection to tactical
localities organized by outpost forces, but rather to delay
the enemy by long-range fire, using direct laying when prac-
ticable, on the most favorable approaches. Another im-
portant factor in determining the location and use of these
guns is the necessity for their assistance in covering the
withdrawal of the outpost rifle units.
44. Outpost in zone defense.
The mission of the outpost in zone defense is to delay
and break up the enemy attack, even to resisting in place to
the last. The outpost area may extend to the front a dis-
tance of 5000 to 8000 yards. It may include several lines
of tactical localities supported by artillery located in the
outpost area. The organization is more complete than
in the case of deployed or position defense, and the co-
ordination of defensive fires approaches that of the battle
position.
A
45. Local security.
a. Whether an outpost force exists or not, local security
for the immediate front and flanks of the battle position
is provided for by small detachments, sent out from the
battle position. When the enemy is near and no outposts
have been established by higher commanders, or when battle
has been interrupted by nightfall, each front-line bat-
talion must establish local security to cover its sector. To
avoid mixing of units and to afford better cooperation
with elements in rear, local-security detachments are sent
out from the front-line battalions. The battalion com-
mander may detail the necessary troops from the battalion
reserves or he may direct the front-line companies, es-
64
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
pecially when the distance is short, to provide for local
security within their own sectors.
b. When the frontage assigned to a company is con-
siderable, when good approaches connect the line of ob-
servation with the main line of resistance, and when the
distance between the two is short, it may be more desirable
to have each front-line platoon provide for its own pro-
tection.
C. The use of local-security detachments is character-
istic of the deployed and position defense in situations
where the distance between the enemy and the main line
of resistance is not sufficient in depth (less than fifteen
hundred yards) for the organization of an outpost area.
d. The strength, location, and formation of the local-
security groups depend upon the situation, especially upon
the terrain and the missions assigned them. For a battalion
sector they may consist of squads, sections, platoons, or a
company, depending upon the factors mentioned above. The
strength is kept to the minimum necessary for the local
security of the main line of resistance. In open country or
during daylight the strength will be less than in close
country and at night. In placing these groups, consideration
should be given to effective machine-gun support from the
forward area of the battle position. Under certain special
conditions of the terrain, particularly in daylight, local
security may be performed by men posted along the main
line of resistance. The formation conforms to the general
principles covering outposts, and may include outguards,
patrols, or sentinels. The mission may be:
(1) To observe the enemy
(2) To protect front-line companies against observation, an-
noyance, and surprise
1
.
L
v
e. The action of the various groups sent out must be co-
ordinated by the higher commander. In case of a general
attack they retire to the battle position, as little effective
resistance is expected of them in such a case. These
troops are located in detachments along the designated
line and as time permits may organize such small tactical
localities as will assist in protecting the battle position
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
65
(that is, the main line of resistance) from minor attacks
and raids. The intervals should be covered by patrols.
f. The orders covering the local security for a unit will
include the mission, the general line to be occupied, and
the units responsible for furnishing the troops. When the
determination of the strength of detachments is left to
subordinate commanders, it is proper for the commander
of troops to provide in orders limitations as to the strength.
SECTION VIII
EMPLOYMENT OF INFANTRY WEAPONS AND
ARTILLERY
Paragraph
46
--------------
47
48
General principles ..........
Machine guns ......
Automatic rifles ......--
Howitzer-company weapons
Kinds of artillery fire support
Use of gas and smoke
.---...
Tanks ..........
S.
46. General principles.
A successful defense depends primarily on an effective
combination of the fires of the various weapons at the
disposal of the defender. The highest development in the
use of these weapons in conjunction with one another, is
manifested by their employment in fires in immediate de-
fense of a line of resistance either in the outpost area or
battle position. Prior to the need for these defensive fires
last mentioned, the fires of all weapons will be found more
or less dispersed, both in range and direction, this being due
to the difference in effective range and characteristics of the
weapons themselves. When, however, the attack has reached
the immediate vicinity of a line of resistance to be held,
then the power of all weapons is utilized in team play to
break up the hostile advance in front of the line defended.
47. Machine guns.
a. MISSIONS.—The use of machine guns on the defensive
differs somewhat from their employment on the offensive,
in that positions are obtainable from which enfilade or
KTN
66
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
11
oblique fire can be delivered against hostile troops, whereas
on the offensive frontal fire is, of necessity, the rule, al-
though oblique fire is used whenever possible. On the de-
fensive, the principal missions of machine guns may be
one or a combination of the following:
(1:) To cover a given sector of fire by employing direct lay-
ing on any suitable target which may appear therein
(2) To protect a given position or line against assault by
the use of flanking fire (see glossary: final protective line).
An extension of this principle enables the defense to de-
liver a continuous belt of flanking fire in front of a line
of resistance (see glossary: fire, belt of).
(3) When called for, to deliver fire on given areas by means
of indirect laying
(4) To support counterattack
(5) To deliver antiaircraft fire.
b. SPLIT MISSION FOR GUNS OF A SECTION.-The
section is the usual fire unit in defense, and the guns are
generally located in pairs so that continuity of fire may be
insured and so that they may be controlled by the section
leader, and in order to facilitate supply. Sufficient interval
is maintained to prevent the destruction of both guns by
the burst of a single shell. This is usually from 30 to 50
yards, although availability of cover may make it desir-
able to have the guns farther apart. This interval should not
be so great that the section leader cannot control both guns
hy verbal commands or arm signals. Whenever possible the
two guns are given the same mission. This, however, cannot
always be done with the small number of guns available,
because of difficulties created by conformation of the
ground; indeed, in order effectively to cover the frontage
and furnish fire to adjacent units, it will often be found
necessary to assign different missions to the guns of a sec-
tion. Even when this is done, however, the guns should
be located as provided for above.
C. PLAN FOR DEPLOYED DEFENSE. It is a general
rule that before the occupation of a position by machine
guns, no matter what form of defense is employed, re-
connaissance is promptly made. When the attack has been
halted by resistance, however, and there is not time for
preliminary reconnaissance for the purpose of locating de-
fensive positions, machine guns at first defend the ground
A
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
67
TYT
from the position in which they find themselves, while the
company commander makes his reconnaissance. The
plan for defense is based on the tactical situation, including
---of course—the location of front-line units. The company
commander, from his knowledge of the situation, supple-
mented by any reconnaissance which can be made under the
circumstances, formulates a plan for the defensive action
of machine guns, and submits it to the battalion commander.
After approval the guns are moved into position, usually
under cover of darkness. A copy of this plan is furnished
the regimental machine gun officer, who coordinates these
fires within the regimental sector and with adjacent units.
After approval by the regimental commander a copy of
this arrangement, usually in the form of an overlay, is sent
to the division machine-gun-howitzer officer, who coor-
dinates these fires with those of the howitzer-company
weapons and of the artillery within the division sector, and
submits his plan thus completed to the division commander
for approval. When the defense has hastily been assumed,
as in a meeting engagement, and the time for reconnais-
sance is extremely limited, the exact positions of the ma-
chine guns, sectors of fire, and lines of fire are accurately
determined by the platoon commanders. The machine-gun
company commander makes a reconnaissance as soon as
practicable. In any event the battalion commander must
finally approve the dispositions of the machine guns within
his sector before the plan is sent forward.
d. PLAN FOR POSITION DEFENSE.—At least six
hours are usually required for the organization of a position
defense. Where it is effected in contact with the enemy,
the locations and missions of machine guns necessarily must
be determined by battalion commanders, with the assistance
of their machine-gun company commanders. After ap-
proved by the battalion commander concerned, the plan is
submitted, usually in the form of an overlay, to the regi-
mental machine-gun officer, who coordinates these fires
with the regimental sector and with adjacent units. After
approval by the regimental commander the procedure as
above described is followed. Where organization of the
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
A
ground is to be made out of contact, however, but only a
limited time is available, it is the division commander who
issues instructions for the coordination of machine-gun
fires between brigades, and between the battle area and out-
post area when such coordination is necessary. In this
case the regimental commander, with the assistance of his
machine-gun officer and his plans-and-training officer (R-3),
then assigns machine-gun missions to his battalion, co-
ordinating their fire with each other, and with adjacent
regiments. Each battalion commander, after reconnais-
sance, then assigns missions to his guns and submits a
sketch to the regimental commander through R-3. After
approval by the regiment this plan is forwarded to the
division.
e. PLAN FOR ZONE DEFENSE.-When the defensive
is assumed out of contact with the enemy and time is avail-
able, the coordination of machine guns may begin with the
division locations, sectors, and lines of fire being deter-
mined after reconnaissance by the division machine-gun-
and-howitzer officer for the division and sent down to regi-
ments and battalions to be executed. The duty of the regi-
mental machine-gun officer in this case is to see that these
instructions are carried out. Should the battalion com-
mander find that the location, as shown on the map, in-
terferes with accomplishment of the mission, the gun is
moved and report is immediately made to the division. In
certain situations machine-gun emplacements would be
constructed in the reserve battle position by reserve or
other troops and stakes driven into the ground showing the
lines and sectors of fire.
f. SECTORS OF FIRE.—In placing a machine gun, it
should be borne in mind that this weapon has an all-around
traverse, although it is seldom possible, on account of terrain
features and the characteristics of the gun, to cover effec-
tively more than a small portion of the circle. Machine
guns are therefore given sectors of fire usually of about 45
degrees (800 mils) in angular width, which will cover that
part of the circle that is most important from the point of
view of the plan of defense. This is purely a sector of
O
ATT
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
69
2
responsibility. When not employed within its sector, the
fire of a machine gun may, on orders from the platoon com-
mander, be switched on favorable targets outside. Machine
guns on outposts are given much wider sectors of fire be-
cause of the greater area to be covered and the comparative-
ly few guns usually available for this duty. Of the two
boundaries of the sector of fire, the one covering the main
line of resistance has the more important fire mission; this
boundary usually coincides with the final protective line
(see glossary).
