§§ º $$$$$$$. C §§§ §§§ º tº ~. sº .N § §§ §§ & º - º Fº & §§§ §§ º §§§ - X- §§ * . - *** gºrº ºf - §: - *:::::: - . - - - - . $º *-g §§ * º § *: x- º: § §§ § º &: hº § ... ** §§ §§ º & § & § º §§§ N&º § º º º - §§ Nº. ſº Sº º & * § * §§ & Nº. sº sº N & §§§ Kºś - §: kºº #. §§ §§§ $º § tº: sº º & - §§ º º Sº § & § º º N SS §§ § **. § * & Nº. ºSNNº & §§§ §§ §§ § §§ * § §§ :* *śR& x º :Yº §§ r # §§ & - º * +. *s & § & § & S k § § § § *:: $ º §§ N: tº: > - § *Nº. §§ & §§ §§ §§ §§§ §§ . & §§ º . §§ § º s 4 §§ sº sº ºx $º §§ * º §§§ §§ § §§ ..'s §§§ § § §§§ -. lº. & º: § & *.*.*. §§ § * §§ & §§ §§ §§ *}ºx.º.º.º. §§§ § §§§ sº & & § ºxº §§ N yº .*. §§§ §§ §§ 㺠º §§§ *N. §§ §§§ & º º §§ - § .. §§ º §§ * - **.*.*.*. § - §§§ s tº § & § §§§ §§§ º º º § & § & º §§ § º § & §§ & §§ §§ * §§ § §§ §§§ § Nº º §§ § §§§ §§ º Ş Nº. §§ §§ - § º Nº. § º § § WN § § § sº º § - & ſº §§ § &N § §§ §§ sº N º NS$ R Nº. NSS § º º § §º § wº §§ Nº §§§ §§ §§§ § sº * § W º §§§ : § - &º *: §§§ ~ §§§§º sº ſº ~ & §§§ § § §§ & § N §§ §§ § SS §§§ §§ §§ §§§ §§ & º ~ Nº - º N - sº - . §: § *r º - §§ § §§ §§ §§§ º * §§§ §§ * § § - § NQ&N w N º N §§ N: º § § §§ § §§ §§ - - Nº. º § §§ Nº. §§ ** § § - § º-> º - º º §§ º & §§ §§ § * § §§§ SN& Ş § §§ º ºs ****.º º, w §§ *...*.*, * 1 - º § § § † | *śī. Nijº's º | ſº º: ſº º # E. º- E- E. § à º FIN ºf ; ; UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 80'oo & Giants Prin % º H C. *. - º, - - Za Fonta <\- 0 7" T A w. A S A G A B. A. Y. 30 \ Q \ - Puntoon \ Honey wºod ^y 4. 49 Jhelburne Oſ) Rosemont 00 Cardwell o e Ballycºgy \ .-- ewoodſ 30 g” way/ Ay sbury ">. ~. >. *~. ntford 30 Greenfiedo * Philºvine 41 36 80°oo" COPYRIGHTED BY -u-Lºuis B-EN & Co. N. Y. 1999. BULLETIN OF THE NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM No.34 I 42 E 00' gallacevale Petrozetwº ºne. 30.’ 3 O L. A. K. E. Thorah #) S I M C O E *Fºy Virginia gas 7/ornton * Q*ens ville Beeton ſlaſhouse t Catherine N D 2 *- ... Port ſ tand 9/{ º - hangoº, º º ºboer *::: ) awarazzean. \, ... Bºzotz Afanaozec. Grove chardnero Valley ofoungsville Warren R. R. - Parthenwa *2 º Cobham: *ille Sheffieza. gºoſe -- Omeenee *ingerboard A. o, south Jomerset Millville, º *hºw ºakfield (n" Langfºrd oºr 78°oo Fargda-" \ \ Coenwu. \ _r \ \ \ \ Meyersburg <> & sº Marwood & Bewdley Pundºgala º -------. - */evation 247' fiendan Afzas Manning. Barre Z ºa. º & R v mºre Certzero *cºurzº, Zºzłotºro Vazzey owesz Bozºvar Aſºport (ſ) º bridge ------------ o &ephenºs - º º - ſ Young/cºorºo °mºdeyºſe. UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM FREDERICK .J. H. MERRILL Director and State Geologist M A P OF THE -\n Cheshire Asorder, \ 3. 2 \ º y º - o \ ſtarrowe 0sovºtal \ \ \ * \ º- * * \ a/ada A. c \ o ººr-own- * Foxtºv tºle . . . C. ºpioville tº- Benton &nzero Sonora, o * * Brazora *. Canºe//, / o ºreman - - Addison://tºº *Marsh o º SHOWING THE LOCATION OF CLAY AND SHALE DEPOSITS AN ID MANUFACTORIES HEINRICH RIES 19 OO SCALE : 1 IN CH = 12 MILES M. I. L. E. S. lo 5 o 10. 20 30 t 5 o Io. 2O. 3o +0. 5-0. 3 o' 79°oo' 30 K I LO M. ET RES 78°oo" | i No Lº: - ~~~ - O A. - o *cºrreston of arclay º ºnton Long Valley Carpenter LEGENI) – Clay Deposit ––– Shale Deposit Q Refractory Clay Kilns or Factories Common Brick Pressed Brick Paving Brick Fire Brick Drain Tile Sewer Pipe Whiteware Earthenware and Stoneware Terracotta and RoofingTi le - K. 77°oo" - – , , o 30 7600 N. N. º --- &ºtſawrence - _r - J N. N. \ w - Age/fort o Azrahnerville Mumber asºn. ºfter ocorºs. Rectoro - º 2. oparter ----- * cent ex \ Stanbro - - Welcome Lenao Gilbertville Upton otyre Unadilla ©Center Wells w Kelseyo Oguaga ‘Lake Creek i o.Sherman l | Scott cºſ Cherry Ridge, Tºvº- Howie, Aºupack c Dunning c. Blooming Gron T mºnoºka 4. º Henryville W & 3 o' : - *-1 ſoneonta 3 o' 74 oo' *- o” kerry º * * - o Indian Lake \\ º l - --ºft _k. \\ l ! Raker Millso l | i *rºte elhi Bovºrza f Masthope Lord eld unter" Aºals º: / tº cºveo - - -- andran Woodlando - The X -- Shady Boiceville Flagstone N T | E R merryvile t - - 4/atamoras D O N' A º: ºpper Hiſł 5 (C) ºncenter ..º.ºrgºne. orhan Mooers Schuyler Peasleeville Disco /-- Alueſtage - schroon fºe, 3 O' 73°oo' / Hemmy / --- - "T"- chmond o N. Ferrisbury ---- L castleton Racerºſe wº - Cors. slybor Wºog M.Easton º - WPownal * º I L.waranº atts Cºlove --- i | ſ', º - N {A à M. º mº º ykeman | ºfºº ºr; sºlem o - ºk, F Barton TN Chelsea Weston - --- --- º "---- o Grafton Londonderry wº strafford. charlestown Co Walpole C. H. E. oWilmington º R A A. Pº. * † shelburne H B U RTG Falls Gre º Chester | l l l i windsor º : - - º o º - - - º º, º windsor 5. R. - º o A. T \F * stratford 20aptains I. Old Eatons Pt. - - N O Pi º surrºrrº - BAY : 1, -- - wº * o cominack chelºrue - º, - - L ...welden eval o clake Grove ºatu º - 'i' H 5 o º - Island 3O’ W.ºwan Ż \ \ O Mºv Warwyck. L l IN º, a W. O. F. / E Afonson Cryst #! º oiland U - Greenwich º 72°oo" ... ...— ... ==º-º-145 --- --- O O' *{, } Norton º Muls & º º, Steverus 30 White tela. \ º - \ acharn. Nº. Littlet 7 º .." º: º - 4.4° º 00 ( ź ) New Found Lake Canaan. - º 30 43% 0 0 Dublano Peterboro - T o - º F'ttzwill warn -> - c 30 o 4. 2 : i - 3O' N Westerly Pt. N ºtreagun i. --- º 1. Mulford Piº 1) ºwen Haven. w Wölney 8%;" & M. */ ! al - _º. ºfope Ornard 32 ° Meiſºgvate Glen Mew. 'nan ºn-ºr- Hooper *Azools 2- o Litchrºeda. o (adºs o Warren-center- i º i l £otterville º Memºra. o -- Dushore 3 o' 76°00' LA 1: Lewis Micholson, Oakdale 75°OO sº old Bridge 3O a. º: - - - Hartfo * - - onfiddle 73°oo * … Juanchester ~. sºlar - 3O' rrent point sy NAPE, B.A. t; 4.1° T OO 30.’ 72°oo! JAMES B. Lyon, STATE PRINTER ºvºir, *Chemical iº T. N. * 4.2 • R SSad! º \ ^0 (). I’late 1 Frontispiece C. Kreischer photo. Terra cotta vase, made at factory of B. Kreischer's Sons, Kreischerville S. I. Hight of vase, 5 feet. University of the State of New York B U L LET IN OF THE New York State Museum FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL Director No. 35 Vol. 7 June IQ00 CLAYS OF NEW YORK THEIR PROPERTIES AND USEs BY HEINRICH RIES PII. D. ALBANY., UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK IQOO University of the State of New York FEG ENTS With years of election 1874 ANSON JUDD UPSON L.H.D. D. D. L.L.D. smº Chancellor, Glens Falls 1892 WILLIAM CROSWELL DOANE, D.D. LL.D. – Vice-Chancellor, Albany 1873 MARTIN I. To WNSEND M.A. LL.D. --- --- -- * – Troy 1877 CHAUNCEY MI. DEPEW LL.D. – - -- - - – New York 1877 CHARLES E. FITCII LL.B. M. A. L.H.D. - - - — Rochester 1877 OIRRIS H. WARREN ID. D. * *ms - * — — Syracuse 1878 WHITELAW REID LL.D. - - —- - - — — New York 1881 WILLIAM. H. WATson M.A. M.D. - - - - – Utica. 1881 HENRY E. TURNER - - - - - — — – Lowville 1883 ST CLAIR McKELWAY L.H.D. L.T.D. D.C.L. – - – Brooklyn 1885 HAMILTON HARRIs Ph.D. LL.D. — — — — — Albany 1885 DANIEL I3EACII Ph.D. L.L.D - – - - - – Watkins 1888 CARROLL E. SMITII LL.D. - - - - *mº - – Syracuse 1890 PLINY T. SEXTON LIL.D. – — — — — — — Palmyra 1890 T. GUILFORD SMITH M. A. LL.D. C.E. - — — — Buffalo 1893 LEWIs A. STIMSON B.A. M.D. – - --- - – New York 1895 ALBERT WANDER WEER Ph.D. M.D. — — — — — Albany 1895 CHARLEs R. SKINNER M.A. LL.D. Superintendent of Public Instruction, ex officio 1897 CHESTER. S. LORD M.A. LL.D - - - - - Brooklyn 1897 TIMOTITY L. WOODRUFF M. A. Lieutenant-Governor, ex officio 1899 THEODORE ROOSEVELT. B. A. LL.D., Governor, ex officio 1899 JoFIN T. McDonough LL.B. LL.D. Secretary of State, ex officio 1900 THOMAS A. HENDRICK M.A. - * - - * — Rochester SEC RETAF Y Elected by regents 1900 JAMEs RussBLL PARSONs JR M.A. DI FECTO FS OF D EPA FTMENTS 1888 MELVIL DEWEY M.A. State library and Home education 1890 JAMES RUSSELL PARSONS JR M.A. Administrative, College and High school dep’ts - 1890 FREDERIck J. H. MERRILL Ph.D. State museum, CONTIENTS PAGE Preface'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Origin and nature of clay . . . . . . . . 496 Mineralogy of clays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Properties of clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . 511 Methods of analyzing. . . . . . . . . 530 The rational analysis. . . . . . . . . . 533 Physical properties. . . . . . . . . . . 538 Mechanical analysis. . . . . . . . . . . 561 Classification of clays. . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Coloring agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565 Geologic distribution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572 Occurrence in New York state. 572 Clays of Champlain valley. 594 Long Island clays. . . . . . . . . 595 Staten Island clays, . . . . . . . 607 Occurrence in the United States 611 Clay-working. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 Structure of clay deposits . . . . 628 Prospecting and exploring . . . 629 Methods of working . . . . . . . . . . 631 Purification of clay . . . . . . . . . . 633 Uses of clays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636 Characters of brick clays. . . . . . 636 Burning of brick clays. . . . . . . . 639 The brickmaking industry . . . . . . . . 643 Crushing strength of bricks. . . 647 Building brick industry in New York state. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650 Methods of manufacturing. . . . . 653 Cost of production. . . . . . . . . . . , 685 Detailed account of brick yards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 Paving brick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.43 Terra cotta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758 General properties. . . . . . . . . . . . 758 Terra Cotta clays. . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.59 Terra cotta manufacture. . . . . 761 Roofing tile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765 Sewer pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 Clays used. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767 Manufacture of sewer pipe ... 768 Drain tile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770 PAGE Hollow brick, terra cotta lumber, fireproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773 Floor tile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774 Decorative tile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777 Methods of tile decoration. . . . . 777 Fire clays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 78] Refractory clay products. . . . . 783 Manufacture of fire brick. . . . . 784 Glass pot clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786 New York fire clays. . . . . . . . . . 788 Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.91 Description of different grades. 791 Methods of manufacture. . . . . . 798 Methods of decoration , . . S14 New York stoneware clays. . . . 817 Pottery industry of New York. 823 Shales of New York. . . . . . . . . . . . . 825 Distribution and properties. . . 826 Feldspar and quartz. . . . . . . . . 84.1 Minor uses of clays. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 Portland cen]ent . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845 Mineral paint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 Clarifying oils and fulling earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848 Filling paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852 Food adulterants. . . . . . . . . . . . . 852 Ultramarine manufacture. . . . 852 Polishing and abrasive mate-’ rials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852 Road materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853 Puddle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853 Testing of clay wares. . . . . . . * c e º us e 854 Porosity or permeability. . . . . . 854 Breaking strength. . . . . . . . . . . 855 Hardness test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855 Determination of deleterious impurities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856 Determination of soluble salts. 856 Resistance to weathering . . . . . 856 Resistance to acids. . . . . . . . . . 857 Abrasion test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 Sections of clay deposits. . . . . . . . . . 858 | Clay analyses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860 Bibliography of clay literature. . . . 908 Directory of clay workers in New York state. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913 Index..... & a º e s & e º 'º e º 'º e s e e e º e e s e e 927 The manner in which the New York state museum bulletin no. 12, entitled Clay industries of New York, was received by the public, indicated that the subject was of interest to a large number of persons and it therefore seemed important, as soon as the means were available, to thoroughly revise this bulletin and bring it up to date so as to cover the great progress made in this manufacturing industry. Dr Heinrich Ries has accordingly devoted himself to this work of revision and after much careful labor has produced the work now submitted to the public. The chapter on the physical properties of clay should be of particular value, since ‘. Dr Ries has made a special visit to Berlin for the purpose of in- vestigating this subject in relation to the clays of Europe. FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL New York state museum Director. Albany N. Y. 1899 C LAY'S OF NEW YORK THEIR PROPERTIES AND USES PREFACE The following report is an enlargement of One prepared by the writer in 1895, which was published as Bulletin no. 12 of the New York state museum, and is made necessary by the increased de- velopment of the New York clay-working industries, as well as by an increased knowledge of the properties and technology of the different varieties of clay. While portions of the original report have been allowed to stand as first published, the greater part has been rewritten and many addi- tional data have been incorporated. New York is not the leading state in manufacture of clay products, but its output is by no means Small, as can be seen from the following figures issued by the U. S. geological survey for the year 1898: Value of Output Common brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $4 3S1 2.57 Pressed brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 135 Paving brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 680 Ornamental brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S 665 Fire brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3S6 624. Drain tile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74. O'72 Sewer pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S9 224. Terra cotta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 S54. Fireproofing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 152 Tile (not for drains) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 910 Pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 556 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 860 $6 448 989 494 YORK STATE MUSEUM NEW In order to show the development of the industry in this state during the four years previous to 1898 the following table is given from the 19th annual report of the U. S. geological Survey, pt 6, p. 367. Clay products of New York 1894–97 1894 1805 1896 1897 Brick Common Quantity. . . . . . . . . 821 286 000| 955 442 000. 931 565 000 828 868 000 Value. . . . . . . . . . . . $3 945 022 $4 396 027| $4 14t 973 $3 657 750 Average per M. . . : $4.80 $4.60 $4.45 $4.41 Pressed Quantity. . . . . . . . . Q . . . . . 18 437 000 18 409 000 18 046 000 Value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $290 910 $298 515 $263. 166 Average per M. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $15.78 $16.22 $14.58 Vitrified Quantity. . . . . . tº s is 9 304 000; 10 896 000|| 23 723 000 28 145 000 Value . . . . . . . . . . . $136 697 $121 892 $259 550 $309 564 Average per M. . . $14.69 $11.19 $10.94 $11 Fancy brick, value . . . . $52 500 $1 025 $17 854 $2 680 Fire brick { % $298 578 $302 407 $345 485 $339 740 Drain tile & 6 $62 955 $56 740 $292,954 $25 #85 Sewer pipe “ . . . . $10 000 $133 000 $85 289 $116 000 Ornamental terra cotta, Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $508 000 $336 000 $484 113 $420 601 Fireproofing, value. ... . . . . $828]. . . . . . . . . . . . $72 410 $56 410 Tile (not drain) & 6 $64 704 $143 465 $99 060 $150 360 Pottery Earthenware and stone- Ware, Value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $44 033 $100 733 $179 265 C. C. and white granite Ware, Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $15 000 . . . . . . . . . . . . Sanitary Ware, value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $21 000 $1 000 Porcelain or china, Value. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $120 000 $8 000 Porcelain electrical Supplies, value. . . . . . . . . . . . ... * * * | * g g g g g º ºs e e º e $55 000 . . . . . . . . . . . . Miscellaneous. . . . . . . . . . . . . $84 738 $63 997 $5 270 $90 583 Total value. . . . . . . $5 164 0.22 $5 889 496 $6 414 206 $5 615 504 Number of firms report- ing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 280 262 281 Rank of state . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 3 4 It is highly gratifying to see the manner in which the shale de- posits, specially those in the southern part of the state, are being developed, and yet it is not a matter for surprise, since they form an inexhaustible supply of plastic material which in most cases burns to a good red golor at a very moderate temperature. The outcrops are so abundant that the prospective manufacturer can, by a little a Common and pressed brick not separately classified in 1804. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 495 search, find the material most suited to his needs. In several plants already established the plastic clays have been given up for shale, this being true not only of works where ornamental wares are made, but also of those manufacturing common brick. Mext to the shale deposits it is probable that the clay beds of Long Island have the most promising future. It is true that they are at times pockety and the overburden is often considerable, but nevertheless there is an abundance of material of good quality. Another noteworthy feature of the industry is the adoption of more modern methods of molding and burning. Dry press and stiff mud machines are frequently met with where they were not seen six years ago. There is also progress in the use of the most approved kilns, and those of the continuous type are gaining specially in favor. Six years ago there was not one in use in the state. Many of the analyses given in the report are new, and a number of physical tests have been made, particularly on the shales, in order that they may be compared intelligently with some used in the manufacture of standard products at other localities. Thanks are due to the many manufacturers who have kindly given aid and information in the preparation of this bulletin, and through their liberality it has been possible to give many of the illustrations which accompany the text. HEINRICH RIES Ithaca N. Y., 10 June 1899 496 NEW YORIX STATE MIUSEUM ! ORIGIN AND NATURE OF CLAY The term “clay” is difficult to define, being often used in a rather loose manner. Recent investigations on the part of the writer and others lead to the conclusion that the term “clay ” indicates a substance of peculiar physical characters, but hav- ing absolutely no constancy of either chemical or mineralogic composition. Two Substances may appear to be entirely unlike from a chemical standpoint, and yet their physical characters may be Such that both would be classed under the head of clay. Probably the best mineralogic definition of clay is that given by Dr G. P. Merrill in his book, Rocks, rock-weathering and soils, in which he defines it “as an indefinite mixture of more or less hy- drated aluminous silicates, free silica, iron oxid, carbonates of lime, and various silicate minerals which, in a more or less decomposed and fragmental condition, have survived the destructive agencies to which they have been subjected *. The only feature characteristic of all clays is that they are plastic when wet and when burned harden to a rock-like mass. This degree of plasticity has little probably to do with the chemical or mineralogic composition, for clays of either high or low plasticity may vary widely in their make-up. It seems to depend, and this point will be discussed in more detail later, wholly on texture and structure, that is on the shape and size of the particles. As Dr Merrill points out, pure quartz, chalcedony, flint, feldspar or other silicates, will when reduced to an impalpable powder possess a pastiness and even an odor similar to that of clay. Most of these simple mineral mixtures of extreme fineness do not seem to hold together like clay mixed by nature, probably because they lack the plastic particles which true clay contains. Clay may show all degrees of plasticity, and by the increase of one or another of its component minerals may pass into other rock types, as into limestone on the one hand by the increase of carbonate of lime, or into sandstone by the addition of Sand. Hy CILAYS OF NEW YORK 49% To define clay from the physical standpoint, we may say that it is a fine-grained mixture of mineral fragments of variable composition, possessing when wet plasticity which permits it to be molded into any desired form and retaining that form when dry. That furthermore, when heated above a certain temperature it loses its chemically combined water and becomes converted into a rock- like mass, which if reground and mixed with water no longer shows plasticity. tº All clays found in nature contain, so far as known, a variable amount of kaolinite, the hydrated silicate of alumina, which is commonly spoken of as the clay base or clay substance. (It should be stated that it is sometimes the custom, specially abroad in the case of many impure clays to call the finest particles of the clay irrespective of their composition the “clay-substance.”) A mass of kaolinite would be termed kaolin. These two terms are often used interchangeably, though the former is simply the mineralogic name while the latter is a rock term. Pure kaolin has not thus far been found in nature, though some very nearly pure is known. Properly speaking file term kaolin should be restricted to white burning residual clays, a usage which is widespread but has not become universal. “The name kaolin is a corruption of the Chinese Kauling, which means high ridge, and is the name of a hill near Jauchau Fu, where the mineral is obtained.” (Dana, System of min., p. 687) Kaolinite is a secondary mineral formed by the decomposition of feldspar. This is commonly caused by percolating waters aided by disintegrating causes, the result being that the alkalies and alka- line earths of the feldspar are carried off in solution, while the alumina and silica, left behind, unite with water to form hydrated silicate of alumina. The feldspars are essentially anhydrous sili- cates of alumina, containing in addition varying amounts of lime, potash or Soda, and depending partly on their chemical composition and partly on their physical characters. Nine varieties are usually recognized, which fall into two groups known as the orthoclase and plagioclase groups. 498 NEW YORIK STATE MUSEUM The Orthoclase or potash feldspar has a composition of silica 64.7, alumina 18.4, potash 16.9, while in the plagioclase group the composition of the different members is given as follows." Silica Alumina Potash Soda ; Lime Albite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 20 © º e 12 12 Oligoclase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 24 tº º º 9 5 Labradorite. . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 30 . . . . 4 13 Anorthite. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 , 37 tº º º tº e ºs 20 In treating the decomposition or kaolinization of feldspar, most writers are apt to give the impression that it is the orthoclase which furnishes kaolinite by its decomposition, whereas both groups may produce it, and indeed the plagioclase varieties decompose much more readily than the orthoclase. This fact was noted by Leim- berg. (Z. d. d. G. G. 35, 1883) The same fact was observed by the writer in the kaolin at Rönne, Denmark, which is produced by the decomposition of a granite containing both plagioclase and Orthoclase. In partially weathered specimens the plagioclase was the more extensively affected. As a rule the orthoclase feldspar is much more common than the plagioclase. Aside from the kaolinization of feldspar by the ordinary processes of weathering it seems possible and even probable that its decom- position may be brought about by the action of mineralizing vapors, that is, vapors whose presence seems to be necessary to the forma- tion of certain minerals, as at Cornwall, Eng., where it was found that the feldspar of the granite on both sides of the tin veins had been altered to kaolin. This change is attributed to the action of fluoric vapors whose presence is pretty well proven. That such a process is possible is shown by J. H. Collins (Min. mag. 1887. 7:213, in the “Nature and origin of clays and the composition of kaolinite ”) who exposed feldspar to the action of hydrofluoric acid. The feldspar, according to Mr Collins, was converted into hydrated silicate of alumina, mixed with soluble fluorid of potassium, while pure silica was deposited on the sides of the tube. 1 G. P. Merrill. Rocks, rock-weathering amal soils, p. 15. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 499 With such treatment the orthoclase yielded more readily than either albite or oligoclase. The following analyses show the effect of 96 hours’ treatment of Orthoclase with hydrofluoric acid at 60° F. 1 2 3 Silica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63. 70 49. 20 44.10 Alumina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.76 35. 12 40.25 Potash. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 61 . 12 . 25 Soda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 26 tr tr Ferric oxid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 tr tr Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tr 14. 20 15.01 100.04 98.64. 99.61 From the analysis it will be seen that the composition of the Outer layer simply approximates that of kaolinite. No. 1 is the original feldspar. No. 2 is inner layer of altered feldspar. No. 3 is outer layer of altered feldspar. The artificial clay thus produced, when examined under the microscope, resembled washed kaolin. It showed no hexagonal Scales, but contained a number of minute colorless cubes which are supposed to be fluor spar. The theory advanced by Mr Collins was first suggested by Won Buch and Daubrée, who believed that kaolinization is produced by fluids containing fluosilicates or fluoborates acting from below, generally, if not always, through fissures. (Annales des mines 20, 1841) Von Buch early observed the constant occurrence of kaolin with minerals containing fluorin, and suggested that the kaolin of Halle, Germany, owed its origin to hydrofluoric acid. (Min. Tasch, .1824)* Daubrée considered that the kaolin near St Austell in Cornwall must have had a similar origin. (Annales des mines 1841) 1 The Writer can state from personal examination that the Halle kaolins were formed by ordinary weathering. 500 NEW YORIK STATE MUSIEUM If Mr Collins's theory be correct, the kaolin deposits should extend to great depths, but if the kaolinization be due to weathering, then we should encounter undecomposed feldspar at the limit to which weathering has reached. In Cornwall the kaolin mines, which are probably the largest in the world, have reached a depth of over 200 feet without the kaolin giving out, while at Zettlitz in Bohemia a depth of over 400 feet has been reached with the same result. The latter locality is one of thermal activity. In these two instances the theory just mentioned seems to be very reasonable. There are many localities however where the kaolin decreases with the depth, passing into the undecomposed feldspar, as is the case for example in North Carolina, where the fresh feldspar is met at a depth of 60 to 120 feet. Still there are locali- ties in the United States where the mineralizing vapors seem clearly to have aided in the formation of kaolinite. Thus in many of the mines at Cripplecreek in Colorado, kaolinite has been produced by the decomposition of the feldspar, and is considered by Penrose to have been formed by other agencies than those of weathering, for the reason that it shows no sign of decrease in quantity with the depth, occurring as abundantly in the bottom of the deepest mines as on the surface. The frequent association with it of the unaltered sulfid minerals suggests that superficial alteration had no part in the formation of the kaolinite, otherwise the sulfids would have been oxidized to sulfate". It is possible that fluorin may have been the agent in the change, for it is abundant in many of the Cripplecreek ore deposits. Whatever the species of feldspar, or the process of decomposition, the product is kaolinite, and, as previously observed, a mass of kaolinite would be termed kaolin, or pure clay. Such a thing as pure clay is however unknown, for one or more minerals are always associated with the feldspar and remain in the kaolin as: impurities, but not necessarily injurious ones. Clay therefore is formed primarily by the decomposition of a feldspathic rock mass, ! U. S. geol, sur. 16th a nm. rep’t pt 2, p. 131. CI, AYS OF NEW YORK 501 and, if the deposit is found in the locality where it was formed, it is known as a residual clay. Clay may also be derived from the decomposition of aluminous limestones, Deposits of kaolin are not very common, but residual clays are. Indeed in many of the southern states the surface soil over many square miles is nothing more than a residual clay. Such residual deposits often bear a close resemblance in chemical composition, to the rock from which they were formed. Under the influence of weathering the residual surface materials are washed down into the rivers and carried to seas or lakes where they are spread out over the bottom as sediments. We thus have another class of clay deposits known as sedimentary clay, no longer resembling the parent rock, but composed of the residuum of several different areas. These two types of clay deposits, the residual and the sedi- mentary, present certain distinguishable features, bearing on their Origin. Residual clays are composed of a mixture of angular grains rep- resenting in part undecomposed rock, and fine rock flour of clay, that is, particles sufficiently fine to float in water. There is generally a gradual transition from the fully formed clay at the surface to the unaltered parent rock below. The depth below the surface at which unaltered rock is reached varies from three or four feet to 150 or 200 feet. The structure of the parent rock is sometimes retained for a certain distance upward in the residual clay. Sedimentary clays are stratified and occur in beds. They are as a rule more homogeneous than residual clays and contain a greater proportion of fine particles. They are also more plastic, and frequently have much disseminated organic matter, but they bear little or no relation to the rocks on which they rest. - Sedimentary clays occur either at the surface, or may lie deep below it, interbedded with other rocks. When sedimentary clays suffer consolidation under pressure they 503 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM are known as Shale. Shales simply represent the finest clay sedi- ment, which has been deposited in those parts of the Ocean which are very quiet and has become consolidated by the pressure of other sediments laid upon it. In some hard shales there is probably also some cementing material between the grains. In the later discussion of the chemical and physical properties of clay whatever is said of clay will also apply to shale, unless it be otherwise Stated. Shales when ground up and mixed with water generally produce a plastic mass similar to common clays. If simply placed in water, however, they do not usually fall to pieces as an ordinary clay does, or, in other words, they do not slake. Shales may be either highly refractory or extremely fusible, and both forms of this material are of commercial value. Some of the most refractory material mined in the United States, as for instance the fire clays found at Denver Col., or those in Pennsylvania, are shales. The chief use of shales in the United States is in the manufacture of paving bricks. Those of New York state are treated in a separate chapter. CLAYS OF NEW YORIK 503 MINERALOGY OF CILAYS The number of mineral species which may exist in clays is very great, and depends partly on the mineralogic composition of the parent rock, and the extent to which decomposition has proceeded in the clay mass. The characters of the common minerals found in clays together with their more important features, are here given, arranged ap- proximately in the order of their abundance. Any One of these may however at times become a predominating constituent. Kaolinite. Formula: Al,O, 2 SiO, 2 1190, or silica (SiO2) 46.3%, alumina (Al2O3)39.8%, water (H2O) 13.9% This is a white, pearly mineral, crystallizing in the monoclinic system, the crystals presenting the form of small hexagonal plates. Its specific gravity is 2.2–2.6; its hardness 2-2.5. It is naturally white in color and a mass of it is plastic when wet, but very slightly so. The occurrence of kaolinite in crystals has been noted from National belle mine, Red Mountain, Col. (H. Reusch, Jahrb. f. mineralogie, 1887, 2:70) and from Anglesey (A. Dick, Min. mag. 1876, 8:15). A microscopic examination shows the plates of kaolinite collected in little bunches. Their separation by grinding increases the plasticity.” - If kaolin be formed into briquets, of the same shape as those used in testing cement, its tensile strength, as determined by pulling these briquets apart in a testing machine, is usually 5-15 pounds the square inch — a very low degree compared with the tensile strength of more plastic clays. Raolinite is nearly infusible, but a slight addition of fusible impurities lowers its refractoriness. Many kaolins contain very minute scales of white mica, which it would be difficult to distinguish under the microscope from kaolinite. Since white mica in a very finely divided condition is 1 Clays of New Jersey, N. J. geol. Sur. 1878. G. H. Cook. 504 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM not unlike kaolinite in its behavior, as shown by the experiments of Vogt, its presence may be of no influence, unless there is an appreciable amount of it. The following quotation” exhibits those experiments. Mr Vogt considers that the plasticity which clays have is chiefly due to the hydrated silicate of alumina or kaolinite. Experiments which he made, show that the kaolinite is not the only substance which remains in suspension for a long period. For his trials he took quartz from Limousin, Orthoclase from Norway, and a potash mica. All three were ground very fine, and them washed in a current of slightly ammoniacal water. The washed materials were then allowed to stand. After 24 hours each of the liquids was as Opalescent as if it had washed clay in suspension. After nine days the turbidity still remained, but was less marked. At the end of this time the supernatant liquid was ladled off of each, and a few drops of hydrochloric acid added to it. The suspended ma- terials coagulated and settled, and the precipitate was collected, dried, and weighed. The mica which had remained in suspension during the nine days was very fine; still the particles glittered in the light. The addition of hydrochloric acid caused the instant, settling of the particles, which was also noted by the cessation of the glittering. The settlings of mica from 1 liter of water amounted to .15 gram. This fine-grained mica possessed a plas- ticity almost equal to that of the kaolin. From the decanted liquid of the feldspar the hydrochloric acid brought down .4 gram of this mineral per liter, while of the quartz only .1 gram of sediment was obtained. * A very plastic clay from Dreux was treated in the same manner and after mine days a precipitate of .56 gram was brought down. From these experiments we see that in washing kaolin it is impossible to free it entirely from quartz, feldspar, and mica. Associated with kaolinite we may find one or more other species of minerals, all hydrated silicates of alumina. Some of these have been found in crystals and are very probably good species, but others are known only in an amorphous condition. This may tend to suggest some doubt as to their validity. These associated species together with their characters are given by Dana as follows. * Thomimdustrie zeitung, 1893. p. 140. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 505 Halloysite. A massive, clay-like or earthy mineral, with a conchoidal fracture. It shows little or no plasticity. It has a hardness of 1–2. The specific gravity is 2.0–2.20. The luster is somewhat pearly to waxy or dull. The color is white, grayish, greenish, yellowish and reddish. It is translucent to opaque, some- times becoming translucent or even transparent in water, with an increase of one fifth in weight. It is a silicate of alumina like kaolinite, but amorphous and containing more water; the amount is somewhat uncertain, but according to Le Chatelier the composi- tion is probably 2H12O, Al,O, 2SiO,-- aq, or silica 43.5%, alumina 36.9%, water 19.6% = 100. It is not uncommon in the kaolin de- posits around Valleyhead, Dekalb co. Ala., where it occurs as veins in the kaolin. Rectorite. Monoclinic. In leaves or plates resembling moun- tain leather. Very soft, hardness less than that of talc. Feels Soapy. Luster pearly. Color pure white, sometimes stained red with iron oxid. Composition: H Al SiO, or Al,Os, 2 SiO, H.O= silica 50.0; alumina 42.5; water 7.5. Newtonite. Rhombohedral. In soft, compact masses, resem- bling kaolinite. Color white. Composition: Hs Al,Si,Ou-Hwater or Al2Os, 2 SiO2, 5 H2O=silica. 38.5, alumina, 32.7, water 28.8. Sp. gr. =2.37. Allophane. Amorphous. As incrustations which are usually thin, with mammillary surface. Occasionally almost pulverulent. Fracture imperfectly conchoidal and shining, to earthy. Very brittle. Color variable. Translucent. A hydrous aluminum sili- cate, Al,SiOs–H5 H2O=silica 23.S, alumina 40.5, water 35.7. Hardness 3. Sp. gr. 1.85–189. Other species listed by Dana in the kaolinite group are cimolite, montmorillomite, pyrophyllite, collyrite and Schrötterite. Indian- aïte, a white residual clay found in Lawrence co. Ind., is placed under halloysite by Dana. - Clays may vary mineralogically within very wide limits. Pure clay, as before stated, would consist entirely of the mineral kaolin- ite, but in addition to this quartz, feldspar and mica are minerals 506 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM most commonly present and we may also find calcite, gypsum, mica, siderite or carbonate of iron, pyrite, dolomite, iron oxid, etc. Quartz. This mineral is present in sedimentary clays mostly in the form of fine grains, or sometimes in crystals, while in resid- ual clays the particles are usually angular. It may be colorless, but the grains may be often superficially colored either red or yellow by iron oxid. It is a very hard mineral and scratches glass easily. Feldspar might be mistaken for it, but feldspar will not scratch glass. Flint or amorphous silica is sometimes present in clays. It usually has a muddy color, and a conchoidal fracture. It might be found in either residual or sedimentary clays. Quartz and flint are infusible except at very high temperatures; but the presence of other minerals in the clay acting as fluxes often causes them to SOften at a much lower temperature. In addition quartz serves to diminish the shrinkage of a clay, and, if not natur- ally present in Sufficient quantity, has to be added during the pro- cess of manufacture. The admixture of quartz also tends to de- crease the plasticity, the more so, the coarser the grain. The size of the quartz grains affects the ease with which they can be fluxed; for, as fusion begins on the outside of a quartz grain, the larger the grain the longer it will take to reach the center. Therefore if the heat is not continued long enough, it may happen that the outside of the grain has been softened and the center is unaffected. Feldspar. Since kaolinite is formed by the decomposition of feldspar, it seems but matural that we should find some undecom- posed grains of the latter in almost every clay. The fragments would be scaly or rhombohedral in form. Feldspar is slightly softer than quartz, and while the latter scratches glass, the former will not. It is commonly pink, red, yellow or even white. Few fragments fail to show a white coating on the surface of the grains, or lining the cracks and cleavage planes of the mineral, indicating the presence of some kaolinite. Calcite. This mineral may occur in clays in the form of little rhombohedral grains, soft enough to be Scratched with a knife. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 507 As calcite effervesces when moistened with muriatic acid, its pres- ence in the clay may often be detected by the addition of this chemical to it. Calcite may be scattered through the clay in the form of small grains or be present as concretions (commonly called “clay dogs”). It not infrequently happens that some lay- ers of the clay contain a much larger percentage of carbonate of lime than others, and indeed, with a very great increase in the amount of carbonate of lime, the clay might pass into a marl. Where a deposit of clay rests on a bed of limestone, the lower layers of the material may be more calcareous than the upper ones. The carbonate of lime found in clays is at times derived from particles of limestone if the clay is a sedimentary one, or in the case of either sedimentary or residual clays it may come from the decomposition of lime soda feldspars, or again it may be in- troduced by percolating waters. Gypsum may be present ºn the clay as grains, needles, or well formed crystals, or lamellar masses. It is much softer than calcite, being scratched by the finger nail, often has a pearly luster, is transparent, and does not effervesce with acid. In hard burned bricks gypsum simply acts as a flux, but in lightly burned ones, it gives rise to soluble sulfates, which cause efflorescence. In the salina shales it often forms large transparent plates. Mica. This can frequently be easily detected by the naked eye, even though it may be present in a very finely divided condition, for the Small scaleš of it have a high luster. Mica is seldom absent in clays and is usually present to a greater or less extent in the best known kaolins. Owing to its nature it floats very easily, and is consequently very hard to eliminate by washing. As white mica is very refractory, and when finely ground possesses a certain amount of plasticity, its presence in small amounts is not very injurious. The mica found in clays is generally derived from igneous or metamorphic rocks, such as granites, gneisses, or Schists. Two kinds of mica are commonly found in clay, namely biotite and muscovite. The biotite mica is a silicate of iron, magnesia and 508 INIEW YORIK STATE MUSEUM f alumina, occurring as six sided plates or irregular scales usually of a dark color. As it decomposes easily with the formation of iron oxid, it is not as commonly found in clays as muscovite. The latter is sometimes called potash mica, though it also contains a Small amount of iron and magnesia. It is of a silvery white or light brown color. As before mentioned, mica by itself is rather refractory, but in the presence of other minerals may serve as a flux at high tem- perature. Even in burned bricks the mica Scales are often per- ceptible. This is frequently the case when the brick has been burned at a temperature of 2500°F. Siderite. This is perhaps a more common constituent than is usually imagined. It generally occurs in the form of opaque, rounded masses, and effervesces on the addition of warm muriatic acid. In the burning of the clay siderite or iron carbonate is converted into iron oxid. . Pyrite. This is a combination of iron and sulfur. It has a metallic luster and yellow color, and is a very common constituent of many fire clays, occurring either in the form of small yellow metallic grains or concretionary masses of yellow crystals. In the burning of clay it may be changed to sulfate of iron and if the clay is heated to vitrification, it will serve as a flux. The brick makers’ common name for pyrite modules is “ sulfur-balls”. Marl or limestone fragments. The action of these is the same as that of calcite. Their presence may be detected by treatment with muriatic acid. Dolomite, the double carbonate of lime and magnesia, and mag- nesite, the carbonate of magnesia, may both occur in clay, either as earthy grains or as rhombohedral crystals. Either alone is highly refractory and in this condition is used as linings for furnaces, but when present in clay may serve as a flux, their action being similar to that of lime. Iron oxid. This is perhaps the most common impurity of clay next to quartz. It may occur in the form of earthy grains, or CLAYS OF NEW YORK 509 metallic Scales, or as a superficial coating On other mineral grains. It dissolves quietly in muriatic acid. Iron may also occur in clay as a constituent element of other minerals, and indeed the effect which it produces is dependent not so much on the actual amount of iron oxid present as on its condition, according as it is combined with silica, carbonic acid or some other acid. Hornblende. This is not an uncommon constituent of clays, and when present is generally in the form of tiny scales or flakes of a dark green color, showing transparency under the microscope only when extremely thin. It is highly probable that the hornblende does not remain very long as such, for it decomposes quite easily, yielding hydrated ferric oxid or limonite. Rutile is probably of widespread occurrence in clays, though never in large quantity. It occurs mostly in the form of bristle- like crystals. No systematic study of their occurrence in clay has ever been taken up. The writer has observed them in some of the Staten Island clays, and reference has been made to them from time to time by other writers. (See J. J. H. Teall. Min. mag. 7: 201; G. E. Ladd. Amer. geol. Ap. 1899) Vanadiates, though not as common in clays, may cause dis- coloration. In Germany they have been found in clays associated with the lignites, and also in some fire clays, but in this country, So far as the Writer is aware, they have never been investigated. Clays containing soluble vanadiates, if not burned at a sufficiently high temperature, will show on the surface of the ware a green discoloration, which, though it can be washed off with water, will continue to return as long as any of the salt is left in the brick. Vanadiates may be rendered insoluble by burning the clay to a point of vitrification. (Seger's Ges. Schrift. p. 301) Other minerals may occur in clays, such as magnetite, titanite etc., but the quantity is small. - Organic remains. These consist of bituminous matter, roots, amber and other substances, which volatilize on ignition. 