9. METHODS OF COVERING A SECTOR OF FIRE.-
The questions of time to open fire and choice of targets are
matters of judgment. Before opening fire on targets ap-
pearing in the sector at the extreme ranges, one must con-
sider their appropriateness, remunerative value, and the
result of possibly disclosing the position. When a choice
is to be made between two or more targets, the remunera-
tive value and the importance of each must be weighed.
When, in spite of the fire of machine guns, rifles, automatic
rifles, howitzer-company weapons, and artillery, the enemy
continues his advance and reaches the final protective line,
the guns are directed along and held on this line as long
as the enemy is crossing or attempting to do so. Machine-
gun fire may thus be placed on the final protective line in re-
sponse to the following:
(1) Signal for the normal barrage (see glossary: barrage, 1201-
mal).
(2) Signal or written or verbal request from the commander
of troops holding the position being defended
(3) Orders from platocn or higher commanders; these may be
in the form of instructions given at the time that the posi-
tion is occupied
(4) The result of the gunner's observation indicating that the
leading elements of the enemy threatening the main line
of resistance are approachirg the final protective line.
1. SEVERAL DISPOSITIONS OF MACHINE GUNS
IN BATTLE POSITION.—Machine guns are distrib-
uted in depth throughout the defensive system. This ar-
rangement includes the general disposition of guns as fol-
lows:
(1) First-defense guns. These are located along the line of
tactical localities organized as combat posts or strongpoints
on a line of resistance. They are given sectors of fire and
final protective lines, and are so placed as to sweep the
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
area in front of their own units and adjacent units with
interlocking bands of fire (see glossary).
(2) Breakthrough guns. These are located in rear of the first-
defense guns of any position. In the battle position they
are usually found on or near the battalion and regimental
reserve lines. Their missions are to cover intervals between,
and flanks of, strongpoints, to support counterattacks, to de-
liver antiaircraft fire, and, when practicable, to.place flank-
ing bands of fire in front of the lines they are defending. At
least two guns (one section) should be located on the bat-
talion reserve line in each battalion sector. In actually dis-
posing these guns, it should be remembered that the platoon
is the basis of control. It is ordinarily arranged in depth,
althcugh it may be disposed laterally when the tactical sit-
uation demands or if supply and control are thereby made
easier than iſ distributed in depth. Breakthrough guns,
especially those on the regimental reserve line, may be
formed in groups or batteries for the purpose of deliver-
ing barrages or concentrations in front of the main line
of resistance or for the support of counterattacks. Ma-
chine-gun emplacements are prepared along the regi-
mental reserve line to be occupied, for its defense
when the reserve battalion occupies its positions. Other posi-
tions, when required by the terrain, are selected and pre-
pared, from which battery fire can be placed in support of
the main line of resistance. Positions should also be selected
and reconnoitered from which the support of probable coun-
terattacks by the regimental reserve can be conducted. In
the early stages the battery positions ordinarily are first
occupied and used. When this mission ceases or is unneces-
sary, the guns must be prepared either to support counter-
attacks or to move promptly to their battle emplacements
on the regimental reserve line. This action is of course de-
pendent upon the use made of the regimental reserve. Dur-
ing this period the machine guns should be prepared to exe-
cute promptly any of the missions indicated. In general, the
last two missions (battery fire in support of the main line
of resistance and support of counterattack) cannot be exe-
cuted from the battle emplacements. In all these cases the
guns will need a certain degree of protection, depending upon
the particular situation, and this emphasizes the principle
that machine guns should, at all times, have the protection
of riflemen.
(3) Reserve guns. These are held out of the fight until the di-
rection and force of the enemy attacks can be determined,
so that they can take part most effectively in maintaining
the battle position and in support of counterattacks. They
usually belong to units having positions so far to the rear
in the defensive system that they cannot be employed in
the earlier stages of the attack. The guns usually belong
to the division and brigade reserve but may include those
of the regimental reserve when these do not actually occupy
positions on the regimental reserve line. The machine guns
of the battalion in brigade reserve may be located in any
of the following positions, depending upon the mission-
their primary duty being the support of the brigade re-
serve:
(a) In front of the regimental reserve line in the early stages of com-
O
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
71
bat or in stabilized situations to execute battery or breakthrough missions
(b) On or near the regimental reserve line to perform, in addition to
the preceding missions, that of suporting counterattacks by the regimental
l'eserve, or when in extreme cases the brigade reserve is used, to assist in
holding the regimental reserve line
(0) in rear of the regimental reserve line in prepared positions to
support the counterattack by the regimental reserve. The machine-gun
companies of battalions in division reserve are as a rule used in positions
in rear of the regimental reserve line from wliich they can stop a penetra-
tion or support counterattacks.
(D
TO
TI
Y
i. BATTERY MISSIONS.-Battery missions usually in-
volve covering important areas a considerable distance to the
front and in support of the main line of resistance during
the preliminary stages of the attack. They are fired by
reserve guns brought forward and organized temporarily
into batteries and groups. These missions may be carried
out by direct or indirect laying, or both. Direct laying is
the most effective form of machine-gun fire and is often the
only practicable method where machine-gun barrages are
hastily organized. Indirect laying may be employed to
engage targets on which direct laying cannot be used. It
permits the use of many guns distributed in depth which
could not otherwise be employed. Indirect laying is the
most common method in a prepared defense. A combination
of direct and indirect laying results is the maximum de-
velopment of available machine-gun fire power in a barrage
cr concentration. Barrages are classified as frontal, enfilade,
and oblique. Wherever an oblique or enfilade barrage is to
be used, it is well to have two batteries cover, by fixed fire,
contiguous areas approximately fifty yards apart, so that
hostile troops who succeed in passing through the fire of
one may be caught by that of the other. In delivering
frontal fire on a given area, it will usually be
necessary to employ harassing fire. The frontage allotted
these guns will rarely exceed fifty yards per gun. When
battery firing is employed to carry out such missions as
harassing fire and interdiction fire, the frontage assigned
varies greatly. Two hundred yards in width might be
allotted a single gun for harassing purposes, or several
might be laid on a particular point, such as a crossroads,
for purposes of interdiction. In firing over friendly troops
with machine guns, by direct laying, the guns cannot be
more than eighteen hundred yards from the troops. When
indirect laying is employed, the guns cannot be more than
two thousand yards from the troops.
TTA
1
DEFENSIVE WI
T
K'
COMBAT
j. ANTIAIRCRAFT.-(1) Before an attack. In
defending a sector, some of the machine guns are
moved from battle emplacements during the day-
time and are set up for antiaircraft defense in
others not far away. From these positions they
fire on low-flying hostile aircraft. In case of at-
tack, the guns are immediately rushed to their
battle emplacements. When in battle emplace-
ments, they do not fire against hostile aircraft if
such action is liable to disclose their positions.
y
(2) During an attack.--When the enemy is attacking,
machine guns in rear of the main line of resist-
ance fire on low-flying hostile airplanes when not
actually engaged with enemy troops on the ground.
The purpose of this fire is as follows:
(a) To damage or bring down the airplanes
(b) To prevent them from locating our organizations and
firing on or bombing them
(c) To drive hostile aircraft higher in the air where they
can be dealt with by the artillery and by our own air
force.
k. MACHINE GUNS ON OUTPOST.-The general prin-
ciples covering the employment of machine guns in the bat-
tle position apply to their use with the outpost. The
more extended front of the outpost, and its mission in
the particular case, of course affect the disposition and use
of the guns. When the security of the battle position de-
pends on the use of the local security groups taken from
the troops of the centers of resistance, and where these are
sent out only a relatively short distance in front of the main
line of resistance, the machine guns in the battle position,
from positions other than their battle emplacements, sup-
port the outpost by long-range fire on the principal ave-
nues of approach. As these security groups are increased
in size and move out farther to the front, it may be de-
sirable to place machine guns from the battle position in
the area between the outpost and main line of resistance
for the purpose of supporting the outpost as prescribed
above. When the distance from the main line of resistance
of the battle position to the outpost line of resistance is
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
such that the machine guns cannot effectively support the
latter, then the machine guns of the unit establishing the
outpost may accompany that organization and occupy po-
sitions within the various tactical localities, where, in case
of attack, they conform to the principles prescribed above.
If time permit, and if orders and the situation demand that
the outpost fight in place, the position will generally be
more thoroughly organized and more tenaciously defended,
in which case the application of the principles governing the
use of machine guns will more closely approach those per-
taining to the battle position.
48. Automatic rifles.
In the defense the automatic rifle is used for covering
dead spaces in the bands of flanking fire of machine guns,
covering intervals between organized tactical localities, and
for delivering flanking fire in front of its own or of ad-
jacent combat posts and frontal fire against an enemy ad-
vancing toward it. Generally, it is not restricted to definite
lines of fire, but executes those missions which provide the
best coordination with the fires of other weapons.
49. Howitzer company weapons.
a. The howitzer company is an integral part of the regi-
ment; therefore the decision as to its tactical use rests
with the regimental commander. Usually one platoon is
attached to each battalion for combat, but the tactical situa-
tion may require the attachment of two platoons, or even
the entire company, to a single battalion. When more than
one platoon is attached to a battalion, they are commanded
as a group by the howitzer-company commander and come
under the control of the battalion commander to whom as-
signed. The procedure in this case is the same as for the
platoon. The 37-mm guns are not given separate sectors
of fire, but are used to cover the front in the most advan-
tageous manner when more than one platoon is attached;
the 3-inch trench mortars or the infantry howitzers are
assigned separate sectors of fire. The platoon is a tactical
unit. In order to facilitate control and supply when
74
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
2
1
the situation, including the terrain, permits, the weapons of
the platoon should be placed whenever practicable within ap-
proximately 200 yards of each other. These pieces are sited
preferably to cover the entire battalion front and, whenever
possible, such features of the terrain outside of the battalion
front as would enable the enemy to bring machine-gun fire to
bear on the battalion. It is desirable to have the weapons 200
or 300 yards in rear of a line being defended, in order to
increase their chances of escaping destruction. The dis-
tance they may be placed in rear of the line depends on
how far in front of the infantry they must be able to fire;
for example, if the terrain be such that it is not necessary
for the weapons to reach more than 1200 yards in front of
the infantry, they may be as far as 600 yards in rear, pro-
vided the facilities for observation are suitable and assum-
ing that the 75-mm howitzer is used. It must be borne in
mind, however, that the longer the range is, the less is the
accuracy. The mission of the howitzer company weapons
in the defensive is to support the rifle companies closely,
engaging suitable targets whenever they appear. Observa-
tion is of prime importance to secure good fire effect, and
should be taken into consideration in the location of the
weapons. Locations near command posts, aid stations,
crossroads, and prominent objects are avoided, and the
weapons should be able to move quickly from one position
to another, for they will almost certainly draw hostile ar-
tillery fire. The command post of the howitzer platoon
is at or near that of the battalion.
b. 37-MM GUNS.-The 37-mm gun is a weapon of
opportunity; it has a flat trajectory and a maximum effec-
tive range of 1800 yards. The location of this gun is dis-
closed by its flash, by the sound of discharge, and by the
dust raised by the blast. Concealment is therefore very
important, and full advantage should be taken of its ability
to deliver masked fire. It is located on commanding ground,
or at sufficient distance in rear of our troops to meet re-
quirements for overhead fire, or in gaps in the line of rifle-
men. Targets for the 37-mm gun consist of definitely lo-
cated hostile machine guns and tanks, and of hostile troops
T
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
75
n
Yn
LY
iri enfilade. It is also used to block narrow passage-ways
such as bridges, roads, and approach trenches. Engaging
moving targets, such as landing parties and trucks, is the
exception, and firing on such objects is only justified when
there are no hostile machine guns to engage.
C. 3-INCH TRENCH MORTARS AND 75-MM HOW-
ITZERS.--The 3-inch trench mortar and the 75-mm
howitzer are high-angle firearms. Both are sited to cover
areas that cannot be reached by other weapons, particularly
reverse slopes, ravines, and the like, where the enemy can
concentrate for the attack. Dead spaces in the line of
small-arms fire must be covered by the 3-inch trench mor-
tar or 75-mm howitzer, or by artillery. For this reason
there must be continuous cooperation between officers of
the howitzer company and those commanding the rifle com-
panies, machine guns, and artillery. Machine guns, ac-
companying artillery, trench mortars, and similar weapons,
the general location of which is known but which are not
definitely located, are also appropriate targets for these
weapons. The fire of the 3-inch trench mortar or the
75-mm howitzer should be placed beyond obstacles, and
should not be closer than 200 or 300 yards in front of the
main line of resistance. The area which can effectively be
covered by a single mortar or howitzer is approximately
125 yards in diameter. In case there be no artillery, these
weapons may, in addition, be required to cover as far as
practicable some of the close-in areas generally assigned
the artillery when present.
I
1
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TT
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(D
pad
50. Kinds of artillery fire support.
a. CLASSIFICATION.-On the defensive, the artillery
fire delivered for the purpose of aiding the defense is classi-
fied as follows:
(1) Fire during the period of first contact, consisting of:
(a) Fire on transient targets
(b) Interdicting fire
(c) Harassing fire
(d) Counterbattery
(2) Fire during the hostile preparation for attack, with a view
to preventing the attack's being launched, consisting of:
(a) Fire on enemy assembly points, routes of approach, and probable
positions of reserves
(b) Destruction or neutralization of enemy works and of his system
of command, observation, and signal communications
76
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
(c) Counterbattery
(d) Distant interdiction.
NOTE.-—This class of fire is termed counterpreparation.
(3) Fire during the attack proper, consisting of:
(a) Fire against advancing infantry, tanks, and the like
(b) Defensive barrages and concentrations
(c) Accompanying fire for support of counterattacks
NOTE.-Those classes of supporting artillery fire known as counter-
preparation, defensive concentrations, and defensive barrages are
of particular importance in organization of the ground for defense.
b. COUNTERPREPARATION, GENERAL DISCUS-
SION.—While all of the fire of the defenders during the
many preparations for attack may be considered in the
nature of counterpreparation, the specific term "counter-
preparation” (see glossary) is used to apply to the prear-
ranged fires delivered to break up the hostile attack for-
mations near the enemy front lines. By subjecting his
troops to fire during the time he is forming for attack, his
dispositions are broken up and his morale impaired before
the attack can be launched. These fires, therefore, are placed
on his frontline trenches, on woods and ravines which offer
cover for assembled troops, and on all points probably oc-
cupied by his formations. For defense against local attacks,
a partial counterpreparation may be fired, covering only
the threatened points; if a general attack appear probable,
a general counterpreparation covering the entire front is,
needed. Tables or plans for these counterpreparations are
prepared, based on all probable methods of attack, and are
given numerical designations. These fires are held on the
designated points for the period prescribed in the orders.
They must be accurate, promptly delivered, and of sufficient
intensity to accomplish the purpose. After firing the
counterpreparation, batteries must be able to change quickly
to the defensive barrage when that method of fire is to be
used.
C. DEFENSIVE CONCENTRATIONS.-During the ad-
vance of an enemy attacking through a battle zone, he must
be subjected to all possible artillery fire. Natural routes
of approach exist which favor his advance, and these must
be covered by fire to delay him or stop him. For this pur-
pose concentrations (see glossary) of artillery fire covering
a considerable area are prepared and fired when observation,
1
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
77
or information from the infantry, indicates that the enemy
has reached a predetermined locality. These fires are known
as defensive concentrations and should be fired by direct ob-
servation whenever possible.
d. DEFENSIVE BARRAGES.-In situations where hos-
tile troops may arrive quickly or unexpectedly at different
points in front of a line of resistance, a barrier of artillery
fire is frequently placed, immediately upon call from the
infantry, close in front of the line. This fire is called a
defensive barrage, see glossary: barrage; barrage emer-
gency; barrage, normal; and barrage, standing). The bar-
rage of a battery of 75-mm guns can cover effectively an
area of 200 yards wide by 100 yards deep. This is a very
narrow front, compared to the average defensive frontage
of a regiment, which would frequently have only three bat-
teries in support. Therefore those places most favorable
for the advance of the enemy in an attack are selected for
placing the barrages of one or more batteries of artillery.