510 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM PROPERTIES OF CLAY Pure clay would be composed entirely of the mineral kaolinite, the hydrated silicate of alumina. A mass of it would be called kaolin. The latter is the name of the rock, the former the name of the mineral composing it. Pure kaolin has not been found thus far, though deposits con- taining as much as 70% of kaolinite are known, and these when washed yield in some instances a mass containing as much as 98.5% of kaolinite. Raolin therefore contains a variable amount of foreign minerals, mixed with the kaolinite, or clay substance, as it is sometimes called. These impurities affect the properties of the kaolin materially, either as regards its shrinkage, fusibility, or color in burning. The last named effect is caused by the presence of ferruginous impurities. Their presence in an effective amount would necessitate classing the material with residual clay. Kaolinite is supposed to form the base of all clays, or kaolinite together with other hydrated silicates of alumina. This clay sub- stance forms a variable proportion of the clay mass, and stands in no direct relation to the plasticity, except that plasticity is lost with the expulsion of the combined water. The amount of clay substance ranges in known clays from 5% or 10% to 98.5%. The former might be a clay Sand, the latter a nearly pure kaolin. In kaolins the chief impurities are quartz, feldspar and rnica, but in other clays the number of mineral impurities may be very large. (See chapter on “Mineralogy of clays” p. 503) The properties of clay fall generally under two heads, chemical and physical. The latter includes plasticity, fusibility, shrink- age, tensile strength, slaking, absorption, density. The former em- braces the chemical composition, which exerts an influence on the physical behavior of the clay and should therefore be discussed first. w CLAYS OF NEW YORK 5.1 Chemical properties The chemical composition, and indirectly therefore the minera- logic composition, may influence the fusibility of a clay, its color in burning, shrinkage, and perhaps plasticity. The compounds which may be found in clay are silica, alumina, iron oxid, lime, magnesia, potash, soda, titanic acid, sulfuric acid, manganese oxid, phosphoric acid and organic matter. Compounds of chromium" and vanadium” may also be present in small amounts, and even lithium (N. W. Lord. J. A. I. M. E. 12: 505) and cerium, yttrium and beryllium oxids (Jour. pr. chem. 33: 132) have been recorded. Phosphoric acid is also known.” Not all of these are present in every clay, but most of them are. Pure clay would contain silica, alumina and combined water. The purest clays known contain traces of iron oxid, lime and alkalies. All of the constituents of clay except alumina, organic matter, and water, may exert a fluxing action on the clay when burned, the intensity of this action depending on the amount of fluxing haterial and the temperature. Consequently the impurities of clay are often divided into fluxing and non-fluxing. Fluating impurities Pure clay, theoretically composed altogether of the mineral kaolinite, is very refractory. This mineral contains two molecules of silica and one molecule of alumina. A higher percentage of silica tends, up to a certain point, to increase the fusibility provided it is in a finely divided condition. If the silica percentage how- ever gets above a certain point, the refractoriness of the clay in- creases with the increase in silica up to the point at which the mass contains nothing but silica. This has been demonstrated by the experiments of Seger. (Thonindustrie zeitung, 1893. no. 17) Other substances act as far more powerful fluxes than the silica, and these fluxes include not only elements but also definite chemical | Some Brazilian clays. * See p. 509. 3 Some pleistocene clays near Baltimore, Md., contain much vivianite. 512 NEW YORR STATE MUSEUM compounds or mineral species, which either already exist in the clay or may be added to it artificially. The influence of fluxes in- creases not only with the amount present but also with the state of division, they being the more active the more finely they are divided. If the flux is present in the form of large grains, these grains will only exert a fluxing action on their surface, whereas the single grains alone will act more like quartz grains, that is, as diluents of the shrinkage. The minerals which may be present as fluxes or may sometimes be added are mica, feld- spar, and similar silicates, slags, lime carbonate, magnesia car- bonate, and various compounds of iron and manganese. In addi- tion they may be present as soluble salts. It is usually the oxids of iron, manganese, and complex silicates containing these as well as lime, magnesium, potash, and soda that determine the degree of fusibility of the clay. The amount of fluxes which a clay contains has an important bearing on its applicability. For some purposes it is desirable as well as necessary that the percentage of fluxes should be low (producing refractory wares), not only with a view to refractoriness, but also, as in porcelain or white earthenware manufacture, to prevent discoloration of the ware. Again, the combination of fluxes in large amount may be desirable for the production of a vitrified body, such as is required for paving brick or sewer pipe. In kaolins the amount of fluxes may be as high as 7% provided they do not exert a coloring action. Some of the best kaolins known contain about 35% of feldspar, which means about 5.5% of potash. In fire clay 4–5% is the permissible limit, depending on the physical properties of the clay, while in a paving brick clay the total of fluxes may run as high as 16%. Alkalis These are never present in a clay in the form in which they are determined in the ordinary quantitative analysis, but generally as a constituent element of one or more minerals. Clay may contain two classes of alkalis; fixed and volatile. The former are soda, potash and lithia, the latter ammonia. CLAYS OF NEW YORIX 513 Ammonia. Clays possess a strong absorptive capacity for gases and in consequence of this frequently contain an appreciable amount of ammonia, to which is largely attributable the character- istic odor of clay." While the presence of this compound may exert some action on the plasticity and absorptive power of the clay, still it need not be considered in burning, for it passés off as a vapor at a temperature considerably below dull redness, or may even volatilize with the moisture of the clay during the early stages of burning. Fixed alkalis. These include potash, soda and lithia, but the latter is such a rare constituent that it need not be considered. Potash and Soda are present in nearly every clay, in amounts vary- ing from a mere trace to 10%, but the usual average is 1%-3%. The chief sources of potash and soda are the different species of feld- spar; white mica or muscovite may furnish potash. The variation in amount might be accounted for by the presence of undecomposed feldspar in the clay, the common feldspar Orthoclase containing 17% of potash alone. When either feldspar or mica decomposes, the alkalis are con- verted wholly or in part into soluble compounds, and thus we get both soluble and insoluble alkaline compounds. Soluble alkaline compounds. These may be present in any clay, but they seldom occur in large quantities. They may influence the plasticity of the clay, by causing a flocculation of the particles; but their chief importance, or disadvantage, is in giving rise to the formation of efflorescence on the surface of the ware, where they become concentrated by the evaporation of the moisture in the clay, unless previously rendered insoluble by the addition of proper chemicals. This crust may interfere with the formation of salt glaze, or the adhesion of a glaze applied to the ware before burning. Soluble alkaline sulfates are powerful fluxes. They cause blistering of the ware if the clay is heated sufficiently high to de- compose the sulfate and permit the escape of sulfuric acid gas. f|... F, Senft. Die Thomsubstanzen p. 29. 514 NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In some clays containing sulfate of iron the latter may be de- composed by chemical reactions taking place in the clay and sul- furic acid being set free. This acid is apt to attack the alumina of the clay Substance, and if potash, Soda or ammonia be present they give rise to potash, Soda or ammonia alum, which can frequently be detected by tasting the clay. - Insoluble alkaline compounds. All the sources of these in clay are minerals, silicates of complex composition. Feldspar and mica are the most abundant sources, but some may be derived from garnet, hornblende and pyroxene, fragments of which may be present in nearly all impure, and specially ferruginous clays. The feldspars are complex silicates of alumina and potash, or alumina, lime and soda. Orthoclase, the most common of the feld- spars, contains about 17% of potash, while the lime-soda feldspars have from 4% to 12% of soda, according to the species. Feldspars are the most important source of alkalis in clay, and, as the species vary Somewhat in their fusibility, they may exercise a varying in- flucince on the fusing point of the clay. Thus the lime-soda feld- spars are more fusible than the potash ones." The micas are complex silicates of alumina, with iron, magnesia and potash. Muscovite, the commonest species of the group, con- tains nearly 12% of potash and may contain a little soda. While feldspars fuse completely at about 2300° F., mica alone is very refractory, being unaffected by a temperature of 2550° F. While it probably serves as a flux, it is not known positively at just what temperature it begins to act as such. Alkalis, specially in the form of silicates, are frequently a de- sirable constituent of clay, on account of their fluxing properties, as in burning they serve to bind the particles together in a dense, hard body and permit the ware being burned at a lower tempera- ture. In the manufacture of porcelain, white earthenware, encaustic tiles and other wares made from kaolins, and having a body which 1 Seger. Ges. Schrift. p. 413. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 515 is impervious or nearly so, the alkalis are added for fluxing to the body in the form of feldspar. Much feldspar is mined both in the United States and Europe for potters' use, but in nearly every case it is the potash feldspar. - Alkalis exert little or no coloring influence on the burned ware in most instances, but if an excess of feldspar be added to a white burning clay, it will produce a creamy tint when burned. Potash seems to have a tendency to deepen the color of a ferruginous clay in burning. The amount of alkalis contained in clay varies. It may sink to a mere trace or rise to 7% or 8%. The limits for a number of clays are given below the figures being taken from tables at end of report. * Range Aver. Raolins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10–6. 21 1.01 Fire clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .048–5.27 1.46 Pottery clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52–7. 11 2.06 Brick clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17–15. 32 2.768 Iron oacid Iron oxid is the great coloring agent of both burned and un- burned clay, and in addition serves as a flux. Furthermore in the form of hydrated oxid it may increase the absorptive power of clay." It is not only one of the most widespread and common of clay ingredients, but is also derived from the greatest number of minerals. The compounds which may serve as sources of iron oxid in clays 2.I’O g Oxids — limonite, hematite, magnetite, ilmenite Silicates — mica, hornblende, garnet, etc. Sulfids — pyrite, marcasite Sulfates — melanterite Carbonates — siderite * E. A. Smith. Ala, geol. swr., rep’t on agricult. p. 45. 516 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The iron oxids, limonite and hematite, are present in nearly all clays. They may be introduced by percolating waters, or result from the decomposition of any of the iron-bearing silicates, such as horn- blende, mica or garnet. They are not infrequently distributed through the clay in a very finely divided condition, or may form a thin film around the other mineral grains. Limonite tends to color the unburned clay brown or yellow, while hematite imparts a red color. Ferric carbonate may give gray tints. Mica is found in most clays. Hornblende and garnet are probably wanting in a few. Pyrite is present in many clays, specially stoneware and fire clays, its yellow, glittering metallic particles being easily recognizable. These particles may be either fine grains, or large lumps, the former of which have to be separated by washing, the latter by hand- picking. Pyrite alters under the influence of weathering or burn- ing to sulfate of iron, which is soluble in water and may indirectly or directly act as a discoloring agent on clay wares, provided the clay is not burned to vitrification. If burned to this point however the pyrite acts as a flux (and according to Wipplinger" a very strong one) forming little specks, or larger ones, according to size of pyrite grains, of fused ferrous alumina silicate. In all iron-bearing minerals found in clays, the iron exists in one of two conditions, viz, as ferrous or ferric, and the fusibility of any given clay de- pends somewhat on this fact, for the reason that ferrous compounds lower the fusing point of a clay. In burning any clay the ferrous salt will be changed to the ferric condition, provided the fire is oxidizing in its action, but if the action is reducing, the iron will remain in the ferrous form. The action of weathering agents in nature is often sufficient to oxidize the iron in the clay, so that in most clays more ferric than ferrous iron will be found. Evidence of this change in the condition of the iron can often be detected by the red or yellow color of the upper or more porous layers of the clay, the lower layers being colored gray. A gray color may at times be produced also by the presence of organic 1 Keramik. p. 26. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 517 matter, and this material, if present in a dense wet clay, to which the air can not gain access, may keep the iron in a ferrous condition. Whenever the iron exists in the clay in combination with silica, it is present probably as a complex silicate, for pure ferric silicate is very rare in nature. The presence of ferric hydrate in clay increases its absorptive power for both gases and water, but both it and the carbonate are converted in burning to the oxid. While it may be said that the burning of clay in an oxidizing fire converts the iron to the condition of ferric oxid, still this state- ment only holds true up to a certain temperature, depending on the fusibility of the clay, for in every clay the iron seems to return to the ferrous condition as the point of vitrification is approached. The change would of course be accompanied by a liberation of Oxygen, which would increase with the amount of iron in the clay, and may account for the greater blistering of ferruginous clays as the point of vitrification is passed, and that of viscosity approached. While this fact is not unknown, very little attention seems to have been paid to it. Temole" considers that the greenish color of hard burned clays is due to this cause. Seger” also notes the ferrous condition of iron at high temperatures, and states that in this form it is a powerful flux. The tendency of iron oxid is to unite with the silica and alumina and also with the lime of the clay the moment that fusion begins, thereby forming a complex silicate, whose fusibility is lower than the simpler ones from whose union it was formed. The experiments of Berthier (Percy’s Metallurgy, refractory materials and fuel, p. 60-75) on mixtures of iron, alumina and silica point out these facts very clearly. These consisted in making up the mixtures given below and subjecting them to a high tem- perature, that of molten steel, with the results also stated below. | Wagner. Mamwal of chemical technology. 1897, p. 634. * Seger. Ges. Schrift. p. 391. 518 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Action of heat on mixture of silica and bases Aluminum sili- -: Cate ſ 4AlSOs,3SiO, 2Al4Os,3SiO, Al2O3,3SiO2 2Al2O3,9SiO, Ferric silicate 4 Ferrous sili- Cates Double or mul- tiple silicates l ſ 2Fe2Os3SiO, UFe2O3,3SiO2 ſ 4Fe0,SiO, 2Fe0,SiO, FeO,SiO, 2Fe0,3SiO, \- Fe O.A.O.3SiO, Fe3Os, Al2O3,6SiO2 3FeO,Al,Os,3SiO, l Agglomerated Agglomerated Strongly agglomerated, Compact ; fracture stony, dull * Compact, stony fracture, slightly shining - The mixtures did not de- crease in volume; there was no combination, the buttons were tenacious of a deep gray color and magnetic. It is now known that silicate of protoxid of iron is formed with the evolution of OXygen. Bubbly, finely granular in One part, crystalline in another Very easily melted. Deep olive green Melted into compact mass Melted into compact, homo- geneous mass Apparently was only in pasty state Completely melted brilliant black glass Melted into compact mass free from bubbles into From these results Berthier drew the following conclusions: No silicate of alumina is completely fusible at the highest tem- peratures attainable in the furnace (that is such as were in use when Berthier wrote). Protoxid of iron produces a remarkably fusible silicate. The fusibility of multiple silicates is greater than that of the mean of the component silicates. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 519 If the action of the fire is oxidizing, the presence of ferrous Salts need not be considered, provided the heat is raised high enough to oxidize them. The rapidity with which the temperature is raised is important, for if the heat is raised too quickly the outer portion of the clay may shrink and become dense before the air has had time to per- meate the clay and oxidize the iron in the center of the body. This is the cause of the black cores sometimes seen in bricks whose Sur- face is red. - The same variety of colors seen in the raw clay may be similarly produced in the burned clay, the result being conditioned on the relative amounts of ferrous and ferric compounds. Ferrous oxid alone produces a green color when burned, while ferric oxid alone may give a purple or red, and mixtures of the two may produce yellow, cherry red, violet, blue and black." The more intense the heat, the deeper the color produced by the iron. At very high temperatures it is difficult or impossible to obtain an oxidizing action in the kiln or furnace. Seger” found that combinations of ferric oxid with silica pro- duced a yellow or red color in the burned clay, while similar colm- pounds of the ferrous Salt showed blue and green. The black coloration produced by iron oxid in hard firing is often to be seen on breaking open the arch bricks of a kiln. The surface of such bricks may frequently get black, this being due in part to the slagging action of the ashes from the fire which stick to them. - - The coloration of clays by iron in burning will be farther dis- cussed under that head. The amount of ferric oxid permissible or desirable in a clay de- pends on the use to which it is to be put. Kaolins or plastic clays to be used in the manufacture of white bodies should contain less than 1% if possible. A greater amount might be present, provided 1 Keramik. p. 256. 2 Notizblatt, 1874, p. 16. 520 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM there were three times as much lime to destroy the red color, but even then the resulting tint would be yellowish. Even a very small amount, below 1%, may produce a grayish tint at high temperatures. Brick clays should contain sufficient iron to give a good red color, provided that is desired in the product. Eor fire clays a small iron percentage is desirable, in fact the total of fluxes should be low, and in every case the permissible quantity of iron, so far as its fluxing effect is concerned, depends on the relative amounts of the other fluxes contained in the clay. The following is the range of ferric oxid contained in a number of clays. Rind of clay Max. Min. * Aver. Brick clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32. 12 . 126 5. 311 Fire clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .01 7. 24 1. 506 Kaolins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tr 6.87 1. 29 Lime Lime is a very common impurity of many clays, specially of low grade ones. A large number of minerals may serve as its source, but in all of these it is present in one of three conditions. 1 As a silicate in certain feldspars, hornblende, garnet 2. As a carbonate, limestone or calcite, dolomite 3. As a sulfate in gypsum - The first two classes include primary mineral constituents of clays, but the third, gypsum, is most commonly of secondary origin, having resulted from chemical action within the clay. In many clays, lime probably occurs as a constituent of Some silicate mineral, a lime soda feldspar, hornblende or garnet. This would be the case if the clay was derived from an igneous or meta- morphic rock. There are other silicates containing lime, but their presence in clay is probably not very frequent. Lime when present in a silicate acts as a flux, but is seldom liable to exert a decolorizing CLAYS OF NEW YORK 521 action on the clay, by the formation of a double silicate of iron, lime and alumina, except at higher temperatures. Carbonate of lime is very abundant in clays, either sedimentary or residual, which have been derived from areas underlain by cal- careous rocks. It may result from the decomposition of lime-bear- ing feldspars. Its presence as carbonate can be frequently deter- mined by treating the clay with muriatic acid, which produces effervescence if more than 4% or 5% of lime carbonate is present. The effect of carbonate of lime in a clay depends on its physical condition. If present in the form of lumps or pebbles, it is very - injurious, and is commonly removed by screening or washing, or at times the clay is simply washed to break up the lumps. If present in a finely divided condition, it may not only be harmless but even desirable, provided there is not an excess of it. Clays with 20%–25% of carbonate of lime can be used for common or even pressed bricks, also for earthenware. Calcareous clays find an ad- ditional use in the manufacture of glazes. The effects of carbonate of lime may be briefly stated as follows. In burning the lime carbonate is broken up into carbon dioxid and caustic lime. If the clay is not raised to the temperature of vitrification in order to make the lime unite by fusion with other ingredients, the lime will absorb moisture from the air and slake. . The swelling which accompanies this may, if the lime is in lumps, cause a bursting or flaking of the brick. ſ Lime also tends to destroy the red color produced by iron in burning, giving a buff, or greenish product, depending on the in- tensity of the firing. To destroy the iron coloration, it is necessary for the clay to contain three times as much lime as iron. Buff colors are not always due to this cause, for a small percentage of iron in a clay may yield the same hue. In high grade clays large amounts of lime do not need to be con- sidered, for such materials can not be used; but in the manufacture of building brick, pressed brick, or terra cotta, it is sometimes neces. Sary to use clays with a large amount of lime, either from necessity, 522 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM or to obtain a cream colored ware. For the latter purpose semi-fire clays yield the best results, but are not always obtainable; hence calcareous clays must be used. It is therefore desirable to know the amount of lime carbonate which is allowable. A good, but not at the same time vitrified, brick can be made from a clay containing 20%–25% of lime carbonate, provided it is evenly and finely dis- tributed through the clay. The objection to highly calcareous clays is that the points of in- cipient fusion and vitrification lie so close together that it is not safe to burn them hard, because of the risk of fusing them. It has been found possible to separate these points however by the addition of quartz and feldspar to the clay, or by adding sand containing a large proportion of them." Aside from lowering the fusibility of a clay, and affecting its color when burned, lime also exerts a powerful effect on the shrinkage. - Seger * found that calcareous or marly clays required usually only 20%-24% of water to convert them from a dry condition into a work- able paste, whereas other clays needed 28%-35% of water to ac- complish the same change. In burning, such clays lose not only their combined water but also carbon dioxid, and consequently they are more porous than other clays up to the point of sintering, and this porosity, attended by diminution of shrinkage, increases with the amount of lime carbonate contained in the clay. The shrinkage may indeed be- come zero, or the brick even swell. The Small difference between the points of incipient fusion and viscosity have already been mentioned. Gypsum, the hydrated sulfate of lime, is not uncommon in Some clays, specially those which originally contained carbonate of lime and pyrite. The oxidation and decomposition of the latter produce sulfuric acid, which attacks the lime carbonate, producing lime 1 See “ Glazed brick ’’, p. 652. 2 Seger. Ges. Schrift, p. 265. CLAYS OF NEW YORK | 523 sulfate. This takes up water in chemical combination and forms gypsum. In many instances the presence of gypsum can be instantly de- tected by the large transparent crystals scattered through the clay; at other times it is found in the form of parallel fibres filling cracks or cavities in the clay. So far as the writer is aware, only the former type has been found in the New York clays. Gypsum may serve as a flux, but at the same time it may do considerable damage in the burning by the liberation of sulfuric acid, which in its efforts to escape may cause blisters on the surface of the ware. Lime may be introduced into a clay by absorption, where a clay deposit rests on a limestone or marl formation, the clay absorbing waters from below that contain lime in solution, which the clay tends to separate. All clays do not contain lime, and indeed it sometimes happens that the clays over very large areas are singularly free from it, while in other regions the opposite may be true. The clays in many parts of Alabama are remarkably low in lime. Those underlying the region around Chicago, and again around Buffalo have an ap- preciable amount of it. This material has been one of the chief causes in restricting the utilization of the Hudson valley clays, which for combining extent, location and accessibility are not sur- passed by any other deposit. The range of lime in different clays is given below. ! Kind of clay Min. Max. Aver. Brick clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .024. 23.20 2.017 Pottery clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 011 9.90 1 . 098 Fire clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O3 15. 27 . 655 Kaolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tr 2.58 .47 Magnesia Magnesia rarely occurs in clays in the same quantity as lime, and in fact seldom exceeds 2%. The same classes of compounds may fur- nish it as furnish lime, viz, silicates, carbonates and sulfates. The 524. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM silicates are probably the most important form of its occurrence in clay, and are represented by the minerals, mica, hornblende, chlorite and pyroxene. These are scaly minerals containing from 15%-25% of magnesia. Mica is a very common constituent of many clays, and its shining scales easily render it recognizable. Chlorite scales may be present in many clays, and if in abundance color the clay green. Hornblende also is not an uncommon constituent, and specially present in clays derived from rocks of very basic composi- tion, that is, those with a low silica percentage. Indeed the de- composition of hornblende may give rise to a hydrous aluminum silicate, which is highly colored by iron, the product therefore being a ferruginous clay. (G. P. Merrill's Rocks, rock-weathering and soils, p. 21) - * - Dolomite, the double carbonate of lime and magnesia, may be a source of magnesia as well as of lime in clay. - Magnesium sulfate, or Epsom Salts, occurs sparingly in clays, but when present may give rise to the formation of a white coating On the surface of the ware. It is commonly found in those clays where sulfuric acid, set free by the decomposition of pyrite, has attacked magnesium carbonates. The presence of this salt can frequently be detected by the bitter taste which it imparts to the clay. The chemical effects of magnesia in clays are probably similar to those produced by lime. This is not to be taken as absolutely cer- tain, for magnesia is present in most clays in such small amounts as to make its exact action uncertain. The range of the percentage of magnesia in the different clays, deduced from the analyses given at the end of this report, is as follows: Quality Min. Max. A Ver. Brick clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 02 11.03 2.66 Pottery clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O5 4.80 . 85 Fire clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - ... 02 6.25 . 513 Kaolins . . . . . . . , , , , , , s = < * * * * * * * * tr 2.42 .223 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 525 Silica Three types of silica may be recognized in clay: 1) quartz; 2) that which is combined with alumina and water in kaolinite; 3) that which is combined with one or more bases in silicate minerals. In chemical analysis the first and third are sometimes grouped together under the head of “sand,” or at times erroneously spoken of as “free * silica. The silica included under the term sand is prac- tically insoluble in sulfuric acid and caustic soda. This fact is utilized in the rational analysis of clay to extract the kaolinite or clay substance, which is soluble in sulfuric acid and caustic Soda. Quartz is present in every clay so far as analysis shows, but in variable amounts. Cook found a minimum of .2%, and gives 5% as the average in the Woodbridge fire clays. Wheeler” gives the minimum as .5% in the flint clays, and the Sand percentage as 20%–43% in the St Louis fire clays and 20%–50% in the Loess clays. 27 samples of Alabama clays analyzed by the writer contained from 5% to 50% of insoluble residue mostly quartz.” In 70 North Carolina" clays there were from 15.05% to 70.43% in- Soluble residue; while in three samples, of which a rational analysis was made, the percentage of sand was from 24.55% to 56.58%. The quartz varied from 16.58% to 49.06%, with the feldspathic residue from 7.52% to 16.05%. In European clays similar variations in the amount of sand and quartz are observable. Thus a clay from Hainstadt, Germany contains 67.03% of quartz (Ziegler Kalender. Berlin 1896), while one from Ruppersdorf showed .26%. (Seger’s Ges. Schrift. p. 891) The following table gives the variation in the total silica in four types of clay: Quality Min. Max. AV el’. Brick clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.35 90.877 59 . 27 Pottery clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45. 06 86.98 45.83 Fire clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.40 96.79 54.304 Raolins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.44 81. 18 55.44 1 N. J. geol. Sur. 1878. Clays of New Jersey, p. 213. 2 Mo. geol. Sur. 1896. 11 : 54. 3 Ala. geol. Sur. 1900. Bulletin no. 6. 4 N. C. geol. Sur. 1898. Bulletin no. 13, p. 24. 526 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The effects of free silica proper, or quartz, and sand on the behavior of the clay are to be considered separately. Quartz serves as a flux only at high temperatures, viz, 2800° F.; but at lower temperatures it tends to increase the refractoriness of the clay, and this property is governed somewhat by the size of the quartz grains and amount of fluxing material present, which will fuse at lower temperatures. In connection with the fluxing action of silica at high tem- peratures, the following experiments of Bischof's" may be quoted. Mixtures of alumina and silica were made in varying proportions, and their fusibility determined. The fusion point of alumina alone lies above come 36, while the fusion point of silica alone is at cone 35. Bischof found that a mixture of one equivalent of alumina and two of silica showed the greatest refractoriness. If the percentage of silica increases, the fusibility is gradually lowered, till the mixture of one alumina to 17 silica is reached, the fusibility of which is the Same as cone 30. With an increase of the silica, the refractoriness of the mixture again increases up to the fusion point of silica alone. Titanium, Titanium is probably of more widespread occurrence in clay than is commonly imagined. The apparent freedom of the clay from this impurity has resulted from the fact that in the usual quantitative analysis it is ordinarily overlooked. Its source is either the mineral rutile (oxid of titanium) or il- menite (the titanium-bearing magnetic Oxid of iron), or pos- sibly titanite. Much more importance has at times been at- tached to its presence than is really warranted, and some chem- ists, on finding traces of it, delight in dwelling on the important influence which it may exert on the properties of a clay. While it is present in many clays, the percentage seldom exceeds 1.5% to 2% The analyses of 21 New Jersey clays showed it to range from 1.06% to 1.93%. (Report on clays of N. J. 1878. p. 277) In 1 Seger. Ges. Schrift. p. 434. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 527 the Pennsylvania clays the variation was found to be from .87% to 4.62%. It probably reaches a far higher amount in bauxites than it does in clays, for analyses show a range commonly from 3% to 5% In order to determine definitely what the effect of titanium was, Seger and Cramer mixed two parts of sample of Zettlitz kaolin (which has 98.5% of clay substance) with respectively 5% and 10% of quartz, and two other samples of the kaolin with respectively 6.65% and 13% of titanium. These samples were molded into pyra- mids which were heated to a temperature above the fusing point of iron, with the following results. 1 Pure Zettlitz kaolin burned to a white, sharp-edged dense body. 2 100 pts kaolin and 10% silica burned white. 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Of COne 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 • *-ºs- Composition Fu i ng point • F. °C }}}#}}}; ; 4 so, 2 102 | | Iso }}}}}}}} |...}}4 so, 2 13s 1 to }}}#}}}}}#}} so, 2 111 || 1 190 }}} §§ | 0.5 Al2Os 4 SiO, 2 210 || 1 210 }}} §§ | 0. 5 Al2Os 5 SiO, 2 216 || 1 230 }} * .3 | 0.6 A1,Os 6 SiO, 2 282 || 1 250 }}} §§ | 0.7 Al,O, 7 SiO, 2 318 || 1 270 }} * 3 | 0.8 Al,Os 8 SiO, 2 354 || 1 290 }}}#}{0.9 Alo, 9 SiO, 2 390 1810 }}} §§ | 1.0 Al2Os 10 SiO, 2 426 || 1 330 }}}{3} 12 Alo, 12 so, 2 462 || 1 380 }}} §§ | 1.4 Al2Os 14 SiO, 2 498 || 1 370 }}}#3 | 1.6 Al2Os 16 SiO, 2 534 || 1 390 }} ; :3 | 1.8 Al2Os 18 SiO, 2 570 || 1 410 º § 2.1 Alo, 21 SiO, 2 606 || 1 480 }}} º | 24 Alo, 24 so, 2 642 || 1 450 }}} º | 2.7 Al,Os 27 SiO, 2 678 || 1 470 }}} §§ | 3.1 Al2Os 31 SiO, 2 714 || 1 490 }}} § 3.5 A,0, 85 Sio, 2 750 || 1 510 }}} §§ | 3.9 Al,Os 39 SiO, 2 786 || 1 530 }}} §3.4.4. Alſo, 44 so, 2 822 || 1 550 }}} § 4.9 Alſo, 49 so, 2 ses sto CLAYS OF NEW YORK 557 Composition and fusing points of Seger cones (continued) No. Of cone Composition Fusing point As • F. °C 0.3 K2O ) * 23 }} # &; 5.4 Alſo, 34 so, 2 sº | 1 500 (). 3 K,0 - - 24 }} * Gºo | 6.0 Al,O, 60 SiO, 2 930 || 1 610 ſº 0.3 K,O e 25 }}} § 6.6 Alo, 66 SiO, 2 966 || 1 630 26 %3 º' 7.2 Alo, 12 Sio, 3 002 || 1 650 0.7. CaO ( ' ' " +**2-’3 2 0.3 K2O g - 27 }}} § 20 A,0,200 SiO, 3 038 1670 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . Al,O, 10 SiO, 3 074 1 690 29 | . . . . . . . . . . Al,Os 8 SiO, 3 110 || 1 710 30 | . . . . . . . . . . . . Al2O, 6 SiO, 3 146 || 1 730 31 . . . . . . . . . . . Al,O, 5 SiO, 3 182 || 1 750 32 | . . . . . . . . . . . . Al,O, 4 SiO, 3 218 || 1 770 33 | . . . . . . . . Al,Os 3 SiO, 3 254 || 1 790 34 . . . . . . . . . . Al2O, 2.5 SiO, 3 290 || 1 810 35 | . . . . . . . . . . . Al,Os 2 SiO, 3 326 || 1 830 36 | . . . . . . . . . . . . Al2Os 1.5 SiO, 3 362 || 1 850 The theory of these pyramids is that the cone bends over as the temperature approaches its fusing point. If the heat is raised too rapidly the comes which contain much iron swell and blister and do not bend over, so the best results are obtained by the slow softening of the cone under a gradually rising temperature. For practical purposes these cones are considered sufficiently accurate. In actual use they are placed in the kiln at a point where they can be watched through a peep hole but at the same time will not receive the direct touch of the flame from the fuel. It is always well to put two or more cones in the kiln, so that warming can be had not only of the approach of the desired temperature, but also of the rapidity with which the temperature is rising. In order to determine the temperature of a kiln several comes of Separated numbers are put in, as for example: .07, 1, and 5. Sup- pose .07 and 1 are bent Over in burning but 5 is not affected, the temperature of the kiln is between 1 and 5. The next time mos. 2, 3 558 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and 4 are put in, 2 and 3 may be fused but 4 remains unaffected, indicating that the temperature reached the fusing point of 3. These pyramids have been much used by foreign manufacturers of clay products and are coming into use in the United States. There are several indirect methods of determining temperatures, but that of Bischof (Dingler’s Polyt. jour. 196: 438, 525; 198: 396) is perhaps the best known. This consists in increasing the refractoriness of weighed samples by adding to them increasing quantities of an intimate mixture of equal parts of chemically pure silica and alumina, and heating them with a prism of Saarau fire clay (whose fusing point is Seger come 36) to above the melting point of wrought iron. While involving more labor than the direct method, it has the advantage of requiring only one standard. This method was tried by Hofman and Demond (“Further ex- periments for determining the fusibility of fire clays *, Trans. Amer. inst. mim. emg. Mar. 1895) who mixed various samples of fire clays with varying proportions of calcium carbonate, and calcium carbonate and silica, to render them fusible at temperatures below the melting point of platinum, while common brick clays were mixed with alumina and silica to decrease their fusibility, the object of this being to arrive at a standard temperature at which both refractory and fusible clays could be tested. The results ob- tained at first were very satisfactory, but subsequent ones did not result as was desired and the method had to be abandoned. More recently however this method has been tried by J. L. Newell and G. A. Rockwell with much better results (Trans. Amer. inst. min. eng. Oct. 1898, “A modification of Bischof's method for determin- ing the fusibility of clays, as applied to nonrefractory ones, and the resistance of fire clays to fluxes'', H. O. Hofman) In the last experiments the Seger cone 26 was used as a standard, as it forms the line between refractory and nonrefractory clays, the nonrefractory ones being toned up till they show the same behavior in the fire as cone 26. The amount of toner added then gave an idea how far the clay stood below the lower limit of refractoriness. * CLAYS OF NEW YORK 559 The silica used in the experiments was quartz, ground to pass a 100 mesh sieve and purified by boiling in nitro-hydrochloric acid. It had 99.88% silica. The method followed was to weigh out samples of 1 gram of the The alumina contained 98.48 Al Og. clay to be tested and mix them severally with .1, .2, .3, etc., grams of the silica-alumina mixture. The samples were then tested in the Deville furnace. The following table gives the results of the experiments just de- scribed, the clays being arranged in the order of their refractoriness, and in each case the amount of flux being given that was required to raise the fusing point to that of come 26 of Seger. Analyses and results of tests. Sample no. 26a. 25a. 3a. 22a. 24a. 23a. 1982b Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Cent, Cent Cent Cent; SiO3. . . . . . . . 64. 10 55.60 57.10| 57.45| 57.15| 49.30| 43.94 Al2O3. . . . . . . 21.79| 24.34, 21. 29| 21.06| 20.26| 24.00| 11, 17 H2O comb. . . . 6.05 6.75 6.00, 5.90 5.50 9.40. 3.90 Total. . . . . . . 91.94 86.69| 84.39| 84.41| 82.91| 82.70 || 59.01 F.O.s . . . . . . . 2. 51 6.11| 7.31 7.54|| 7.54|| 8.40. 3.81 CaO. . . . . . . . (). 10 0.43 0.29| 0.29 0.90 0.56] 11.64 MgO. . . . . . . . 0.58|| 0.77| 1.53| 1.22 1.62| 1.60 4.17 IGO. . . . . . . . . 2.62. 3.00 3.44 3.27| 3.05 3.91| 2.90 Na2O . . . . . . . (). 03 () . 09|| 0 , 61| 0.39|| 0 , 58 () . 7] () . 7 Total. . . . . . . 5.84| 10.40|| 13. 18, 12. 71 || 13. 69|| 14 . 63. 23.23 Moisture . . . . | 1. 10| 2.65| 1.30| 1.90 2.70 | 1. 20, 15.66% Grand total. . 98.88| 99.74| 98.87| 99.02 99.30| 98.54| 98.00% Stiffening in- | gredient, p.c. 20 40 60 SO 80 100 180 a Analyzed by N. W. Lord. © Includes CO2. * Analyzed by E. Orton jr. d Includes P2O5, 0.10%. 560 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Thermoelectric pyrometer. Le Chatelier's thermoelectric pyrome- ter depends on the measurement of a current generated by the heating of a thermopile. The latter consists of two wires, one of platinum and the other an alloy 90% platinum and 10% rhodium, twisted together at their free ends for a distance of about an inch, while the next foot or two of their length is inclosed in a fire clay tube, so that when the couple is inserted in the furnace only the end which is held near the body whose temperature is to be meas- ured will receive the full force of the heat. The two wires con- nect with a galvanometer, the deflection of whose needle measures the temperature at the point where the free end of the wire couple is applied. As at present put on the market, the thermoelectric pyrometer costs about $180, and the price, together with the deli- cacy of the galvanometer, has tended to restrict its use. There is no reason however why One should not be made and put on the market for a much lower price. It is not necessary that the record- ing instrument shall be in the immediate vicinity of the kiln; it may be kept in another room where it is safe from dust and rough handling, and the wires can extend from there to the kiln. This pyrometer is considered to be accurate to within 10° F. Seger cones are very useful for determining the completion of firing, but the thermoelectric pyrºmeter serves as a guide during the burning operation, indicating whether the temperature is rising slowly or quickly, and whether steadily or unevenly. If careful records are kept of these facts during the firing of a kiln, and the results obtained compared, we are enabled to collect valuable data concerning the conditions necessary. A crude means of judging temperature is to observe the color of the fire as shown by the following table, which gives the color of a body when heated to different degrees, thus: Just glowing in the dark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97.70 F. Dark red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125.2° E. Cherry red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1666.9 F. Bright cherry red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1832° F. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 561 Orange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2102° E. White . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23729 F. Dazzling white . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2732° E. Mechanical analysis of clays The mechanical analysis of a clay determines the percentage of particles of different sizes which it contains. The method employed for this determination is partly a dry and partly a wet one. Clays which are used for the finer grades of ware have to be sufficiently fine to pass through a 150 mesh sieve. The relative quantity of coarser particles which a clay contains can be found out by sieving. If the clay grains are smaller than 1+y of an inch, the com- mon method of sorting them is by means of a rising current of “slumming ” and consists in water. This operation is known as brief of placing a known weight of clay in a vertical tube through which a current of water passes. The velocity of the current can be regulated. Careful experiment has determined the size of par- ticles that are carried off by a given velocity of the current. The water as it passes off at the top of the tube is conducted into jars, where the suspended particles are allowed to settle, and can after- wards be collected and weighed. The diameters of the grains commonly separated are: Clay substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Up to .01 mm Silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .01 — .025 mm Finest sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .025—. 04 mm Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .04 — . 2 mm An excess of the finest particles tends to increase the shrinkage of the clay, while the coarser particles have the reverse effect. For thorough comparative work on the physical properties of clay, it is well to make a mechanical analysis. This has been done with a number of the New York samples. Chemical effects of heating. On heating a clay to redness, it undergoes certain changes, which exert an influence on the physical 562 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM character of the clay, though the primary changes are of a chemi- cal nature. In kaolins this change simply amounts to the loss by the kaolinite or clay substance of its combined water. In impure clays many other changes may occur, viz: The burning off of organic matter. Limonite losing its water and becoming hematite. - Pyrite (FeS") becoming oxidized to ferric sulfates, which in turn are broken up by the expulsion of their sulfur, leaving hema- tite or ferric oxid. Both lime and magnesium carbonates if pres- ent will part with their carbon dioxid. The general effect of these changes is first to make the clay more porous, but subsequently to increase its shrinkage. The color of the clay is also changed. A chemical interaction between the com- ponent minerals of the clay has not taken place up to this point. It is held by Seger" that the more plastic a clay is when wet, the harder it will be after light burning. Such lightly burned wares will not, however, withstand weathering or pressure, and are very porous; resistance to weathering is attained only when certain por- tions of the clay fuse, and unite the whole into a stony mass. The shrinkage and decrease in porosity will be the greater, the larger the number of particles taking part in the fusion of the IOOla SS. The process of fusion involves two separate processes, one physi- cal, causing change in volume, and One chemical, giving rise to the formation of new compounds in the mass. These have a lower fusing point than the substances through whose interaction they were formed. In some cases however it is probable that solution takes place. From the foregoing it would appear that the fusion of a clay is influenced not only by the melting point of the most easily fusible component of the clay, but also by the relative amount of infusible ingredients, and the relative size of the fluxing and nonfluxing particles. In the earlier stages of fusion we must therefore look * Seger. Ges Schrift. p. 380. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 563 on the clay as a mixture of fused particles, with a skeleton of un- fused ones. If the proportion of the former to the latter is very small, there will be a strong hardening of the clay with little shrinkage, and the burned clay will still be porous. With an in- crease of temperature, and the fusion of more particles, the pores fill up more and more, and the shrinkage goes on till at the point of vitrification the spaces are completely filled. Above this point there is no longer a sufficiently strong skeleton to hold the mass together, and the clay begins to flow. The conditions which influence the difference in temperature between vitrification and viscosity still remain to be satisfactorily explained, but it probably depends on the relative amounts of fluxes and nonfluxes, and the size of grain of the latter. The preservation of form in burning is primarily dependent on the refractoriness of the mineralogic components which are pres- ent in the greatest quantity, because these build a framework or skeleton. In kaolins and some refractory clays this component is the clay substance. A feldspar percentage aids the fusion above a certain tempera- ture. At high temperatures the quartz tends to increase the fluid- ity of the fused clay, but at lower temperatures the quartz is to be classed with those components which aid in preserving the form, and in low grade clays the quartz has an important office in this connection. - The recent experiments of Hofman lead him to believe that size of grain does not influence the refractory qualities of a clay (Trans. Amer. inst min. eng. Oct. 1898), and in the case of fire clays tested by him this seems to be true. 564 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM CLASSIFICATION As clays show all gradations from the purest kaolins to the most impure brick clays, it is hard to draw any sharp lines of division between the different kinds. These great divisions can however be made, residual and sedimentary, and to these might be added a third, chemical precipitates. Each of these three may include varieties having similar prop- erties and similar uses. Seger makes the following divisions: 1 Yellow burning, containing lime and iron 2 Red burning, nomaluminous, ferruginous clays which are free from lime 3 White and yellow burning, clays low in both iron and lime 4. White burning, low in iron and high in alumina To give a classification based on the uses of the clay is also unsat- isfactory, for some clays may be used for as much as five or six different purposes, either alone or mixed with other clays. A rough classification based on their use would be perhaps some- what as follows: Brick clays Botter's clays China clays Fire clays A good idea of the varied uses of clays may be obtained from the following table compiled by R. T. Hill" and added to by the writer. Uses 1 Domestic. Utensils, porcelain ware; china ware; granite or iron-stone ware; yellow ware; rockingham ware; earthenware; ma- jolica; stoves; polishing brick. 2 Structural. Brick, common, front, pressed, ornamental, hol- low, glazed; adobe; terra cotta; roofing tile; glazed and encaustic 1 U. S. Geol. surv., 11 in. Tes. of U. S. 1891. p. 475. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 565 tile; drain tile; chimney flues; chimney pots; door knobs; puddling; portland cement; fireproofing; terra cotta lumber; paving brick copings 3 Agricultural. Drain tile, barn flooring 4 Hydraulic structures. Water conduits; sewer pipe; sewer brick; turbine wheels 5 Sanitary engineering. Granite ware; urinals and closet bowls; wash tubs; bath tubs; sewer pipe; ventilating flues; foundation blocks; vitrified brick - 6 Industrial uses. Crucibles and other assaying apparatus, acid vats and jars; acid bricks, gas retorts; fire bricks; glass pots; Sag- gers; stove and furnace linings; wall and writing paper fillings; porcelain chemical apparatus; grinding mills; insulators; pumps; filters; mineral paint; packing horses hoofs; fulling cloth; ultra- marine manufacture 7 Ornamental and esthetic uses. All forms of ornamental pot- tery; terra cotta and various forms of tiles either glazed or unglazed 8 Imitative uses. Food adulterants and paint adulterants Coloring agents This includes those substances which impart a definite color to the clay in burning. Pure clay would burn to a snow white color, but in nature it is frequently tinged with more or less impurity. The most common coloring agent is oxid of iron or iron compounds which, in burning, change to the oxid. The depth of color pro- duced in burning depends on the amount of iron present. It may vary from the lightest yellow to red and dark brown or bluish black. The presence of other compounds may however have a marked influence on the iron coloration. Some of the purest clays known, though containing a mere fraction of a per cent of iron oxid, will, nevertheless, when burned at a very high temperature, develop a very slightly yellow tint. If such clays have a con- siderable amount of feldspar added to them, they keep this yellow color; on the other hand the addition of quartz tends to minimize it. Magnesia and lime may exert a much stronger effect on the 566 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM color of clay and specially influence the coloring action of iron. Calcareous clays in burning develop a yellow, instead of a red color, and at the temperature of vitrification this passes into a yellowish green. Seger has shown that the color of a hard burned clay de- pends on the relation of iron oxid to alumina, and in calcareous clays on the ratio of iron oxid to lime. - Dümmler in his table of analyses" shows the ratio of iron and manganese oxid to the sum of nonvolatile constituents, and the ratio of lime and magnesia oxid to iron and manganese oxids. From this it follows that in all clays in which the combined iron and manganese oxids are more than ºr of the amount of the total non- volatiles, a distinct red color is produced, if at the same time the sum of the two is more than two and a half times greater than the combined magnesia Oxids. - Of course the grade of firing has an influence on the color, and in addition the composition of the kiln gases might exert a marked influence. Thus, for instance, clays high in iron burned slate blue in a reducing fire, while yellow burning noncalcareous clay takes on a distinct red color, if subjected to alternating reducing and oxidizing action. (Dümmler. Die Ziegel fabrikation, p. 42) The shades which ferric oxid takes in burning vary partly with the nature of its formation. According to Seger that which is made from ferric nitrate burns brown red, that from iron sulfate by ignition is reddish Orange. Heating deepens the color of the ferric oxid with increase of the temperature; and this holds true for all ferruginous clays, SO that in general the color of clay products containing iron will be darker the higher the temperature to which they are burned. A small percentage of iron in a clay produces a buff color when burned to, say 2000°F., but might give a red if burned to 2500°F. If a clay contains enough iron to color it red when burned to incipient fusion, it may become deep red or brownish at the tem- perature of vitrification, and black at the temperature of viscosity. 1 Die 2iegel fabrikation. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 567 The physical condition of the iron in the clay may also exert a marked influence. If the iron be distributed evenly through the clay in a finely divided condition or as a film around the clay grains, the coloration produced will be more even than if it were scattered through the clay as isolated grains. The percentage of iron oxid shown by analysis might in either case be the same, but the effect produced in burning would be an even color in the former case, and a speckled appearance in the latter. Ferrous oxid may form in burning, under several conditions; it may be due to the presence of organic matter, or to reducing action of the fire, or it may have existed in the unburned clay. It is not as strong a coloring agent as the ferric oxid. Alone it produces a green color in burning, but variable mixtures of ferrous and ferrie oxids are capable of producing a variety of shades. (See “ Division on iron ’’) Manganese oxid in general produces darker colors than iron. Other coloring substances might be present in clays in Small amounts. Cobalt oxid might produce a blue color, and chromium a green color. - Both cobalt and chromium are sometimes added to white or light burning clays to color them artificially, 5% of the former producing a bright blue, and 3%–1% of the latter giving a green. A black color can be produced by adding a mixture of 6% iron oxid, and 6% manga- nese superoxid. - Seger classifies clays according to the color assumed in burning as follows: - 1 Aluminous clays, poor in iron, which burn white or very slightly yellowish 2 Aluminous, moderately ferruginous clays, whose color when burned is pale yellow to light brown 3 Aluminous, ferruginous clays, such as brick clays, whose color when burned is brick red 4 Nonaluminous clays, rich in iron and lime, whose color when burned is yellow - 1 Seger. Ges. Schrift, p. 85. 568 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Without giving the composition of the clays which Seger ex- perimented on, in this connection it may be interesting to give some of his conclusions. f The first group includes the porcelain clays, and in these the ferric Oxid may at times exceed 1% without influencing the color. In this connection it is considered that the presence of a large amount Of alumina has the same effect as lime, in destroying the red color of the iron. Evidence of this fact is afforded by Seger's experiments on clays included in the second group. In the second group are included clays which burn white at low temperatures, with an occasional pink tint, but at higher tempera- tures show more or less yellowish or brownish color, but never a red, assuming a greenish color at the highest temperatures due to the reduction of the iron to a ferrous condition. The alumina in clays of this group is generally 20%–30% and even more, while the per- centage of ferric oxid may in some cases approach that of the brick clays, but it generally ranges between 1% and 5%. It is an interesting fact that a mixture of red burning clays of the third group and kaolin does not give a pale red product on burning, but instead a yellow one, which Seger believes is due to the excess of alumina. This group includes many fire clays, semi-fire clays, stoneware clays. Five examples are given by Seger to illustrate this effect of the alumina in destroying the red color of the ferric oxid. Their color when burned, as well as the ratio of ferric oxid to alumina, is given below. White to Light Yellow to Yellow yel, white yellow light brown brown Yellow Color when burned Ratio of ferric T oxid to alumina 1:13.2 1: 7 1: 5.4 1: 7.2 1: 6.3 The exact temperature at which these were burned is not stated but it was the same in each case. - This group somewhat resembles the fourth group in respect to the colors produced, but differs from it in fusibility, becoming porce- lain-like at high temperatures, and not green, but brown or gray in color. The percentage of alumina, it will be seen, far exceeds the iron. The color seems to be lighter the greater this excess. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 569 In the third group, which includes the brick clays, the alumina percentage is small as compared with the ferric oxid. They are all easily fused, and the percentage of lime, magnesia and alkalis is low in those which burn to a bright color. The usual color of Such clays when burned is red, which becomes deeper with an in- crease in the temperature and greater density, changes to violet red and finally becomes black. The percentage of ferric oxid is generally one third to one half the alumina percentage, as indicated by the following figures from five examples given by Seger. Color when burned Dark red ºjº chºed Dark red Dark red violet red cherry re Ratio of Al2Os: Fe2Os 1:2.8 I: 1, 19 1: 1.9 1: 1.29 1:1.29 A comparison of the second and third groups shows that those in which the alumina is not more than three times as great as the ferric oxid show a decided red color; those where it is five and one half times as great show a brown to yellow color. Probably other physical properties exert an influence, but these are not clearly understood. R The fourth group includes calcareous clays, and in this the succession of colors produced in burning is reversed. The ferric oxid exerts its coloring action at low temperatures, but at higher ones the influence of the lime is seen on the silicates of the clay, and the red passes into yellow or yellowish white, which at higher temperatures grades into green, and at viscosity becomes dark green or black. The relations between iron and alumina, and iron and lime, and the color when burned are shown below. Color With light burning red to flesh red; hard burning yellow white to O Sulphur yellow; at vitrification yellow green to green Fe2Os: Al,0s. . . . 1: 2.3 1: 1. 16 1: 3. 1 1: 2.5 1:2.5 1:2.4 Fe3Os: CaO. . . . . 1: 2.9 1: 3.2 1: 2.2 1: 3.0 1:3, 5 1: 2.2 The iron in this group runs about as high as in group 3, the lighter color being due to lime, the percentage of which ranges from 11%–19%. 570 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM The relation of Fe3Os to CaO it will be seen is as 1:2, or 1 : 3, but the lime could probably be lower still, and yet be effective. To prove this Seger took the red burning clay from Rathenow, whose composition is Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g is e s e e 61.30 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i e s c s s e e e s e e e e s e . . . . . . . . . IS. 87 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 66 Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' e s , s e e o e º e a e • - - - - i . S5 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 20 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 20 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. 28 To this clay he added increased amounts of lime, which gave the proportions of ferric oxid to lime carbonate in the different mixtures, as follows: 1:.18, 1:.48, 1:.83, 1:1. 18, 1:1. 53, 1:1.88, 1:2. 23, 1:2. 58, 1:2.93. - These nine samples were first burned at a red heat in a small gas furnace, and on cooling the color of all of them was found to be red. They were next heated to bright redness and after this it was found that the color of the first four was bright red, but still slightly off color, the more so the greater the proportion of lime which they contained. The fourth had a yellowish brown shell, one millimeter thick with a red interior. The fifth and sixth showed the yellow color to a greater depth, while the seventh and eighth were yellow throughout with a slight tinge of gray. From this Seger infers that the yellow color first appears when the proportion of ferric oxid to lime is as 1 to 1 As regards the action of ferrous oxid, Seger came to the con- clusion that in porous bricks the percentage of this can run quite high without producing much effect, but in dense bricks the re- verse is true. CLAY'S OF NEW YOREC 5'71 Brick clays often have more or less organic matter which may sometimes reduce the iron. Thus the clay from Rathenow, when ignited in a closed crucible, showed 2.20% of ferrous oxid. In the presence of air, however, it was converted to ferric oxid, for after being ignited for one hour, exposed to the air, the same clay showed only .76% of ferrous oxid. The black color of bricks is due to the reduction of iron in the last stages of burning. One interesting result of Seger's experiments is that Oxidation of the iron can take place within a clay which has been burned to vitrification. This was explained by an experiment in which he took a prism 2 cm thick, and burned it to vitrification. After burning, the surface of the prism was cherry red, but in passing from the middle to the surface the colors encountered were cherry red, gray red, gray green, black violet, gray green, gray red, and cherry red. An analysis of these different colored portions showed the following: Cherry red Gray green Black violet Ferric oxid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 : 35 3.43 2. 14 Ferrous oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 1.85 3.01 The above is explained by supposing that the flame of the fire caused a reducing action of the iron, which did not extend the entire distance to the core; later, on cooling the outer portion of the brick was reoxidized. 572 NEW YORIK STATE MUSEUM 4. GEOILOGIC DISTRIBUTION Clays or shales occur in every geologic formation even in the archean. It can be said in general that all those which are older than the Cretaceous are shale, while those of Cretaceous and Ter- tiary age are sometimes soft plastic clays, as those of New Jersey and Long Island, or at times shales, as exampled by the fire clays of Colorado. The Quaternary deposits of clay are all unconsolidated, so far as known, no shales occurring in this formation. The geologic age of a clay or shale is no indication of its com- mercial value, except at most for the comparison of two deposits in closely adjoining areas, but even here it is not safe to rely on such a guide. - Those deposits which are of marine origin are commonly much more extensive than those formed in inland waters. Occurrence of clay in New York state Deposits of clay or shale are to be found in nearly every county of the state. They are divisible into the following classes. 1 Residual clays Soft plastic clays 2 Sedimentary clays Shales or consolidated clays 1 Residual clays. Deposits of this type are rare in glaciated regions; still several small kaolin veins have been found to the east and southeast of Sharon Station on the New York & Harlem railroad, but it is doubtful if they will ever become of commercial importance. They are also found in the adjoining portion of Con- necticut, one being worked 4 miles east of Sharon. Residual clays also occur in association with the limonite deposits at Amenia, and in the vicinity of New York city the dolomitic lime- stones have by their decomposition sometimes given rise to clays of a residual nature. Old lake bottom, Spencer N. Y. Underlain by clay. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 5'73 The mellowed outcrops of many of the shale formations. Occur- ring within the state should also, perhaps, be classed under the head of residual clays. In the latter case however the clay is a product of disintegration; in the former, of decomposition. 2 Sedimentary clays. The soft plastic clays belong to three geologic formations, Quaternary, Tertiary and Cretaceous. The first class is by far the most common. The second class is somewhat indefinite in extent, but a large number of the Long Island deposits probably belong to it." Of the third class there are undoubted representatives on Long Island and Staten Island, as well as some additional ones on Long Island, which are questionable. The clays of the mainland are all Quaternary so far as known. This does not include the shales which are treated in a separate chapter. Many of the deposits are local and basin-shaped, lying in the bottoms of valleys which are often broad and fertile. They vary in depth from 4 to 20 or even 50 feet and as a rule they are underlain by modified drift or by bed rock. The clay is gen- erally of a blue color, the uppermost portion for a few feet being weathered red or yellow. Stratification is sometimes present, and streaks of marl are common. In some of the beds Small pebbles, usually of limestone, are found, and these have to be separated by special machinery in the process of manufacture; at other localities the clay is covered by a foot or more of peat. The basin-shaped deposits are no doubt the sites of former ponds or lakes, formed commonly by the damming up of the valleys, and filled later with the sediment of the streams from the retreating ice sheet. The valleys in which these deposits lie are usually broad and shallow, that in which the Genesee river flows from Mt Morris to Rochester being a good example. The waters of the river were backed up by the ice for a time, during which the valley was con- verted into a shallow lake in which a large amount of aluminous mud was deposited. This material has been employed for common brick. 1 F. J. H. Merrill. “Geology of Long Island,” Ann. N. Y. acad. sci. Nov. 1884. 574 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM An idea of the depth of clay and alluvium in the Genesee valley may be had from the following table. The figures have been taken from the records of salt wells. Y Ork! York salt co. Clay 52 ft, Piffard! Genesee salt co. Clay and gravel 64 ft C & Livingston Salt co. “SOil 223 158 ft Cuylerville' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “SOil 22 184 ft. Mt Morris" Royal salt co. “Soil 22 191 ft. For other localities the following depths are given. Aurora' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blue clay 15 ft, Wyoming" Pioneer well... . . . . . . . . . Soil and clay 40 ft Warsaw! Standard salt co. Surface, soil and clay 26 ft, (6 Gouinlock and Humphrey clay 17 ft, There are a number of these deposits which are of sufficient in- terest, geologically as well as commercially, to be mentioned in some detail. t At Dunkirk there is a bed of clay having a depth of over 20 feet. The upper 6 feet are yellow and of a sandy nature, while the lower two thirds are blue and of much better quality. It is men- tioned by Prof. Hall" in his report, and is an instructive example of the manner in which the clay changes in color, downward as far as the water can percolate and oxidize the iron. Around Buffalo is an extensive series of flats underlain by a red clay. A thin layer of sand suitable for tempering overlies the clay in spots, and limestone pebbles are scattered through it. Similar deposits occur at several localities to the north of the ridge road and around Niagara Falls, also at Tonawanda and La Salle, to the north of Buffalo, as well as south of it along the shore of Lake Erie. Much of this clay was deposited during the former extension of the great lakes. IProf. Hall mentions deposits of clay at the following localities: at Linden one mile south of Yates Center;" along the shore of Lake 1 I. P. Bishop. 5th ann. rep’t N. Y. state geologist. 1885. * The term soil is probably meant to indicate sand and clay. 3 Ann. Tep’t Omondaga salt springs. 1888. p. 19. 4 Geol. New York, 4th district. 1843. p. 362. 5 & & p. 437. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 575 Ontario east of Lewiston; on Cashaqua creek” deposits of tenacious clay due to the crumbling of the argillaceous green shales. In Niagara co.” beds of clay are said to occur in every town, but they often contain a considerable amount of lime. A bed of blue and red clay is being worked at Brighton near Tochester. This deposit lies near the head of Irondequoit bay and was deposited by some stream flowing into it. To the Southeast of Rochester is a large eskar which extends in a northeast direction to near Brighton. Mr Upham, who has described this eskar, con- siders that it was formed by a river which flowed between walls of ice and deposited the bed of clay above mentioned.” Clays are also found at several points in the valley of the Oswego river from Syracuse to Oswego, an important one being at Three River point. An extensive bed of red and gray clay, 20 acres in extent and horizontally stratified, occurs at Watertown. The deposit is 20 feet thick and rests on Trenton limestone. Another deposit of considerable size is being worked at Ogdens- burg. The clay is blue and has a depth of 60 feet. At Madrid, in St Lawrence co., is a small deposit, probably the remnant of a formerly extensive One. The Section is: Yellow stratified sand . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * tº º º ºs º º 3 feet Blue clay with shells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. “ Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 “ Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 “ The shells are probably M a com a fus c a Adams Turning our attention to the Southern portion of the state we find clays in abundance, in all the valleys and lowlands, the exten- 1 Geol. New York, 4th district. 1843. p. 227. 2 & 6 p. 444. 3 Roch. acad. Sci. proc., 2: 181. 576 INEW YORE STATE MUSIEUM sive marshes near Randolph and Conewango for example being underlain by clay throughout their entire extent." At Levant, 4 miles east of Jamestown, Chautauqua co., is an interesting bed of blue clay underlying an area of several acres. It is probably of postglacial age, and the section as determined by an artesian well-boring is: Yellow sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet Quicksand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 inches Yellow clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 feet Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 “ Hardpan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S3 “ The owner of the clay bed informed me that leaves were often found between the layers of the clay at a depth of 15 or 20 feet. At Breesport near Elmira there was a bank of blue clay rising from the valley to a hight of 50 feet, but it represents the lens- shaped type of clay deposit included in the moraine at many points, and has been worked out. A similar deposit is found at New- field 6 miles south of Ithaca, where a moraine crosses the val- ley, the clay forming a large portion of one of the morainal hills, but Surrounded by till. Deposits of clay suitable for brick and tile occur extensively in the lowlands bordering the Mohawk river from Rome to Schenectady. The beds vary in thickness from 6 to 15 feet and are mostly of a red, blue, or gray color. Among the most extensive and important clay formations occurring in New York are those of the Hudson valley.” Here are deposits of two types: 1) estuary deposits of fine stratified sand, yellow and blue clay, and 2) cross-bedded delta deposits, the materials of which are much coarser. The estuary deposits indicate a period of depression, and deposition in quiet water. 1 Geol. New York, 4th district. 1843. 2 H. Ries, Rep’t of N. Y. state geologist, 1890. Plate 3 To face page 577 - H. Ries photo. Aldridge Bros. clay bank, Dutchess Junction. This represents the stratified clay of the Hudson valley. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 57.7 The clay is chiefly blue, but where the overlying Sand is wanting or is of slight thickness, it is weathered to yellow, this weather- ing often extending to a depth of 15 feet below the surface, and to a still greater depth along the line of fissures through which the water can percolate. The depth of oxidation is of course influ- enced by the nature of the clay, the upper portion weathering easily on account of its more sandy nature and hence looser text- ure. Horizontal stratification is marked and the layers of clay are separated by extremely thin laminae of sand. At some locali- ties the layers of the clay are very thin and alternate with equally thin layers of sandy clay. This condition is found at Haverstraw, Croton, Dutchess Junction, Stonypoint, Fishkill, Cornwall, New Windsor, Catskill and Port Ewen. At all of the above mentioned localities except the last two, the clay is overlain by the delta de- posits of rivers tributary to the Hudson, and the alternation of layers may be due to variations in the flow of the rivers emptying at those points, the Sandy layers being deposited during period of floods. The delta of Catskill creek has been found at Leeds, some 2 miles west of the Hudson river." The delta of Rondout creek, which flows into the Hudson at Port Ewen, will no doubt be found by following the creek back to the ancient shore line of the Hudson estuary. Isolated ice-scratched boulders are not uncom- monly found in the clay. There is often a sharp line of division between the yellow weathered portion and the blue or unweathered part of the clay. The line of separation between the clay and overlying sand is also quite distinct in most cases. Of the blue and the yellow clay the former is the more plastic, but both effervesce readily with acid due to the presence of 3%–6% of carbonate of lime, and are therefore, properly speaking, marly clays. The clay is underlain by a bed of gravel, sand, hardpan, boulder, till or bed rock. From Albany to Catskill the underlying material is a dark gray or black sand 1 W. M. Davis. Proc. Bost. Soc. mat. hist. Nov. 1892. 578 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM with pebbles of shale and quartz. The sand grains are chiefly ground-up shale, the rest being silicious and calcareous, with a few grains of feldspar and garnet. This sand can often be used for tempering, but at Catskill contains too much lime for this purpose. I have not observed this underlying sand and gravel reaching a greater hight than 90 to 100 feet above sea level. From Catskill northward the clay is in most cases covered by but a foot or two of loam, but south of Catskill it is mostly a fine sand. At Catskill a terrace extends back 2 miles and probably more; it is deeply incised by Catskill and IXaaterskill creeks and smaller streams and rocky islands project above its surface at vari- ous points. The terrace can be traced up to Walkill valley to a point several miles south of New Paltz. Along the West Shore railroad track, about 150 feet south of the station, the side of the cutting consists of thin alternating layers of clay and sand 27 feet thick. Above this, in places, is 9 feet of fine, stratified, yellowish sand. The clay extends along the track for about one fourth of a mile till it meets an outcrop of Hudson river sandstone. On the south side of the Catskill mountain railroad, 100 feet from the bridge, is an exposure of Sand and gravel, the pebbles being very coarse. It is presumably drift material, but the exposure is an isolated one and does not show its relation to other deposits of the vicinity. At Smith’s dock, on the land of T. Brousseau near the river, the upper portion of the terrace escarpment consists of fine stratified sand, which has been excavated to a depth of 12 feet with- out finding clay, while farther back from the river the clay extends to within 2 feet of the terrace level. The Hudson river shale rises steeply along the water’s edge from here down to Malden, and crops out at numerous points in the terrace escarpment. The clay along here is probably not of great depth. Clay is found in the railroad cutting to the north of Malden station, about 7 feet above the track level, and clay is exposed in numerous cuttings of the West Shore railroad, from Malden to Mt Marion. Plate 4 To face page 578 º J. N. Nevius photo. Section of quaternary sand and gravel beds, at North Albany, Albany county. This is the material which is found underlying the clay in the Hudson valley as far south as Catskill. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 579 IFrom Glasco to Rondout the terrace, which is perhaps one eighth of a mile broad at Glasco, narrows as it nears Rondout, and has an average hight of 150 feet. The clays, so far as could be ascer- tained, lie on the upturned edges of the Utica shale. At the rear of A. S. Staples's yard hardpan underlies the clay. The overlying material at this locality consists of sand and gravel, in many instances stratified and sometimes cross-bedded. The sand in some spots is 10 to 15 feet thick and fine enough to be blown by the wind. - At Port Ewen the clay is mostly blue, resting on a mass of hardpan, and in a few places on the glaciated rock surface. Accord- ing to Mr Kline, of Port Ewen, the clay around the village is nowhere over 18 feet in actual thickness and is underlain by hard- pan. A point worthy of notice is the difference in level of 50 feet between the terrace at Port Ewen and at Glasco. It has been suggested by Dr Frederick J. H. Merrill that this may be due to the fact that, when sediment is deposited in a basin its edge would be higher than the center. The Quaternary formation broadens on toward the west, and Port Ewen would be a point on the basin's edge, while Glasco is near the center. In this connection the following well records are of interest. A boring made on the property of Isaac Tamney, at Eddyville, showed: Sandy loam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet Quicksand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 “ Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 “ Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 “ 580 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In boring another well at the same locality the following strata were passed through: Yellow clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 sº-º-º-mºmº Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Still another at Rosendale, on the land of R. Lefever: Loam and yellow clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 At Lefever Falls: Coarse sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Quicksand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 At Rosendale plains: Sandy soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Quicksand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Blue clay and quicksand alternating. . . . . . . . . 150 Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 feet & 4 & 4 & 4 K& & 4 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 581 We now come to a narrow portion of the river from Staatsburg to New Hamburg, where the terrace if present is of Small extent, and presumably underlain by drift material. Where the river broadens out again at Roseton, at the head of Newburgh bay, there is a thick bed of clay. It is nearly all blue and underlies the remnant of a terrace 120 feet high, which has escaped entire destruction owing to its position in a reentrant angle of the upper Cambrian limestone ridge along the river at this point. The overlying stratified sand and gravel is 10 to 15 feet thick. At Jova's upper yard the clay rests on the glaciated limestone, over whose surface are scattered several boulders of the same rock. The clay at Rose's yard is 180 feet thick, while that at Jova's has a total thickness of 240 feet. A boring of 135 feet made at Rose's yard at river level is of interest in connec- tion with the depth of the preglacial channel of the Hudson. Borings recently made indicate that most of the 135 feet is sandy blue clay." About 800 feet south of Roseton station the material under the terrace is a yellowish loamy clay, thinly stratified. This may be a portion of the secondary come of the delta of Wappinger's creek at New Hamburg. North of this a cutting has been made in the terrace escarpment, the Section exposed showing alternating layers of yellow and black sand. From Newburgh to New Windsor the clay is overlain by the ex- tensive delta deposits of Quassaic creek and Moodna river. To the east of Mrs T. Christie's yard the clay, which is mostly blue and thin layered, is overlaid by fine gravel and sand obscurely cross- stratified in places. Over this is 3 to 4 feet of sandy soil. The upper layers of the clay are wrinkled in places, probably owing to the oblique downward pressure of the overlying delta deposits. It seems likely that at this spot only a small portion of them re- mains, much having probably been eroded. At Lang's yard, south of Christie's, there is 4 to 6 feet of sand and gravel over the clay, 1 T. A. I. M. E. 1SQ9. 29 : 76. 582 INEW YORK STATE MUSEUMI of the same nature as that previously mentioned. Scattered all through the clay are cobbles of limestone. The upper strata are loamy and contorted, while underneath in the yellow clay, which is very tough, the stratification is almost entirely obliterated. At the next bank, also belonging to Lang, there is 6 feet of Overlying sand and gravel. Scattered through the clay are several boulders of Calciferous Sandrock, sandstone, black crystalline limestone and gneiss. The overlying material is mostly unstratified and many of the pebbles are 8 inches in diameter. At the bank of J. T. Moore the clay is very tough, and the stratification is obliterated in spots. Several ice-scratched boulders of light blue limestone, sand- stone and Calciferous sandrock were found in the clay. In Moore & Lahey’s bank the clay is tough and compressed, similar to the other yards. It likewise contains scratched boulders, specially of a light blue crystalline limestone. Over the clay is 2 to 4 feet of coarse Sand and gravel. In the west side of the New York, Ontario & Western railroad, where it branches off from the West Shore railroad, a cutting in the hillside shows a cross-bedded, yellowish sand and loamy clay with patches of gravel and cobblestones in it. Tollowing along the track a few hundred feet we come to the clay bank of C. A. and A. P. Hedges. This shows an interesting section of blue clay overlain by 50 to 60 feet of cross-bedded delta deposits of sand and gravel. The clay layers are obliterated in spots and in others much con- torted. To the north of Hedges's yard in the railroad cutting the clay is overlain by 5 to 6 feet of Sand and coarse stones, unstratified. Following up the track on the left side just beyond the crossing of the road from Canterbury to New Windsor the embankment of Sand and coarse gravel is cross-stratified, being a portion of the delta of Moodna river. The character of this embankment changes after about 400 feet to unstratified drift, containing boulders. This underlies the delta material. The upper terrace at Cornwall is un- derlain by boulder drift. Its structure is well shown along the track at Cornwall. Clay I’late 5 To face page 582 º º . º - º Clay at New Windsor showing glaciated boulder in it. CLAYS OF NEW YORIK 583 was observed in a meadow opposite the Roman Catholic church; it was exposed in digging drainage trenches. Near this locality, but a little nearer the river, were found several mastodon bones. At Jonespoint there was formerly a small deposit of clay, but it has been entirely worked out. • Haverstraw has three terraces, viz, at 20, 60 and 100 feet. The clay so far as known is only found underlying the two lower ones, the upper one being underlain by drift and delta deposits. There is a deposit of clay at Stonypoint forming a portion of the 20 foot terrace. The upper layers of clay are in places loamy and undulating. Over the clay is a mass of unstratified material from 2 to 8 feet thick, and the upper surface of the clay is uneven. The overlying unstratified material is a coarse sand full of cobble- stones, gneiss, schist and granite, all of them rounded but not scratched. On the hillside to the west of this deposit is a large, isolated boulder of granite. The upper terrace at Stonypoint is about 75 feet higher than the station level; a portion of this terrace remains about one eighth of a mile north of Stonypoint station on the west side of the track. On the west side of the track where it crosses Cedar Pond brook the delta structure is observable in the embankment, the upper portion of which consists of coarse sand, pebbles and cobblestones which are mostly of gneiss. The lower layers exposed at this point are quite argillaceous. A short distance below the West Haverstraw station and some 500 feet west of the track, an excavation had been made for tempering material. It exposes a fine yellowish cross-stratified sand overlain by several feet of coarse sand and cobblestones. In T. Malley’s clay bank along the shore on the north side of Grassy point, the clay is not found above tide level and is Overlain by 3 to 4 feet of fine gravel. To the northeast of P. Brophy’s yard is the remnant of a terrace. It is composed of obscurely cross-stratified sand and gravel, overlain by a few feet of loamy clay, very thinly stratified and the layers wavy. There is a boulder of norite in this bank; there are also cobblestones of 5S4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM diorite, gneiss and red sandstone. About 600 feet to the west of the yard of D. Fowler jr & Washburn the clay is being excavated in the terrace escarpment, which is here 45 to 50 feet high. It is mostly blue, thinly stratified and overlain by obscurely stratified gravel and sand. In this excavation was a small ice-scratched boulder which had been found in the clay. At J. Brennan’s yard the clay is overlain by 2 to 3 feet of fine sand, and on this is a layer of indistinctly stratified fine gravel 6 to 7 feet thick, with a covering of one foot of soil. The terrace at this point is about 50 feet high. Cobbles 1 to 2 feet in diameter of granite, gneiss and pegmatite were found in this bank. Farther south at Peck’s yard, several boulders of granite, limestone and sandstone were found in the clay. Those seen were in the lower portion of the bed, but I was told that several had been found in the upper portion. Along the river behind the yards of the Excelsior and Diamond brick co. most of the overlying material has been removed by stripping, but, judging from what is left, it must have been 10 to 15 feet thick. South of Haverstraw the contact of the clay with the underlying drift can be observed, the clay thinning out as it approaches the hill. Some 2 miles south from Haverstraw, and half way between the stations of Ivy Leaf and Thiells on the New York & New Jersey railroad in the valley of Ivory creek, is a basin- shaped deposit of clay belonging to E. W. Christie. It is not over 15 feet thick as determined by boring, and has a slightly elliptic outline. The valley in which it lies is full of glacial material, and contains numerous kames, whose axes lie parallel to the direction of the valley. The clay is underlain by drift material containing boulders of quartzite, calciferous Sandrock, granite, Sandstone, gneiss and schist. Over the clay is 1 to 2 feet of sand contain- ing large ice-Scratched stones of quartzite, gneiss and Schist. This clay deposit was probably formed in a small lake. If it were a portion of the Hudson river estuary deposits, it would indicate a much greater submergence than 100 feet, supposed for this region, CLAYS OF NEW YORK 585 for this locality is 250 feet above the level of the Hudson river. On either side of the track at Thiells are probably remnants of a terrace. The clay bank of the Anchor brick co. at Croton landing is elliptic in outline and lies on a bed of granite, gneiss, Schist, and white crystalline limestone pebbles, cemented together by clay, covered with limonite. Large pebbles are scattered through the clay, the layers of which are undulating, conforming to the shape of the underlying surface. Over the clay is 4 to 6 feet of gravel and sand. South of this yard an excavation has been made under the terrace for obtaining gravel, exposing a section of Croton delta. Projecting up into it is a mass of boulder-till. About the middle of Croton point are the clay pits of the Under- hill brick co. Their clay is overlain by the sandy beds of Croton delta. The material composing it was evidently derived from the crystalline rocks of the surrounding country. It is often micaceous and of a yellow color. Scattered through this sand are great num- bers of botryoidal sand concretions, some of them forming masses 6 feet long and 3 to 4 feet wide. They show the layers of deposi- tion of the sand. The clay at Crugers, Montrose and Verplanck lies in hollows in the rock, being as much as 50 feet thick in Some places. At Crugers it is overlain by a few feet of loam; at Montrose by stratified Sand, varying in depth from 5 to 20 feet, according to borings made. Along the Hudson River railroad track below Montrose, at Morton’s yard, the clay is overlain by from 8 to 10 feet of fine gravel, and cross-stratified sand of a dark gray or black color. The materials composing it are, to a great extent, ground up crystalline rocks. The same material covers the clay at McConnell & O’Brien's bank. At the clay beds of the Hud- son river brick co. at Verplanck, the clay is covered by yellowish sand and fine dark colored gravel; usually they are unstratified, but in a few spots show cross-bedding. A short distance below Peekskill, at Bonner & Cole's yard, is a remnant of a 20 foot terrace. There is here a deposit of clay 586 INIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM not extending more than 4 feet above tide, and overlain by an unstratified layer 5 feet thick, of coarse sand and cobblestones, mostly gneiss. From Stormking station to Dutchess Junction there is a stretch of terrace, which extends back to the foot of Breakneck and Fish- kill mountains. The maximum hight of it is 210 feet. Various firms are digging clay in the terrace escarpment the greater part of its length. A well of 65 feet sunk at Aldridge's yard from tide level still showed clay, and adding to this 65 feet of clay above the river level gives us a thickness of 130 feet at this point. The character and thickness of the overlying material varies somewhat. To the rear of Timoney’s yard some 700 feet, the terrace has been excavated to a depth of 30 feet, exposing a mass of coarse sand, gravel and cobblestones, mostly granites, gneisses and Schists. One portion of it is stratified, and at the base of the excavation at one point yellow clay has been found. At Timoney’s yard there is 1 or 2 feet of loam overlying the clay and a growth of brush covers the terrace. At Van Buren’s yard the upper layers of clay alternate with layers of sand; the upper 6 feet of the terrace at this point is gravel, the pebbles of it being mostly granite and gneisses. At Aldridge's yard the clay is covered by 6 to 8 feet of unstratified gravel and sand, while at another spot on top of this bank is 12 or 15 feet of fine yellow sand, which shows no stratification. The upper layers of Barnacue & Dow’s clay are like those at Van Buren’s, but covered by 4 feet of sand and over this in places 6 to 8 feet of coarse gravel. Nothing is known of the underlying material at these yards. The whole of Denning’s point is covered with a fine stratified yellowish sand. The clay, which lies at the base of the point, has a thin covering of loam, and the upper layers are somewhat wrinkled. There is another stretch of terrace similar to that below Dutchess Junction and of the same hight, extending from one half mile above Fishkill to Low point. At most places the clay is covered by a few feet of loamy soil. Several boulders have been found in the clay at Brockway's yard. Several feet of loam Plate 6 To face page 586 H. Ries photo. Section one half mile northeast of Brockway's brickyard, north of Fishkill landing. It shows the contact of the loam overlying the clay and the stratified drift underlying the latter, the clay having thinned out. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 587 overlie the clay at Lahey’s, Brockway's and Dinan & Butler's yards. At J. W. Meade's yard, a short distance below Low point, the clay is covered by about 3 feet of sand, faintly stratified, and above this 6 to 8 feet of unstratified material; coarse sand, pebbles and cobblestones, some of them 18 inches in diameter. Most of them are archean rocks, but there are also fragments of shale, limestone, Sandstone and a few of them contained Paleozoic fossils. About 1000 feet south of Meade's yard is a gravel bank 8 to 15 feet thick of material similar to that overlying the clay in Meade's bank. At the base of this embankment in a few spots yellowish clay overlain by stratified sand has been struck. The following sections are those of wells bored at Rhinebeck. On the land of Robert Duckley: Soil and yellow clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 “ Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 “ On T. Reed’s property: Soil and yellow clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet Quicksand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 “ Hardpan . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * tº e º e º e º º e º e s e Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 “ On J. O’Brien’s property: Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 feet Quicksand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 “ Hardpan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 “ Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'e e s e s e e 47 “ 588 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The clay deposits of Hudson, Stockport and Stuyvesant are like those at Coeymans Landing, being overlain in most places by a few feet of loam and underlain by dark sand and gravel. At Stockport two ice-scratched boulders were found in the clay; one of them 3 feet in diameter, the other three times as large. To the north of Brousseau's yard at Stuyvesant the surface ma- terial is stratified sand, 15 feet of it being exposed thus far. Recently a number of borings have been made in the Hudson river clays in the interest of a syndicate, and these corroborate most of the observations already published. One interesting fact brought out by the sections is the abruptness of the face of the rock underlying the clays. The borings in no case attempted to go to the bottom of the deposit, but stopped when the Sandy beds of clay, that seem to constitute a lower member of the deposit, were en- countered. (“Economic geology of the Hudson river clays,” C. C. Jones, Trans. Amer. inst, min. eng., Feb. 1899) The delta deposits of the streams tributary to the Hudson river are extremely interesting. They give us an idea of the size of the rivers flowing into the Hudson valley when it formed an estuary, and also indicate the amount of depression which took place at those localities. All three portions of a delta may be observed in the ancient deltas on the Hudson; they are the thin layers of loamy clay which form the secondary alluvial cone of the delta, the cross-stratified sand and gravel and the Overlying unassorted material. This was observed at Haverstraw, New Windsor, Low point and Dutchess Junction. The following streams between New York and Poughkeepsie have formed delta deposits; (as noted by Dr Frederick J. H. Mer- rill.") Wappinger creek, New Hamburg; Fishkill creek; Indian creek, Coldspring; Peekskill; Croton river; Pocantico river, Tarry- town; Sawmill river, Yonkers; Tibbitt's brook, Van Cortland; Minisceongo creek, Haverstraw ; Cedar pond brook, Haverstraw; Moodna river, Cornwall; and Quassaic creek, Newburgh. At the 1 Almer. jour. sci. June 1891. 