The placing of fire on these sensitive points is the custom-
ary mission of the batteries designated therefor, and their
fire is termed “the normal barrage”. In addition each bat-
tery is given one or more alternative barrage missions to be
executed when the normal barrage is not required. These
alternative barrages missions, termed "emergency bar-
rages”, are fired when, because of a local attack on a part
of the front elsewhere than the location of the normal bar-
rage, the latter is not needed. Emergency barrages are
intended to cover the portions of the front not protected
by the normal barrage or by other fires, or to reenforce or
otherwise supplement the normal barrages of other ar-
tillery units. In the event of a general attack covering the
whole frontage of a large unit, only normal barrages can
usually be fired, and the portions of the sector frontage not
covered by barrages must be taken care of by the fire of
infantry weapons. The defensive artillery barrage is fre-
quently supplemented by the fire of the infantry howitzer
and by the fires of machine guns using indirect-laying
methods located on the battalion and regimental reserve
lines.
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
101
51. Use of gas and smoke.
a. GENERAL.—The use of poisonous gases in military
operations of the future is subject to the limitations im-
posed by international agreements; if permitted to be used,
gases are an important adjunct to the defense when the
weather conditions and the supply of ammunition permit.
Chemical materials used for purposes of war may properly
be classified, according to their physical state, as gases,
liquids, and solids.
b. PERSISTENCY.-Depending upon their physical con-
dition and physical constituents, chemical materials of this
nature are also classified as persistent and nonpersistent.
Gases in general are nonpersistent, while liquids and solids
are apt to be persistent. Thus chlorine and phosgene are
nonpersistent, while mustard and lewisite, being liquids at
ordinary temperature, are persistent. Solids that have
become vaporized as smokes behave like gases and are rela-
tively nonpersistent. The tactical use of chemical materials
is governed largely by this property of persistency. Chemi-
cal agents are used as indicated below:
(1) To produce casualties. Nɔnpersistent agents of the phosgene
type not only produces casualties, but are of pronounced dead-
liness, while persistent agents like mustard seldom cause
death but do produce many more casualties than the non-
persistent types.
(2) To harass and lower morale. Both persistents and nonper-
sistents are used for this purpose according to circumstances.
(3) To render strong positions untenable. From the nature of
the case, only persistent agents can be used for this purpose.
(4) To conceal movements and lead the enemy to draw wrong
conclusions. Smokes are chiefly used because of their ob-
scuring power.
(5) To damage enemy materiel and supplies. For this purpose
incendiary materials and corrosive agents are chiefly used.
Chlorine and phosgene corrode metals. Mustard contam-
inates food supplies.
C. TACTICAL USE OF GAS AND SMOKE ON THE
DEFENSE.—(1) In the defense the principal uses of gas
the toxic smoke are as follows:
(a) Light or harassing barrages of lachrymatory and of toxic
(b) Low concentrations of persistent HS (mustard gas) covering
a large area, to produce casualties
H:avy concentrations of nonpersistent toxic gases or toxic
smoke on limited areas for the purpose of quickly securing
(c)
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
79
YO
(c)
a large number of casualties locally and demoralizing the
attacking troops
(d) Use of persistent toxic gases to block or delay the enemy
advance at important defiles
(e) Employment of persistent toxic agents to deny the enemy
the use of sheltered forming-up places such as woods, ravines,
and villages.
(2) In the defense, the principal uses of nontoxic
smoke are as follows:
(a) Blinding hostile observation posts
(b) Covering concentrations of troops, guns, or tanks, and the
construction of trenches
Hampering hostile aerial observation
(d) Simulating a gas attack, thus forcing the enemy to mask
(e) Masking a toxic agent in the smoke cloud
(f) Counterbattery work to interfere with observation and pro-
duce casualties
(g) Use of smoke screens to conceal friendly troops. Screens
may draw enemy fire, and so they are put down, when prac-
ticable, 400 yards or more in front of the troops to be con-
cealed. However, troops behind such screens are not neces-
sarily hidden from observation by hostile planes. Smoke
screens may therefore be necessary, also, within friendly
lines.
d. SOME CONSIDERATIONS GOVERNING USE OF
GAS AND SMOKE.-In the use of gases, due consideration
must be given to the character of the defense, whether
passive or active, and to the plans for local and general
counterattacks, taken in connection with terrain conditions,
present and prospective weather conditions, and the per-
sistencies of the various agents employed. In the distant
defense greater latitude is permissible in the use of the
persistent gases, such as mustard gas, and the limitations
as to wind direction become negligible or less important,
depending on the distance from friendly troops and the
class of defense. In the close defense, the use of gases is
more dependent on weather conditions, and persistent and
semipersistent types should be employed only in excep-
tional cases. The minimum safe distances from friendly
troops at which gas bombardments may be placed are as
follows:
For wind blowing toward enemy:
Nonpersistent gases: 300 yards
Persistent or seni 500 yards for small shoots
persistent gases: 200 yards for large shoots
For wind blowing toward friendly troops or in calm, the
minimum safe distance for all gases is in general taken as 3000
yards.
80
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
52. Tanks.
On the defensive, tanks are utilized to support counter-
attacks. They are placed in reserve in a central location
out of the area of habitual shelling, near suitable routes to
the front.
SECTION IX.
PROCEDURE IN ORGANIZATION FOR DEFENSE
Paragraph
Preparatory steps ....
Brigade .
53
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Battalion ...........
Rifle company and platoon .
Machine-gun company ....
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Different situations ...........
53. Preparatory steps.
The commander of the whole force, having decided to em-
ploy the defensive, initiates the organization of the ground
by prescribing the following:
(1) Form of defense (deployed, position, or zone)
(2) Locations of the various lines of resistance (outpost area,
battle position, and reserve battle position)
(3) Sector boundaries and the assignment of subordinate units
to sectors
(4) Prescribes the employment of the brigade reserve and the
assignment of any attached troops, to assist in the work
of organization.
54. Brigade.
On his own initiative when acting alone, or on the re-
ceipt of the division order when his command is acting as
part of a larger force, the brigade commander takes the
following steps:
(1) Makes a study of the terrain in his sector from the map
and by reconnaissance of the ground
(2) Designates in detail the location of the lines of resistanse
and the regimental reserve line within his sector, and pre-
scribes the regimental sectors
(3) Decides on the general disposition of troops for defense of
his sector; this includes troops for sectors, for the outpost,
and for a reserve
Prescribes the employment of brigade reserve and assign-
ment of any attached troops to assist in the work of organi-
zation.
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
81
55. Regiment.
On receipt of the brigade order, the regimental com-
mander takes action as follows:
(1) Familiarizes himself with the sector assigned his regiment,
by means of reconnaissance of the ground and study of the
map
(2) Decides on the location of the line of resistance, the battalion
reserve line, and the regimental reserve line, within his sector
From a consideration of the tactical localities in his sector
available for organization as centers of resistance, decides
on front-line sectors and assigns battalions for their defense.
Assigns troops, usually a battalion, to the regimental re-
serve, and specifies the method of organization of that line.
Attaches elements of the howitzer company to battalions.
(4) Selects the limiting points on the line of resistance and
battalion reserve line at the boundary between his front-
line battalions, in order to coordinate work on these lines
Recommends to the commander of the supporting artillery
the location of defensive fires in front of the line of re-
sistance
(6) Prescribes the employment of elements of the headquarters
company, howitzer company, regimental reserve, and any
attached troops, for assistance in the work of organization
(7) Locates regimental command post, observation posts, aid sta-
tion, and regimental munitions distributing point.
56. Battalion.
The commander of a battalion assigned to a sector of
the front, on receipt of the regimental order:
(1) Reconnoiters the ground and familiarizes himself with the
sector assigned him for defense
(2) Having determined the general location of the line of re-
sistance, he considers the best combination of machine-gun
and rifle fire, as affected by the terrain, and determines upon
the exact site of this line. The exact location of the battalion
reserve line is determined upon and that of the support line
sufficiently to insure coordination between his front-line com-
panies and with adjacent units
From a consideration of the tactical localities in his sector
suitable for organization as strongpoints, decides on front-
line sectors and assigns companies thereto, and to the bat-
talion reserve
Issues instructions and supervises the locations, dispositions,
and plans of the machine-gun company and howitzer platoon.
(For an outline of the development of the defense along the
main line of resistance, see Figure 5.)
(5) Issues instructions covering employment of any attached
troops, the erection of wire entanglements, clearing the field
fire, and of necessary apprcach trenches as well as the prior-
ity (see paragraph 40) in which work is to be performed
(6) Designates the location of the battalion command post, ob-
servation posts, aid station, and munitions distributing point
(7) Makes plans for the use of the battalion reserve.
82
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
NOTE.-The commander of a battalion in regimental reserve follows the same
general procedure in organizing the regimental reserve line for defense
57. Rifle company and platoon.
a. COMPANY.-A front-line company commander upon
receipt of the battalion order, takes action as follows:
(1) Makes a detailed reconnaissance of the sector assigned to
the company
(2) From a consideration of the tactical localities within his sec-
tor and the relative strength of cach, designates sectors
and assigns platoons thereto
(3) Decides upon the location of combat posts to be organized
on the line of resistance, with their sectors of fire
(4) Determines the exact location of the support line within his
sector and the position of the combat post or posts to be
organized thereon
Provides local security when not cared for by higher author-
ity
(6) Designates the location of the company command post, ob-
servation post, and munitions distributing point
Continues to make a thorough study of the terrain to the
front and flanks of his sector, formulating his plans for the
conduct of the defenise under varying situations
Establishes liaison with commanders of adjacent strong-
points, to arrange mutual fire support and coordination
By an inspection of the dispositions as made by the platoon
leaders, insures that the fire of the combat posts within the
strongpoint is coordinated and in turn that their fire is co-
ordinated with supporting weapons and adjacent units
(10) Formulates his plans for the use of the support under vary-
ing situations, and issues specific instructions concerning
counterattacks for which it may be employed
(11) Issues instructions concerning, and exercises general super-
vision over, the clearing of the field of fire, and the con-
struction of trenches and obstacles
(12) Arranges details of signal communication, especially the
use of pyrotechnics, according to the plan of the higher com-
mander
(13) Makes provision for messing and for the supply of ammuni-
tion.
b. PLATOON.–Following the receipt of the company
order the platoon leader takes action as follows:
(1) Makes a detailed reconnaissance of the sector assigned to
his platoon
(2) Gives to each squad a definite position to occupy, and desig-
nates its sector of fire
(3) If time permit, personally locates the exact position of each
automatic-rifleman and rifle grenadier, assigning a sector
of fire to each of the former and prescribing the area or
areas to be covered by each of the latter
(4) Supervises and directs the construction of fox holes (or
squad trenches) and obstacles, and the clearing of a field
of fire if needed
(5) Coordinates the fires of the elements within his platoon with
those of adjacent and supporting units and weapons
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
83
(6) Inspects the disposition of elements of his platoon and assures
himself that each man knows the main direction in which
his fire is to be delivered, and that the fires of the elements
of the platoon are coordinated with each other
(7) Selects in his area the point or points which afford the
best observation to his front and flanks, detailing sentinels
and providing permanent or semipermanent observation ser-
vice for his platoon
(8) Locates the platoon command post and informs all subor-
dinate leaders of its location
(9) Familiarizes himself with the location and fire missions of
supporting units and weapons, and locates the post of the
nearest artillery observer, if there be any
(10) Studies the ground to his front and flanks in order to be
prepared as to probable points of attack and for any future
movement of his platoon
(11) Assures himself that his unit has an adequate supply of
ammunition on hand, and designates the platoon munitions
distributing point
(12) Instructs his platoon sergeant, and his section and squad
leaders, as to details of the terrain, such as roads, villages,
streams, ra vines, or woods, to the front and flanks. Gives
them the location of the battalion aid station and the com-
mand posts of the company and battalion, together with
routes thereto
(13) Determines, through mechanical means or otherwise, the
ranges to prominent points in the foreground and to the
flanks, and gives these ranges to each member of his platoon
(14) Makes arrangements for carrying parties for food, water,
and ammunition.
.
58. Machine-gun company.
The duties, responsibilities, and obligations of the com-
mander of a machine-gun company in defense vary with
different forms of defense (deployed, position, zone) and
also with his location within the organized area (center
of resistance, regimental reserve, brigade reserve, division
reserve, or outpost). Whenever possible the machine-gun
company commander should accompany the battalion com-
mander on reconnaissance, and either during the reconnais-
sance or late, he receives instructions from the battalion
commander which may cover more or less fully the latter's
plan for defense, including general instructioris for the
machine guns. Based upon such instructions as are re-
ceived, the machine-gun company commander should plan,
either through reconnaissance or map study, the general dis-
positions of his weapons, locating the first-defense guns
and then the breakthrough guns. Usually this general
plan is approved by the battalion commander prior to its
84
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
execution. If, owing to lack of time or other considera-
tions, it is necessary to place the guns promptly, the re-
sponsibility for doing this correctly rests with the machine-
gun-company commander. In either case the final dispo-
sitions as approved by the battalion commander are sub-
mitted to the regiment. With the general plan in mind,
the machine-gun-company commander's next step is to give
such orders to his subordinates as will enable them to begin
immediately the execution of the plan. The last step is the
preparation of the detailed plan to be submitted to the bat-
talion and to the regiment. This plan is generally in
the form of an overlay.
59. Howitzer company and platoon.
The battalion commander, having informed the howitzer-
platoon commander of the tactical situation and the plan
of defense, assigns approximate locations and missions for
the howitzer-company weapons. Before occupying the po-
sition assigned, the platoon commander makes a special re-
connaissance in which an effort is made to determine accu-
rately the following:
(1) Firing positions, alternate positions, and supplementary
positions
(2) Best routes of approach
(3) Cover afforded by such routes
(4) Position of carts and of munitions distributing point, and
protection afforded by these positions
(5) Possibility of quickly securing adequate cover for the men
(6) Position of own troops within sector, including machine
guns and their fields of fire
(7) Targets
(8) Firing data
(9) Location of battalion command post and best routes thereto
(10) Support to be furnished by machine guns and artillery,
and cooperation with them.
60. Different situations.
a. The procedure outlined in the foregoing paragraphs is
that which might be followed in a situation where contact
with the enemy has not been obtained but is expected within
a limited time. This form of procedure would necessarily
be modified under the other two situations in which or-
ganization of the ground for defense is undertaken: namely
(1) In contact with the enemy on an active front
(2) Out of the presence of the enemy, or where work can be
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
85
carried on with very little, if any, hostile interference.
b. When in contact with an enemy on an active front,
the defensive may be taken up under one of the following
TIYI
(1) At the conclusion of an offensive with a limited objective
(2) When offensive operations are stopped.
c. When the defensive is to be undertaken on the con-
clusion of a limited-objective attack, the plans for organiza-
tion of the captured ground are prepared in advance from
studies of maps and airplane photographs, and from in-
formation gained from air and ground observation. When
the troops reach their designated objectives, they organize
the ground for defense in accordance with prepared plans,
and with instructions issued prior to the offensive. These
will generally provide for an outpost in contact with the
enemy, and a battle position some distance in rear. The
assault battalions, on reaching the objective, organize the
ground for defense, and serve as an outpost to cover the
organization of the battle position. During the day little
or no change in the disposition of the leading companies
of the front-line battalions can be made, and these com-
panies dig in wherever they find themselves; but after dark
the battalion commanders make such changes in disposi-
tions as will insure a better organization for defense. The
reserve battalions halt on the line selected for the main
line of resistance, and proceed to organize the battle position.
d. When offensive operations are stopped by enemy resist-
ance or other causes, the leading troops dig in where they
find themselves; and each regimental commander, in the
absence of instructions from higher authority, will, on his
own initiative, undertake the defensive in his zone of action,
disposing his troops, part as outposts and part as holding
forces, on lines of resistance which he selects, and which
he coordinates, as well as circumstances permit, with ad-
dinarily be prescribed by the high command, on which to
base the defensive organization. Its location will usually
ke such that it will be necessary to withdraw some of the
leading elements that are too far in advance, and in some
cases it may be so sited that a local attack will have to be
86
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
made to secure possession of parts that are still held by the
enemy. In the organization of the ground in immediate
contact with the adversary, reconnaissance will necessarily
be limited to the smaller units, and work will have to be
carried on by them under conditions where coordination and
control by the higher command is often at a minimum.
i
1111
SECTION X.
THE DEFENSIVE BATTLE
Defensive action .............
Counterattack .......
Paragraph
.61
.. 62
1
61. Defensive action.
a. EARLY FIRE ACTION.--While the hostile attack is
developing, troops in front of the main line of resistance
delay and harass the enemy. Thus they endeavor to deceive
him as to the defensive dispositions, lead him in false direc-
tions, and cause him to deploy prematurely and on incorrect
lines. Long-range artillery opens fire on hostile routes of
communication, on road centers, and on other sensitive
points in the zone of attack. As the attacking troops ap-
proach more closely to the defensive position, the artillery,
machine guns, and howitzer-company weapons open fire on
the advancing infantry and on known or suspected as-
sembly points. Infantry opens fire on favorable objectives
at effective range. Such fire serves to delay the advance.
The delay effected gains time for the defense to perfect its
dispositions in larger units, and to reenforce threatened
points, and it assists in determining where the enemy con-
templates making his main effort.
6. DEFENSIVE READJUSTMENTS.—When the front
and the direction of the hostile attack have been determined,
the defense at once takes steps to meet it. Local-security
detachments withdraw, and the defense on the threatened
front may be reenforced. This reenforcement does not
usually increase the number of men assigned to the holding
garrison, but it does increase the force designated for
counterattack. Fire on the advancing infantry is con-
tinued. During the advance of the attacking troops, the
DU
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
87
i
do
artillery, howitzer-company weapons, and machine guns
subject the hostile infantry and its accompanying weapons,
machine guns, and tanks, to a destructive fire.