3: 41. Plate 7 To face page 588 - H. Ries photo. View looking north from N. Y. C. R. R. trestle at Peekskill, Westchester co. The terrace on the right is a 120 ft delta terrace. To face page 589 Plate 8 º WYNKOOF HALLENBººk. CRAWFCRD CO. Section of Croton river delta in railroad cut, one mile south of Croton landing, Westchester co. H. Ries photo. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 589 present day but traces of these deposits remain, and the streams which formed them have cut down through them below tide level. Dr Merrill thinks it highly probable that these deltas once filled a large portion of the valley in the Highlands. At Roseton, as already mentioned, there is a deposit which may have come from the delta of Wappinger creek. Also at Jonespoint oppo- site Peekskill there is a terrace composed of transported material, which Dr Merrill for a while regarded as a portion of Peekskill delta; the size of the pebbles composing it caused him to give up this view. There is however in the upper portion of the terrace, a layer of unassorted material which is slightly separated from the rest; also at the south end of the terrace, a portion of thinly and obscurely stratified loamy clay, which may have formed a portion of the secondary come of this delta. At Croton, Haverstraw and Cornwall, also at New Windsor, the clay is overlain by delta ma- terial, and where this occurs, specially at Croton, the upper limit of the clay is comparatively low, it having probably been eroded to a certain extent by the river entering the estuary at that point, and again it is not likely that very much clay would be deposited around the mouth of the river on account of the current. This may have been the case below Peekskill. - In general the upper limit of the clay increases northward as does the terrace level. To illustrate this point we have the follow- ing altitudes. East side Croton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Peekskill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Fishkill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 West Side Haverstraw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 100 Westpoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 Cornwall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 200 Newburgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Port Ewen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Schenectady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360 590 NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUML These measurements apply, of course, to the upper terrace, which can be traced along many portions of the river." An examination of the above figures and the distances between the points mentioned indicates an interesting fact. Between New York and Peekskill, a distance of 45 miles, the terrace rises 40 feet, or eight ninths of a foot a mile. From Peekskill to West- point the rise is eight feet a mile. From Westpoint to New- burgh the terraces ascend 2% feet, and from Newburgh to Albany about five twelfths of a foot a mile. From the above it would seem that the uplift from New York to Albany did not increase uniformly, but was slightly greater along the axis of the Highlands. To determine this point definitely requires a large number of accur- ate terrace measurements. The following are the number of ter- races noticed at the different localities. & Athens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Port Ewen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Cornwall . . . . . . . . . ? & tº * * * * * * * * * * * * * * > * > * * * * * e º e e º 'º e 2 Haverstraw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Stonypoint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * & © gº tº º tº e º 'º e º ſº 3 Peekskill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Fishkill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Stormking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . \ 2 Schodack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The shore line of the upper terrace is generally some distance back from the river. In fact, as we go up the river, specially above Port Ewen, the shore line recedes. At Port Ewen the ter- race is 207 feet above tide, but it is fully 225 feet at the base of Hussey mountain, which was an island in the estuary. The terrace extends up the Wallkill valley several miles.” It seems not im- probable that a shore line of this Quaternary deposit will be found along the base of the Catskill mountains, or not far from there. 1 For detailed statement of terrace altitudes, see H. Ries, Trams. N. Y. acad. sci. Nov. 1891, - - 2 There is possibly a second lower terrace at Peekskill. 3 Mather. Geol. New York, 1st dist. 1843. p. 131. Plate 9 To face page 591 -- - - - *Nº ºvº- H. Ries photo. Quaternary plain at foot of Helderberg escarpment between Ravena and South Bethlehem, Albany co. CLAYS OF NEW YORIK 591 At Coeymans Landing the terrace is 140 feet, and it rises to 177 feet at the West Shore railroad station, about a mile from the river then a hill hides the farther continuation of it from view. Between South Bethlehem and Callamans Corners the shore line of the terrace along the base of the Helderberg escarpment is well seen. From Catskill up to Albany the terrace at most points is very wide. At Coxsackie it extends behind the hill to the south of the town and comes down along Murder creek to Athens. From Albany an alluvial plain, belonging to this formation, spreads westward, reaching a hight of 360 feet near Schenectady. The surface of these terraces is usually a loamy soil of much agricul- tural value. Following up Croton river as far as Croton lake, remnants of terraces are seen at various points, their hight above the river bed decreasing as we recede from the Hudson. The majority of these detached pieces seem to belong to a terrace formed at the same time as the 100 feet one at Croton landing. There are at a few places traces of a second and lower terrace, and beside this a third One, which is being formed by the river during its floods at the present day. From the facts as observed, quoted above, the following may be deduced. That during the retreat of the ice sheet from the Hud- Son Valley the glacial streams deposited as kames a great amount of ground up material, principally shale, the material found under- lying the clays along the upper portions of the valley. That subsequent to the retreat of the glacier there was a depres- sion of the land, which, according to Dr Merrill," amounted to 80 feet at New York city and near Schenectady to about 360 feet. During this period a great amount of plastic clay was depos- ited, produced by glacial attrition of the shales and limestones, the latter no doubt giving to it the marly character and influencing its color. The upper portion of the clay is more silicious, and overlying it is an extensive deposit of sand, indicating a change in the nature 1 Amer. jour. sci. June 1891. 592 NIEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM of the material washed into the estuary. During the period of submergence much of the silicious matter washed into the estuary was deposited at the mouths of the tributary streams to form deltas. It has been suggested by Dr Merrill" that the change in the estuary deposits from clay to sand might be due to the exposure by elevation of an area of land around the basin, which would afford more silicious matter. An elevation would be accompanied by an acceleration of the streams, and much of the silicious matter transported by them would be carried farther out into the estuary and spread over its bottom, while the finer clayey sediment would be carried out to Sea. A readvance of the ice, it would seem, would likewise cause an acceleration of the streams, and with the results stated above. To account for the isolated boulders in the clay, it seems highly probable that icebergs or icefloes having stones and dirt imprisoned within their mass detached themselves from the retreating glacier, and, floating down the estuary to the sea, dropped their burdens. The unstratified material found with it and in some cases over- lying the stratified delta deposits is a matter of interest as con- cerns its origin. Three things may be noticed regarding it. 1 The material is sand, pebbles and cobblestones lying mixed together without any separation of the coarse from the fine.” 2 The pebbles and stone are rounded and do not show any scratches. 3 The materials are mostly of the same character as the rocks of the vicinity. Now as the land rose from its submergence the velocity and with it the transporting power of the streams would increase, washing down quantities of large stones and gravel. Dr Merrill considers that a rapid flow of water took place down through the Hudson valley in the late Quatermary. This water must have come 1 Amer. jour. sci. June 1891. * The only locality where stratification was observable was at Timoney’s yard, near Dutchess Junction. Plate 10 To face page 592 Unstratified clay - - __ H. Ries photo. Unstratified material overlying clay at Meade & Co.'s bank, north of Low point. Plate 11 To face page 592 11. Ries photo. View looking east across Champlain terrace, one mile west of Catskill. The terrace is underlain by clay and the railroad track in the foreground is the West Shore. Plate 12 To face page 592 Terrace and sand pit, south of Dutchess Junction N. Y. CLAYS OF NEW YORIK 593 down through the valleys of the tributary streams, having a much greater velocity in their valleys than it would have after it turned into the Hudson valley, and the checking of its velocity as it reached the Hudson would cause the deposition of the greater part of its load. A large stream rushing down the valley of the Fish- kill would drop its burden specially below it, where we find them heaviest as the flow of the water was toward the South. Again, Peekskill would behave in a similar manner. A curious and interesting phenomenon is the crumpling of the clay at many localities. This disturbance often extends through- out the section, and has been caused by slips or pressure from above, as when the clay is covered by a thick delta deposit. Prof. R. P. Whitfield has told the writer of instances where the clay layers had been disturbed to a depth of several feet from the surface by the weight of boulders and large trees. In many instances there occurs a crumpled strip of clay between layers which are entirely undisturbed; this has been actually observed by the writer to have been caused by slipping of the clay. Clay concretions. These are of common occurrence, specially in the yellow clay. They are of varying form and size. Many of them have a cylindric hole in the center, which is lined with carbonaceous material. The flat concretions are found parallel to the layers of the clay, and in many instances at a depth from the surface to which the roots penetrate. - Those found at a greater depth did not have the central cylin- dric cavity. They are very abundant in the yellow clay at Haverstraw. Roots penetrating the clay at this locality were surrounded by lumps of clay in the form of concentric rings. These might seem to indicate the method of formation described by Prof. J. D. Dana (Manual of geol. p. 628). Again in the yellow clay near the surface at Coxsackie were found some forms which were similar in appearance to what Dr J. I. Northrup has described as rhizomorphs." They may be due to the roots which 1 Trams. N. Y. acad. Sci. 13 Oct. 1890, 594 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM penetrate the clay, absorbing water from it and rejecting the contained lime, which deposits itself around the root forming the hard rhizomorph. Their interior structure is crystalline. Another form of concretion is found in the delta sands at Croton point. It consists of botryoidal masses of sand, cemented by oxid of iron. Some of them show the layers of deposition of the sand. The concretions are usually small, but one mass was noticed fully 6 feet long and 4 feet wide. Concerning the origin of these concretions various opinions are expressed by different geologists. Organic remains are extremely rare in these clays. The writer has discovered sponge spicules, probably referable to Hyal on em a or an allied genus, and which are figured. The following diatoms were also found: N a vic u la G r u e n d le ri A. S.; N a vic ul a per m a g n a , Edw. (fragments); M el O - sir a granul at a (Ehr.) Ralfs; Nºit z s h i a gram ul at a Grun., all fresh water species. At Croton landing a number of impressions were found in the blue clay and on being submitted to Prof. Hall were pronounced to be worm tracks. Mather in his report’ mentions the finding of leaves in the clay beds back of the medical college at Albany, and states that they resemble those of an aquatic plant. AP Clays of the Champlain valley The clays of the Champlain valley are estuary formations of the same age as the Hudson river clays. They underlie terraces along the lake which have been elevated to a hight of 393 feet above sea level. These terraces may be traced almost continu- ously from Whitehall, at the head of Lake Champlain, to the northern end of the lake and beyond it, but on account of the extensive erosion which has taken place they are usually narrow, and it is only at sheltered points like Port Kent and Beauport that they become specially prominent. The section involved is 1 Mather. Geol. New York, 1st dist. 1842. p. 123. 2 Compiled largely from Emmons's Report geol. N. Y., 2 d dist. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 595 yellowish brown sand, yellowish brown clay and stiff blue clay, the latter being rather calcareous. The upper clay is somewhat silicious, and its coloring is due to the weathering of the lower layer. This formation has a thickness of about 15 feet, but some- times, as at Burlington, it reaches a thickness of 100 feet. Iso- lated boulders are occasionally found in the clays, and are con- sidered by Emmons to have been dropped there by icebergs. The clays are usually horizontally stratified, and contortions of the layers are extremely rare. Numerous fossils have been found in the overlying sands, among them being S a x ic a V a r u go s a Lamarck and Tell in a gro e m l a n dic a Beck, which are very common; T r it on ium a n gli cu m, T r it on i u m for nic a tu m, My tilus e du 1 is Linn., Pe c t e n is 1 a n - di cus Chemnitz, My a trun c at a Linn., M. a ren a ria Linn., Nu cu la p or t l a n dic a ; the skeleton of a whale has also been found in these deposits.” Openings have been made in them for the purpose of obtaining brick clays at Plattsburg and a few other localities, but, owing to the lateness of the season when I visited them, information was hard to obtain. Long Island clays Long Island is made up of a series of sands, gravels and clays, which form two parallel ranges of hills in the northern half of the island, while the Southern half is a flat plain. The most Southern of the ranges represents the limit of the drift.” The clay beds are exposed along the north shore of the island and at several points along the main line of the Long Island rail- road. In describing them I have gone east along the north shore and come back through the center of the island. In a paper on the geology of Long Island, (previously cited) * The Writer has found one species of diatom belonging to the genus diatoma, in the clay from Plattsburg. * For a detailed account of the topography of Long Island see Mather, Geol. New York, 1st dist. 1843; W. Upham, A. J. S., 111, 18; F. J. H. Mer- rill, “Geology of Long Island,” Amm. N. Y. acad. sci. ISS4. 596 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Dr F. J. H. Merrill describes in detail the formations exposed on the island, and mentions the insufficiency of data necessary to afford definite conclusions concerning the sequence of geologic events. Examinations of the various clay outcrops on the island since made show that eight years have made considerable changes; permitting the collection of additional data and obliterating many localities described by him. With the exception of four similar depºsits on the north shore, all the clay beds as exposed at the brick yards are rather unique in appearance. The most western clay outcrop on Long Island, of which the writer has any knowledge, is on Elm point near Greatmeck." There is here a bed of stoneware clay over 30 feet thick, overlain by 15 to 20 feet of yellow gravel and drift. The clay is dark gray and contains streaks of lignite in a good state of preservation. In appearance the clay resembles the Cretaceous ones of New Jersey and will doubtless prove to be of the same age. The over- lying yellow gravel contains sandstone concretions and also sand- stone fragments containing Cretaceous leaves.” . There is an outcrop of clay at Glencove on the east shore of Hempstead harbor, at the mouth of Mosquito inlet. This has long been considered of Cretaceous age from the plant remains found” in Sandstone fragments embedded in the clay. The layers of the latter are blue, red, black or yellow, and dip northeast 10°-15°. Near this locality and on the south shore of Mosquito inlet is an outcrop of pink clay, belonging to Carpenter Bros. and used for fire brick and stoneware. Dipping under it to the north at an angle of 30° is a bed of alternating layers of quartz pebbles and clay. The pebbles crush easily to a white powder. Associated with this clay is a bed of feldspathic clay called “kaolin,” but the exact relations of the two deposits are not known. And similar clay also crops out from under the gravels of the west shore 1 H. Ries, “Notes on the clays of New York state,” Trans. N. Y. acad. sci., 12. 2 C. L. Pollard, “Note on Cretaceous leaves from Elm point, L. I.,” Trans. N. Y. acad, sci., 13. 3 A. Hollick, Trams. N. Y. acad. Sci., 12. Plate 13 To face page 596 Stratified sands and gravels, Port Washington L. I. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 597 of Hempstead harbor. Carpenter's clay resembles that of Cretace- ous age found on Staten Island, but its age has yet to be proven. The sandstone fragments found in the clay across the inlet are found along the shore of it to Carpenter’s clay bank, but none are found in it. Dr. Merrill has found plant remains in this clay, but they were not sufficiently well preserved for identification. (See paper previously cited.) A microscopic examination of the clay revealed the presence of the following diatoms; all freshwater forms: Melos i r a gr an ul at a (Ehr.) Ralfs Step h a no discus N i a gara e (Ehr.) D i a to m a hyem a le (?) K. B. A deposit of gray sandy clay 30 feet thick was uncovered on the north of Mosquito inlet in the spring of 1898, on the property of Mrs Helen McKenzie, but it is distinctly different in its char- acter from that on the south side of the inlet. On Center island in Oyster bay we find the most western of a series of clay beds which bear a great similarity to each other. The others are on West neck, at Freshpond and on Fisher's island. The clay on Center island consists of two kinds, a lower bluish clay and an upper brown sandy clay. Overlying this latter is a stratified sand. The layers of clay undulate in several direc- tions. Dr Merrill mentions the occurrence, 1 mile north of this clay pit, of a bed of white fire clay at a depth of 25 feet under the drift and sand. The only organism thus far met in this clay is one species of diatom, viz, St ep h a no disc us N i a g a r a e (Ehr.), and a curious spiny hair. At Jones's brick yard on the east shore of Coldspring harbor is a thick deposit of clay. The lower portion is tough and con- tains little sand. The upper portion is much more sandy and of a brown color. The clay bank is over 100 feet in hight, the layers having been folded under the pressure of the advancing ice sheet. A layer of diatomaceous clay occurs in the upper portion of the clay bank; its position is shown in the following section given by Dr. Merrill." 1 A nºm. N. Y. acad. sci. 1884. 598 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM “Till’’ and stratified drift . tº tº e º ſº . . . . . . . . . . 10 feet Quartz gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 “ Red and blue “loam ” or sandy clay. . . . . . . . . 20 “ Diatomaceous earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 “ Yellow and red stratified Sand. . . . . . , º e º e e º ºs º 20 feet Red plastic clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 “ Brown plastic clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 “ Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 “ sºm-º. “The bed of diatomaceous earth is of undetermined extent, and appears to be replaced a little to the east by a blue clay, which, however, contains some diatoms. It is undoubtedly equiv- alent to the bed of ochre which overlies the sand throughout the remainder of the section.” The following diatoms, all freshwater species, occur in it. Melosira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs Stephanodiscus Niagarae (Ehr.) Epithemia turgida (Ehr.) Rutz. Encyonema ventricosum Kutz. Cymbella delicatula Kutz. Cymbella cuspidata Kutz. Navicula viridis Kutz. “ coconeiformis Greg. “ major Kutz. “ varians Greg. C & lata Breb. Eunolia monodon Ehr. Gomphonema capitatum. Ehr. Stauroneis Phoenecenteron Ehr. Fragilaria construans Grun. Synedra affinis J. B. Campyloneis Grevillei var. regalis. Tricerativum trifoliatum CLAYS OF NEW YORK 599 The Me los i r a and S t e p h a no disc us are present in countless numbers. Only two specimens were found of the Tric era t i u m, and Dr D. B. Ward, of Poughkeepsie, who has also given me much aid in the identification of my material, informs me that this species is very common in the diatomaceous earth from Wellington, New Zealand, but he has never heard of its occurrence before in America. Sponge spicules are not un- common in Lloyd’s neck diatomaceous earth, and several forms are figured. Samples of the red and brown clay from the sec- tion given above were examined, but no organic remains were found in them. 600 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM (Magnified 500 diameters, except Fig. 1, which is enlarged 250 diameters) FIG. 1-13 Sponge spicules. Croton point FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. 14 15 16 17 1S 19, 20 . 21–24. 25 Melosira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs. Croton point Navicula Gruendeleri A. S. Croton point Diatoma sp? Plattsburg Diatom fragment from Croton point Navicula permagna Edw. Croton point Sponge spicules. IGreischerville, S. I. From clay at Verplank Nilszchia granulata Grun. Croton point 26 From clay at Croton point To face page 600 Plate 14 --№ſºrºſae№t： № №tºrºnne ſuuttīſtīULJU P- * – 79 C.TRies, de). Micro-organisms from the clays of New York. ==№ĒÈ--№t==--~~~~~ ----ş=șĒSĒ- -=* -->-*-----za==№---- ●∞ ©WN SOEȚI ）~~~~ ~~~~) To face page 601 \\&&&\\&&&&\（\）\*\，\！ N Plate 15 №rſ， ºNv nº ſ ≠√∞}ſ. \} •¿WWW， …：）\W\ſ]（„Š ÈLÈLÈÈÈLÈwww.==№tº &=SS5º'||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| || |||||||||||\\\\\\\\\\\' *（\||$）|\|）（|||||||||||||||| №■■■■ ■ ■ ■ ■!"■ C.T 7&es, deſ. Micro-organisms from the clays of New York. CILAYS OF NEW YORIK (301 FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. 1, 4. : FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. FIG. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 (Magnified 500 diameters) Jointed hair. Wyandance, L. I. Ridged tube from stoneware clay. Glencove, L. I. Spicules from cretaceous clay at Glencove, L. I. Spicules from Lloyd’s neck, L. I. Spicule fragment? Farmingdale, L. I. Diatoma hyemale. Glencove, L. I. Navicula viridis Kutz. Lloyd’s neck, L. I. Cymbella cuspidata Kutz. Lloyd’s neck, L. I. Campyloneis Grevillei var. regalis. Lloyd's neck, L. I. Cocconema parvum, W. Smith. Northport, L. I. Tricerativm trifoliatum. Lloyd’s neck, L. I. Fumotia monodon Ehr. Lloyd’s neck, L. I. Navicula lata Breb. Lloyd’s neck, L. I. Encyonema ventricosum Kutz. Lloyd’s neck, L. I. Symedra affinis K. B. Lloyd’s neck, L. I. Fragilaria construans Grun. Lloyd's neck, L. I. Gomphonema capitatum. Ehr. Lloyd’s neck, L. I. Epithema turgida (Ehr.) Kutz. Lloyd’s neck, L. I. Navicula cocconeiformis Greg. Lloyd’s neck L. I. Staurome is phoenecenteron Ehr. Lloyd’s neck, L. I. From clay at Northport, L. I. Melosira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs. Lloyd’s neck and Glencove, L. I. Stephanodiscus Niagarae Ehr. Lloyd’s neck and Glencove, L. I. From clay at Oyster bay. 602 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Concretions are abundant in the clay on Center island and West neck. Those found at the latter locality are disc-shaped, while those found on Center island are more or less botryoidal. Silicified yellow gravel fossils have been found by the writer in the sands on West neck," and more were subsequently found in other localities by Dr Hollick.” On Little neck, in Northport bay, is an extensive deposit of stoneware clay and fire sand, which has been worked for a num- ber of years. The clay is stratified, the layers being separated by laminae of sand. In color the material varies from black to brown and yellow, and it becomes sandy in its upper portion. There is a dip of 15° se due to a slipping of the clay bank. Overlying the clay is cross-bedded fine sand and gravel, the latter containing much coarse material near the surface. Very little till covers the whole. Much fine, white fire sand occurs in por- tions of the bank. A careful examination of the section showed a brownish black seam of the clay, 2 feet thick, containing numerous fragments of plant remains, of which a number were sufficiently well preserved to determine the Cretaceous age of the clay beyond doubt. The species were identified for me by Dr IHollick as follows: Protaeoides daphnogenoides Heer Paliurus integrifolia Hollick Laurus angusta Heer Myrsine sp. Williamsonia sp. Celastrophyllum sp. Paliurus sp. 1 Trams. N. Y. acad. Sci., 12. 2 Trans. N. Y. acad. Sci., 13. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 603 The latter resembles Pal i u r u s Colu m bi (Heer); a Tertiary species (Fl. foss, arct. 1: 122, pl. 17, fig. 2), but is much smaller and very probably a new species. The above species are the same as those found in the middle Cretaceous clays of Staten Island N. Y., and Perth Amboy, N. J. Three species of diatoms, all fresh water forms, were also dis- covered in this clay. Melosira granulata (Ehr.) Ralfs Diatoma hyemale K. B. Cocconema parvum W. Smith - The occurrence of these diatoms is a matter of great interest. While diatoms are abundant in the Tertiary, their only known occurrence in the Cretaceous is the chalk which is upper Cre- taceous. This being the case, their occurrence at Northport extends the known geologic range of diatoms. At Freshpond the clay crops out along the shore for a distance of half a mile. It is brownish and red in color, the red being more sandy. Sand and gravel overlie it, and at Sammis's yard the sand, which is stained by limonite, shows a fine anticlinal fold. One of the most interesting clay banks is that on Fisher's island. The clay is of a reddish color similar to that on West neck and Center island, and in its original condition was horizontally strati- fied and overlain by 20 to 30 feet of laminated sand. But the whole deposit has been disturbed by the ice sheet passing over it, and the layers have been much crumpled to a depth of about 30 feet, while below this they are undisturbed. The till overlying it is in places 30 feet thick and contains large boulders. Dr Merrill mentions the presence on Gardiner's island,” of ex- tensive beds of brick clay together with their associated sand beds, (they are not being worked) and notes the occurrence of a fossil- iferous stratum. Clay is also said to outcrop near Sag Harbor and around the shore of Hog neck in Peconic bay. 1 Nicholson. Manual of palaeontology. 2: 1490. 2 Previously cited. 604 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Between Southold and Greenport are several deposits of a red glacial clay which is used for brick. The clay contains angular stone fragments and runs from 50 to 60 feet in thickness. About one mile and a half east of Southold is a bed of mottled blue pottery clay which has been used for a number of years in making flower pots. The depth of this deposit is not known. - At West Deerpark is a clay bank of unique appearance. In July 1892 the section showed: Yellow gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet Containing ! Flesh colored clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 “ concretions Red clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1 foot Black clay with pyrite. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet Black Sandy clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 “ Red Sandy clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 “ Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 “ *E*-* *-*mºs Lenticular masses of gray sand are sometimes found in the black clay. The black clay also contains frustules of Melo sir a granul at a , (Ehr.) Ralfs, and numbers of a jointed yellowish brown hair, resembling those of a crustacean. The black clay burns to a white brick. About 4 miles west of this locality near Farmingdale the section in Myers's clay pit is: Sand and gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 feet Red Sandy clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 “ Yellow and red sand, wavy lamination. . . . . . . 2 “ Reddish yellow clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 “ Reddish blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 “ Micaceous sand, cross-bedded. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 “ i ºri arepauſture， jo tinuou soluut jien ouo put otto oo xioſaq aenio uopueb （ſued aeloºoloud soņi （11 |× . . （） （-- ：）|---- |-|×|-*·|-！！！！ |- +09 95 ed ºot: J - ſael,9I 94 blei . OLAYS OF NEW YORK 605 About one quarter mile south of Myers's brick yard is that of Stewart. The section at this locality (now obliterated) as given by Dr Merrill': * Surface stratum yellow micaceous clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 feet Reddish and Sandy clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 “ Blue black sandy clay with nodules of white pyrites. . . . 25 “ White sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 “ A local deposit of grayish blue sandy clay occurs at East Willis- ton. It varies in depth from 6 to 20 feet and is underlain by sand. On my last visit to this locality I found a number of stems and leaf fragments in the clay but none sufficiently well preserved for identification. There is still some doubt as to the exact conditions under which the beds of clay and gravel which form the greater portion of Long Island were deposited, but it is probable that the clays repre- sent shallow water marine deposits of Cretaceous and Tertiary age. The overlying sands and gravels have in most instances a cross- bedded structure, with a south dip, and were probably deposited by swift currents as stated by Dr Merrill. The age of the clays is still largely a matter of speculation, and will probably remain so in many cases unless paleontologic evidence is forthcoming. Those on Gardiner's island are quite recent, as shown by the contained fossils, and the clay on Littleneck near Northport is Cretaceous as previously noted. The proof of the age of the Glencove clay is not absolute. Cretaceous leaves in fragments of ferruginous sandstone have been found along the north shore of Long Island from Greatneck 1 F. J. H. Merrill. “Geology of Long Island,” Ann. N. Y. acad. sci. Nov. 1SS4. G06 NIEW YORIK STATE MUSEUM to Montauk point," but they are usually much worn and scratched and have evidently been transported from some distant source. The clays at Center island, West neck, Fresh pond and Fisher’s island are very similar in appearance and composition, and are very probably of the same age, possibly Tertiary,” but we lack paleon- tologic or stratigraphic evidence. At West neck the clay under- lies the yellow gravel and the latter is covered by the drift, so that is Prepleistocene. The theory has been put forth that the Cretaceous formation on Long Island would be found north of a line joining the Southern border of the Cretaceous formation of New Jersey and Marthas Vineyard," and that outcrops south of this might be Tertiary; in view, however, of determining the clay at Littleneck near North- port to be Cretaceous, we must abandon this theory. An interesting phenomenon is the tilting and crumpling of the strata on the north shore of Long Island. This disturbance is specially well shown on West neck, and was considered by Dr Merrill to be due to the pressure of the advancing ice sheet,” which excavated the deep narrow bays and pushed the excavated material into high hills at their head. Dr Merrill’s views have been recently corroborated in a paper on “The deformation of portions of the Atlantic coast plain,” by A. Hollick," who, in disputing the possible orogenic origin of these folds, calls attention to the fact that they are found only along the line of the moraine, and that the beds are disturbed only to a certain depth. The disturbance is well shown at Glencove, West neck, Freshpond and on Fisher’s and Gard- iner's islands. It is important, however, not to confound tilting of the layers, due to slipping, as is the case on Littleneck near Northport, with that produced by the ice-thrust. 1 A. Hollick. “Notes on geology of north shore of Long Island,” Trans. N. Y. acad. Sci., 13. 2 This idea is also expressed by Dr Merrill. 3 * Geology of Long Island.” Ann. N. Y. acad. sci. 1884. 4 Trams. N. Y. acad. Sci., 14. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 607 Both Dana and Merrill consider Long Island Sound to be of preglacial origin. The former calls attention to a channel in the southern part of the sound, which probably was that of a river draining Connecticut in preglacial times, and which emptied into Pecomic bay. The latter points to the absence of till along the north shore of Long Island where the sound is wide, as evidence of the fact that most of the drift was dropped into the sound by the ice in its passage across it. On the other hand Hollick considers that Long Island sound was dry land till the glacial period, and that the continental glacier upon its arrival on the Connecticut shore plowed up the material from the space now occupied by the sound and pushed it ahead to form the range of hills along the northern part of Long Island. It seems to the writer however that the facts do not support this theory. If we suppose the northern range of hills to be composed of material pushed up out of the area now occupied by the sound, it should everywhere show signs of disturbance. This it does not do. The high hills of sand and gravel at Port Washington for example show no signs of disturbance. Mention should be made of a yellow gravel formation. This is found almost everywhere on Long Island, and sections in the rail- way cuttings frequently show a thickness of 30 or 40 feet. Staten Island clays The chief outcrops of clay on Staten Island are at Kreischerville, Greenridge and Arrochar. Besides the clay there are several sand beds known as “kaolin.” In many instances the clays and overlying yellow gravels have been much disturbed by the passage of the ice over them, and in Some cases the sections show overthrown anticlines, as on the finger- board road at Clifton. W. Kreischer informed me that the clay at Kreischerville occurs in isolated masses or pockets in the yellow gravel and sands. If such is the case, &nd if these beds, as is usually supposed, are a 608 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM continuation of the New Jersey beds, they must be explained as follows: either the original beds have been torn apart by the ice which bore down on them, or else they have been deeply eroded by the currents which deposited the overlying sands and gravels. The writer favors the latter view. A boring made on the site of Kreischer's fire brick factory showed: Sand and soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 feet Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 90 “ White sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 “ Sand and clay alternating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 “ Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 “ Next to the church at Kreischerville is a bank of stratified sand standing some 40 feet back from the road. It appears to have been dug away considerably, but Mr R reischer informed me that there was once a large mass of clay at this spot which was sur- rounded by the sand. To the north of this near the shore is a bank of blue stoneware clay overlain by yellow laminated sänd, and southeast of the church is a similar bank, but the clay is of a more Sandy nature. A third opening is opposite Kilmeyer’s hotel at Kreischerville, and from this a yellow mottled fire clay is obtained. This latter bed is overlain by about 20 feet of sand and yellow gravel and underlain by a white sand. A fourth opening on the shore is in a blue clay. It has always been an interesting question as to what extent Staten Island was underlain by the Cretaceous formation; the following record of a well bored for Bachman’s brewery at Annandale, S. I., seems to throw some light on the subject. At a depth of 200 feet a bed of yellow gravel containing shells was struck. The gravel was 36 feet in thickness and beneath it was a bed of clay 10 feet thick. The latter was of a white and blue color and was said to resemble a fine pottery clay. I’late 17 To face page 608 Yellow gravel Cretaceous clay pit at Kreischerville. The yellow gravel overlies the clay. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 609 The above may very possibly be some of the Cretaceous clay overlain by the yellow gravel. Borings made at various points along the shore of Arthur's kill, between Kreischer's factory and Wood & Keenan’s brick yard, penetrated a blue clay at a depth of 3 or 4 feet. This latter is no doubt of very recent Origin. At the Anderson brick co.'s pit near Greenridge, the lower clay, which is of a black color, shows signs of disturbance, and slickensided surfaces are common. The upper portions of the bank are of blue and gray colors, and at one spot there is a thick seam of lignite. The clay is not sufficiently refractory for fire brick. Fragmentary plant remains were found by the writer in this pit, but they are not nearly so perfect as those found in the fire clay pit at Kreischerville, and which have been figured and described in minute detail by Dr Arthur Hollick of Columbia university. * Spicules have been observed in the fire clay at IGreischerville, Staten Island. In the kaolin found near Kreischerville were dis- covered a number of diatoms, which Dr Ward informs me are either C o c c o n e i s p 1 a c e n tu la Ehr., or C occo n e i s P e d ic ul is Ehr. Their occurrence is also of great interest, as these kaolins are known to be middle Cretaceous beyond doubt. Stony glacial clays occur also underlying the flats at Green ridge, Staten Island. One mile and a quarter northeast of IGreischer’s fire brick fac- tory an excavation has been made for obtaining a micaceous kaolin. About 15 feet of it is exposed. A quarter of a mile north of this locality is the pit of the Staten Island kaolin co. The kaolin is evi- dently a continuation of that exposed in Kreischer's pit, but is ap- parently not as thick. The deposit has suffered disturbance by the ice sheet and the layers are intermixed with the till. At the north- east side of the excavation a bluish Sandy clay containing frag- ments of lignite is found to underlie the kaolin. In the spring of 1898 Kreischer Bros. opened a new pit just 610 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM across the road from Kilmeyer's hotel. The clay is pure white and some of it contains 97% of clay substance. It is extremely refrac- tory, as shown by the tests given in a later part of the report. At the time of my visit the workings were not deep enough to show the relations of the clay deposit. - As the Cretaceous clays, kaolins and yellow gravels are a con- tinuation of the belt extending across New Jersey, the history of their deposition is the same.* The following analysis of the so-called kaolin from Campbell’s pit on Staten Island is given in the New Jersey clay report cited \ above. Silicic acid and sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.70 Al2O3 and F208. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 70 H2O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 K2O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 A point that impresses itself on one’s notice is the abrupt change in color which often takes place in the clays of the Staten Island. Cretaceous, the same bed at one place being brilliantly colored by iron, while only a few feet from it the clay may be perhaps black, or even nearly pure white. . - The Cretaceous age of the Staten Island clays has been clearly demonstrated by the many specimens of leaves described by Dr Arthur Hollick from these beds. (See “Paleontology of the Cre- taceous formation on Staten Island,” Trans. N. Y. acad. sci. 1892. 11: 96-104, pl. 1-4. “Additions to the paleobotany of the Cre- taceous formation on Staten Island,” Ibid. 1892. 12 : 28–39; 1-4. “Additions to the paleobotany of the Cretaceous formation on Staten Island,” no. 2, Annals N. Y. acad, sci. 11:415–30) In the last of these papers Dr Hollick states that it was previously taken for granted that the clays on Staten Island were continuous 1 N. J. geol. Sur. 1878. G. H. Cook. Clays of New Jersey. Plate 18 To face page 611 A. Hollick, del, Cretaceous plant impressions from the Staten Island clayS. 1 Rhamnus Rossmassleri, Ung. Tottenville. 2 Thinfeldia Lesquereuxiana, Heer. Princes Bay. 3 Pterospermites modestus, Lasq. Tottenville. 4 Laurus plutonia, Heer. Tottenville. 5 Myrsine elongata, Newb. Arrochar. 6 Protaeoides daphnogenoides, Heer. Tottenville. 7, 8 Tricalycites papyraceus, Newb. Tottenville. 9 Eucalyptus Geinitzii, Heer. Tottenville. 10 Myrica longa, Heer. Arrochar. Plate 19 To face page 611 A. Hollick, del. Cretaceous plant impressions from the Staten Island clays. 1 Protaeoides daphnogenoides, Heer. Tottenville. 2 Populus apiculata, Newb. (?) Arrochar. 3 Moriconia cyclotoxon, Deb. & Etts. Princes Bay. 4, 5 and 6 Liriodendropsis simplex, Newb. Tottenville and Princes Bay. 7 Laurus plutonia, Heer. Tottenville. CLAYS OF NEW YORK - 611 with those of the mainland of New Jersey and that the plants found in them would prove to be identical with those found on the main- land, but this has not turned out to be the case. Many of them are identical, but still a number have been found on the island that have not been found on the mainland, and he considers that the Staten Island beds represent a higher member of the Amboy series. In plates 18 and 19 are given the more characteristic species taken from Dr Hollick’s papers. Occurrence of clay in the United States In the following pages a brief summary is given of the occurrence of clay in other portions of the United States. For those desiring to obtain more detailed information the references are given in each case. Alabama" With the exception of the loams and clays used in making com- mon and ornamental bricks, and to a limited extent paving and fire brick, the clays of Alabama are practically undeveloped. Brick clays and loams. Material for common building brick, and that most extensively used, is the yellow loam of the second bottom or terraces of the rivers and larger streams, which traverse the coastal plain. In the Paleozoic formation are deposits of clay and loam, partly of a residual nature or sometimes of sedimentary origin, which are frequently made into brick. Of these the ordinary red clays make a brick which is generally hard and durable. * . At Oxford a clay occurs which burns to a cream colored brick. Similar clays are used in the same way near. Anniston and other points in the Coosa valley region. Vitrified brick are made from the shale occurring with the coal at Coaldale in Jefferson co. Materials of this kind also exist at other points in the Coal Measures. 1 E. A. Smith. “Clays of Ala.,” Ala. ind. & sci. soc. 27. 1892. Ala. geol. surv. 1900. H. Ries. Preliminary report on clays of Ala. 612 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM * The red and purple clays of the Tuscaloosa formation would probably also make a good vitrified brick. China clays and stoneware clays. These occur in the counties of Randolph, Clay, Cleburne and others, and are sedimentary. Among the residual deposits of the Cambrian and Silurian for- mations are large beds of white clay, which are sometimes associated with limonite beds, as at Rockrun. The Subcarboniferous formation contains some good deposits of white burning clay, near Fort Payne, Valleyhead, etc. In the Cretaceous formation are important beds of clays of vari- ous qualities, which outcrop in a belt extending from Columbus, Ga., into the northwest corner of the state. JFire clays occur and are mined at Woodstock, Bibbville, Oxford, etc. Arkansas In the Mesozoic regions of Arkansas are found a great variety of clays. Those occurring within the Tertiary region have been used for the manufacture of pottery, but the Cretaceous clays have not yet been employed for this purpose. Kaolin is said to occur in Pike, Pulaski, Saline, and Ouachita co., but the beds are seldom over 2 feet in thickness. (Ark. geol. Sur. 1888. 5: 11) The deposits of Pulaski co. are the only ones of those above men- tioned that are true kaolins, the others being white burning sedi- mentary clays. Good brick clays are found in all second bottom streams, and bricks are made at Little Rock, Texarkana, Arkadel- phia, etc. Paving bricks are made at Fort Smith. Colorado' The clay-bearing formation of Colorado may be roughly divided into the following three groups: - 1 Loess, and alluvial deposits 2 Jura-Trias, and Cretaceous 3 Tertiary clays 1 H. Ries. T. A. I. M. E. 1897, p. 386. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 613 The loess forms an extensive deposit over a large area, not of great thickness, which extends from north to South across the state and eastward from the foothills. It is generally a very Sandy clay with little plasticity. Clays of similar nature to the loess are found underlying the river terraces in many of the broader Yalleys such as those of the Arkansas, Grand river, etc. The Mesozoic formations extend along the eastern edge of the Rocky mountains, and also occur in some of the deeper valleys tributary to the foothill belt. They consist of a great series of interbedded shales, sandstones, and limestone of Jura-Trias and Cretaceous age, the beds being tilted at a high angle. The Jura- Trias shales have not been utilized, but the Cretaceous which over- lie them have and the Tertiary or Denver beds, which carry great deposits of clay, have been mined near Golden and Boulder. Brick clays. All of the common brick manufactured in Colorado are made either from the loess or the river clays in the Valleys. Pressed brick clays. The Cretaceous and Tertiary formations of Colorado contain an abundance of clay suitable for the manufacture of pressed brick. They are mined at Golden, Boulder, and La Junta. Fire clays and pottery clays. These two grades of clays occur in close association interbedded with the Dakota sandstones, in the hogbacks extending along the eastern edge of the Rocky mountains. "...he fire clay has been extensively mined at Golden, Parkdale, and more recently at Delhi. The beds range in thickness from 4 to 18 feet. Clay products. Common bricks are manufactured at many locali- ties in the state. Pressed brick are Only made at La Junta, Golden, Boulder and Denver. Paving bricks have been produced in small quantities, and stoneware and sewer pipe have also been produced to a limited extent. The most important clay products made in Colorado are refractory wares, such as fire brick, locomotive blocks, muffles, scorifiers and crucibles. This is naturally one of 614. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the important lines of the clay-working industry of the west, and those well made bear an excellent reputation; indeed the Denver fire clay crucibles are considered by many to be fully equal to the English. . Connecticut Sedimentary clays of Quaternary age are found in many of the Valleys in great abundance; they resemble in character those of the Hudson valley, and northern New Jersey. They form the basis of an important industry, specially in the Connecticut valley. The clay products manufactured in Connecticut are with the exception of building brick made chiefly from clays obtained from other states. - Delaware Raolin of excellent quality is extensively mined at Hockessin, Newcastle co.; fire clays of Cretaceous age have also been worked in the state. The Columbian formation affords an abundant supply of brick clays. ...' . - Florida The clay resources of Florida may be grouped under three heads, i. e. kaolins, common brick clays, and fullers' earth. The kaolins are not such in the true sense but are really sedimentary clays, but they have a high degree of purity. Two important deposits of this material are at present known to exist in the state. The first of these at Edgar, Fla., where the bed of ball clay mined is more than 30 feet thick; the other deposit occurs near Lake City, and extends along the Palatlakaha river for a distance of about 4 miles. This deposit has been but little mined. This plastic ball clay consists of about 75% of quartz pebbles, and 25% of clay sub- stance. The quartz is easily washed out, leaving a very pure product, which is shipped north and used by many of the manu- & facturers of white earthenware. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 615 The brick clays are of course found at many localities and are most extensive at Jacksonville. Fullers' earth was first discovered at Quincy, Fla.; it has been mined more at that point than at any other, but it is known to occur at several localities between Quincy and River Junction, as well as outcrop at Several places around Tampa bay. Georgia Building brick are made at many localities, either from alluvial clays found in the river valleys or from residual clays which occur everywhere in the area underlain by the crystalline rocks. Raolin, sometimes of a pure white color, occurs in pockets in the residual earths of the Knox dolomite, while clays resulting from the decay of the Paleozoic rocks are also common, but many of them are easily fused. (J. W. Spencer. Report on the Paleozoic forma- tions of Georgia, 1893) According to Prof. Spencer, the most extensive clay deposits occur along the northern belts of the Ter- tiary strata in the Southern part of the state. The Potomac formation specially contains many clays of a white or nearly white color, which are often of a very high refractory quality. (G. E. Ladd. American geologist. Ap. 1899. p. 240) Indiana In regent years two important contributions bearing on the clay resources of Indiana have been published by the present state geologist. (See 20th and 22d ann. rep’t Ind. geol. Sur.) In speaking of the Indiana clays in general, it can be said that there are - 1 Residual clays, viz, a) rock kaolins of Lawrence and adjoin- ing counties, b) surface clays of the driftless area of southern Indiana 2 Sedimentary clays including a) shales and fire clays of Paleo- 616 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM zoic age, b) alluvial clays along the streams, c) drift clays of north- ern and central Indiana. The clays of the coal-bearing counties support an active and rising industry, and these are found in the following counties, Fountain, Vermilion, Parke, Vigo, Clay, Owen, Sullivan, Greene, Knox, Daviess, Martin, Dubois, Pike, Gibson, Vanderburg, Warwick, Spencer and Perry. r The following represents a typical section from the Indiana Coal Measures. Ft. In . 1 Soil and surface drift clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 2 Blue compact shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3 Dark bituminous shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2 4 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 5 Fire clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4. 6 Drab siliceous shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 © 7 Sandstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 3 8 Dark bituminous shale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 gº º 9 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 8 10 Fire clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 10 The fire clays no. 5 and 10 are universally present. No. 2 and 6 are considered, taken as a whole, to be the most valuable clay beds in the state. Important clay deposits also occur in the counties of Benton, Newton, Jasper, Starke, Lake, Porter, La Porte and St Joseph. Those of Benton co. are of glacial origin, as are those of Newton co.; most of the other counties mentioned contain glacial clays. The Porter co. clays are both glacial and marly. The latter are made into pressed brick by hydraulic brick machines. Around South Bend and St Joseph co. are thick deposits of pearl gray, marly clay of a very fine grain and plastic mature, which burn to a light yellow building brick or a greenish yellow paving brick. CLAYS OF NEW YORK +. 617 Ičansas Most of the clay deposits of this state are surface beds of Quat. ernary age. The loess is extensively used in the eastern counties; at Pittsburg a 10 foot bed of Carboniferous shale occurs, which is used for the manufacture of fire brick and paving brick. Fire clays also occur at a number of other localities in association with the coal beds, but they have not been used to any great extent. Rentucky The state of Kentucky contains numerous clay deposits, many of them of excellent quality. They are found in several geologic formations, beginning with the Cretaceous, of western Kentucky, which shows an abundance of brick clay, fire clay and pottery clays. In the Cretaceous and the Coal Measures, clay suitable for making vitrified brick as well as fire brick, occurs. Fire clay is found in Carter co., where it is now being mined and carried to Louisville for manufacture. Similar clays are known in the counties of Ballard, Muhlenberg, Grayson, Edmonson, Graves, Hickman, Calloway, Fulton, Bell, Boyd. Most of these clays are said to run high in silica and alumina and low in fluxes. , The clay from Graham station, in Carter co., is of high quality. A flint clay from this locality shows on analysis: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49. 75 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 35.16 Oxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Potash and soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O'7 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.03 This clay is used for making locomotive fire box tiles, cupola tile, glass furnaces, grates, boiler tiles and stove linings. Vitrified 618 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM brick clay has been developed at Cloverport, and in Grayson near Millwood, about 80 miles from Louisville, it being worked at this point by the Louisville sewer co. Potters' clay is found chiefly in the Tertiary beds which are found in the Jackson purchase. This region includes the counties of Calloway, Graves, Marshall, Hickman, Fulton, Butler, Edmon- son, Grayson, Ohio and Madison. The best developed mine is that at Pyorsburg, 6 miles from Mayfield in Graves co.; the clay at this point is over 40 feet thick, a most excellent grade of ball clay. Glass pot clays are said to exist in Bell, Marshall, McCracken, Carlisle, Hickman, Fulton and Calloway co., but their value has not yet been commercially demonstrated. Louisiana" The clays of Louisiana are all Post-tertiary and sedimentary in their origin. There are no important residual clays in the state except in one very Small area. This is in the northeast corner, near the Arkansas line. Three distinct types of clay are worked in Louisiana, each being characteristic of the section of the state in which it is found. The oldest of these geologically is the mot- tled gray clay of southeast and southwest Louisiana. These clays are of early Columbian age, and constitute the pine flats of the coast and the second bottoms of the coastal streams. They have been worked for a long time locally for the manufacture of com- mon building brick. But only in the last few years have they been utilized on a large Scale. r The next important group of clays is of a later Columbian age and is found above the alluvial valley of the modern Mississippi river. They form a continuous bluff overlooking the river from the Mississippi state line to Baton Rouge. Thence they bear south- eastward to near Lake Maurepas. These clays have been exten- 1 Engineering journal. 15 Oct. 1898. See also paper by H. Ries in 1st Amm. rep’t La. State geologist. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 619 sively worked around Baton Rouge; they make a good quality of building brick but at many places they are covered with a great thickness of loess. Similar clays of the same age form a series of bluffs on the western side of the present Mississippi valley from the Arkansas state line to the Gulf of Mexico. These clays have been worked at Marksville, Washington and New Iberia. At the latter place a good dry pressed brick is made from them. A third group of clays comprises a series of pocket-like deposits in modern alluvium of the Red river. They probably represent abandoned portions of the river bed. In addition to these three main groups of clays, others of Lafayette age occur in northern Louisiana. Lignitic shales are also found in certain portions of northern Louisiana near Shreveport. These may perhaps be suit- able for the manufacture of paving brick. Maine The clay industry of Maine is on the decline. There are a num- ber of brick yards along the coast, which in former years sent their product to Boston, but the establishment of local yards around the latter city has had a bad effect on this trade. Two stoneware potteries, one at Portland, the other at Bangor, are still in operation, but they draw their material largely from other states. The clays found in Maine are all of Quaternary age. Maryland This state supports an active clay-working industry, but little is known concerning the raw material. Kaolin and pottery clays are said to occur at a number of localities. In the western portion of the state, at Mt. Savage, occur important deposits of flint and plastic fire clays. The Devonian shales are employed for paving brick, and in the Potomac formation around Chesapeake bay, there are large quantities of clays of different grades. 620 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Massachusetts" The clays are mostly Quaternary, suitable for brick manufac- ture, and are extensively dug around Boston for brickmaking. Kaolin is mined at Blandford, and in the western part of the state buff burning clays occur which are adapted to the manufacture of buff brick and terra cotta: Refractory wares and art pottery are made near Boston from clays mined in other states. Michigan” The clay-working industry of Michigan has not been developed to any extent except in the line of common brick manufacture. Much of the state is covered with glacial drift; local beds of clay are found in connection with this. In this glacial formation the lowest is the blue gravely clay from 7 to 12 feet thick, which is utilized at Springswell, near Detroit, also in Ottawa, Allegan and Barry co. The products of this clay are red, sand-molded, white, machine-pressed, red, machine-pressed, and sewer bricks. The clays of the extreme northern part of the lower peninsula of Michigan have too much lime to be of any great commercial value, but are used locally to some extent. At Coldwater all the clays are used for cement manufacture. Ship clay is found at Rockland and Luther. The shales associated with the coal seams are suitable in many cases for making paving brick or stoneware, and Some inay be semi- refractory. Mississippi The Eocene and Miocene are the most important clay-producing horizons in this state but beds of good quality also occur in the Carboniferous and Cretaceous. The clays have been but little used except for the manufacture of common brick and the lower grades of pottery. (Geology of Mississippi. 1860) 1 C. L. Whittle. “Clay industry of Massachusetts.” Min. Ind. 7: 125. * E. and M. J. 29 Aug. 1898. Also paper on Michigan shales by EI. Ries in Michigan miner for 1899. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 621 Missouri." The clays of Missouri belong to the following classes: Chinaware clays flint clays Plastic fire clays Pottery or stoneware clays Shale, and brick clays Chinaware clays. The Missouri kaolins south of the Missouri river are of Paleozoic age. The belt is worked in Cape Girardeau and Bollinger co. and extensively in Howell co. The Mis- souri kaolins are residual, and the interesting feature about them is that they have been derived from the decay of aluminous lime- Stone, whereas the igneous rocks of the region furnish only impure chinaware clay. The Missouri kaolin is generally highly silicious in its composition, but this is not exceptional. Flint clays. The flint clays of Missouri often approach closely in composition to kaolinite. They occur in the central part of the . state, being abundant in the counties of Warren, Montgomery, Calloway, Osage, Franklin, Crawford and Phelps. The geologic age may be Carboniferous, Silurian or Ordovician. They form a cradle-like deposit in the limestone which has a depth of 50 to 200 feet, and 15 to 50 feet. Most of them have less than 2% of im- purities. They have from 30% to 43% of alumina, and 14%to 15% of combined water, thus resembling kaolinite in their composition. They are devoid of plasticity, and in use have to be mixed with plastic clays. They generally begin to fuse at a temperature of 2300°, but do not become viscous under 2700°, and are therefore fairly refractory. Plastic fire clays. All of these occur in the Carboniferous, asso- ciated with seams of coal. They are generally massive, dense, hard, and plastic. Those around St Louis are specially important and form the base of the enormous local development of the clay-work- ing industry. 1 Mo. geol. Surv., 11. H. A. Wheeler. Clays of Missouri. 622 NIEW YORE STATE MUSEUM Stoneware clays. They occur in four different geologic forma- tions: 1) as pockets in Paleozoic limestone in the southern half of the state, similar to the flint clays; 2) as seams of some fire clays in the Coal Measures of the northwestern half of the state; 3) as beds in the Tertiary, in the southeastern corner of the state, which are by far the most prominent; 4) as local beds in the northern part of the state. These are unreliable. The stoneware industry of Missouri is at present very small, being represented by a few small scattered works. Shales. These are the important portion of the Missouri clay materials. Important deposits exist around Kansas City, and St Louis; they are used for the manufacture of terra cotta, roofing tile, sewer pipe, drain tile, and flower pots. The paving brick industry which also depends on this material is represented by 13 plants located in the central and western region of the state. Brick clays. These include loess clay, glacial, residual clays, and alluvial clays. The first are the most important in Missouri. They make a good grade of brick and are easily worked; they are also uniform in quality and hardness. Their chief development is along the Missouri and the Mississippi rivers, the beds of the former being sometimes as much as 200 feet in thickness. The glacial clays are variable in character. The residual ones are usually very tenacious, and crack in burning. The alluvial ones are likewise variable. The Gumbo clays are chiefly used in making railroad ballast. The northern part of the state is rich in them. New Jersey In 1878 the New Jersey geological survey issued an extremely valuable report on the clay resources of that state. The clays of New Jersey are Quaternary, Tertiary, and Cretaceous, the latter including beds of fire clays, fire sands, and white burning clays, which are commonly, but erroneously, called kaolins. The clays extend across the state in a belt 5 to 8 miles wide, from Perth Amboy to Trenton; the deposits on Staten Island are a con- tinuation of this belt. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 623 There are three districts recognized. The section exhibited by the clay deposits involves the following members, beginning at the bottom. 1 Raritan potters’ clay bed 2 Raritan fire clay bed 3 Fire sand 4 Woodbridge fire clay, a most important bed 5 Pipe clay 6 A bed of feldspar, commonly called kaolin, being really a mixture of kaolinite with white quartzose sand, and fragments of quartz which are rounded on their edges 7 Another kaolin bed 8 South Amboy fire clay bed, 20 feet thick 9 Stoneware clay - These clays form the basis of an important fire brick and pottery industry. The Quaternary brick clays are abundant in the region around Hackensack, near New York city. |Recently important beds of light or white burning plastic clays have been developed in the Tertiary formation of southeastern New Jersey. • Nebraska The clay resources of this state are similar to those of Kansas. Brick clays are used locally in the vicinity of the more important towns. A fine kaolin-like clay is found on Pine creek in Cherry co. North Carolina." The clay deposits of North Carolina may be divided into Residual: kaolins, fire clays, and impure clays Sedimentary: coastal plain clays, of Cretaceous, or Tertiary age Sedimentary surface clays (for brick and pottery) are found mainly along the streams and low lands in the Piedmont plateau and mountain counties. 1 N. C. geol. Surv. H. Ries. Clays and clay industry of North Carolina, bullelim no. 13. 624 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Residual clays. These occur in the western half of the state west of the line passing through Weldon, Raleigh and Rocking- ham. They form an almost universal mantle and vary in thick- ness from 3 to 20 feet. These impure residual clays are gen- erally sandy and very porous, but with proper machinery and treatment they yield a good grade of brick. The residual fire clays found at Pomona and Grover are coarse- grained clays with much intermixed quartz and mica. The kaolins are of special importance and of excellent quality, the most important being at Webster, and west of Sylva. Sedimentary clays. The coastal plain deposits of North Caro- lina furnish the most extensive beds of clay to be found within the state. They have been classed as belonging to Cretaceous, Eocene and Pleistocene formations. The Potomac clays of the Cretaceous are exposed at Prospect Hall on the Cape Fear river, and the Eocene beds are well shown in railroad cuts at Spoutsprings Fayetteville. Many clays suitable for the manufacture of brick and of pot- tery are found underlying the river terraces farther inland, as along the Catawba, Yadkin, and the Clark rivers. Other sedi- mentary clays are well developed around Wilson, Goldsboro, and IFayetteville. North Dakota. The clays of North Dakota are of Cretaceous, Tertiary, and Post- tertiary age, and abound in many sections of the state. While they are suitable for a variety of purposes, they have thus far been but little worked. (Report of commissioner of labor and agriculture. 1891–92) ; : Ohio" The principal centers of development of clays are in most in- stances the same as those which furnish the coal. The Subcar- honiferous contains valuable deposits of flint clay, which is mined 1 Ohio geol. sur. v. 7, pt 1. E. Orton jr. Clays and clay-working industries of Ohio. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 625 at several points in Hocking co., and the Carboniferous conglom- erate also contains several beds of fire clay. Other beds occur over the Sharon coal in the Massillon sandstone, and are used for making sewer pipe and pottery. Another important bed under- lies the lower Mercer limestone. Several important clay deposits occur in the lower Coal Measures, the beds varying in thickness from 6 to 30 feet. The Kittanning clay and shale is the most important in the state, and is the horizon which yields the well known Mineral point fire clay. Other beds are found in the middle Kittanning and the lower and upper Freeport members of the Coal Measures. In northern and western Ohio, the drift clays form an abundant supply of material for the making of common brick. Pennsylvania The most prominent clay deposits of Pennsylvania are the re- fractory shales and clays which occur in the Coal Measures, spe- cially in the western portion of the state. The beds are often extensive, and occupy well marked stratigraphic positions. Among the more important of these may be mentioned the Bolivar fire clay, which occurs just under the Freeport upper Coal Measures. Another important bed of clay lies immediately under the Kit- tanning coal, throughout Beaver co. Another valuable bed is found near the top of conglomerate 12, and is mined in Cambria, Indiana and Beaver co. Large quantities of true kaolin are mined in Chester and Dela- ware co., and the mines at Brandywine summit have been in opera- tion for a number of years. The brick clays are abundant and important in and around Philadelphia, where they belong to the Columbian formation; while the river terraces in the valleys of the Ohio and Beaver rivers are underlain by clay suitable for the manufacture of brick, terra cotta and stoneware. 626 INEW YORK STATE MUSEUM South Dakota" The clays of South Dakota are classed as brick, potters', fire clays, and fullers' earth. Brick clay. The material most commonly used for brickmak- ing in South Dakota is some kind of loam such as that supplied by the loess in Union, Minnehaha, and Moody co. It is also thick in the high terraces along the Missouri, and Cheyenne rivers, and in most of the country south of the White river, in the Laramie formation, in the northwestern counties of the state. Local beds are found underlying the flood plains of the large Streams. º Potters’ clay. Very plastic dark clays are said to abound in the Benton and the Pierre groups of the Cretaceous. Light colored clays abound in the White river beds, and in several horizons of the Paleozoic of the South hills, which furnish clays that are probably adapted to the potter's purposes. Fire clays. Extensive deposits of fire clay occur in the Dakota formation, which forms a rim around the Black hills. This bed has been worked for several years, specially at Rapid City. Fullers' earth. Beds of this material have been reported from the vicinity of Fairburn, Custer co. Tennessee The clay resources of this state are very similar to those of Kentucky. (R. T. Hill. Mineral resources, U. S. geol. sur. 1891) The Carboniferous fire clays and shales are abundant in the east- ern half of the state, and pottery clays of the Eocene, and La Fayette formations are extensively developed in the western part. Around Chattanooga, there are important factories for the manufacture of fire brick and sewer pipe. Teacas Brick clays are abundant throughout the state. Many of the Tertiary clays are suitable for drain tile and terra cotta, specially 1 J. E. Todd, E. and M. jour. 24 Sep., 1898. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 627 those of the timber belt and the Fayette formations, while fire clays occur in the timber belt beds in Fayette, Henderson, and Limestone co., and in the Fayette in Fayette Co., but the last run rather high in impurities. The occurrence of clays is mentioned from various localities in the report on Grimes, Brazos, and Robertson co. 4th ann. rep’t. Teac. geol. Sur. Wirginia Brick clays are extensively worked in the vicinity of Wash- ington, kaolin is said to occur in Augusta, Wythe, and Cumber- land co., while there is the usual abundance of residual clays in those portions of the state not covered by Cretaceous and Tertiary deposits. Wyoming' All the clays of Wyoming that have any commercial importance occur in the sedimentary beds of the Jurassic and Cretaceous for- mations, but are also found to some extent in the Tertiary. The formations containing these clays are found flanking nearly all the mountain ranges in the state. But with the exception of their being used for the manufacture of common brick in a few locali- ties, very little development has occurred. All the fire clay prod- ucts now used in Wyoming are manufactured in Colorado; pressed brick are also shipped into the state from various points. The loess is utilized at a number of places in Wyoming. 1 W. C. Knight. E. and M. jour. Nov. 1898. 628 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM CLAY-WORKING Structure of clay deposits Residual clays. The mode of origin of these has already been mentioned. Such a clay may occur either in the form of a broad mantle over bed rock, of variable depth and lateral extent, or it may occupy the position of a vein cutting across the strike of the other rocks or sometimes parallel with their bedding or lamination. Residual clays of the first type are abundant in the upland regions of the southern states and form the most abundant brickmaking material of that part of the country. Tesidual deposits of the second type result commonly from the decomposition of veins of granite or feldspar. They vary in width from a few inches to several hundred feet. Their vertical extent depends in most cases on the depth to which the weathering has reached, except in the case of those kaolin deposits which have re- sulted from action of subterranean vapors. (See “Origin of clay,” p. 496) Vein formations of kaolin seldom show great length, and usually pinch out in both directions. In some localities they are however known to be as much as 1000 feet long. They are com- monly separated from the country rock by more or less sharp boundaries, which are preserved even though the wall rock also be decomposed, as it usually is. They frequently branch, and at times contain lenses of quartz, which resist the weathering agencies and stand out in bold relief on the surface. It rarely pays to work a vein under 6 feet in width. - Sedimentary clays. These occur in the form of beds either close to the surface or interstratified with other deposits which have been formed by water, such as sandstones. Deposits of sedimentary clay do not pass gradually into the underlying rock as residual clays do. In many parts of the United States sedimentary clays form lens-shaped masses which are surrounded on all sides by Sand. The clay beds of Staten Island well illustrate this point, and the conditions observed are caused by variations in the velocity of the CLAYS OF NEW YORK 629 currents which laid down the materials, sand being deposited when the velocity of the current was swift and clay when the water was quiet. All of the New York clays are of sedimentary origin except those occurring along the New York-Connecticut border line near Amenia and Sharon. Prospecting and exploring In prospecting for clay the topography is often of much help. In the northern and western portions of the state the clay is gen- erally found in the bottoms of broad valleys. An example of this is the Genesee valley. Again at other localities the clay is found underlying terraces along the sides of the valleys, as in the Hud- son valley and along Lake Champlain. Deposits of a similar char- acter will be found along the Delaware and Susquehanna rivers. A terrace however does not necessarily indicate the presence of clay, for some of the Hudson valley terraces are underlain by till. On Long Island for example the clay is found almost entirely along the north shore; it no doubt underlies most of the island, but on the southern side there is in most instances such a cover- ing of sand as to make it useless. The presence of clay can often be detected in railroad cuttings, in the sides of gullies or ravines. In many instances however the occurrence of clay is only sus- pected; then borings must be made with an auger to determine its presence. As a deposit of clay is seldom of uniform thickness throughout its extent, a sufficient number of borings should be made in order fully to determine this point; a bed of clay may be 40 feet deep at One point and thin out to 5 or 6 feet within a dis- tance of 15 feet. The writer has seen several instances in which expensive plants have been erected and come to a speedy end, sim- ply because the clay gave out, whereas the disaster might have been avoided by previous exploration. Another important point to de- termine is the presence of sand for molding and tempering. Many of the clays in this state can not be made into brick without the 630 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM addition of Sand. Along the Hudson river and on Long Island tempering Sand is a much needed article, but fortunately it is near at hand. With molding sand it is different, for wherever soft mud machines are used it is necessary. Very often it can be obtained from Some neighboring hill, but sometimes it has to be brought long distances. - Having determined by boring or otherwise, the extent and thickness of the clay at the locality where the brick yard is to be established, the next step is to strip a portion of the surface to a sufficient depth to expose the clay. - The amount of stripping to be done varies. On Long Island it is sometimes as much as 20 or 30 feet. Along the Hudson valley it varies from a foot or two of loam, or 3 or 4 feet of sand up to 15 or 20 feet. In both these regions the sand can be used for tempering, though the quantity stripped is far in excess of the demand. At some points in the Hudson valley the surface is cov- ered with scrubby trees troublesome to remove. In the northern and western portions of the state, there is at most places only a foot or two of soil covering the clay. When a yard is first started, the stripping, whatever its charac- ter, can be used for filling. Natural drainage is always an extremely desirable thing, for having to keep the clay pit clear of water only adds to the cost of production. Neighboring streams and springs are often a constant source of annoyance, specially if the clay deposit is situated in a valley. They are chiefly troublesome when the sand bed, which often underlies the clay, is struck and allows the water to run in and flood the workings. The presence of a sufficient quantity of clay or shale does not insure quality, and before erecting a clay-working plant, it is necessary to examine into the quality of the clay and its possible applications. The laboratory methods of investigation have reached a high degree of development at the present day, and by such means much CILAY'S OF NEW YORIK 631 information can be gained concerning the quality of the material. If these results are promising, it is worth while sending several barrels of the clay to different works, in order to test it on a practical Scale. Analyses, with our present knowledge of clays, are of more value in the case of high grade materials. Methods of working 1 The clay is dug at any convenient spot in the bank, usually at the base, working inward; thus in the case of a high bank eventually leaving quite a steep face. The bank is apt to slide sooner or later and the men begin again at the base of the slip and work inward. There is one disadvantage in this method, that the several qualities of clay, if it be in strata, become mixed, which is not desirable in all cases. It has, however, the advantage of mak- ing the haulage all on one level. Of course, in this method, haul- age by cart is the most convenient. Cost, 25–30c a thousand brick for about 500 feet of lead. 2 A. second method, one rarely used, is to loosen the clay by means of plows and bring it to the yard by scraper, provided of course the clay bank adjoins the yard. Very few yards employ this method. It costs about 20c a thousand brick to plow the clay and bring it down with scrapers. To this must be added the price of getting the clay from the heaps to the molding machines, a distance of about 50 feet. In plowing clay, the bank is usually worked at an angle of about 30 degrees. This method has no special advantage. The clay is more broken up and is exposed to the weather for several days; this adds materially to the quality of pressed brick, but for common brick it is of little importance. This method is sometimes used where the deposit is extensive and shallow, wheel scrapers being used in case the haul is not long enough to require a locomotive. 3 Working in benches. This method is one commonly used where the bank is over 25 feet high. The benches are 6 to 8 feet 632 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM wide and 7 to 9 feet high. Toads lead up to the separate benches, and each bench is worked in advance of the lower one. Where the clay has streaks of quicksand the roads have to be planked. If the bank is below water level there is the additional expense of pumping. This method is of importance along the Hudson river, where many of the clay banks are of considerable hight, and the use of benches often prevents a slide of the clay. 4 Steam shovel. Though this method of mining has been suc- cessfully practised at many western localities, the only place in this state where it has been tried is Croton landing in the Hudson valley. These clays do not as a rule stand well with a vertical face, and as a result the bank slid, burying the shovel. Where the clay bank contains several different layers of clay, which are mixed together for making brick, the steam shovel is a good thing, as it digs from bottom to top of the bank at each stroke. Steam shovels are an economical means of mining soft shale, where the capacity of the yard warrants it, and may also be used for clay. 5 Dredging. This method like the preceding is only practised at Haverstraw and Croton point. The dredged clay is dropped into hoppers, which, when full, are run up inclined planes on shore and dumped. Cost 12–15c a thousand delivered on shore; then 12c for haulage to ring pits. 6 Undermining. Many brick manufacturers use this method of mining their clay, specially when the latter is tough. Wedges are driven in on the upper surface, a foot or two from the edge; at the same time the face is undermined by picking, to a distance of 2 or 3 feet. It is not advisable to work a bank more than 20 feet high by this means, and in almost any case it is a rather dangerous method to employ. g g 7 Blasting is very often resorted to in banks of tough clay and always in the case of a shale bank. A small charge of dynamite usually suffices to bring down a large quantity of the material. 8 Haulage. The brick manufacturer generally establishes his plant near the supply of clay, so that the haulage distance is from CLAYS OF NEW YORK 633 100 to 300 feet. Within these limits it is economical to use one horse carts, but above 300 or 400 feet there are other means of haul- age which will generally be found cheaper. There are exceptions where carts are used for hauling long distances; for instance, at Port Ewen on the Hudson the clay is carted 900 feet in some cases, and at Haverstraw some of the firms bring their clay a dis- tance of a quarter of a mile in one horse carts. The character of the Hudson valley clay banks is such that train haulage would not be practicable, as the tracks would have to be shifted so often. Cars. As a rule where the haulage distance exceeds 500 feet cars are used. They are run on tracks and drawn by horses; if possible the track is laid down grade from the bank to the yard. Sometimes the loaded cars are run down to the yard by gravity, the horses being only required to draw them back when empty. Cost 10c a cubic yard for about 500 feet lead. Locomotive haulage. This is a cheap method where the scale of Operations warrants it; that is to say, for a yard having an annual capacity of 15,000,000 or upward. The cost by this method is about 5c or 7c a thousand brick (about one and a quarter to One and a half cubic yards of clay being reckoned to a thousand brick) for a distance of 600 or 800 feet. It is necessary, of course, to have cars filled with clay ready for the engine as soon as the empty ones are drawn back; otherwise the expense would become great if the engine had to spend much time waiting. The cost given above does not include wear and tear on plant. Wire rope haulage. A few yards use this method where the haulage distance is small; the winding drum is placed under the machine shed near the pug mill or crushers; side or bottom dump- ing cars are used. Gravity planes may also be mentioned, but they are less used than they might be. - Purification of clay In the manufacture of common clay bricks it is seldom necessary to give much time to the preparation of the clay, but in the case 634. NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of better grades of ware, such as front brick and terra cotta, the preparation of the clay is often a matter of the greatest importance, in order to provide a mass of material which will be homogeneous throughout, and whose physical properties shall not vary. It some- times happens that this operation means simply the breaking up of the clay thoroughly or the loosening of all the clay particles. The greater the care with which these operations are carried on the IOOOI’é homogeneous will be the material and the better the grade of the wares produced. Removal of foreign matter This can be sometimes rendered harmless either by distributing it in a finely divided condition through the clay, or by the addition of chemicals, or sometimes it may be removed entirely, the method employed depending on the character of the clay. Cleansing clay. This includes the removal of roots, pyrite, lime ‘pebbles, and similar substances. The simplest method is by hand- picking, which is slow and incomplete. The custom followed at the present day is either to dry the clay and pass it through a sieve of the proper mesh, or to treat it to a washing process or even to an air separation. Cleaning dried clay. Most clays are naturally moist, but when occurring in the form of shale the percentage of water is usually very low; very Sandy clays are also apt to run low in moisture. With dried clays, the purification can be accomplished by first pul- verizing the material, and then allowing the product to fall through a strong air current, the effect of this being to separate the particles according to their specific gravity, those of clay being carried far- thest, while heavier particles, such as pyrite, are dropped first, a fairly complete separation taking place. Wet process of purification. This is done by subjecting the clay to a washing process. (See “Preparation,” p. 799) Separation of iron particles. In the manufacture of certain products, and also certain glazes, it is necessary that the material CLAYS OF NEW YORK 635 used shall be thoroughly free from iron, as in burning, this element makes itself very noticeable; slight specks of it might mar the ware sufficiently to make it unsalable. The removal of iron grains is accomplished by means of a strong magnet, which in case the clay is used in the form of a slip, is suspended in it, or, if powdered clay is used the powder is allowed to pass over the poles of the magnet; in either case the iron particles are extracted, the magnet being cleaned from time to time. Purification of fluxes and grogs Many of the materials belonging to either of these two classes are often more or less dirty and can be cleaned by Washing. If the grogs used, however, contain appreciable particles of iron, it is best to remove these by hand picking as far as possible, before the material is powdered for use. Feldspar having a red or yellow color frequently contains iron oxid, and such should not be used if the feldspar is to be used in the manufacture of light colored or colorless glazes, while if it is to be used for dark glazes the iron oxid contents are of less importance. Many red feldspars, however, when calcined became pure white, showing that the coloration is not due to iron. 636 NEW YORIK STATE MUSEUM DSES OF CILAY Characters of brick clays Under this head is included a very wide range of materials, de- pending on the quality of the product to be made. For common building brick almost any clay of good plasticity will do, and this very fact has been most extensively abused by brick manufacturers, encouraged by indifference on the part of con- tractors who are very often inclined to regard common brick as simply so many cubic feet of burned clay, little attention being paid to the quality of the product. As the different kinds of brick can not all be made from the Same kind of clay, it will be best to consider separately the requisites of the clays used for these different types. Clays for common bricks. For this purpose the more impure clays are generally utilized, and in general those which burn to a red color. Calcareous clays are often employed, specially around Chi- cago. Such clays produce a buff product. Many morainic clays of south central New York are of this nature. Clays for making common brick should burn to a good red color at a temperature not greater than 2000° F. or 2100° F. They should also have sufficient fluxes to cement the clay particles to- gether, forming a hard dense body, when subjected to the above amount of heat. From 5% to 7% of iron is desirable, as this amount has been found to exert the best coloring action. A large amount of lime is undesirable, for it brings the temperatures of fusion and incipient vitrification too close together, though with care a good brick can be made from a clay containing 20% to 25% of carbonate of lime. (Seger's Ges. Schrift. p. 265). The celebrated Mil- waukee brick contain 22% of lime carbonate and the clays used for making front brick at Canandaigua, N. Y., have 20%-23%. The tendency of lime as previously stated is to lessen the shrink- CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 637 age of the clay in the burning, and it will be the more injurious the less finely divided its condition; consequently if a brick clay con- tains lime it should be seen to that the substance is finely and evenly disseminated throughout the material, for if in lumps it is very apt to split the burned brick. Many brick clays which con- tain lime pebbles are often dried and screened before using. Sand decreases both the plasticity and the tensile strength of the clay as well as the shrinkage. This fact is frequently known and utilized by the manufacturer to diminish the shrinkage of his clay in both drying and burning, consequently reducing the danger of obtaining a warped or cracked product. Some clays will stand as much as 25% of sand. The coarser the sand, the more marked will be its effect on the shrinkage. On the other hand, if the grains of sand are angular and of too large size, they may of themselves produce a cracking of the ware; and it should be borne in mind that there is danger of adding too much sand to a clay, for the tendency will be to produce a weak, porous brick, specially if the latter is hand-molded. Fine-grained clays and very plastic ones generally need to be dried very slowly, the reason being that on account of the smallness of the pores the moisture can not escape readily, and the outer por- tion of the brick dries and shrinks more quickly than the interior, with the resultant cracking. Rapid drying may be prevented somewhat by adding salt water to the clay, and this is a common practice in parts of Missouri. (Mo... geol. Sur. 11: 481) Fine-grained clays often have to be heated slowly in the early stages of burning, though if such a clay contains an abundance of fine sand particles, the contrary is possible. 638 INEW YORIK STATE MUSEUM The range of constitutents in brick clays from various states can be seen from the following table. North Carolina Range Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 — 70 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 — 28 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 – 11.5 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 — 2.5 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 — 1.5 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 — 4.5 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 — 12 Total fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 — 17.5 Missouri Range Silica and fluxes combined... 12 – 30 Silica (sand). . . . . . . . . . . . 20 – 60 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 — 25 Water (combined) . . . . . . . 3 — 9 Water (moisture) . . . . . . . 0 – 6 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 – 8 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 — 7 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 — 8 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 — 7 New York: Range Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.12 – 69.73 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . 11.33 – 24.45 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . 1.90 – 10.90 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 — 15.38 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . 10 — 8.24 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . .48 – 9.82 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . .90 — 12.67 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . 4.50 – 8.26 Average 60% 18% 60% .60% .40% 20% 7% 9% Average 15% 55% 14% 4% 2% 4% 1.50% 1% 3. 50% Average 54.28% 18.81% .92% .87% .95% .43% .906% .41% OLAYS OF NEW YORK 639 The following gives the maximum, minimum and average per- centage of the different constituents in the brick clay analyses given in the tables at the end of the report. Range Average Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.35 – 90.877 49.27% Alumina . . . . . . . . . . 22.14 – 44.00 22. 774% Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . 126 — 33. 12 5.31.1% Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . .024 — 23. 20 2.017% Magnesia . . . . . . . . .02 — 11.03 2.66% Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 — 15. 32 2.768% Water . . . . . . . . . . . . .05 — 13. 60 5.749% Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . 17 — 9.64 2. 