C. FIRE FIGHT.-To prevent the attack from reaching
the main line of resistance, the defense must gain and main-
tain fire superiority. In defense, fire superiority is obtained,
not primarily by the volume of fire, but by the fact that its
fire is well aimed and well directed. In proportion as this
is the case, losses will be inflicted on the enemy, and will
cause his fire to become inaccurate. The defense relies
for fire superiority on the more methodical organization of
its fire, especially flanking fires, on the assignment of
sectors to include the smallest unit in order to cover the
foreground within the effective range of its weapons, and
on the more accurate knowledge available of ranges and
of the terrain; it also utilizes its inherent advantage by
assigning to each class of weapons those targets for which
it is best suited, by utilizing the protection afforded through
intrenchments, through the concealment of its own dis-
positions, and through the disorganization which move-
ment, obstacles, and accessory defenses produce in those
of the attacker. During the preliminary stages of the fire
fight, small units concentrate on hostile elements which
are advancing in their sectors. The fire is at first frontal
or only slightly oblique, but as the attack advances, es-
pecially in the case of machine guns, it should become
more nearly enfilade. When the enemy forms at close
range just prior to the assault, the close-in defensive fires
are brought down. The flanking fire of machine guns
constitutes a vital element in this stage of defense, especial-
ly at night or in a fog. A single machine gun, by flanking
fire, may repel the most determined assault. Rifle and
hand grenades are used against hostile troops which take
cover and cannot be reached by direct fire, and in repulse
of night attacks. When tanks are employed, local com-
manders detail men to fire on the guides accompanying
them. The 37-mm guns also engage them. All other in-
fantry continues to fire on the hostile foot elements. A
machine gun or an infantry howitzer, when a tank advances
M
7
in
88
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
directly on it, is moved out of the way to prevent its being
crushed.
d. ASSAULT.-During the hostile assault, adjacent units
support each other with flanking fire. The assault is met
with rifle fire, grenades, and the bayonet. If the enemy
succeeds in penetrating the position, the defender should
maintain his hold on either side of the gap, resist all at-
tempts to widen it, and counterattack. The garrisons of
adjacent organized areas take the penetrating elements
under flanking fire, arrest their progress, and support the
counterattack.
62. Counterattack,
a. RESPONSIBILITY. The commander of each sector
or front is responsible for initiating counterattacks (see
glossary), in conformity with existing orders from higher
authority, in order to maintain his sector or front. A very
important part of such a commander's preparation for de-
fense consists, therefore, in the formulation of plans, prior
to the actual necessity for their use, which will permit the
prompt launching of coordinated counterattacks. While it
is quite probable that the hypothesis under which a par-
ticular plan has been prepared may not be exactly fulfilled
by developments during combat, nevertheless a prior study
based on various reasonable hypotheses and on thorough
ground reconnaissance will prove valuable when quick
action is demanded during combat.
b. CLASSIFICATION.--The counterattack is defined
in the glossary at the beginning of this text. It may be
either local or general. In the former case it is carried
out by the commander of a subordinate unit, usually by
means of local reserves. A general counterattack, on the
other hand, is carried out by the general reserve, supple-
mented by such local reserves as may be available. Gen-
erally speaking, local reserves are used promptly in coun-
terattack in accordance with the situation, and they should
succeed at least in checking and holding the hostile attack.
The general reserve, however, is preferably held for use
at the crisis of the action, and is expected to restore the
integrity of the defense. As far as the execution itself is
.
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
89
concerned, the classification into local and general counter-
attacks is immaterial.
C. DECISION.—Every commander responsible for in-
itiating counterattacks must keep in close and continuous
touch with the situation so that he can foresee the neces-
sity for counterattacking and make such preliminary move-
ments of his reserves as may appear advisable before the
counterattack becomes imperative. Sooner or later the sub-
ordinate commander usually is faced with the necessity of
deciding whether to counterattack. In making this
decision, which at best is a difficult one, the commander is
guided principally by the known plan of defense, and by
an intimate and accurate knowledge of the situation and
of the morale of his troops. The commander of the force
as a whole, in making his decision with reference to coun-
terattacking with the general reserve, is guided by con-
siderations similar to those mentioned above. He follows
the combat situation closely, but from a broader point of
view, and is especially concerned with attempting to deduce
the exact location of the hostile main blow, and also with
determining what hostile reserves have not yet been en-
gaged. At the same time, in an active defense, he keeps
in mind the possibility of converting the counterattack into
a counteroffensive by the whole force.
d. EXECUTION.-The counterattack ordinarily com-
prises both fire and shock action. It is the principal of-
fensive measure of the defensive, and as such its execution
follows in general the principles enunciated for the attack.
The important factors in the counterattack are as follows:
(1) Surprise
(2) Location, direction, and objective
(3) Moment of delivery
(4) Coordination of fire and shock action.
e. SURPRISE.-Surprise is obtained by concealing the
location and movements of reserves, and the deployment
for, and the direction, time, and intensity of, the counter-
attack. This concealment is facilitated by siting, organiz-
ing, and defending the position so that the enemy is denied
points on the terrain from which he may observe the area
90
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
YY
O
(D
defended, especially that part in rear of the battle position
where the larger reserves are located.
f. LOCATION, DIRECTION, AND OBJECTIVE. - The
determination of the interrelated factors-location, direc-
tion, and objective-depends primarily upon the terrain
and the development of the action, but in deciding these
questions, the following considerations should be kept in
mind:
(1) The location from which the counterattack starts should be
such that, if practicable, the enemy will be taken by surprise,
and also such that the counterattacking troops can strike
the selected part of the hostile line with the minimum of
exposure to hostile fire
(2) The direction of the counterattack is chosen, if possible, in
order to take at a pronounced disadvantage the hostile ele-
ment to be struck; such may be the case if the direction
selected cause the counterattacking force to strike the hostile
element in flank or rear
(3) When the hostile advance is forcing back or penetrating
the defender's line at more than one point, and a counter-
attack is decided upon, it is directed preferably at the
attacking element which is most dangerous to the defense;
to split the available reserves and send a portion against
each threatened point may result in engaging them in the
action without materially changing the situation
(4) The counterattack is a limited-objective attack, since its
purpose usually is merely to defeat a hostile penetration
or envelopment, and to eject hostile troops from the de-
fensive system. Furthermore, it is advisable that the counter-
attacking force be told how far to advance, lest a successful
drive result in its getting into a situation from which retire-
ment may be difficult. While the true objective oỉ the
counterattack is the hostile attacking element most dangerous
to the defense, the objectives mentioned in the orders for
the action are usually features of the defensive system
(especially those of importance for observation) which have
been lost and must be recovered.
9. MOMENT OF DELIVERY.-The moment of launch-
irig the counterattack is one of the most important decisions
to be made. It depends primarily on the opportunities
offered as the situation develops. In general, as soon as
the enemy has gained ground that threatens the integrity
of any sector or of the whole position, the time has come
for counterattack by the corresponding sector or general
reserve, and the counterattack is delivered as soon after
that moment as proper preparation and coordination will
permit. It is preferable to launch it when the hostile ad-
vance is temporarily checked, but in case of necessity, or
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
1
when a favorable opportunity occurs for taking the enemy
at a disadvantage, it may be initiated, especially in the
case of local counterattacks, while the attack is in motion.
In any event, it should take place, if practicable, before the
enemy has had time to establish himself within the captured
area, or to reorganize his force for further advance. The
plans for possible counterattacks mentioned in paragraph
a, above, should be prepared especially with a view of ob-
taining the supporting fire power promptly, and thus per-
mitting the launching of well-coordinated and powerful
counterattacks with the least practicable delay. The time
for the counterattack is a matter for decision by the com-
mander, and it is launched on his order.
h. COORDINATION.-Whatever the size of the forces
involved and whatever the amount of assistance and fire
support available, the counterattack should always be a
coordinated blow,—piecemeal action is to be avoided.
When a commander decides that the time to counterattack
has arrived, he should not hesitate to utilize all available
force and power which can be brought to bear upon the
enemy in full coordination.
i. ORDERS.—Counterattacks by large reserves require
detailed preparation, including orders prescribing attack
positions, zones of action or directions of attack, objectives,
time of attack, artillery preparation, and participation by
airplanes and tanks. The orders for smaller units will
usually be verbal, and will include in general the details
just mentioned.
BIBLIOBRAPHY
Field Service Regulations, 1923
Infantry Drill Regulations, 1919
Training Regulations
Tactical Principles and Decisions, The General Service Schools,
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas
Field Fortifications, 1926, The General Service Schools, Fort
Leavenworth, Kansas
Conference, “Division Air Service”, 1925-26, The Infantry School,
Fort Benning, Georgia
Conference, “Infantry Signal Communications", 1926-27, The Infantry
School, Fort Benning, Georgia
92
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
Conference, “The Communications Officer" 1926-27, The Infantry
School, Fort Benning, Georgia
Combat Orders, 1926, The General Service Schools, Fort Leaven-
worth, Kansas
Reference Text, “Supply of Infantry Units in Campaign”, 1926-27,
The Infantry School, Fort Benning, Georgia
Conference, “The Infantry Staff”, 1926-27, The Infantry School,
Fort Benning, Georgia
Reference Text, “Organization: Division and Brigade", 1926-27,
The Infantry School, Fort Benning, Georgia
Conference, “Combat Intelligence”, 1926-27, The Infantry School,
Fort Benning, Georgia.
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
93
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Paragraphs
ACTION, DEFENSIVE
See under defensive action
ACTIVE DEFENSE
Conduct ...............
Crisis ......
Deployments ...............
General ...
Reserves
AID STATIONS
Battalion -...-
Battalion, considerations for locating ...
Local aid posts
Medical personnel, attached ...............................
Regimental
Regimental and battalion
Regimental, considerations for locating
ANTIAIRCRAFT
Defense, with machine guns .......
General
ARTILLERY
Barrage mission.
Coordination of artillery and infantry fires ..........
Counterpreparation .........
Defensive barrages ...........
Defensive concentrations
Disposition in depth
Early fire action ...............
Early fires .............
Emergency barrages .........
Employment .............
Fire during attack .........
Fires covering front not covered by .............
Fire during hostile preparation ....
Gas and smoke, use of ..........---------
Kinds of support .............
On defense ....
AUTOMATIC RIFLES
See under infantry weapons
BARRAGES
See under artillery
BATTALION
Duties of commander .....
Information received from regimental commander ........
BATTALION RESERVE LINE
General ............................................---
Strongpoints
BATTALION RESERVES
Purpose of ............
BATTALION SUPPORT LINE
Distance of regimental reserve line from .......................
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30
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BATTLE POSITION
Depth ...........
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Development of organization .............
Lines
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Reserve battle positions
Several dispositions of machine guns ...
BOUNDARIES
General
BREAKTHROUGH GUNS
General
BRIGADE
Duties of commander
CENTER OF RESISTANCE
General .
Garrison ........-
Maximum frontage
CHEMICAL-WARFARE AGENTS
Chlorine ....
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Mustard gas ................
Nonpersistent gas .........
Persistent gas ..............
Phosgene
Screens, smoke .................
Smoke
Tactical use of gas and smoke .............
Use of gas and smoke ......
COMBAT
Posts; see combat posts.
Defensive; see defensive combat
COMBAT POSTS
General .....
.............-
Conduct of defense by ............
Development
Location
..........---
Support line
COMMAND
Extent -
COMMAND POSTS
General ......
Considerations for locating
Howitzer platoon
Location ---------
Principle for location ............
Strongpoint ......
COMMUNICATIONS
General
COMPANY
Machine-gun; see under machine guns
Rifle; see under rifle company
CONCEALMENT
Importance
CONCENTRATION
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CONDUCT OF DEFENSE
Combat post ....
Early fire action .....
Reserve company
COUNTERATTACK
Classification .....
Coordination
Decision ------------------
Direction
Execution ---------------
General
....................................... 28, 29,
Location
Objective
Orders ..
Plans.
Surprise
Time
To counteroffensive ..........
COVER AND CONCEALMENT
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COVERING FORCES
See under defensive combat
DEFENSE
Active; see active defense
Assignment of tasks ...
Class of, influence of ........
.................. 15 -
Classes ------
Conduct of, against assault ............
Coordination ----...---
Deployed ......
Disposition of units for, of main line of resistance .......
Influence of class
...........
Influence of form ............
Intervals
Passive; see under passive defense
Plan of, for machine guns ...
Position; see under position defense
Strategical ...............
Tactical ...
Tactical disposition
Zone defense ..
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DEFENSIVE ACTION
Piecemeal.
Strategical
Tactical disposition
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
Classification ......................
Conduct ...........
Covering forces ..............
Distribution of troops .........
Géneral distribution of troops
General measures employed
General principles ................................................
Holding forces
Size of forces employed ..........................
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Paragraphs.
DEFENSIVE CONCENTRATION
See under artillery
DEFENSIVE FIRES
Representation .........
DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS
Advantages and disadvantages
Purpose .......
DEFENSIVE ORGANIZATION
Method of representing
Preparatory steps in organizing for defense
Frocedure ..........
Representation
DEFENSIVE POSITIONS
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Field fortifications
Field of fire ..........
------------------------------...
General
DEPLOYMENTS
Active defense ....
General ....
----..........
Tactical considerations ............
DEPTH
General
DESIGNATION OF LINES
General
Limiting points .......
See also under lines
DISPOSITION, TACTICAL
See under tactical disposition
DUTIES
Battalion commander ...
Brigade commander ...........
Engineers and attached troops .....
Howitzer-platoon commander ..
Machine-gun company commander
Platoon commander
Regimental commander ...........
Rifle-company commander ................
Rifle-platoon commander ....................
ENGINEERS
Auxiliary engineer battalions
Duties .............
General .............
ENTANGLEMENTS
See under obstacles
FIELD FORTIFICATIONS
General
See also under obstacles
FIELD OF FIRE
See under defensive works
FINAL PROTECTIVE LINES
See under machine guns
FIRE FIGHT
General
..........
.....
............ 61
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
97
Paragraphs
FIRES
See under artillery, defensive fires, fire fight, and sectors of fire
FIRING OVER FRIENDLY TROOPS
By machine guns .....
........................ 47
FIRST-DEFENSE GUNS
Nature and use
................. 47
FLANKS
Protection ...........
FORCES
Influence of size ....
...............
See also under holding forces and outpost
FORTIFICATIONS
See under field fortifications, obstacles, organization of the ground,
trenches, and works
FOX HOLES
General
............ 53, 39
See under trenches
FRONTAGE
Company ..........
General ...
Maximum of center of resistance ............
Rifle platoon ...
Rifle squad
GAS
See under chemical-warfare agents
GENERAL RESERVE
General
GUNS
See under artillery; breakthrough guns; first-defense guns;
howitzer, infantry; infantry weapons; and reserve guns
HOLDING FORCES
See under defensive combat
HOLES, FOX
See under 'fox holes
HOWITZER, INFANTRY
Distance between weapons
Distance of weapons in rear of main line of resistance ....
Division machine-gun-and-howitzer officer .......
Duties of platoon commander ......
Ranges of weapons ...............
Regimental machine-gun officer .............
Sectors of weapons
Targets .................
Weapons, distance in rear of main line of resistance ..........
Weapons, employment of ...
INFANTRY HOWITZER
See under howitzer, infantry, and under infantry weapons
INFANTRY WEAPONS
Automatic rifles ....... ...............................................
Employment, general ............
Howitzers (see under howitzer) .........
Machine guns (see under machine guns) ..............
37-mm. gun (see end of index)
INFORMATION
Information battalion commander receives from regi-
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6
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mental commander ........
----. 31
98
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
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INTERVALS
Paragraphs
Between machine guns of a section ............
Between sections ....
Between squads
33
Defense of ..........
Unorganized ........
LIMITING POINTS
See under designation of lines
LINE OF RESISTANCE
Location
On reverse slope ...................
Outpost .............--..........................................................
Reverse-slope location .....
See also under main line of resistance
LINES
Designation -..-
Limiting points ...............
Location of .....
See also under battalion reserve line, line of resistance,
support line, and regimental reserve line
LOCAL SECURITY
Coordination .......................................
Formation ----....
Formation of troops
General .....
..------................------------
Location ----
Location of groups
Mission ..........
Orders for ...........................
Strength ...............
Strength of groups .......
MACHINE-GUN COMPANY
See under machine guns
MACHINE GUNS
Commanders' duties
Company, distribution of
Coordination of fires .............
Distribution of company
Division machine-gun-and-howitzer Officer
............
Duties of company commander ..............
Emplacements .................--------................
Employment of
.....................
Final protective lines ..............
Firing over friendly troops
Influence on troop dispositions
Intervals between, of a section ......
Location of units in strongpoints ...............
Missions
Mutual adjustment of, and rifle units
On outpost ....
Plan of defense for .............
Protection of ......
Reconnaissance for positions
Reconnaissance of commander ........-------------------------
Regimental machine-gun officer ......................
Sectors of fire .....
Several dispositions in battle position ..........
Split missions of machine-gun section
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Paragraphs
MAIN LINE OF RESISTANCE
Considerations determining distance of observation post
from
Definition (see also glossary)
Disposition of units for defense ..............
Distance of howitzer-company weapons in rear
Distance of outpost line of resistance from .........
General ...-..-
Location
Trace ...
MEDICAL PERSONNEL
See under aid stations
OBSERVATION
Importance
OBSERVATION POSTS
Considerations determining distance of, from main line
of resistance .....
Considerations for locating .......
For strongpoint .......
General ...
Instructions for conduct
Location
Principle for location ...............
Strength
OBSTACLES
Around combat posts
Artificial
Combat posts -
Concertina spirals .....
Defensive works ..........
Double-apron fence ..
Fixed entanglement ...
In strongpoints
Location
Low wire entanglement ..........................................
Natural .........
Portable
Purpose of
Spirals ....
Strongpoints ...........
OPERATIONS, DEFENSIVE
See under defensive operations
ORGANIZATION, DEFENSIVE
Attachment of troops for
Ground, organization of the -------------
Method of representing ...........
Of the ground
Preparatory steps in organizing for defense ...........
Priorities ----------
Procedure
Representation .........
Strongpoints
Use of reserves .......
OUTPOST
Area, general
Distance of line of resistance from main line of
resistance --------
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=
OUTPOST (Continued)
Forces ........
In deployed or position defense ...........
Line of resistance .......
Machine guns ....
Zone defense
OVALS
General ....
PASSIVE DEFENSE
Conduct
Crisis
Deployments ...........
General
Reserves ..................
PERSONNEL
Medical; see under aid stations
PIONEER
See under platoon
PLAN OF DEFENSE
Considerations influencing .........
General ...
PLATOON
Area occupied
Duties of commander .............
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Pioneer .....................
POINTS, LIMITING
See under limiting points
POSITION DEFENSE
General .
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**---. 14
T
Outpost
Time required .............
POSITIONS
Battle; see under battle position
Defensive; see under defensive positions
Outpost; see under outpost
Reserve battle ..
Switch; see switch positions
POSTS
See under combat posts, command posts, and observation posts
READJUSTMENTS
General
RECONNAISSANCE
For machine-gun positions ............
Of machine-gun commander
REGIMENT
Duties of commander .
Information given battalion commander .........
REGIMENTAL RESERVE LINE
Designation .....
.............
..........
..........
...
General ........
Importance ........................
Location
Organization of strongpoints .............
Strongpoints .......
Trace
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
101
Paragraphs
14
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RESERVE BATTLE POSITIONS
General
RESERVE COMPANY
Conduct of defense ....
RESERVE GUNS
See under reserves
RESERVES
General .....
Inactive and passive defense
Mission of regimental reserves ........
Reserve guns ...........
Use of reserves for organization ......
See also under battalion reserves
RESISTANCE
Center of; see under center of resistance
Line of; see under line of resistance
RIFLE, AUTOMATIC
See under infantry weapons
RIFLE COMPANY
Duties of commander ............
Frontage .......
SECTION
Depth of rifle section ..............
Frontage of rifle section .......
Intervals between rifle sections ..
Split missions of machine-gun section
......--------
SECTORS
General
SECTORS OF FIRE
Machine guns
Methods of covering sectors of fire ..........
SECURITY, LOCAL
See under local security
SIZE OF FORCES
Influence
SMOKE
See under chemical-warfare agents
SQUADS, RIFLE
Depth
Frontage ..........
Intervals between rifle squads ..........
Squad trenches
Trenches ...
STANDARD WORKS
General .
STATIONS, AID
See under aid stations
STRATEGICAL DEFENSIVE
General
STRONGPOINT
Depth ............
General ............
Observation posts
..................
Organization
--------
Ovals
Plan of defense ...
Regimental reserve line .............
Trenches ...
-
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--
102
DEFENSIVE COMBAT
26
----------
Paragraphs
SUPPORT LINE
General ..
On reverse slope
SURPRISE
General
SWITCH POSITIONS
General
TACTICAL DEFENSIVE
General
TACTICAL DISPOSITION
General ...
..............
TANKS
General
TASKS
Assignment
THIRTY-SEVEN MILLIMETER (37-mm) GUN
See end of index
TRENCHES
Approaches
Fire trenches
Fox holes .................
...............
General ............----------
Squad
Strongpoint .......
Switch
USE OF COVER
General
WORKS
Defensive
Priorities
Standard
ZONE DEFENSE
General
Outpost
37-MM GUN
General
Location
Masked fire
Targets
..........
........
.........
...............

ENEMY
wwwwwwwwwww
Line of resistant
Tie Outpost Area
SLINE ON OASERVA
(TION OF OUTPOST
(ORGANIZED
(TACTICAL LOCALITIES
1500 70 4000YARPE
OUTLAS AREA
- LOCAL SECURITY
JA
MAIN LINE OR RESISTANCE
ORGANIZED
BATTLE
POSITION
SERVE BINE
BATTLE AREA
ARTILLERY
AND | RESERVES
Brigant Soon
Grignanferiores
A DEFENSIVE SYSTEM
FIGURE 1
LINE OF OBSERVATION
OUTPOST LINE OF RESISTANCE

OUTPOST FORCES TO BRIGADE RESERVES
UPON WITHDRAWAL
1200-2400 YARDS-
MACHINE GUNS, UPON
ARRIVING A NEW POSITION
-600-1200 YARDS
ARE THEN LOCATED IN VICINITY
OF REGIMENTAL RESERVE LINE
TO SUPPORT DE FENSE SY
300. BOOYDS-
BATTERY FIRE
LS LOCAL SECURITY
MLR MAIN LINE OF RESISTANCE
L SUPPORT LINE
BRL BATTALION RESERVE LINE
RRI REGIMENTAL RESERVE LINE
PESISTANCE
The Supreme
ZERO-
TOYS-500-4000YDS
POSITION DEFENSE
Trol
(DOYDS
REGIMENTAL
too.
MG RLATS
ARRANGED
LATERALLY
GVPLATS
ARRANGED
VN DEPTH
ATT77777MCori
FLANK REGIMENT
( TWO-PLATOON MACHINE GUN COMPANY)
NOT DRAWN TO SCALE
iclo
PTTTTTT
-800-1800 YARDS
TRES CO'S HELOX UNDER
COVER ;COMBAT post NOT
ACTUALLY OCCUPIED
Ano-900YDS-
FIGURE 2
HRALO por e
l
TTTTTT
10o
TTTTTT
TU
TRA VE
REGTL RES UNDER
COVER AFTER RRL HAS BEEN ORGANIZED
BRIG RES
PROTECTED
OBSERVATION

OSTILE OBSERVATIO
"INACAVATION
GOOD REVERSE-SLOPE POSITION
OBSERVATION PROTECTED
AVAVAVI
FORWARD SLOPE OCCUPIED
REVERSE SLOPE WOULD NOT PROTECT
OBSERVATION
· FIGURE 3
Tert 151

numerem!
basalu
JUU
White
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2
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MAIN LINE
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*
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1.21
ORGANIZATION OF COMBAT. POSTS IN A STRONG POINT, WITH
THEIR SECTORS OF FIRE AND PRINCIPAL DIRECTIONS OF FIRE
OF AUTOMATIC AIFLES
NOTE.- SQUAD TRENCHES ARE SHOWN.
FIGURE 4

81
MUNT
i
MLR
EMLR
LOCATION OF MACHINE GUNS, TRENCH MORTARS, AND AUTOMATIC
RIFLE FOR BEST DEFENSE OF MAIN LINE OF RESISTANCE
Bem
TRACE OF MAIN LINE OF RESISTANCE TENTATIVE,
AND TENTATIVE LOCATIONS OF COMBAT POSTS ON
TACTICAL LOCALITIES, BASED ON RIFLE COMPANY
ALONE

coe MLR
FIGURE 5
MLR
a,b,,d
READJUSTMENT OF MAIN LINE OF RESISTANCE AND COMBAT POSTS
TO SECURE BEST COORDINATION OF COMBINED FIRE OF ALL WEAPONS

:..:::
OOT
LOCATION OF TRENCHES, OBSTACLES, AND FINAL PROTECTIVE LINES

of
180ghets.com
19001a
180olds
*MLR
:
000€-
COMMAND POST FIRST BATTALION
BATTLE EMPLACEMENT 374mm. GUN
ALTERNATE EMPLACEMENT 37-mm: GUN
BATTLE EMPLACEMENT -in TM
ALTERNATE EMPLACEMENT Jin TM
LOCATION OF 3-in TM FIRE IN CURTAIN OF FIRE
LOCATION OF POSSIBLE TARGETS OF 3-in TM
LOCATION OF ARTILLERY NORMAL BARRAGES
LOCATION OF ARTILLERY CONCENTRATIONS
LOCATION OF EMERGENCY ARTILLERY BARRAGE
DEFENSIVE FIRES FOR MACHINE GUNS,
HOWITZERS, AND ARTILLERY ON THE FRONT OF A
BATTALION SECTOR
FIGURE 6
. See Reference Date "1925 General Service Schools, pages 2"-24
obor symbols.)
(Note, - s
988—Benning, Ga., 6-2-27--2,500