502% Clay for pressed brick. In addition to the characters mentioned under common brick clays, it is highly necessary that the materials used should burn to a uniform color. They should be as free as " possible from soluble salts, specially if the product is not vitrified. Many different grades of clay are utilized, but chief among them may be mentioned white burning clays, buff burning clays (either calcareous or semi-refractory), red burning clays, commonly high in iron oxid. Semi-refractory, or refractory clays, form an important source of material for making front brick, not only on account of the buff color to which they burn, but also because this color permits the admixture of manganese for the production of mottled and speckled effects and various shades producible by the addition of the same material in powdered form. The shrinkage of the clay in burning should be regular and even, in order that the finished bricks may all be very nearly of the Same size. Burning of brick clay Brick clays when burned exhibit a variety of shades and colors whose existence is influenced by several causes, such as the amount of ferric Oxid in a clay, the percentage of other constituents as- 640 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Sociated with it, the composition of the fire gases, the degree of sintering and the temperature of the kiln. The red coloration usually caused by iron is well known, and the other effects of iron are mentioned on page 517. An excess of lime, magnesia or alumina tends to exert a bleaching action on the iron, and produce a buff tint. - It is asserted by Seger (Ges. Schrift. p. 282) that it requires 5% of ferric oxid to give a pronounced red color, which increases with the amount of iron, up to about 20%. I(nowing the effect of the different ingredients on the color of the burned clay, it is possible when certain results are desired to add the ingredients to the clay in case they are lacking. Thus a red burning clay might be changed to a buff burning one by adding to it a white or whitish burning clay containing a high amount of alumina, and, depending on the amount added, we should get shades passing from red through brown, yellowish brown, to yellow. Marl produces a similar result. The fire gases may be either reducing or oxidizing, and during the burning of a kiln these conditions are apt to alternate at times, but while cooling down the action of the fire is with few excep- tions oxidizing. One effect of the sintering is to cause the clay to shrink more and become denser, and this of itself is sufficient to deepen the color. - The color to which a clay maturally burns as a result of its con- stituents, is best shown on the fractured surface of a brick, as the fire gases have not been able to exert any effect on the interior of the product. The surface coloration of a burned brick may often be the same as that of the interior portion, but at other times it may differ from it. This is due to the accumulation of soluble salts, which have been drawn from the interior of the brick to the surface, either in burning, water-smoking or drying. Another cause of difference in color between the surface and in- CILAY'S OF NEW YORK 641 terior of the burned brick may be due to the deposition of foreign Substances brought there by the fire gases, which may exert a colorizing action either by their presence alone or by their forming a glaze on the surface of the brick as a result of their union with the silica in it. This is often to be seen on the surface of arch brick in an up-draft kiln, and on the surface of the brick which line the bag walls of any down-draft kiln. The coloration of most brick is due to iron; unless the brick is heated beyond vitrification it is probable that much of the iron re- mains in the ferric condition. With ferric oxid in a clay it is possible to obtain all shades rang- ing from pink to reddish black, and with an excess of lime all shades of yellow, while manganese, which sometimes accompanies the iron in small amounts, tends to give a brownish coloration. Ferrous oxid produces colors ranging from green to black. It should also be remembered that with any given amount of iron in a clay, the higher the temperature to which the material is exposed the deeper will be the color obtained. Iron in the ferric condition tends to color the mass red as long as it is at all porous, but with the beginning of fusion it generally passes over to black. When the clay also contains carbonate of lime, the latter serves as a flux, and causes fusion to set in at a lower temperature than it otherwise would, the result being the formation of a complex silicate, containing iron, alumina and lime, which with the proper proportion of iron and lime shows a yellow color. Up to the time that fusion sets in the ferric oxid still imparts its red color to the clay, but as the heat rises, this gradually turns to flesh red, white, yellow, and finally yellowish green, and at viscosity passes to green, and sometimes black. The coloration which is induced Superficially is a matter of great importance, and, as before stated, it may be due either to a coating of soluble salts, or a deposit of impurities from the fire gases. The former are described under “Efflorescence on bricks,” p. 679. The discoloration caused by the action of fire gases on the clay 642 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM is far more pronounced in the case of buff ware. In red burning clays the effect is often marked by a superficial reduction of the iron which the clay contains, or a slagging of the surface due to the deposition of fusible impurities, specially alkalis, from the fire gases. - In calcareous clays many of the elements of the material show a strong affinity for the sulfuric acid of the fire gas; the result of this is that sulfate of lime is formed on the surface, and the ferric Oxid, not being able to unite with the lime, imparts a red color to the brick. In the interior the color of the brick remains yellow, for the Sulfuric acid gas has not been able to penetrate to that point and take the lime away from the iron. This point can be easily proved by determining the amount of sulfur in the yellow and the red portion of the brick, and, if the theory is correct, the latter should show the greater amount of the acid. That this is so is well shown by two clays analyses made by Seger (Ges. Schrift. p. 277). The outer or red portion of the brick which he analyzed showed 14.43% of sulfuric acid, while the inner or yellow portion showed only 1.04%. - - One fact that this emphasizes is that in burning calcareous clays it is important that coal should be used which contains but a very Small percentage of Sulfur. - The slower the burning proceeds, the more completely will the iron in all portions of the clay be oxidized, and the greater the ac- cess of air the brighter will be the red color. The time required in drying and burning is affected not only by the clay, but also by the process. The more water which has to be driven off in the kiln, the slower must the burning proceed, unless the clay is coarse-grained. PLATE 20 To face page 643 1 2 3 4 C. M. Doyle, photo. Different varieties of brick 1 Roman tile. 2 Norman tile. 3 Dry pressed brick speckled with manganese. - Rock faced. CLAYS OF NEW YORK . 64.3 TELE BRICKMAIKING INDUSTRY Three kinds of brick are manufactured in New York, common, front and paving brick. Common brick. Many works dealing with clay products state, in an interesting way, what are the requisites of a good common brick, but as a rule few conform to the requirements laid down. Most common brick are fairly regular in shape, but here the similarity to one another ends. They show a wide variation in size, and there is no law requiring a standard size, though there should be one. The National brickmakers association and the American institute of architects have adopted a standard size of 24x443.8% inches. If these dimensions be compared with those given in the table below, considerable difference will be observed in some cases. It is to be remembered of course, that, with a given clay and a given mold, the brick will be smaller the harder it is burned and in some clays the difference will be appreciable. Common brick should be of uniform texture, hard, and give a clear ringing sound when struck. The compactness and uniformity of texture are largely influenced by the method of molding. Soft mud bricks when properly burned are very resistant to frost ac- tion. The absorption of common brick should not exceed 15%. They should also have a crushing strength of not less than 3000 pounds a square inch. The following table gives the dimensions of a number of bricks made in New York state, also their absorption after 24 hours’ im- mersion. East Williston. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e 4 1% 4 6 6. 7 | Soft, mud South old. . . . . . . . . . a e s e s e º sº e º e º is e e s 24 × 33 × 7% 3 | 12% 4 3 10. 7 | Soft mud Farmingdale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 x 34 × 73 3 | 1.1% 3. 15% 7.0 | SOft mud º A U. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º: X º × Sº, . 1. 5 # 15.4 §§ º OIſle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24%r X 33 × 7% º ge OIO Iſl OIl Rome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2" × # 2 is 4 || 3 4 || 5 2.9 | Stiff mud Owasco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 × 4 × 8% 5 # 5 14 16. 7 | Repressed Saratoga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24%. X 3} X 24%r 4. 2+ 4 84. 9.0 | Soft mud Buffalo... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...]" X ; X " 4. 1; e ſº tº º te º . . . . . . . Soft mud Dunkirk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2# X 3++ X 7# 4 3% 4 14 15.5 | Soft mud Jamestown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2} X 4 × 8+ 4 || 11 5 5% 14.0 | SOft, mud Hornellsville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 × 4 × 8; 7 2 7 4 1. 7 || Stiff mud Newfield (yellow). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24%, X 3; X 7# 5 5% 5 7 2.9 | Stiff mud Newfield (cream). . . . . . . e s - e o e s e s • e s • 24%, X 44' × 8% 5 8 6 5% 15.3 | Stiff mud Jewettville. . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º a * 2# $ 4 × 8+ 5 | 1.1% 6 1 5.4 Dry clay werGBT Before - WEIGHT AIFTER, - - 8 SO 3 RIN G. ... SOAKING Percentage Size of . brick - § Lb. Oz. Lb. Oz. 8, WeI’SUI’8,W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2+ X 37" X 7; e e s tº e º 'º º I s e e g is e NOIt Iſll]Cl, Syracuse... . . . . . . . . . . tº e º G & © e º & e º º s 2}" X # × 7% • e a e = * * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soft mud Warners... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24%r X 3 × 84%; 5 | 11 | 5 || 17 6.3 | Stiff mud gºing” * e º e º e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º º º tº a e • * * * * * º X * X *. : sº º # #; É. clay # I'LATE 21 To face page 644 1. 2 3. C. M. Doyle, photo. Different varieties of brick 1 Flashed brick. 2 Repressed paving brick. 3 Soft mud brick. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 645 Most common brick are made by the soft mud process, but many are molded by the stiff mud process. In the burning of a kiln full of such brick, some receive more heat than others, a certain proportion become discolored, while the remainder may be slightly misshapen by the weight of the Overlying mass of bricks. It is thus possible to sort the contents of any one kiln into a number of different grades, the more important of which are as follows: Salmon brick; soft brick. These are insufficiently burned brick, which are not hard enough to be used in outside walls, but can be used for backing or filling in. -- Arch brick are those from the arches of the kiln, or portions nearest to the fires. These are consequently burned the hardest. Stock brick. These generally represent the best, from a kiln of common brick. They are carefully sorted both as to color and shape and consequently command a higher price. Sewer or cistern brick are the harder burned bricks of a common kiln, which, owing to their impervious character as the result of hard firing, are well adapted for damp situations. Washed brick. At those yards where the drying is done by the open air, the surface of the bricks sometimes becomes roughened by the beating action of rain. Such bricks when burned are just as strong as unwashed ones, but they have usually been discarded, excepting during certain intervals when they happened to catch the fancy of some architects. Pressed brick. The name of these is due to the fact that the green brick is sometimes subjected to pressure after molding, to impart a smooth surface and sharp edges to it. Under this term are also included products of a variety of shades and colors and of variable form. The plain colors include white, buff, yellow, gray, brown and red, as well as numerous intermediate shades. 646 NEW YORIK STATE MUSEUM Mixed colors are commonly produced by the addition of some metallic oxid, such as manganese, or a ferruginous shale, to a light burning clay. The addition of finely powdered manganese oxid to a buff burning clay produces a gray color. Speckled bricks are obtained by adding the manganese in a finely granular condition. Mottled bricks. In these the manganese is added in larger parti- cles. Ferruginous shale is sometimes employed, and pyrite has also produced the same appearance. These manganese brick are used to an enormous extent at the present day. On account of their mottled appearance and rough surface they are considered by many to produce a much softer appearance and richer color than the plain pressed brick. Roman tile or Pompeian brick. So called on account of size and shape, in which they are similar to those used in Roman times. Their dimensions are 12x4x1% inches. They are made either plain or speckled, and either dry pressed or of stiff muds. Norman tile. These differ from the preceding simply in being 2 instead of 1% inches thick. Ornamental brick include all those of irregular or fancy shape. Their chief use is for cornices, sills, panels, etc., and they are made in the same shades and colors as the ordinary forms of pressed brick. By reason of their elaborate form they often command high prices, and $50–$60 a thousand is not uncommonly de- manded. Flashed brick. On some pressed brick one edge shows a darkened and slightly fused appearance, brought about by setting the brick with this edge exposed, and then causing a reducing action in the kiln near the end of the burning, by shutting off as much air from the fires as possible. The number of ornamental shapes produced runs up into the hundreds, and many manufacturers carry a very large number in stock. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 647 Rock face brick. These are produced by trimming the edge of a pressed brick with chisel and hammer, in imitation of stone. Their beauty is a matter of individual taste. Pressed brick are usually molded either by the dry press, semi- dry press, or stiff mud process. In the last case, they have to be repressed. The prevalent custom is to burn them in down-draft kilns. Crushing strength of bricks Many of the bricks manufactured in New York show a crushing strength which is far greater than is necessary, but some, spe- cially common brick, often approach the limit pretty closely. The Succeeding tests made by different persons give the strength of a number from different localities. The following are the results of some tests made by H. Wil- liams M. E., at Cornell university, on bricks from New York state, made by different methods from the same clay. Half bricks were tested in each case, and plaster of paris put between surfaces of bricks and plates of machine. Ultimate strength Tr. Fºr Powncls JPOwn ds 1 Wire-cut brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 800 3 385 2 Red brick, dry-clay process, Glens Falls. .. 34 660 3 580 3 Stiff mud, side cut, repressed, buff, Glens Falls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104. 360 6 510 4 Soft mud, repressed red brick, Glens Falls... 117 100 5 365 5. Dry pressed buff brick, Glens Falls. . . . . . 83 680 5 800 6 Soft mud brick, W. W. Parry, Rome. . . . . 115 300 4 470 7 Stiff mud, repressed, W. W. Parry, Rome. 240 000 8 760 *mº ºmºmºmºs º-m-m-m-m-m-m-, * *-*-*-* ==mºm amºms *N. 648 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM Tests of Haverstraw brick made by M. Abbott. No packing was put between brick and plate of testing machine. Crushing strength mi lb. per Sq. in. Maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . 3060 Whole brick tested on end. . . | Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 600 Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2065 Maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 153 Half brick tested on flat side. | Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 669 - Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 371 . Maximum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 4.00 Half brick tested on edge. . . | Minimum . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 900 l Average . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 612 Tests of Newfield brick made at Cornell university. Lb. per SQ. In Repressed brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14. 990 Common . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 300 Common . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 900 Common from top clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'ſ 880 Some years ago E. S. Fickes made a number of crushing and absorption tests of common brick (Eng. news. 1894. 32:495), from which the following tests of New York products are derived. Locality alºon º Material - Machine Rochester . . . . 12.2% 8 460 Clay and sand Soft mud; hard; CO)]]]]] O]] Fishkill . . . . . . 14.8% 5840 Clay Soft mud Troy . . . . . . . 15.1% 4 400 Clay and sand Soft mud; hard; COOOTY1OJOl Tests of building and other brick A large series of shearing, crushing and absorption tests have been made at the Watertown (Massachusetts) arsenal on material CLAY'S OF NEW YORE 64-9 obtained mostly from the World’s Columbian exposition, some of these being made to show the strength of the same kind of bricks when tested in different positions. (Tests of metals, 1894, United States war department) Tests made to show relative strength of bricks according to the direction in which tested BRICES TESTED FLATWISE |Ultimate strength Hight sº Total —A- Fºre Average Inches Sq. inches JPOwnds rºma, Powmds 2. 16 27.63 308 400 11 162 | 2. 10 27.26 367 800 ** 11173 2.19 27.77 298 500 10749 2. 21 27.90 259 200 9 290 J IBRICIKS TESTIED EDGEWISE Hight Surface /– Ultimate strength -, Average &I*628, Total Pe. ºare Inches Sq. inches Powmds Pontino's Pown ds 3. 58 16. 37 124 800 7623) º 17. 15 159 100 ** s 97s 3. 8)'ſ 16.98 114 ()00 6 714 3.48 - 16. 54 203 400 12 297 BIRICIKS TESTED ENIDWISE 7. 73 7. 37 59 200 8 032 ) 7. 72 '7. S3 45 700 5 S37 | 6927 7.75 7.85 51 600 6 573 7.71 7. 54 54. 800 7 268 650 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Tests to determine relative strength of bricks tested singly, in pairs, threes, fours and fives, set in plaster of paris joints and compressed surfaces Ultimate strength * * * →º ºne Sq. in. Sq. in . Pow?vds y Powncis JPowmas 1 2.20 28.95 458 500 15 837 - | 12 469 1 2. 12 29. 56 269 ()00 9 100 2 4.40 29 .41 178 500 6 069 2 4.35 29.33 1998.00 6 slo 6 440 3 6.4s 29.14 12" 200 4385 son, 3 6. 60 29. 10 169 600 5 S28 ) 4. S. 75 29.29 122 100 4, 168 | 4 478 4 8. 88 29. 22 139 900 4 788 5 10.95 28.94. 131 100 4. 530 - 5 10.85 29. 60 110 500 3 733 | 4 131 Building brick industry in New York state Common brick are made at many localities, the most important region being that of the Hudson river valley. Pressed brick in plain colors and mottled brick are made by B. Rreischer's Sons at Kreischerville, S. T.; New York architectural terra cotta co., New York city; Eastern hydraulic pressed brick co., Canandaigua; while plain brick are manufactured by the Glens Falls brick and terra cotta co., Glens Falls; the Corning brick co., Corning; Brush and Schmidt, Jewettville; Campbell brick co., Newfield. Emameled brick. These have a very extensive use at the present day, specially for the interior of buildings, where a smooth surface is often desirable, but one which shows a variety of color. The body of enameled brick usually consists of a hard burned fire clay, or semi-fire clay, the surface of which is covered by a glaze of one color. Two difficulties with which the manufacturer of enamel brick has to contend are the production of a perfectly flat surface of CLAYS OF NEW YORK 651 enamel, and a glaze which shall be free from cracks or crazes; the latter are due to the body and the glaze having a different coefficient of expansion. * Enamel brick are made of two different sizes, known as the English and the American size, the former being 9x4%x3, the latter 83x4}x2#. Many manufacturers are able to produce a wide range of colors; the number is constantly being added to. Owing to the ex- pense of manufacture, the cost of these bricks is usually high, and varies from $60 to $90 a thousand. The body of the brick is usually made of several different clays, and much depends on the selection of the proper material. On this mixture the method of burning sometimes also depends. The clays used for the body of the brick are molded either by the Soft mud, dry press, or stiff mud process. The glaze is sometimes applied to green bricks before being burned; or at other times the brick is first fired, the glaze then applied, and the two subjected to a second burning, which is at a lower temperature than the first. The One is known as the single fire process, the other as the double fire process. Enamel bricks are usually made with an indentation on the upper and lower faces. In laying a wall the mortar is put in this space, in such quantity that when the bricks are pressed together a thin layer of it is forced out toward the edges and furnishes sufficient binding material. This does away with “pointing ” at the joints, and a wall properly laid should show almost no mortar between the courses. In consequence of this mode of laying, every brick should be true to the standard size in order to secure a regular and perfect bond. It is, therefore, necessary to know the exact shrink- age that occurs in burning, and to allow for it by giving to the dies used in pressing the brick the proper amount of “over size.” In a good enamel brick the enamel should adhere so tenaciously to the body that it will not separate or crack under pressure till the body of the brick fails. 652 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The matter of glazing and enameling is the most difficult part of the whole process of manufacture, and as such is kept Secret by the maker as far as the details are concerned. In general it may be said, however, that the enamel is simply a mixture of clays similar to that used in making good porcelain, which is applied to the Sur- face of the brick in the condition of a thick liquid or slip. This enamel, when dry, is coated with a fusible glaze, such as is used for ordinary porcelain. Enamel brick are usually burned in Saggers, placed in a down- draft kiln, or sometimes even in a muffle kiln. The double fire method mentioned above greatly increases the cost of manufacture. Glazed brick. By this we understand a brick which is covered by a transparent glaze, and not an opaque enamel. The best results are probably obtained by glazing vitrified bricks, as porous ones are seldom able to resist the weather, specially in severe climates. If the glaze is applied to green brick, which is by far the cheapest method and the two burned together, the glaze will often show crazing under certain conditions, and it is found that there should be a certain amount of agreement between the composition of the clays and that of the brick, so that they will not only have a simi- lar expansion and contraction when burned, but will show the proper relation between their fusing points, and the glaze will not fuse much, or not at all, below the temperature at which the brick vitrifies. In the first place it is of course necessary that the brick shall not contain an excess of lime, so that it can be vitrified without fusing; and having found a clay of the right kind, it then remains to find a glaze which it will carry without causing it to craze. One way to arrive at this experimentally is to take a clay whose rational composition is known, and by the addition to it of different quantities of, say, quartz sand, feldspar and lime, make mixtures which will show considerable range in a rational composition. Add- Plate 22 To face page 652 H. Ries photo. Clay bank, Rochester brick and tile co., Rochester. The clay is first loosened with plows, and then loaded on cars in which it is drawn to the works. Plate 23 To face page 653 * - H. Ries photo. Dry pan and Blake crusher, Horsehead brick co. The former is used for grinding the shale and the latter for crushing the harder portions of it. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 653 ing quartz and feldspar to clay is rather expensive, and these two could probably be replaced by the use of a feldspathic quartz sand. JExperiments of this nature carried out by Hecht (Thonindus- trie zeitung. 1894. p. 309) indicated that it is undesirable in most cases to decrease the clay substance below 30%, and that if the clay contain over 50% most of the glazes adhere with difficulty. He found that colored glazes with a formula | º . 5 A],OsłSi O, held on mixtures whose rational composition was: Clay sub- stance . ... 50 50 50 50 40 30 30 30 30 30 30 Quartz . . . . 40 30 20 10 50 60 50 40 30 20 10 Feldspar. .. 5 15 25 35 5 5 15 25 35 45 55 Lime car- bonate . .. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Hecht in his experiments used iron, and pink glazes, because they represented extremes of composition. He found that the glazes held best when the clay substance was 30%. As the clay substance increased, the adhesion of tee clay decreased, and it did the same with an increase of the feldspar, while it adhered better as the quartz increased in amount. The tendency of the glaze to craze also becomes greater with the size of the quartz grain, the reason being that the greater the grain the more difficult it is for a thorough chemical action to take place between the particles of the clay and those of the brick. Methods of manufacturing brick Bricks are usually made by one of the following four processes. Soft mud Stiff mud or wire-cut Dry press Semi-dry press 654. NIEW YORK STATIE MUSEUM The processes are not wholly distinct from each other, as there are machines that may be used as well in connection with one as the other. For instance, in preparing the clay for molding in a stiff mud machine, we may use either a pug mill or a pan crusher, though the latter belongs preferably to the dry clay process. What- ever be the method, the manufacture of clay into brick involves the following steps, preparation, molding, drying, burning. Below is a classified arrangement of the stages in the process of brickmaking and machines used. Methods r Digging by pick or shovel at any portion of bank Bench working Mining the clay Undermining - \ Steam shovel Plows and scrapers | Dredging Machines used ſ Carts - } | Cars on tracks, drawn by horses Haulage 3 Steam | º - Self-actin | Wire rope planes | 9. Steam power ~ Rolls Crushers | Jaw crushers | Soak pits Ring pits ! Pug mills | Single | IHorizontal Preparing and tem-- Double ( Vertical pering Pan crushers } Wet pans l Dry pans Disintegrators Ball mills Inclined Screens | Rotary º Shaking U - CLAYS OF NEW YORK 655 Hand power Soft mud machines | Eſorse power Steam power } Auger Plunger Molding 3 Stiff mud machines Dry press Semi-dry press U Represses ſ Open yards, sun-dried Covered yards, air-dried |Pallets Steam pipes circulating Drying º within l Tunnels heated by 4 #. º coal fire through flues under- l | U neath One or more ſ t * Rectangular chimneys ac- | Down-draft } Circular : cording to Intermittent: - U make Kilnsi g Scovekilns U Up-draft } Clamps U Continuous } Straight Circular • Preparation of clay Few clays are found in nature in a condition such that they can be fed directly to the molding machines; consequently they have to be first loosened up. This breaking up of the clay mass can be done by weathering, namely spreading the clay out in a thin layer and exposing it to atmospheric action, the effect of this being thoroughly to separate clay particles. This is a very thorough method of preparation, but takes a long time and, if the clay con- tains pyrite, the development of soluble sulfates is often brought about. A quicker method of breaking up the clay is by means of Some form of machine such as the disintegrator, ball mill, or dry 656 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM pan. According to the type of machine used, it is possible to disin- tegrate a clay in its dry, plastic, or even very wet condition. There are many devices for this kind of work, but only a few need be men- tioned. - Dry methods of preparation Crushers. The Blake type of crusher, which is frequently used for breaking up hard shales or old brick, consists of two jaws, the one fixed, the other fastened at its lower end, while the upper end moves back and forth at a rapid rate. Such crushers are strong and effective, but have a rather limited use at clay-working estab- lishments. Pan crushers. Of these there are two classes, dry pan crushers and wet pan crushers. The former pulverizes the material as it comes from the bank, the latter tempers it with water. In either case the crushers consist of a circular pan in which two iron wheels revolve on a horizontal axis. They are made to revolve by friction against the pan, which is rotated by steam power. In a dry pan the bottom is perforated; the wheels weigh 2000 to 5000 pounds each. The wet pan has a solid bottom, in which there is a door through which the material can escape when sufficiently tempered. A good dry pan will grind 100 tons in 10 hours through one eighth inch screens." ... •' .. Two scrapers are placed in front of the rollers to throw the ma- terial in their path. Disintegrators. These, of which the Stedman disintegrator is a good type, consist of several series of concentric drums which re- volve in different directions. The material to be pulverized is fed into the disintegrator by means of a hopper, and as soon as it enters is caught between the staves of the first drum, and thrown by this against the next inner one, which revolves in the opposite direc- tion, and from this one against a third inside of the Second, revolv- ing in the same direction as the first. The clay particles by being violently thrown against the staves and against each other are 1 Ohio geol. sur. 1893 p. 142. E. Orton jr. Clays and clay-working in- dustries of Ohio. Plate 24 To face page 656 H. Ries photo. Dry pan, Newfield brick works. At the rear of the left hand wheel is seen the bucket elevator which carries the crushed material up to the screens, and those particles which do not pass through, come back down the chute on the right to be reground. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 657 rapidly reduced to a fine state of division, the whole operation taking not over one or two seconds. The material is then dis- charged on an endless belt, and carried to the Screens. The dis- integrator is inclosed in a metal case. The series of drums, the velocity with which they revolve, and the strength and the arrange- ment of the staves depend on the hardness of the material to be pulverized, and also on the degree of finemess to which it is to be reduced. By varying the velocity of the disintegrator a coarser or finer product is obtained. The capacity of this type of machine is very great, but it also requires considerable power to operate it. According to capacity disintegrators can pulverize in one hour from 8000 to 28,000 pounds of material, such as shale, gypsum, etc. They require 2% to 4 horse powerfor every ton of material pulverized in an hour. Ball mills. These consist of a large drum which revolves on a horizontal axis. This drum contains balls of varying diameter which roll over each other, and as the drum revolves comminute the particles of material. The material is introduced through a door in the side of the drum, the door is then closed, and the drum, being set in motion, is turned till the material is ground to sufti- cient fineness. It is then discharged on the sieve, and particles which will not pass through are returned to the drum together with fresh material. Ball mills were at first constructed with a comparatively small capacity, but recently mills have been constructed that discharge the pulverized material continuously. A still more recent modifi- cation consists in introducing the charge at One end of the cylinder, allowing it to pass the whole length of the mill and issue at the opposite end. As the breaking up of the particles in the ball mill is the result primarily of the action of the balls rolling over them, it will easily be seen that the product of this machine will show a considerable variation in the size of its grains, and that the thorough pulverization will be obtained only by keeping the material a long while in the mill. This objection therefore, adapts the ball mills 658 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM particularly to the production of such materials as exhibit coarse article and fine grains, such as grogs for instance. The material to be ground in ball mills must be air-dried and only in those of the intermittent type can damp or wet material be introduced. This is necessary, for instance, in the case of glazes. If the material to be ground must be kept from contact with iron, the interior of the cylinder is lined with porcelain, and instead of iron balls porcelain or flint ones are used. The capacity of ball mills is highly variable, depending on the fineness of the product desired, the hardness of the material to be ground, and also on the size of the mill, therefore the hourly production will vary in the case of grog between 1500 and 3000 pounds. In this case, for every 2000 pounds ground in an hour, three to 10 horse power is required. Wet methods of preparation The clay can commonly be tempered directly as it comes from the bank instead of being pulverized, which is always necessary in the case of shales. The wet methods employed are: Soak pits. These are the most primitive contrivances at present used for the preparation of clays. There is a rectangular pit about 5 feet deep and 6 feet square. The Long Island pits are usually rectangular in shape. Into this the clay and Sand are dumped, water poured on and the mass allowed to soak over night, so as thoroughly to soften it. The following morning the softened ma- terial is shoveled into the machine. Two men — pit shovelers — do this, and it is highly important that they be men of intelligence and attend to their work, seeing that the right proportions of clay and sand are shoveled into the machine. From one third to one quarter is the amount of sand added. The operation of mixing the clay and sand is called tempering; the addition of Sand is in most cases not necessary, as the majority of clays have sufficient of it naturally. The object of the addition of sand is to counteract the effect of the alumina, by preventing a too great and uneven shrink- Plate 25 To face page 658 H. Ries photo. Soak pit in which the clay, sand and coal dust are mixed with water before being shoveled into the molding machine. Rose, Rose & co., Roseton. Plate 26 To face page 659 H. Ries photo. Ring-pit, for tempering clay, Ferrier and Golden, Catskill. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 659 age of the brick. Coal dust is also added by some manufacturers; the advantage derived by its use will be mentioned under the head of burning. When soak pits are used, two men dig the clay in the afternoon at the bank, while a third man levels off the material as it is dumped into the pit and also adds the requisite amount of water. He is called the temperer. In the morning the two diggers of the previous afternoon shovel the clay from the soak pit into the machine. In many large brickyards separate gangs of men do the pit shoveling and digging of the clay. Ring pits. These temper the clay more thoroughly than soak pits, but are not so extensively used, possibly because it costs a trifle more to operate them. A ring pit, as its name implies, is cir- cular, 25 to 30 feet in diameter, 3 feet deep and lined with boards or brick. In this there revolves an iron wheel, 6 feet in diameter and so geared that it travels from the center to the circumference of the pit and then toward the center again. In this manner the clay is thoroughly broken up and mixed with the sand and coal dust, if the latter be added. The pitful is tempered in about six hours; a pit holds sufficient for about 30,000 brick. The temper- ing is usually done in the afternoon so as to have the material ready for the next morning. When the tempering is finished, a board is attached by ropes to the wheel and dragged round the pit a few times to smooth the surface of the clay; a thin crust forms on the surface and prevents the moisture in the underlying material from evaporating. * The working of ring pits is similar to that of soak pits, the Only difference being that the temperer previously mentioned is gen- erally employed in the morning to wheel the clay from the ring pit to the molding machine. As a rule there are two ring pits to a machine, so that while the clay is being shoveled from one pit to the machine, the other pit is tempering clay for the next day, or two pits and two machines are 660 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM used, but each pit in this case holds enough material for the daily use of two machines. . Pug mill. This machine, like the ring pit just described, is used for thoroughly mixing the clay, or clay and sand as the case may be, before introducing it into the machine. It consists essentially of a semi-cylindric trough, 6 to 10 feet long, in which revolves a shaft, bearing knives set spirally around it, or a worm screw 6 or more inches wide. The material is put in at one end, and the knives or thread mix it up. At the same time it is worked along to the other end of the trough, from which it is discharged into the machine. The pug mill may be closed or open; the former is better as there is a more uniform pressure on the clay while it is being tempered, and a more thorough mixing results. Water is also added from a faucet at the upper end of the trough till the clay is in the right condition. The angle of the knives with relation to the shaft can be changed so that the clay can be moved along slower or faster as desired. The trough of the pug mill is of iron or wood, usually the former. A pug mill, according to its size, will in 10 hours temper clay enough for from 25,000 to 60,000 brick. Pug mills take up less room than ring pits and do not require as much power to operate them. They will also, if desired, discharge the clay directly into the molding machine. They are used chiefly with stiff mud machines. - sº In some works a double form of pug mill is used. This has two axles bearing knives, instead of one. They revolve in opposite di- rections. (pl. 106”) - Screens When clay is molded in the dry condition, or when shale is used instead of soft, plastic clay, it is important that the material be first ground to the proper degree of fineness. As the material comes from the dry pan or other apparatus used to pulverize it, it is carried to screens, which allow the sufficiently fine material to pass through while those particles which are too coarse go back to the crushing machine. - Three general types of machine are used, inclined, rotary, and Plate 27 To face page 660 ~ l, H. Ries photo. - Clay conveyor (a), crushing rolls (b), and dug mill (c), Rochester brick and tile co, Plate 28 To face page 661 º ſº -* - H. Ries photo. Horse power soft mud brick machine. To right of machine is truck with empty molds. The boy on left has a truckload of filled molds ready to be dumped on the drying yard. J. Ouimet, Plattsburg. CLAYS OF NEW YORK ; 661 shaking. The inclined screens are usually 10 to 14 feet long, have a bottom of either wire cloth or perforated metal, and are usually provided with a tapping device to keep them from becoming clogged. Such screens are simple and cheap, but have a Small capacity. The rotary screens are commonly of wire cloth, and have a cylindric or octagonal form. They are usually provided on the inner side with brushes to keep them clean. Shaking screens are fixed at one end, while to the other end is attached a crank and piston or an eccentric, which operates them. Such screens are cheap and simple in Operation. While all of these screens are designed to perform their work automatically, nevertheless very few of them can be left without attention for any length of time, for powdered clay, no matter how dry it is apparently, shows the greatest tendency to clog the meshes of almost any screen. & Molding - Soft mud process * This is the most prevalent method in New York state. The clay is mixed with water to the consistency of a soft mud, and is either forced into a wooden mold by hand, or molded in a machine, operated by Steam or horse power. * There are a number of different types of machines but the funda- mental principle of all is the same. A soft mud machine consists essentially of an upright box of wood or iron and generally of a rectangular shape. In this is a vertical shaft bearing several knives horizontally. Attached to the bottom of the shaft is, a device such as a curved arm, which forces the clay into the press box. The molds are put in at the rear of the machine and fed forward under- neath the press box automatically. The empty mold sliding into place shoves out the filled one. The molds before being placed in the machine are Sanded either by a boy, or else in an automatic mold sanding machine in order to prevent the clay, from sticking. The clay is fed to the machine at the upper end of the box. Often 662 NIEW YORIK STATE MUSIEUM there is a pug mill attached to the machine. In all these ma- chines the material gets an additional amount of mixing by the knives on the vertical shaft. In fact many brick manufacturers consider that the soft mud machine tempers the clay sufficiently to enable them to dispense with a pug mill or ring pit and use the old-fashioned soak pit. That they can make a very fair common brick thus is not disputed, but it is certain that with a thorough tempering of the clay, a better brick would be obtained in most cases. There is one type of machine, the Adams, used by several manufacturers on the Hudson river, which does not temper the clay, but simply forces it into the press box. Some form of temper- ing machine must, therefore, be used in connection with it. These soft mud machines have a capacity of about 5000 brick an hour, six being molded at a time. Steam power is generally used to run the machines, but some of the smaller yards use horse power; this, of course, is much slower and not economical except for a yard of a Small capacity. Some soft mud machines are more powerful than others, and in- deed this is necessary. For instance a brick dried on pallets needs a much greater pressure applied to it, and has to be molded from stiffer material than one dried in the sun in the yard. Four men are required to tend the machine. A “ molder ’’ who Scrapes off the top of the mold as it is delivered from the machine and watches the consistency of the tempered clay, to see that it keeps uniform; a “mold lander ’’ who takes the mold from the delivery table and places it on the truck; a “sander ’’ who sands the molds before putting them in the machine, and a boy to watch the machine and stop it when necessary. Beside this there are four “truckmen º’ who wheel the bricks from the machine to the yard, where they are dumped on the drying floor by two “mold setters ”. In the afternoon these men are employed in hacking the bricks and wheeling the dry ones to the kiln. Stiff mud or wire-cut machines. Their name indicates the nature of the process. The clay is tempered quite stiff, and Plate 29 To face page 662 H. Ries photo. Stiff mud brick-making machine, with cutting table. Brush & Schmidt, Jewettville. The bar of clay is seen issuing from the machine. Plate 30 To face page 663 - -- l, H. Ries photo. Molding stiff mud brick, Onondaga vitrified brick co., Warners. On top of the machine is the pug mill (a); the clay is seen issuing from the machine (b) onto the cutting table, and the formed bricks are put on the cars (c) to be taken to the drying chambers. To face page Plate 31 b 663 H. Ries photo. Stiff mud machine (a), and represses (b). Jamestown shale paving brick works, Jamestown. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 663 charged into the machine, from which it is forced in the form of a rectangular bar whose cross-section has the same area as the greatest plane surface, or the end of the brick. The bar of clay as it issues from the machine is received on the cutting table, and either is cut up into brick by means of a series of parallel wires set in a frame which slides across the cutting table, in which case the machine stops when the bar has issued a certain length, or the bar of clay issues continuously, and is cut up by means of wires on a revolving frame. The plunger machine consists of a large iron cylinder into which the clay is charged. From this it is forced out through the die. The auger machine consists of a cylinder with a conical end. In this is a horizontal shaft bearing a screw or knife blades so set that their action will force the clay forward. At the forward end of the shaft is an iron screw which forces the clay out through the die. The clay is fed at the large end of the cylinder. It will thus be seen that the clay undergoes a large amount of compression and that considerable power is required to force it through the die. Auger machines are either end-cut or side-cut, depending on whether the area of the cross-section of the bar of clay corresponds to the end or side of a brick; and consequently the mouthpieces vary in size and shape of cross-section, according to the kind of brick or other product to be turned out. - Mouthpieces are generally made of steel, are steam-heated, and, in order to prevent the formation of a serrated edge on the emerg- ing bar of clay, much attention is given to the internal shape of the die. When a bar of clay emerges from a rectangular opening, there is more friction at the corners than in the center of the bar or on the sides, and for this reason the internal form of the mouth- piece should be such that a sufficient quantity of clay will be forced toward the corner of the die to preserve an equal velocity in all portions of the emerging clay stream. At times the mouthpieces or dies are watered or oiled in order to facilitate the issuance of the clay. The practice of steam-heating the die is rather an American OIl62. § 664. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The effect of a difference in velocity between the central and Outer portions of the clay stream is to produce a laminated structure in the brick. Plastic clays laminate more than lean ones, and even the same clay may laminate more with one die than with another. Irregularity of clay supply may be still another cause. In common brick laminations are less harmful than in paving brick; repress- ing may at times obliterate them to a large extent. The auger machine is extensively used at the present day, spe- cially in the manufacture of paving brick. It has a large capacity, 60,000 brick being not an unusual output for 10 hours. The capacity of the auger machine is often increased by causing two streams of clay to issue from it, and certain machines are said to have produced 150,000 brick a day. Plunger machines have a capacity of 25,000 to 30,000 a day. Duilding brick are mostly side-cut, while paving brick are com- monly end-cut. If the brick are to be facing, they are repressed, for the purpose of straightening their edges and Smoothing the Surface. Dry clay process The use of this method in the United States dates back 15 or 20 years, to its introduction at Louisville, Ky. In New York it has not been in use over nine years. There are five dry press in works in the state. The clay after being dug is usually stored in sheds to dry. When ready for use it is taken out and charged into the disintegrator or dry pan, both of which have been described under “Preparation of clay.” After passing from the disintegrator the powdered clay is car. ried by an elevator to the upper story, where it is discharged on a long screen inclined at an angle of about 45°. The material which has been ground fine enough passes through the sieve and down into the hopper over the molding machine. The tailings fall into a hopper at the lower end of the sieve and are carried back to the disintegrator. Plate 32 To face page 664 H. Ries photo. Simpson dry press brick machine, Brush & Schmidt, Jewettville, Erie county. The plungers are at the lowest point of the stroke, and molded bricks are on the wagon ready to be taken to the drying tunnels. Plate 33 To face page 665 H. Ries photo. Boyd dry press brick machine, Garden City brick co., Farmingdale Long Island. The plungers are at the highest point of their stroke and the six bricks which have just been molded are pushed forward automatically on two of the delivery tables. Plate 34 To face page 665 H. Ries photo. Hand power dry press machine for molding ornamental shapes. A molded brick has just been pushed out of the mold. Brush & Schmidt, Jewettville. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 665 The molding machine consists of a massive frame of forged steel about 8 feet high. 3 feet up from the ground is the delivery table, into which the press box is sunk. Connected with the hopper above the machine by means of two canvas tubes is the charger. This slides back and forth on the table. It is filled on the backward stroke and on its forward stroke lets the clay fall into the mold box. The chârger then recedes to be refilled and at the same time a plunger comes down pressing the clay into the mold. As the upper plunger descends, a lower plunger which forms the bottom of the mold moves upward, so that the clay receives pressure from above and below. The upper plunger then rises, and the lower plunger ascends till the lower surface of the brick is even with the table. Again the charger comes forward, showing the green brick for- ward on the table, the lower plunger drops and the mold box is once more filled with clay. The faces of the mold are of hard steel heated by steam to prevent adherence of the clay. Air holes are also made in the dies, but are apt to become clogged up. The pres- sure from above is applied by a toggle-joint arrangement, and it is maintained by the manufacturers of the Boyd dry clay presses that the pressure exerted on each brick is 150 tons. One to six bricks can be molded at a time, according to capacity of machine. On a four brick machine about 20,000 are molded in a day. The hydraulic dry press machine is in use at Canandaigua, N. Y. In this, the pressure is produced by a pair of hydraulic rams, acting from both above and below. The pressure delivered at first is light, being only 240 pounds the square inch (Missouri clays, Mo, geol. Sur. 11: 502), and this is followed by a pressure of 3700 pounds, which completes the pressing. A difficulty encountered in the dry press and semi-dry press methods is the imprisonment of air in the brick under pressure, with the result that the compressed air tends to split the brick when the pressure is released. This can be obviated partly by allowing the plunger to descend very slowly, giving the air time to escape, and also by leaving small vent holes in the top and bottom of the irold. 666 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The molded brick are shoved forward on the table by the charger are placed on cars and either taken to drying chambers or se directly in the kiln. The green brick require great care in handling as they are very tender. Drying must be done very slowly to prevent cracking. Burning is usually done in down-draft kilns The manner of burning does not differ essentially from that fol. lowed for other makes of brick. By setting directly in the kilr without previous drying it takes longer to water-smoke. This in any case should be done very slowly and the burning should not be pushed till water-smoking is entirely finished. It is calculated by some that one sixth to one quarter more fuel is required to burr dry clay bricks than those made by other processes. Burning in a down-draft kiln is more expensive than in an up-draft one, but a much greater percentage of good bricks is obtained. It is conse quently better for burning pressed brick. The type of kiln used varies. It is essential for the production of good dry pressed bricks tha the moisture contents of the raw material shall be pretty constani and the degree of fineness shall always remain the same. The firs condition is obtained by drying the clay in sheds, the second by screening the material, after it is ground. The manufacture of brick by the dry press process has certair advantages over the stiff mud or soft mud process. 1 Drying racks and drying sheds are not needed, which means a certain Saving of capital and cost for repairs. 2 The production of brick by this method is cheaper, and the bricks produced have a more constant and even form. 3 Labor is cheaper than in the case of the other methods, as there is less handling to be done, the bricks being carried directly from the molding machine to the kiln. The forms of the bricks molded on dry press machines are not restricted to rectangular shapes, but ornamental patterns can alsc be produced, which in the case of plastic methods can be formed only in plaster molds. t Plate 35 t To face page C66 s Tº s | &= --> SS SSSY \ => S >> --> M. | | § ſ | ) Hº É t aft ſº § : … sectional side view OF DRY PRESS BRICK PLANT CLAYS OF NEW YORK 667 Semi-dry process - This differs but little from the dry process. The clay usually has a slight amount of moisture added to it. Clays adaptable to the different molding methods |Few clays give good results with all the methods of molding just described, and the same clay will not necessarily make a good brick with any machine of the same general type. This is specially true of stiff mud machines. For the dry press process a wide range of clays can be used, for it works with Sandy ones, or with plastic materials. Coarse sandy clays however do not lend themselves readily to dry pressing, on account of their very slight cohesive strength. As an illustration of the wide range of clays used, we may com- pare the two following clays, no. 1 being a clay used to a large extent for making brick in western Illinois, no. 2 a black clay from Wyandance, L. I. Both feel gritty, but neither contains particles large enough to be retained by a 100 mesh sieve. * When subjected to a mechanical separation they yielded. No. 1 No. 2 Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5% 84% Clay substance and silt . . . . . . . . e 95% 16% 100% 100% The other physical tests of no. 2 are given on page 740. Those of no. 1 are: water reuqired for mixing 16%; air shrink- age 6%. Incipient fusion began at .04 with 8% shrinkage; vitrifica- tion at 4, with a total shrinkage of 12%; at cone 6 viscosity began. The soluble salts amounted to .09%. The tensile strength ranged from 150 to 175 pounds a square inch. If the product from the dry press machine is properly burned, it gives a good brick, but if not, it is apt to be easily disintegrated by 668 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the frost. Owing to their greater density, dry press brick have to be burned more slowly than those made by other methods. - The stiff mud process is adaptable mainly, if the best results are desired, to clays of moderate or good plasticity, which will dry in a reasonable time. As the clay in flowing through the die requires much tenacity to escape tear, very siliceous clays are not desirable, and on the other hand very plastic ones tend to develop laminations in the brick. The capacity of the stiff mud machines is very great and their use is increasing, though it is already extensive. Repressing of bricks Paving brick and front brick are sometimes repressed, the object being to give sharper edges and angles in the case of the latter, and in both cases to produce a brick of more regular size and greater density. The repressing is done in a machine known as the repress, operated either by hand or steam power. (pl. 36.) In the hand power machine only one brick is repressed at a time, and one man and a boy can generally repress about 2000 a day. In a steam power machine two bricks are repressed at a time, and the capacity is about 25,000 a day of 10 hours. In each case the pressure is applied vertically, and the dies and other parts of the machine have to be oiled frequently to keep the clay from Sticking. Repressing reduces the volume of the brick somewhat, thus in one case a brick before being repressed in a steam power machine measured 84 × 4 × 3% inches, and after it 84 × 43 × 2. Drying The methods employed have already been enumerated in the table given on page 655. With few exceptions artificial drying is used only in connection with the stiff mud and dry press process. The drying of bricks should never be hurried, as bricks dried too quickly are apt to crack; but some clays can be dried much more rapidly than others, and so the drying capacity of the plant does not need to be as great as in the case of clays that dry slowly. Plate 36 To face page 668 H. Ries photo. Steam power repressing machine, showing the bricks entering the machine at the front. Newfield brick works, near Newfield station. ge 669 TFT // ± a ace D To f Plate 37 H. Ries photo. Rochester brick and tile co. Pallet driers with adjustable roof to let in sunlight, or if necessary exclude rain. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 669 Coarse-grained sandy clays permit rapid drying, while very plas- tic ones must be dried with exceeding care. Fine-grained, Sandy clays may require slow drying, as the pores are so small that the water can not escape rapidly, but it is not necessary to follow an in- variable method in the burning. Bricks made by the soft mud process are usually dried in one of three ways viz: - * 1 Open yards 2 Pallet yards 3 Covered yards The first method is the most used, the Second next and the third least. In the first method the bricks are spread out on a hard floor, in the open air. This floor, which is about 200 feet long, is “yard ” proper. of brick, with a thin covering of sand, and is the At one end of it are the molding machines, at the other end the kiln sheds. The yard usually drains toward one end, or from the center toward both. After a day’s production has been spread out, the boy who tended the machine in the morning goes along the rows and stamps them with a piece of board set on the end of a long handle. This is termed “spatting ”. After this the bricks are turned on edge by another boy who goes along the rows with a special tool, turning six bricks at a time. The next morning, if the weather has been pleasant, the bricks are “hacked ”, that is to say they are piled on one another in a double row 11 to 15 courses high along the sides of the yard and left till sufficiently dry to put in the kiln and burn. In case of rain the hacks are covered with planking. w The disadvantage of open yards is that the bricks are exposed to the rain, and if a shower comes while they are spread out on the yard, they become “washed ”, getting a rough, uneven surface. Washed brick are quite as strong as unwashed ones, but they bring 50 to 75c less a thousand. The washed brick amount to about 15% of the total production. 670 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Covered yards. These differ from the former simply in the addition of a roof. This roof is in hinged sections, which on pleas- ant days can be opened upward, allowing the Sunlight.to enter, and closed to prevent washing of the brick in case of rain; but the bricks do not dry so fast, and, therefore, more drying room is needed for a yard of the same capacity. There is also the expense of erecting the sectional covering. Pallet driers. By this method the bricks are dumped directly on “pallets' as they come from the machine. These are pieces of board long enough to hold six bricks. The pallets are set on rack or cribs till the bricks are sufficiently dry to be set up in the kiln. There are both advantages and disadvantages to this method. As the bricks can not be spatted to keep them in proper shape, they must be firm enough to retain this themselves, conse- quently the clay must be molded stiffer, and to do this we must have strong machinery. Furthermore, a molding Sand must be used which will allow the brick to slip readily from the mold, as it has been forced in tighter than a brick which is to be dried on an open yard. There is, of course, the expense of setting up the racks, but on the other hand the capacity of the yard is increased, the brick, though drying slower, are not subjected to a sudden drying, such as the sun of a hot summer's day is apt to give, and, therefore, perhaps warp or crack the brick. The brick are only subjected to one handling between machine and kiln. Some manufacturers say that it is cheaper to make bricks on a pallet yard. A machine called a “pallet-squarer’” has been invented by Mr Swain of the Croton brick co. which is said to take the place of the spatting tool. Tunnel driers. With this method, green bricks are usually piled on cars and are run into heated tunnels to dry. The tunnels are about 100 feet long and constructed of either brick, iron or wood. If soft mud bricks are dried in tunnels, the cars must have racks on which to set the pallets bearing the bricks. Stiff mud bricks can, however, be set on each other, setting the bricks of two succes- sive courses at right angles to each other. 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MoldING MACHINE. PLAN OF PAL LET YARD. *--------------- =------------------------º-º-º-º: - rººmsºmºmºm- TEMPIRING PITs. Plate 39 To face page 671 --~~ H. Ries photo. Tunnel driers. A car of green bricks is being put into one of the tunnels, while on the right are seen empty cars whose load of bricks after drying has been put into the kiln and which are now being brought back to the molding machine to receive a new load of green bricks. Onondaga vitrified brick co., Warners. CLAYS OF NEW YORK - 671 360 brick. Tracks are laid from the machines through the tunnels to the kilns. The tracks are laid in two directions only, at right angles to each other, and turntables are placed at the points where tracks intersect. The tunnels are about 5 feet high and 4 feet wide. Several methods are used to heat the tunnels. There may be a fire- place at One end and a system of parallel flues under the tunnel to conduct the heat. A second method is to use steam heat, the pipes being laid along underneath the floor of each tunnel or along the sides. Exhaust steam is used in the day time and live steam during the night. Another method is to heat the tunnel by a hot blast. In a good drier the natural draft should be sufficient to draw the air through the tunnels. Six or more of these drying tunnels are usually set side by side. Artificial drying takes from 24 to 40 hours. The longer the clay takes to dry, the greater will be the number of tunnels needed for a given capacity. The green brick are put in at the end nearest the machine and the cars with the dry ones drawn out at the opposite end. It is of importance that the capacity of the driers shall not exceed that of the kilns. Arti- ficial driers have the advantage of permitting a plant to be run all winter. The cost of flue driers is set at 25c a thousand brick with coal at $2.50 a ton. Floor driers. Bricks are sometimes dried on floors, which are either of brick or wood. Brick floors are often heated by flues, which pass under them their entire length, conducting the heat from the fireplace at one end to a chimney at the other. Such floors are cheap, but the heat is very unequal at the two ends, and a large amount of labor is involved in handling the material. In Some cases the bricks are dried simply by reason of a current of air passing over them, no hot air flues being used. Wooden floors either solid or slatted, such as those used in drying sewer pipe, may be used, but the cost of laying them is great, and the bricks, as in the case of brick floors, require much handling. A very common custom abroad, not used in this country, consists in having a series of pallet racks built along the top of the kiln, 672 NEW YORIK STATE MUSEUM specially if a continuous one is used. This method works best where the kiln is placed in the lower story of the factory, while the molding machine is on the second floor, or in other words on the same level as the top of the kiln. The bricks when molded are set on the cars, and wheeled directly to the pallet racks. When dry, they are loaded on barrows or cars, and sent down to the kiln on an elevator. The one disadvantage in this method lies in the extra handling of the bricks. The cost of the drying tunnel is however done away with. Burning In the burning of clay, the chemically combined water and also any carbonic acid which may be present are driven off, while the organic materials contained in the clay are aiso burned. As a re- sult of this, the clay loses more or less weight, which in calcareous clays may be as much as 20%, and the porosity increases as a rule with the amount of loss on ignition; but, if the temperature is ele- vated enough to soften any of the clay particles, the various grains of the mass will draw together, more or less, and the porosity will be diminished. The hardness of the material will also be increased, and this is specially true of calcareous clays. In the case of com- mon brick it is always the finest particles of the clay that soften when a temperature of about 1000° F. is reached, but the small particles of quartz sand do not soften, and therefore form the skele- ton of the mass, thus enabling the brick to hold its form. As at this temperature the quartz sand expands as much as 16%, and conse- quently decreases in specific gravity, there will be a certain amount of decrease in the porosity from this cause. We therefore can obtain thoroughly dense brick from sandy clays, without the burn- ing process being accompanied by any material amount of shrink- age, the quartz having aided in rendering the clays more dense. In the burning the clay changes from a comparatively soft con- dition to one of rock-like hardness. The amount of heat applied in burning and the temperature to which the kiln is raised depend Plate 40 To face page 672 - H. Ries photo. Drying floor heated by hot air flues. The bricks on it are stiff mud ones. Brush & Schmidt, Jewettville. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 673 on the nature of the clay used and the grade of product desired. Common bricks for instance may not require a temperature of more than 1800° F., while other wares may have to be burned at a tem- perature of 2300°F. or 2500°F. In the burning process a number of different things exert more or less influence and consequently must be taken into consideration. Among these we may mention the 'character of the clay, the char- acter of the fuel, the type of kiln to be used, the temperature em- ployed, the composition of the fire gases, etc. The detailed changes which the clay undergoes, when burned have already been mentioned. In burning, the wares are piled up in the kiln, as in the case of common brick, and front brick, or they may have to be inclosed in receptacles to protect them from the action of fire gases, and they may sometimes need to be partially inclosed by means of fire brick slabs in order to prevent the exertion of any excessive pressure on them, which would cause them to lose their form. Some clays are burned only to a condition of incipient fusion, while others are burned to a stage of vitrification. Common brick are an example of the former, paving brick of the latter. The type of kiln used varies with the product and also with the locality, but in every case it is either up-draft or down-draft. In the former case the fire passes from the bottom of the kiln up- Ward through the ware and out at the top, escaping either at many points or through a chimney. In the latter case the fire is con- ducted to the top of the kiln first by means of “pockets” or “bags” On the interior wall, passes downward through the ware and then out through flues in the floor of the kiln to the stack. All kilns are also either continuous or intermittent in their action. In the former the heat from the cooling chamber is conducted through those which have not yet been burned, and is used to heat them up. Both the up-draft and down-draft kilns are either rect- angular or round in form, the former having a larger capacity. The different types of kiln are mentioned in more detail farther on. 674. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The principle of burning is much the same in the different kilns, but the burning can be better regulated in closed kilns. In down- draft kilns the bricks in the upper portion of the kiln receive the greatest amount of heat, whereas in a scove-kiln or clamp, the arch bricks, which have to bear the weight of the Overlying bricks, are heated the most and often become crushed out of shape. The rectangular can not be bound together as well as circular kilns, this being of course necessary in order to prevent a bulging of the walls during burning. Most of the manufacturers who make common bricks by the soft mud process, burn them in temporary, up-draft kilns, or scove- kilns, as they are properly called, but the use of kilns of the Endaly type as well as continuous ones is extending rapidly. Scove-kilns. In these the bricks are set up and burnt in “arches'’, several of which go to make up a kiln. The number of bricks in an arch varies from 35,000 to 40,000. An arch is about 40 courses high, and about 15 arches make up a kiln. The open portion of the arch is about 14 courses high; the bricks above the arch are set three one way and then three on top at light angles. They are kept slightly separated by putting Small pieces of clay between them. The first row of brick on top of the arch is called the tie course, and the first 14 courses, including the tie course, above the arch are called the “lower bench *, and the rest of the courses above are called the “upper bench *. When the arch and lower and upper benches have been set, brick are laid flat over the top of the kiln; this is the “raw platting”; and then on top of this is laid burnt bricks at right angles to those of the raw platting, which is the “burnt platting ”. Hanging from the roof of the kiln shed at the same level are a number of bricks which serve as a guide for hight in building the kiln. A wall of two thicknesses of “double- coal' brick is put around the outside of the kiln, scoving the kiln it is called, and this is “ daubed ” over with mud. The daub is to prevent any air entering except through the doors. The latter con- sist of an iron frame about 14 inches high, with an iron plate to Plate 41 To face page 674 - || || –Lllº º H. Ries photo. scove kiln, showing method of setting bricks for burning, the fire being built at both ends of the archways running through the mass. At the farther end is seen the wall of brick which surrounds the whole and is daubed over with mud for the purpose of retaining the heat in the mass and preventing the entrance of cold air. J. Ouimet, Plattsburg. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 675 close the opening; the frames are set in the courses of double-coal brick, at the bottom of the arch on both sides of the kiln. Double- coal brick have six or seven times as much coal dust in them as others and are used for placing around the outside of the kilns. The combustion of the coal in them, the manufacturer claims, Sup- plies the necessary amount of heat to the outer portion of the kilns which are not sufficiently heated by the arch fires. Double-coal bricks sell for about $2.50 a thousand, and usually bear some dis- tinguishing stamp, but they are not as strong as the other brick. It takes two setters and four wheelers about one day to set an arch of 35,000 brick; two men will daub the outside of a 15 arch kiln in One day. Having “walled-up' the kiln with double-coal brick and daubed it over, the next step is to start the fires and burn the bricks. The principle of the process is essentially the same, whether wood, coal or oil is used as fuel. First, every alternate brick of the “burnt platting ” is stood on end to allow the “water-smoke’ or steam to escape as quickly as possible. A fire is then started in the mouth of each arch. When coal is used the fire is started on the windward side of the kiln so as to allow the Smoke to blow through the arches. The fire is also started from the other end of the arch, and the two fires are then built up slowly till they meet in the middle. The time of crossing the fires varies; with machine-made bricks the fires should not be crossed as quickly as with handmade Ones. Along the Hudson the time of crossing is from 40 to 60 hours. The steam should escape evenly all around the top, and the upper limit of the fire should follow directly on it, the steam acting as a blanket, and its lower limit should be even. It is the duty of the foreman to watch the burning carefully, and increase or ease up the steam in any one arch, according as it is coming off too “water- slowly or too rapidly. The fires are increased till the smoke ’’ changes to a bluish black Smoke, and at this point the fire can be seen at night time coming from the top of the kiln. 676 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The kiln is now “hot” and the bricks commence to shrink or “settle * and all the platting is turned down. Up to this point care must be used to increase the heat gradually. The bricks now get their heaviest heat, and the oxids of iron are changed to the anhydrous peroxid, giving the bricks their red color. If the heat in the arches is too great the bricks run, stick together or become distorted and cracked. After the firing has been done the doors are all closed and plastered over to prevent any air from entering. If the bricks are put into the kiln before they are sufficiently dried, or if they are heated too quickly, they are liable to crack. In the case of coal, grates have to be put in a few inches above the level of the floor, and for oil, burners are needed. After a kiln of bricks has been burned, the ends of the arch bricks are often black, caused by the particles of dust and carbon which have been carried upward sticking to the brick when they were in a soft condition, due to the high degree of heat. As to the action of the coal dust in the brick. At first while the brick contains water, there is no access for the air to the particles of coal. However, as the firing proceeds, the water is driven off, leaving the brick porous, allowing the air to enter for the com- bustion of the coal. Particles of lime and lumps of clay cause a splitting of the brick. Insufficiently burnt bricks are called “ pale * and sell for $3.75 a thousand. The kilns take several days to cool, and, when cool, the bricks are put on wheelbarrows, and taken to the freight cars, or barges, and then shipped to the market. If the kiln shed is not situated along the dock, the barrows are put on a car, which is run down a track to the scow. The time of burning is from five to seven days with wood and four to five days with oil. The cost of burn- ing with wood is 60 to 75c a thousand brick, and with coal the cost of burning is 40 to 50c. Burning with wood is the cheapest method as far as implements are concerned. With coal there is the cost of grates and with oil there is a royalty of $1.60 to be paid on every burner. The latter is, however, the cheapest method as Plate 42 |HFA. |Hºl. HHH!' |||ſº ºn º Lºſ II: ºf Hiſ ſº | |Hººf To face page 677 H. Ries photo. Interior view of down draft kiln, Graves type, showing the green brick being set. Jamestown shale paving-brick works. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 67.7 regards the price of fuel. The great majority of the yards along the Hudson use wood, a few use coal and two or three use oil. With coal and oil the heat can be better regulated than with wood. Another important point is the amount of pale brick produced. In scove-kilns there is sometimes a loss of as much as 50,000 to 75,000 in a clamp of 500,000 bricks, while in a permanent kiln such as the Wingard or one similar, the amount of pale brick is said to be not usually over 25,000. Again in the case of permanent kilns, it takes no more, if not less, time to set the bricks and there is less daubing to be done. Regarding the amount of labor required in burning, one man is supposed to tend three arches. Up-draft permanent kilns. These differ from scove-kilns only in having permanent side walls. They are open at the tops and ends, and the latter have to be walled up before the burning com- mences. Kilns of this type are used to a large extent for burning common brick, but they are little used for front, stock, or Orria- mental brick, as the percentage of Salmon brick produced usually amounts to from 20% to 35%. The brick are set in the same man- ner as in scove-kilns, and the burning proceeds on the same principle. In up-draft kilns the bricks forming the arches are exposed to the direct action of the flames, and are usually overburned, so that they are twisted or crushed out of shape, and often covered by a layer of ashes which have stuck to their surface. They are & C & known as “arch " or “eye ’’ brick, The salmon brick are gen- erally to be found in the upper courses of the kiln, and they together with the arch brick may at times form an appreciable percentage of the product. Up-draft kilns are cheaper to construct, and easier to keep in repair than the down-draft kilns, for the latter have the bag walls On the interior and usually an arched roof, both of which require constant attention, and at times may necessitate expensive repairs. Down-draft kilns. In these the fire is conducted along the in- terior to the top of the kiln by means of bags, or “pockets” as they 678 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM are called, before they are allowed to escape into the kiln. The fire then passes downward through the product and out through the openings in the floor of the kiln to the flues, and from these to the stack, or chimneys. The hight of the bags on the inside wall of the kiln varies, and depends partly on the type of kiln, and largely on the individual opinion of the manufacturer. There may be one main stack or, sometimes, there are several Small ones on each kiln. The down-draft kilns are either rect- angular or round in shape. The-average capacity of the former is about 150,000 brick, while that of the latter varies with the diam- eter, which is from 15 to 25 feet. The percentage of Salmon brick is much smaller in a down- draft than in an up-draft kiln, and seldom exceeds 15%. Those bricks which are on the top of the kiln receive the greatest amount of heat, but as there is no pressure on them they do not become misshapen, and consequently on account of their great hardness and density are often sold under the name of “rough hard ” and serve excellently for use in damp situations and for sewer work. Several types of down-draft kiln are illustrated in the report. Down-draft kilns sometimes have two sets of fireplaces, the One connecting with the bags on the inside of the kiln and the other leading directly into the interior. The kiln may thus be worked either as an up or a down-draft, the former being used during the water-Smoking and the latter during the burning. Continuous kilns. These consist of a series of chambers separated by either temporary or permanent walls. The fire is started in the first, and as the burning proceeds the heat from the burning cham- ber is conducted through the succeeding ones either through flues in the wall or pipes connecting the openings in the roof of the kiln. In this way, by means of the exhaust heat, the temperature of the Suc- ceeding chambers is raised, so that less fuel is required. The heat from a burning chamber can not as a rule be carried safely through 'pº3ueqosp 3 uſºq hsnſ sy uipſ etų L （pueſs I ºuori ºlepºuſture, I º ‘oo ſoļuq Aqſo uºpueÐ ‘ad aeq pool） 'tripi nje up uwoq ‘ohoqd so!? I 'H' § 19 05 ed 30 BJ 0 NL8łº 91 BIOEI Plate 44 - To face page 678 H. Ries photo. Circular down draft kiln for burning brick and hollow bricks. Onondaga vitrified brick co., Warners. Plate 45 To face page 679 H. Ries photo. Continuous kiln, Haight type, Eastern paving-brick co., Catskill. Plate 46 To face page 679 º - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - H. Ries photo. Continuous kiln, Haight type, Horseheads brick co., Horseheads. In the foreground is depressed track so that bricks when taken from the kiln can be loaded directly on to the cars. ·lansaqoonſ - ºoo atin pure ſoſią ransa qooxſ 'adael proJLIAA ºutſ， snonunuo.O·ohoqd sºņi （H 619 93ed 908J OI,Lſ 01：31，1 CLAYS OF NEW YORK - 6'79 three or four chambers before conducting it off to the stack, for the reason that the hot air collects moisture from the bricks in those chambers which are being heated up, and if not drawn off when nearly saturated, and before it has cooled down too much, it will begin to deposit moisture and soften the green bricks. IEach chamber has a capacity of 20,000 to 22,000 brick. When the partitions between are permanent they are of brick, but the temporary ones are built of heavy paper. The manner of firing varies. In the original kiln not only did it take place through doors at the bottom, but coal slack was also fed into the kiln through openings in the top. Many manufac- turers no longer pursue the method of top firing. In New York state continuous kilns are used for burning com- mon and paving brick. Sorting After the bricks are burned they have in every case to be care- fully sorted, for no kiln produces 100% of bricks which are alike. The product of a kiln of common building brick is usually sorted into stock, hard, rough hard, Salmon or pale. In burning a kiln of pressed brick, while the percentage of properly burned ones is very much larger than in the case of com- mon brick, still there is often a considerable range in the intensity of the color, and therefore pressed brick have always to be carefully Sorted according to the shade. There are numerous shades and colors which the manufacturer is able to produce with any clay or mixture of clays that he is in the habit of using, but in addition, always, a certain number of bricks are of off shades, or show other blemishes due to improper firing; and these are generally sold at much lower rates. Effiorescence on bricks It is a well known fact that many bricks develop a white coat either during the drying and burning or after the brick have been Set in the wall. The popular term for this white coating or efflor- 680 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM escence is ‘ “saltpeter’’, and when it occurs in burning the manu- facturer at times erroneously ascribes it to water-smoking. "The efflorescence is usually due to the presence of soluble salts, specially sulfates, which are formed either in the clay or during Some stage of the manufacture. Any moisture present in the clay or product dissolves these compounds and on evaporation carries them to the surface of the ware. - The subject has been discussed in some detail in the Brick- builder, from which the following points are taken." 1 Formation of efflorescence in the clay beds, etc. Most clays con- tain mineral salts in greater or less quantities, which chemical analysis has shown to be sulfates of lime and magnesia, less fre- quently of iron and alkalis. The formation of these sulfates is generally due to the decomposition of iron pyrite contained in the clay, and it will be seen that the more thoroughly this material is distributed throughout the clay the more easily it will be subjected to complete decomposition, and the greater amount of soluble sul- fates will be formed. All clays do not contain iron pyrites. In any One clay bank the pyrites may be more abundant in some layers than in others. It may be present in equal quantities in all layers, but its decomposition may have proceeded to a greater extent in those beds which are the most weathered. This fact has been brought out by Dr Gerlach’s observations. One of these was that clay which had been allowed to lie for months in the open air left behind on the ground where it had been large quantities of beautiful gypsum crystals; but the omission of the intermediate operation of allowing the clay to weather after it has been dug will not necessarily pre- vent the formation of these soluble sulfates, for the same decompo- sition of the pyrites may occur if the green bricks are allowed to stand a long time in the drying-room, in the presence of moisture. The prevention therefore would seem to be in the Ordinary molding of the clay and the drying and burning of the bricks as quickly as possible. This oxidation and decomposition of iron pyrites is there- 1 O. Gerlach, Brick builder. 1898. p. 59, et seq. CLAYS OF NEW YORK (381. fore according to Dr Gerlach the main cause of sulfates, which give rise to “white wash ’’. Sulfates may also come from the sulfur contained in the water used in the tempering of the clay, such waters often containing gypsum, and, as many clays often require 30% or perhaps more of water to render them plastic, it is easily seen that the clay may receive a large addition of lime sulfate. This sulfate might be present in the mineral coloring matter added to the bricks. Rapid drying causes the water to evaporate more quickly and a lesser amount of the dissolved sulfates is apt to be brought to the surface of the ware. 2 Sulfates arising during water-smoking and burning. In the water-smoking of a kiln those bricks nearest the fireplaces will lose their moisture first, and before the bricks farthest from the fireplace are heated to a temperature sufficient to convert their moisture into steam; therefore much of the watery vapor driven off from the bricks which were heated first will be deposited on the surface of those farthest from the fireplace, and be absorbed by them to a certain extent. If it happens that these green bricks contain soluble sulfates, the deposition of this condensed vapor on them will tend to increase the sulfates in solution, and when their water is driven off all the sulfates will be carried to the surface in solution and de- posited there. This condensation of the water will be harmless, if the clay contains no soluble sulfates or if the contained soluble sulfates have been previously rendered insoluble by the addition of the proper chemicals. Another source of difficulty may come from the use of sulfurous fuel, for it is known that many coals contain more or less iron pyrite. This sulfurous acid gas in passing through the kiln will only too willingly attack carbonates present in the clay and form sulfurous salts, which as the heat of the kiln increases, come to the surface, and are there oxidized to sulfuric salts or sul- fates, these causing efflorescence or discoloration. - Efflorescences formed on burned ware. It not infrequently hap- pens that clay products come from the kiln apparently free from any Superficial discoloration and later develop one when subjected 682 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM to moisture. This is generally due to the formation of salts during burning, and they are specially annoying on account of their tardy appearance. The salts formed during drying do not necessarily arise simply from the combination of sulfur in the fire gases with bases in the clay, but may also be due to iron pyrite which, during burning, aids in the formation of white washing sulfates in the in- terior of the bricks. The formation of white washing sulfates dur. ing burning is described by Gerlach as follows: “A part of the Sulfur in the iron pyrite is loosely combined with the iron, and Oxidation of this part begins at approximately 650° F., whereas the other parts burn at ordinary heat. The products of disintegra- tion are oxid of iron, and sulfurous acid gas. This chemical re- action is expressed as follows: 1) l'es, H . () = FeS + SOs, and 2) 2PeS-H-70 = Fe2O, 2SO,. The sulfurous acid gas SO, when heated in contact with solid porous bodies is oxidized by the super- fluous Oxygen of the air of combustion to sulfuric acid, or converts existing oxids into Sulfuric salts. It was for a long time erroneously believed that the presence of water or watery vapor was necessary for the formation of sulfates.” Gerlach’s conclusion is that it fol- lows that white washing sulfates are formed in large quantities only when sulfurous acids and carbonate of lime or other carbonates occur together in chemical action. Sulfurous acid has no injurious effect on clay containing no carbonates of lime, magnesia, or alka- lis; such clays accordingly can be burned with sulfurous coal with- out any fear of white washing sulfates, while clay containing carbonate of lime requires a fuel free from sulfur. Gerlach sums up the causes of efflorescences as follows. White efflorescence Source 1 The green clay a Caused by the presence of sulfates in the clay b Caused by the formation of sulfates during the storage of the clay - sº CLAYS OF NEW YORK 6S3 Source 2 The manufacturing a During molding 1) By presence of sulfates in the water or coloring matter 2) By formation of sulfates during the drying b During burning 1) During water-smoking 2) During firing Source 3 Environment of the bricks and buildings a Caused by the absorption of saline solutions from the soil of the place of storage b Caused by the absorption of soluble salts from the soil on which the building stands Yellow and green efflorescence 1 Organic in character — caused by the action of vegetable micro-organisms 2 Inorganic in character — caused by soluble vanadinate salts White efflorescence. Sulfates are seldom present in large quan- tities, but according to Gerlach .1 to .05% is sufficient to produce an annoying white incrustation. This is prevented by rendering the sulfate insoluble. The most effective way is by the additiºn of some barium compound, specially the carbonate or chlorid. When barium salts come in contact with sulfates, barium sulfate is formed, a combination which is absolutely insoluble in water. This is expressed by the following chemical reaction. - CaSO,--BaCO3=CaCOs–H BaSO4, CaSO4+BaC3–CalCl3+BaSO, Thus it will be seen that in both cases we get insoluble compounds, which are harmless. If the cost plays any part in the use of them, it will be generally found that barium chlorid is the cheaper. Method of use. As carbonate of barium is insoluble in water, in order to make it thoroughly and uniformly effective, it must be mixed in with the clay very thoroughly, and in as finely divided a condition as possible, because it will Only act where it comes in 684. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM immediate contact with the soluble sulfates. While only a small quantity of barium salt is required, still to insure thorough mixing, 10 to 20 times the necessary amount should be employed, and it can be used without any injurious results. The following example is given by Gerlach. The clay must first be thoroughly analyzed to determine the amount of sulfates. If, for example, the clay con- tained .1% of sulfate of lime, this would mean that one pound con- tained .4 of a gram, and theoretically every gram of sulfate of lime needs 1.45 grams of barium carbonate to render it insoluble; therefore theoretically a pound of clay would require .6 of a gram of barium carbonate, or for safety six or seven grams should be used for every pound of clay. This would be about one hundred pounds for every thousand bricks, based on the supposition that a green brick weighs seven pounds. As a pound of barium carbonate costs 2}c, the amount of it required for a thousand brick would cost $2.50. It is cheaper to use barium chlorid for the reason that the salt is soluble in water, and hence can be distributed more evenly, with the use of a smaller quantity. The chemical reaction takes place much more quickly when the barium chlorid is used. There is the objection to it that as near as possible the theoretic amount must be used, for, if any of it remains in the clay, without reacting with any sulfate, it will form an incrustation on the surface of the brick. To give an example of the use of chlorid of barium, we may take again a clay containing .1% of calcium sulfate. This would require theoretically 1.8 grams of crystallized barium chlorid and, passing over the intermediate stages of the calculation, a thousand bricks would require 57.4 kilograms of barium chlorid. If barium cost 24c a pound, a thousand brick would require an extra outlay of only 32c, in using barium chlorid. Chlorid of lime is also formed, but this has no injurious effect provided the clay is heated to such a temperature as will cause the lime to unite with other bases and silica, and form a complex silicate. If heated high enough to decompose the chlorid of lime, it might be that its sub- sequent slaking would be injurious. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 685 If the clay treated with the barium chlorid is used at once, no efflorescence will result, either on the unburned or the burned brick, but if the clay thus treated is allowed to lie for any length of time, large quantities of iron pyrite may be decomposed with the forma- tion of additonal sulfates. It frequently happens that the discolora- tions on bricks appear near the edges and corners. This is due to the fact that the waters evaporate most readily from these points. The more quickly the water is evaporated, the less will be the quantity of soluble deposit on the surface. Incrustations which appear during drying are found more commonly on bricks made from very plastic clays, and which owing to their density do not allow the water to evaporate quickly. In Sandy clays, the in- crustation is at a minimum. This explanation is believed to account for the appearance of efflorescence on the surface of pressed bricks more than on rough surfaces. Cost of production This item varies considerably, depending on a variety of circum- stances, such as the method of manufacture employed, cost of labor, locality, etc. Brick manufacturers are generally unwilling to give information on this subject, and the figures given, therefore, can only be considered approximate. The use of improved machinery and methods will often lower the cost of production considerably, but this generally requires a much greater outlay of capital than Seems to be in most instances available. By the hand power method the cost of manufacture is $3.75 to $4 a thousand delivered at the yard. On Long Island, where the soft mud process is almost ex- clusively used, the cost is said to be $3 a thousand delivered at the yard. Hudson river manufacturers quote the cost at $5 a thousand delivered in New York city; this figure includes $1.25 for trans- portation and 25c a thousand for commission. The brick yard is usually owned by the manufacturer but the clay bank is worked on one of two bases: 1 The manufacturer owns the bank. This is by far the best and most profitable arrangement. 686 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 2 The brickmaker pays a certain rental, usually 9% or 10%. 3 The owner of the clay bank gets so much a thousand brick. At Haverstraw this varies, for instance, from 25c to $1.25 a thou- Sand. With this arrangement the manufacturer is bound to a certain amount of production. e Of the three methods of manufacturing brick, the soft mud process is the cheapest as far as first cost of plant is concerned, but it is probably not the cheapest in operation, as more labor is required. The other two methods used, the stiff mud and dry clay, require considerable Outlay of capital. Less labor is required for operating either of the last-mentioned plants. The actual cost of production by either of these methods I have not been able to obtain. It is doubtful if the dry clay process is the cheapest, as the manufacturers Of this class of machinery assert, for the economy gained, due to the shortness of the method, is probably counterbalanced by the in- creased time of burning and consequently greater amount of fuel used. With the soft mud process one man to 1000 brick is what the manufacturer figures, that is, if the yard has a capacity of 50,000 a day, a force of 50 hands is required to operate the yard. As regards fuel, for instance, a saving of 30c can easily be made by using coal instead of wood; gas is considered about 25c cheaper a thousand than coal. Farther economy may be effected by the use of the proper class of machinery for haulage. Carts can usually be employed economically up to 400 feet; beyond this it will usually pay to lay tracks and use cars hauled by horses. Above 600 feet steam haulage has been found economical. Self-acting planes and cable haulage have been used to advantage in a few instances. Common brick are made from shale at many localities in the southern part of the state, and sell just as cheaply as clay brick. Detailed account of brick yards As the brick yards are scattered all over the state, a division of them into groups for convenience is more or less arbitrary. How- ever, the following classification has been made. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 68.7 Brick yards of eastern New York (« central New York from Schenectady to Buffalo K& Oswego, Jefferson and St Lawrence Co. & 4 southern New York K& Long Island & 4 Staten Island Most of the bricks manufactured in the state are sold in local markets. In the case of the Hudson valley bricks, the market of New York city receives the larger proportion, and the competition has been so keen and the supply so great that prices have often been depressed accordingly. Brick yards of eastern New York Hudson valley. Extending up the Hudson river valley from Croton to Albany and even to Glens Falls, is a more or less con- tinuous deposit of clay which can safely be said to be one of the most extensive in the United States, and which furnishes the ma- terial for the greatest brickmaking region in either Europe or America. - The geologic relations have already been described in the chapter on the “Geology of the clay deposits '', and the de- tailed description of the beds as seen at the different yards is given later, so that all that need be mentioned here is the physical char- acter of the clay used, and this can be treated in a general manner for the reason that the constancy in character of the Hudson valley clays, specially between Croton point and Albany is remarkable. Throughout their extent they present the same type of marly clay, of a blue gray color, except where the upper beds are weathered, the color there being yellow, owing to the presence of limonite. These clays contain a great quantity of fine grit, and a large amount Of clay substance, as shown by the mechanical analysis given below. The fine grit is not uniformly distributed through the clay but is in thin layers which cause the clay to split very evenly and readily. 68S INEW YORK STATE MUSEUM . These clays are sticky when mixed with water, but they are by - no means to be called highly plastic; indeed, when worked up with water the mass shows a certain resistance to mobility that is hard to describe, but is not unlike a mass of powdered feldspar in its behavior. When thrown into water the clay slakes quite readily to a flocculent mass. - Two samples were tested physically, the one from Rose's yard at Roseton above Newburgh, and the other from the Brockway brick co.'s yard above Fishkill. v. The sample from the bank of the Brockway brick co. (109) worked up to a sticky, but not highly plastic mass with 29% of water. The bricklets showed an air shrinkage of 5%–6%. The tensile strength of air-dried briquettes was 75 to 90 pounds a square inch, but some reached 120 pounds a square inch. The clay also gave .2% of soluble salts. In burning, the clay burned red with increasing depth of color as the temperature was raised and at viscosity passed to a brownish glass. Incipient fusion occurred at cone .05 with a total shrinkage of 8%. Vitrification at come .04 with a shrinkage of 15%. Wiscosity took place at come .01. The clay from Roseton was very similar in its behavior to the previous One. The air shrinkage was 5%. Incipient fusion occurred at cone .05, vitrification at come .04 with a total shrinkage of 14%. At .01 the clay became viscous. The tensile strength ranged from 75 to 93 pounds a square inch. The soluble salts amounted to .3%. A mechanical analysis of the clay from the bank of the Brock- way brick co. yielded Clay substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.83% Silt and very fine Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.30% Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.75% CLAYS OF NEW YORK 689 ^. Many attempts have been made to utilize the vast deposits of clay found in the Hudson valley for other purposes than common brick, but thus far only cases of failure are recorded. Two other uses to which the clay is adapted, are as a natural glaze for pottery (see “Pottery manufacture *), and in the manufacture of Portland cement. It is also a curious fact that, though the Hudson valley is the Seat of such an enormous industry, nevertheless the methods employed, and machinery used are anything but modern. This is partly due to the fact that the clay does not stand treatment by other methods. Stiff mud machines seem to be barred out completely by the nature of the material, but why the old, out-of-date scove-kilns still hold their own is a matter which is hard to explain. Detailed account of Hudson river yards" Croton Landing, Westchester co. There are three yards, all situated on Croton point and having a yearly capacity of 61,000,000 brick. The yards of the Anchor brick co. are located at the base of the point, a short distance south of the station and along the rail- road track. One yard is situated a few feet above river level, the other 90 feet above it on a delta terrace. The clay deposit adjoins this yard. It is basin-shaped, and varies in depth from 40 to 70 feet. The clay is mostly blue, and is underlain by hard pan, the pebbles of which are cemented by clay stained with limonite. The present excavation is about 40 feet deep and the bottom of it is 40 feet above mean tide. Borings show an additional depth of 35 feet in the center. The stripping amounts to about 10 feet of loamy clay and Sand, and streaks of gravel are not uncommon in the clay. The deposit is worked in benches having a long working face, and these benches converge to one point at the eastern end of the pit, from which a single track is laid up to the tempering machine. 1 The detailed field work on these clays was done in 1891 and 1892, and, while the yards have in some instances changed hands since then, still it was thought better to leave the names in use at the earlier period mentioned. 690 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM Tracks are also laid along the benches, and as the working face recedes the tracks are shifted with crowbars. The cars are brought down to the working face by gravity, or a small engine which is chiefly used to draw them to the tempering pits. A temporary track is laid over the ring pits, on which the cars can be run to facilitate dumping. Those cars containing clay for the lower yard are run on to a self-acting inclined plane, and on this the empty cars and tempering sand for the upper yard are also brought up. The tempering sand is dug by a steam shovel, at the base of the terrace escarpment. The bricks are dried on covered yards and burnt in a special type of kiln. It consists of two walls of best quality brick, about 15 feet high and 14 inches thick. The lower portion of the walls containing the doors are 2 feet thick, and the two walls are about 20 feet apart. The two ends have to be walled up with double-coal bricks after the kiln is filled. Coal is the fuel used. The bricks when burnt are loaded on cars and run down to the dock, those from the upper yard going on the gravity plane. The tempering sand is discharged by the shovel into Small cars, which are drawn up an incline to the top of a framework and dumped, the sand falling through a series of screens into cars below. The Croton brick co. has two yards, an open and a pallet yard; and obtains all its clay from the river with a scoop dredge. It is dumped into cars on a scow, which, when full, are run up an in- clined plane on the shore and dumped. The clay is thus exposed to the weather for several months before it is used. It costs about 15c a cubic yard to deliver the clay on shore and 10c a cubic yard to haul it to the pits. Tempering sand is obtained from the escarp- ment of the delta terrace just south of the yard. At the pallet yard they use a hand machine to square the green bricks on the racks, that consists of two plates of steel, attached to which, at right angles and on the same side of the plates, are 12 smaller ones, 4 inches high. Attached to the large plates are two handles. The two large plates slide back and forth on each other and so that the Small plates can be brought together. This machine is set on six CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 691 bricks at a time and by moving the handles the plates press against the brick, squaring the corners. It is said a boy can Square a pitful of brick (35,000) in a day. The molding machines have an endless chain with buckets attached to them for feeding the sand. This leaves only the clay to be shoveled into the machine, and the feed- ing of the two uniformly and continuously gives a more evenly tempered mixture. It will be seen in this case that no Soak pit or ring pit is used — the molding machine does all the mixing. The molding sand is dried by spreading it out on the kiln floor, it being thought that it dries quicker this way than if it were banked up against the kiln, as is commonly done. The W. A. Underhill brick yards are situated midway between the base and end of Croton point. There are two yards, both covered. The brick made at this yard are sold mostly for fronts, selling for $14 a thousand. The clay bank lies between the two yards; it has a hight of 40 feet above mean tide and extends 15 feet below it. At the last-mentioned depth the blue clay stops and is followed by 2 feet of yellow clay, several inches of quicksand, through which spring water enters, and finally hardpan. There is a stripping of fine sand, which varies from 10 to 20 feet in thick- ness. Some portions of this sand are found to make a better brick when mixed with the clay than others. The clay is mined in benches, and narrow tracks are laid along the working face. Side dump cars are used to haul the clay, being run in trains of three, drawn by four mules. The tracks are laid around the ring pits, so that the clay may be easily discharged into them. Crugers, Montrose and Verplanck, Westchester co. These three localities lie so connected and their clay banks are so similar that they are best described together. The clay is extremely variable in depth, which is due to the great irregularity of the face of the underlying rocks; it is both blue and yellow. No special method is used in mining the clay, it being dug at any convenient spot till the underlying rock is reached and then the bank is attacked at another point. At Montrose and Crugers the clay is overlain in 692 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM places by a moderately fine sand and gravel, cross-bedded in places. The clay varies from 6 to 50 feet in thickness. It extends in places to an altitude of 90 feet, as at McConnell & O’Brien’s bank, while at others, as McGuire's bank, it only reaches a hight of 6 feet above mean tide. At the latter place the clay is overlain by 10 feet of sand and coarse gravel and has been excavated to 10 feet below mean tide. - A partial analysis of the buff clay from McConnell & O’Brien’s clay bank at Verplanck is given below. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50. 92 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26. 871 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.90 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 52 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.56 Ring & Lynch’s yard is situated on George point near Mon- trose. The bank is about 700 feet distant, and the clay is hauled: in cars drawn by horses. At most of the yards the haulage is down grade. Fisher's clay bank at Crugers is overlain by 2 feet of loam. This is used to supply part of the tempering material and the rest is obtained from Jonespoint. At the yards on Ver- planck point horse power is chiefly used to operate the machinery. Most of the yards at this locality obtain their clay from the pits of the Hudson river brick co. This clay bank is worked in benches. The haulage distance is about one half a mile. It is done either in carts or in cars run on tracks and drawn by horses. Along the New York Central railroad a short distance south of Montrose station are the yards of C. Hyatt and J. Morton. Mr Morton also has a covered yard on Verplanck point where front brick are made. Their banks are practically a continuation of each other. The clay is both blue and yellow and is overlain by several feet of coarse sand. Hyatt uses steam power and Morton 1 Alumina is probably too high.-H. Ries 86%) 0.5ed 00：:J OJ, | _ |- '\\u2.11,s. tºAltae H je snſd ſelo ſtoſuq Jo wolae Ibuºttºſ) rojould sº!！! （Il （O3)„…，Jae ago» º ^º · Sf， º) BIJI CLAYS OF NEW YORK 693 tº horse power to run his machinery. The bricks are loaded on cars and shipped to various points along the Central railroad. Peekskill, Westchester co. Bonner & Cole's brick yard lies between the river and the railroad about three quarters of a mile south of Peekskill. The clay lies below tide level. It is said that borings have shown a thickness of 50 feet. There is on the average a stripping of 5 feet of gravel and cobblestones. South of this yard are two others, viz, Oldfield Bros. and the Bonner brick co. Their clay is similar to Bonner & Cole's, but rises to a greater hight above tide level. Haverstraw, Rockland co., is one of the great brick manufac- turing centers of New York state, there being 42 brick yards, with a yearly capacity of 238,000,000 bricks. The yards are situated in a line along the river stretching from the lower end of Haver- straw village northward around Grassy Point, to Stonypoint. A few of them are situated along Minisceongo creek. Most of the yards along the river are digging their clay below tide level. At the south end of the village a dam was built at an expense of $30,000, reclaiming thereby 12 acres of clay land from the river. And more recently clay has been dredged from the river bottom. The last-mentioned bed of clay is underlain by till and modified drift, from which tempering sand is obtained. The clay within this inclosure has been excavated to a depth of 20 feet below mean tide. In the pits of the Excelsior brick co, they have reached a depth of 35 feet below river level; in Donnelly & Son’s pit, 45 feet, and west of Washburn’s yard, 40 feet. A pipe well was sunk from mean tide level 100 feet through blue clay, in the Excelsior co.'s clay, and at this depth struck bed rock or a large boulder. The clay in these pits is rather sandy on top, but is said to im- prove with the depth. It is mostly blue. Streaks of quicksand are always liable to be encountered. In those pits situated along the river and to the rear of the yards, there is no expense of strip- ping unless the excavation is widened, but there are two important \ 694. NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM &. items of expense, viz, pumps to keep the water out of the pits, and the maintenance of corduroy roads leading down into the pits. The clay is dug at any convenient point within the excavation and hauled in carts to the yard. About one quarter of a mile west of the river, where the terrace is 40 to 50 feet high, clay is being dug from the escarpment to supply the yards of J. D. Shamkey, Buckley & Carroll, Philip Goldrick, R. Malley, and J. Brennan. Some of the yards situated on Minisceongo creek have to haul their clay 400 to 500 yards. Where the clay is obtained from the terrace escarpment there is in most cases a stripping of from 6 to 10 feet of sand and gravel. This is screened and used for tem- pering. The Excelsior company has tried to use clay dredged from the river, but gave it up after one season’s trial for reasons un- known. Most of the brickmakers at Haverstraw temper their clay in soak pits and burn their bricks with wood. They all use open yards for drying except the Diamond brick co. which has recently put in a tunnel drier. The Excelsior company has a covered yard, and Bennett, Rowan & Scott use pallet driers. At most of the yards barges can be brought to within a few feet of the kilns, and those yards not situated directly on the water put the barrows, loaded with brick, on flat cars and run them down to the dock. Stonypoint, Rockland co. This is practically a part of Haver- straw. There are four yards here. They obtain their clay from one large shallow excavation on the west side of the West Shore railroad track and 500 feet north of Stonypoint railroad station. The clay has to be carted from 100 to 300 yards, and when the excavation is widened there is a stripping of 3 to 6 feet of sand and cobblestones. Corduroy roads have also to be used. The four yards are situated along the water front. One of them, Riley & Clark’s, uses stationary kilns. Riley & Rose have a covered yard, the other three firms dry their bricks on open yards. The clay bank is owned by T. Tompkins & Son. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 695 The following are some tests of Haverstraw brick made by M. Abbott at the time the East river bridge was being completed, No packing was put between the brick and plate of testing machine. Crushing strength to the square inch Po wrects Maximum . . . . . . . 3 060 Whole brick tested on end. . . . . | Minimum . . . . . . . . . 1 600 Average . . . . . . . . . . 2 065 Maximum . . . . . . . º 4 153 Half brick tested on flat side. . . | Minimum . . . . . . . º 2 669 Average . . . . . . . . . 3 371 Maximum . . . . . . . . . 6 400 Half brick tested on edge. . . . . | Minimum . . . . . . . ... " 2 900 Average . . . . . . . . . . 4.612 Had the surfaces been ground parallel and cardboard or blotting paper been put between the face of the brick and plate of machine, higher results would no doubt have been obtained. Thiells, Rockland co. About two miles south from Haverstraw and half way between the stations of Ivy Leaf and Thiells, on the New York and New Jersey railroad, is the brick yard of Felter & Mather. The clay deposit is basin-shaped, about 15 feet thick, as determined by boring, and has a slightly elliptic outline. The clay is chiefly of a blue color, the upper portion being weathered to yellow. It is overlain by a few feet of drift containing small boulders and underlain by similar material. The tempering sand is obtained from a bank on the opposite side of the railroad about 1000 feet from the yard. Tempering is done in ring pits; the bricks are molded in soft mud machines and dried on an open yard. Burning is done in scove-kilns. The product is shipped to various towns along the line of the railroad in New Jersey. Coldspring, Putnam co. A brick yard was in operation north of this town for a number of years, but has been shut down on account of the clay giving out. (396 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Stormicing, Dutchess co. About 1000 feet north of the station is a clay deposit, chiefly yellow. It is worked by Mosher Bros. The bank has slid considerably; it has a vertical hight of 50 to 60 feet. Cornwall on the Iſudson, Orange co. C. A. & A. P. Hedges are the only brick manufacturers here. Their yard is situated on the West Shore railroad about a mile north of Cornwall station. They have 27 acres of clay land. Blue and yellow clay are found in the bank, the main portion of which is covered by delta deposits of Moodna river. The clay layers are much compressed in places, making it difficult to excavate and necessitating the use of picks. º The bank is worked in benches and the clay has to be hauled about 300 feet to the machines. The stripped sand can be used for tem- pering. Many bricks are shipped to points on the New York, On- tario and Western railroad. New Windsor, Orange co. There are six yards here. They obtain their clay from the escarpment of a terrace 110 feet high. Their clay is both blue and yellow. Streaks of quicksand occur in the blue. The yellow is dry and tough, and has to be worked by undermining. In thickness the clay varies from 20 to 60 feet; the layers are in many places contorted, and in some cases the stratification has been obliterated. Overlying the clay are gravel and sand; the latter is used for tempering. Most of the New Windsor clay permits the addition of very little water in tempering. Ring pits and Adams machines are used at these yards. The yards are all situated along the river, and ship their product on barges or by the West Shore railroad. Dutchess Junction, Dutchess co. There are several brick man- ufacturing firms having yards along the river South of Dutchess Junction. They obtain their clay from the escarpment of an 80 foot terrace which extends from a short distance north of Stormking to Dutchess Junction. The clay has a fairly uni- form thickness; the upper 4 to 8 feet are yellow, the rest blue. The greatest thickness of clay known for this locality is at Aldridge Plate 49 To face page 697 H. Ries photo. Clay bank of Brockway brick co., North of Fishkill landing. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 697 Bros.’ yard, where a well was sunk 65 feet through the clay, which, added to the hight of the bank (65 feet), gives us a total thick- ness of 130 feet at this point. The clay is usually covered by gravel, and by sand in some cases sufficiently fine to be used for tempering or even molding. It is worked in benches, and the haul- age distance is 200 to 300 feet. At Timoney’s clay bank there is Some extra labor in stripping the scrub oaks and other bushes which cover the surface of the terrace. Fishkill, Dutchess co. Harris & Ginley’s yard is situated about one quarter of a mile below the town. The clay bank is leased from the New England railroad co. It was formerly quite thick, but clay having been dug for 50 years but a small portion of the bank remains. The clay has a maximum thickness of 45 feet. Streaks of quicksand occur throughout the clay; it is underlain by hardpan and shale. - The other yards at this locality are situated along the river from a point about half a mile above Fishkill up to Low Point station. One of the yards is just north of Low Point. The most southern one is that of Aldridge & Sherman, with 600 feet water front. The clay land of these two firms belongs to the W. E. Verplanck estate. Next on the north are works of the Brockway brick co., with 1200 feet of water front. This firm owns its clay bank. The bricks are dried on pallets. The next two yards belonging to Lahey Bros., (650 feet water front) and Dinan & Butler (475 feet water front), respectively, lease their clay bank from the W. E. Verplanck estate. Dinan & Butler have a pallet yard. The five above-named firms obtain their clay just east of the yards from the escarpment of a 90 foot terrace; it is both blue and yellow and overlain by 4 to 6 feet of loam, sand and gravel. A short distance north of Dinan & Butler's yard is that of J. W. Meade. About 20 feet of clay are exposed in the bank, which adjoins the yard. The clay is overlain by 4 to 6 feet of sand and cobblestones. The sand is screened and used for tempering. - 698 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM C. G. Griggs & Co.'s brick yard is located along the river about half a mile north of Low Point station. An opening has been made for clay about 800 feet east of the yard; the clay as exposed at present is 20 feet thick and overlain by 2 feet of loam. 100 feet farther east, and at a slightly higher level, Sand for tempering has been dug to a depth of 8 feet without finding clay. The clay is hauled in carts to the yard. - Roseton, Orange co. There is a remnant of a terrace at this locality 120 feet high. From this J. J. Jova and Rose & Co. obtain their clay. The former has 80 acres, the latter 40. The clay is mostly blue and rises to a hight of 100 feet above the river. At Jova's upper yard it is underlain by limestone and overlain by sand. On top of the clay at his lower yard are 10 to 15 feet of sand and gravel. A well was sunk from river level at Jova's, passing through the following: Blue clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 feet Quicksand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 “ Roose sand and gravel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75. “ 1SO “ Adding to the above section 100 feet of clay above river level gives us a total thickness of 180 feet of clay. At Rose & Co.'s yard, which adjoins Jova's on the South, it is said, a well was sunk 135 feet through blue clay. Adding to this 108 feet of clay above mean tide gives us a bed of clay 243 feet thick. The terrace which the clay underlies at Roseton extends back from the river several hundred feet into a reentrant angle of the hill. The clay contains little Sand and is worked in benches. Carts are used to haul the clay. South of Roseton station is a bank of sand of alternating yellow and grayish black layers, which has been used for tempering, but is said not to give as good results as that on Jova's premises. Plate 50 To face page 698 H. Ries photo. General view of brick yards and clay bank, Rose, Rose & co., Roseton. In the background is the terraced clay bank at the base of which are the eight molding machines, between which and the long kiln sheds are the open yards on which the bricks are seen drying in the sun. nomºsoſ ºoo y aso（H. Jo xueq Ketorojotąd sa 1：1 （H S69 93edſ ºotaej o I.Ig 91 Blaeſ CLAY'S OF NEW YORK (399 Port Ewen, Ulster co. S. D. Coykendall’s yard lies near the junction of Rondout creek and Hudson river. The bank is just west of the yard. There is a considerable stripping of fine sand and the clay slides quite easily. It is dug at any convenient point of the bank. The overlying sand can be used for tempering and molding. Oil is used for burning the bricks. A short distance farther south along the river is J. Kline's yard. He obtains his clay from various points in the terrace escarpment and in some cases hauls it nearly a quarter of a mile. Mr Rline has made borings at various points along the river and the terrace and in the escarpment in the vicinity of his yard, and says that at none of them has he found over 18 feet of clay. Beneath it was hardpan. This would seem to indicate that the central mass of the embankment is rock, overlain by hardpan, and that on this the clay is laid down. In many places the clay is covered by 10 to 20 feet of fine, strati- fied sand. - The following is an analysis of the blue clay near Rondout which is used for the manufacture of cement. Silica . . . . . . . . . . * e º 'º e º & © tº e e º e e g º e º a º º e º 'º º 57.8 Peroxid of iron and alumina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.6 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i e e s e e o e s e e s e e e . . 4.85 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * 2. O'7 Water and alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. 68 100.00 East Kingston, Ulster co. There are eight brick manufactur- ing firms at this locality, viz, Streeter & Hendricks, D. S. Manches- ter, Brigham Bros., C. A. Schultz, A. S. Staples, R. Maine & Co., Terry Bros. and W. Hutton. They all obtain their clay from the terrace escarpment which extends from Glasco to Rondout. (For thickness of clay see table.) At Streeter & Hendricks's yard the clay lies some 300 yards from the river. They obtain their tem- pering sand from Wilbur. Manchester's bank is similar. At 700 NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Brigham Bros.’ yard the clay is yellow, being weathered through to its base. It has a thickness of 10 feet and rests on an uneven ridge of shale. On account of its toughness it is worked by under- mining, as is the case with other yards along here where clay is being dug. C. A. Schultz has an exposure of clay 80 feet thick, overlain in spots by sand that can be used for tempering. Next on the south is A. S. Staples's yard. The bank has been excavated to a lower level than the preceding one. The clay is underlain by hardpan. R. Maine & Co. have five acres of clay land. The ter- race here is quite narrow. At Terry Bros.’ yard the clay, which is mostly blue, has been excavated sufficiently to expose the lime- stone against which the terrace lies. At Hutton's yard the blue clay is exposed from 8 feet above mean tide, to 110 feet above it; overlying this is 10 feet of yellow clay and then 15 feet of Sand. It will be seen from the limits quoted above and in the table, that the thickness of the clay between Glasco and Rondout varies con- siderably, amounting to 120 feet in places, while in others it is not over 15 or 20 feet. This is due to the great irregularity of the underlying rock surface. Smiths Dock, Ulster co. The only yard here is that of Theo- dore Brousseau. He has about 90 acres of clay land. The clay, which is mined with plow and scrapers, is obtained from the terrace east of the yard. It is mostly blue and covered by a few feet of loam. The yard lies some 700 feet from the river and the bricks are carted down to the dock. Brousseau's property extends west to the West Shore railroad, and the farms north and south of him are underlain by clay. Malden, Ulster co. The clay at Cooney & Farrell's yard to the north of the village is mostly yellow, and lies 10 to 20 feet thick on the upturned edges of the Hudson river shales. This yard was started in 1891. - Glasco, Ulster co. Washburn Bros. This firm is one of the largest producers along the river, having a yearly capacity of 50,000,000. They have about 150 acres of land, a large part of Plate 52 To face page 700 H. Ries photo. Champlain clay resting against glaciated surface, of Helderberg limestone. Terry Bros. brick yard, East Kingston. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 701 it being situated along the river. Their clay is mostly blue and rises in a bank to the hight gf 130 feet. It has been excavated to 8 feet above mean tide. The upper 10 feet is yellow sand; a thin strip of yellow clay separates it from the red. The lower third of the bank is somewhat sandy; the best results are obtained by a mixture of the upper and lower portions of the clay. Both pallets and open yards are used for drying; the former at the yard situated on the terrace. A short distance below Washburn Bros. is F. M. Van Dusen’s yard. The clay is blue, 70 feet thick and is underlain by shale whose surface is glaciated. Several feet of loam overlie the clay. Tempering sand is brought from Wilbur on Rondout creek. J. Porter’s yard adjoins Van Dusen’s on the South. The clay lies on a ridge of shale which rises steeply from the shore to a hight of 60 feet. The brick yard is at the foot of the cliff and was started in 1891. Plows and scrapers are used to mine the clay, which is of a yellow color, and overlain by 3 feet of loam. Carts are used for hauling the clay. About a mile below this are the yards of C. H. Littlefield, A. Rose & Co. and D. C. Overbaugh. The three are close together. A ridge of shale rises steeply from the river and behind this the clay lies. The terrace here is 150 feet high, and borings which have been made show a depth of 60 feet (see table). The clay is quite dry, and mostly yellow. It is worked by picks and undermining. Carts haul it to the edge of the cliff, where it is sent down shoots to the tem- pering pits. The drying is done on pallets at Rose’s yard. Arlington, Dutchess co. Flagler & Allen. The clay deposit, which is yellow, is situated half a mile east of Poughkeepsie and has an extent of about 40 acres of clay, it averages from 6 to 8 feet in depth. This is easily worked, there being only a stripping of 6 inches of sod. Underneath the yellow is considerable blue clay. The yellow is of course the weathered portion. The clay is tem- pered in soak pits and about 20,000 brick are made daily. The machinery is run by horse power. Repressed brick are also made. The clay burns a cherry red. TO2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM H. R. Rose's brick yard is also situated in this town and about 3 miles east of the Hudson river. The clay deposit, which has an extent of 60 acres, is yellow in color and 8 feet thick. A blue clay is said to underlie the yellow. The bricks are molded in soft mud machines operated by horse power. Barrytown, Dutchess co. There are deposits of clay along the river at this locality but they are not being worked. The following is an analysis of them. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59. 81 Peroxid of iron and alumina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 . ()0 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 35 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 29 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Combined water and organic matter. . . . . . . . . '7. 89 Alkalis, not determined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96.71 Catskill, Greene co. Alexander McLean’s yard is situated on Water St., east of the wagon bridge. He has 12 acres of clay land. The clay is mostly blue with yellow and red on top, and is about 90 feet thick. A partial analysis of the blue clay is as follows: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50. 60 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.00 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.35 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 75 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96 The upper portion of the clay bank is a tough material and has to be worked with a pick. A gray black sand of the same struc- ture and appearance as that at Coeymans underlies the clay. At this locality, however, it contains too much lime to use it for tem- pering. Mr McLean has to bring his tempering sand from Jones- CLAYS OF NEW YORK 703 point at the cost of 40c a cubic yard. The manufacture of drain tile, hollow brick and sewer pipe has been attempted with this clay, but was given up, it is said, for financial reasons. Ferier & Golden’s yard is situated on the opposite side of the street from McLean’s, and their clay bank is practically a continuation of his. Their tem- pering sand is carted from near the West Shore railroad station, a distance of about three quarters of a mile. Drying is dome in tun- nels. The bricks are burnt with wood, though it is said that petroleum was used for a while successfully. The bricks are run down to the dock on cars. Iying along the creek north of the bridge is the Derbyshire brick co.'s yard. Most of the drying is done under sheds. The clay is both blue and yellow and is dug in a rather steep face, often causing it to slide. The blue has been excavated to 38 feet from tide level, and its upper limit is 82 feet above tide; over this is 12 feet of yellow clay and 3 feet of loam. The tempering sand is obtained about half a mile from the works. As at the preceding yard, the bricks are loaded on cars at the kiln and run down to the dock. - Hudson, Columbia co. There are three yards at this town. J. Fitzgerald's Sons’ yard is situated in a reentrant curve of the shore, and about 300 yards east of it is the yard of Arkison Bros. The former is no longer in operation. Both these firms obtain their clay from different faces of the same hill. The clay, which is fairly dry, is mined with plows and scrapers. It is blue and yellow, from 70 to 80 feet thick, overlain by 2 feet of loam, and underlain by grayish black Sand. - W. E. Bartlett's brick yard is also situated along the shore, about one quarter of a mile north of Hudson. The clay is similar to that farther down at Fitzgerald's. Scrubby pines cover the sur- face at this locality. The bank is worked in benches. Ring pits are used for tempering. Stuyvesant, Columbia co. Walsh Bros. have two yards situ- ated along the river midway between Stuyvesant and Coxsackie. All the clay thus far mined is yellow in color, very tough and un- 704 NIEW YORIK STAT E MUSIEUM stratified. It is worked by picks and carted down to the yards. The bank which is 30 feet in hight is located on the hillside some 500 feet east of the yard. It is probably underlain by the sand and gravel which crops out in the terrace escarpment behind the yard, and which is used for tempering. f CoacSackie, Greene co. There is only one yard here, that of F. W. Noble. It is situated at an elevation of 100 feet above the river, and about a quarter of a mile north of the village. The clay bank adjoins the yard and is 35 feet high. Both blue and yellow clay are used. Shale underlies it. The clay is quite dry and is broken up by undermining. Soak pits are used for tempering. There is an exposure of blue clay in the terrace escarpment South of Coxsackie. Athens, Greene co. Of the three yards at this locality, situ- ated about half a mile north of the village and adjoining each other, only two are running. The most southern One is that of William Ryder, situated 80 feet above tide level and about 500 feet from the river. Mr Ryder owns 12 acres of clay land. The clay, which has not been excavated below the level of the yard, runs up to 125 feet above mean tide, and is both blue and yellow with about 6 feet of loam covering. A well was sunk 18 feet below the level of the yard, without reaching the bottom of the clay. The clay is mined by plows and scrapers. The upper 6 feet of loam is mixed with the clay. The bricks when taken from the kilns are sent on cars down to the shore, where they are loaded on barges for shipment to New York city. Adjoining this yard on the north is that of Mr. Porter, not worked. A few hundred feet north of this, on the south side of Murder creek, is the yard of I. R. Porter. Though the yard is situated near the shore, the water is not deep enough for the brick barges, and the bricks have to be carted some 200 yards to the dock. The clay bank adjoins the yards and is mined by plows and scrapers. Horse power machines are used. Coeymans Landing, Albany co. There are two brick yards at this town; they lie north of the town along the river shore and CLAYS OF NEW YORK 705 adjoin each other. The one nearest town belongs to Sutton & Suderly, and is worked by them and four other persons. Their clay is obtained from the bank west of the yard. It is both blue and yellow, chiefly the former, with streaks of fine sand. The following partial analysis has been made of Sutton & Sud- erly’s clay. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51. 10 Alumina . . . . . . . . . ' e º 'º e º 'º e º ºs e e º e º sº e º e º e e 17. 65 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.7 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.45 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Being of a soft nature, the clay is dug with shovels at any con- venient point at the base of the bank, which is 120 feet in hight. A charge of dynamite is usually exploded in the bank in the spring, thus bringing down a large mass of clay to a level with the yard. The clay does not have to be hauled more than 150 feet to the machines. A drivepipe well sunk near the owners’ barn on top of the terrace (140 feet above mean tide) some 300 feet back from the river, showed 70 feet of clay and 60 feet of sand. The sand underlying the clay is of a grayish black color, consisting chiefly of * Grains of grains of quartz and shale, the latter predominating. garnet and feldspar, and large pebbles of quartz are scattered through it. The Sand after being screened is used for tempering. The upper limit of the underlying sand varies, at the north end of the property rising to within a few feet of the terrace level, while Some 300 feet South of this the clay has been excavated to 15 feet above mean tide without striking sand. Adjoining Sutton & Suderly on the north are the brick works of Corwin & Cullough, sublet by them to T. Finnegan and Delaney & Lavender. The clay, which is obtained just west of the yard, has been excavated to 7 feet above mean tide and bottom not yet 1 This underlying material is much faulted owing to the pressure of the clay above it. - 706 NIEW YORIK STATE MUSIEUM reached. It contains several veins of fine sand. Both yellow and blue clay are present. At the south end of the yard the escarpment of the terrace is drift containing small boulders. The tempering Sand is obtained from this bank. There are outcrops of clay on the land of Mr Bronk, to the north of Corwin & Cullough’s yard; also on the Lawson property to east of the white iron bridge crossing Coeymans creek. This latter locality lies some 800 feet from the river, and would be somewhat more expensive to work. Again, on Main street, just south of the residence of Miss Wolf, there is an exposure of clay on the hillside some 400 feet from the river. Albany, Albany co. There are several yards situated on the outskirts of the city. The clay banks, which are all of the same nature, belong to the Hudson river estuary formation, being strati- fied and blue or gray in color with the upper portions weathered yellow or red. M. H. Bender's yard is on Delaware avenue, near Dove street. He manufactures common and pressed brick, and drain tile. The upper loamy clay can be used only for common brick; the lower blue and some of the yellow are used for the other products. Auger machines are used for better grade brick and tile, and the latter are made of several sizes. Scove-kilns are used for burning the brick and down-draft kilns for the tile. The latter kilns hold 60,000 small size tiles or 35,000 assorted size. It takes three wheelers and two setters two and a half days to fill the kiln, and burning occupies four days. The tiles after molding are first dried on shelves under a closed shed. Adjoining Bender’s yard are those of J. Babcock, E. Smith, J. C. Moore and D. H. Stanwix." They make common brick chiefly, and their clay banks are the same as Bender’s. All are open yards. T. McCarthy’s' yard is situated on First avenue. The clay bank is about 15 feet thick and covers an area of about 10 acres. It is chiefly blue. The stripping is a light soil and sand underlies the clay. The bricks are manufactured by the soft mud process. 1 Since this report was written the Bender, Stanwix and McCarthy yards are closed. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 707 Alfred Hunter’s yard is situated on Van Woert street near Pearl. The clay is blue with yellow on top. About 40 feet of clay is at present exposed. There are only a few inches of soil to be stripped. The bottom has not yet been reached. Ring pits and soft mud machines are used and the bricks are dried in the sun. Burning is done in scove-kilns. Albany and vicinity consume most of the product. e The brick yard of A. Poutre is on Van Woert street between Lark and Inox. The clay is blue in color and about 25 feet thick. It is overlain by a loose soil; the bottom has not yet been reached. Soft mud machines operated by steam power are used; the bricks are dried on open yards and burned in scove-kilns. Albany consumes most of the product. Rensselaer, Rensselaer co. Mrs. T. Rigney’s yard is at East Greenbush on the east side of the Boston and Albany railroad. The clay, which is blue and yellow, has a thickness of about 90 feet. Loam overlies the clay; the bottom has not yet been reached. The machinery is run by horse power. Rensselaer and New York city are the chief markets for the product. Troy, Rensselaer co, Alexander Ferguson's brick yard is situ- ated on Hoosick above 1st street. The clay bank is about 40 feet high and runs in an east and west direction; it is deeply incised at either end by two streams. The clay, as is common to these FIudson estuary deposits, is stratified, yellow in the upper portion and blue clay in the lower. The blue contains some quickSand. A stronger and better colored brick is made from the tough upper clay, but it shrinks considerably in burning. On the other hand the blue clay makes a smoother but not as strong brick, but one of more even shape. Underlying the clay is slate rock, which has been used for building purposes. J. B. Roberts's bank is about 20 feet in thickness. The clay, which is mostly yellow, is covered with a foot of loam and under- lain by gravel. Capacity, 2,000,000. 708 INEW YORK STATIE MUSEUM Cohoes, Albany co. J. E. Murray. Yard situated between Crescent and Cohoes, on west side of Erie canal. The clay is chiefly blue, the upper few feet being yellow. It rises in a bank to 50 feet in hight. It is underlain by rock and there is a slight covering of loam. The bricks are molded by steam power machines, and dried in the sun. The product is sold in Cohoes and vicinity. J. E. Murray also operates the brick yard formerly belonging to N. Gardonas. - J. Baeby. The clay bank is about 40 feet high, 400 feet long and about 250 feet from the yard. Mr Baeby has about 40 acres of clay land. The clay is yellow on top and blue beneath. It is covered by about 4 inches of soil and underlain by gravel. One yard is operated by horse, the other by steam power. Lansingburg, Rensselaer co. T. F. Morrisey has a horse power yard situated along the old turnpike near the railroad. The clay bank is 75 feet high, there being about six acres of clay land. The upper third of the bank is red, the lower two thirds blue. About 30 feet of sand underlies the clay. Crescent, Saratoga co. Newton Bros. have a bank of clay 30 feet thick, the upper 6 feet being gray, the rest blue. There is a stripping of 2 to 4 feet of sand, which can be used for tempering. The blue and yellow clay, together with a certain portion of sand, are tempered in the pug mill. The bricks are molded on a Martin soft mud machine and dried on pallets for about five days. Burn- ing is done in scove-kilns; the product is loaded on the Erie canal boats at the yard. Mechanicville brick co., Saratoga co. The brick yard is situ- ated on the Champlain canal in the town of Half Moon, about a mile south of Mechanicville. The clay bank is 50 feet high. The upper 10 feet is yellow and under this is blue clay; the latter is underlain by sand. The bank adjoins the yard and is worked in benches ; the clay is hauled in carts to the ring pits. Soft mud machines are used, the brick are dried on pallets and burned in clamps. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 709 Saratoga, C. L. Williams. The yard is situated about one mile from the town, 600 feet from the Delaware and Hudson railroad. Mr Williams has about 50 acres of clay land, the clay running 6 feet thick. It is blue, with the upper portion of it weathered to yellow. There is a stripping of about 1 foot of loam. The clay is put through a crusher first; it is then pugged and molded. The bricks are dried on pallets, the racks having a capacity of 260,000. Wood is used for burning, being obtained from a lot of 200 acres near the yard. The product is chiefly used locally. The other brick yard at Saratoga is owned by D. Davidson. It is situated at the outskirts of the town, just west of Judge Hilton’s yard. The clay bank, which is about 28 feet thick, is about 150 feet from the yard; it is stratified, the layers being from 1 to 8 inches thick and separated by thin laminae of Sand. The clay is of a light brown color, being underlain by calciferous limestone and overlain by a foot of soil. Mr Davidson has 22 acres of clay land. Tempering is done in ring pits and the clay is molded in a soft mud machine. Drying is done in an open yard, and burning in scove- kilns. The fuel used is hard wood. Other eastern yards Hoosick Falls, Rensselaer co. John Dolan’s clay bank is about 40 feet high and has an extent of six acres. It is used for making building brick. The product is consumed in the vicinity. Middle Granville, Washington co. J. H. Pepper is the only manufacturer at this locality. His clay bank is 45 feet high, and 2000 feet long. The clay is blue, and scattered through it are Some streaks of Sand. A bed of gray sand 20 feet in thickness un- derlies the clay and is in turn underlain by slate. Plattsburg, Clinton co. There are several yards here. That of J. Ouimet lies at the north end of the town. It is an open yard and the bricks are made by horse power. The clay which is hard and tough is of a yellowish brown and red color and is mined with plows. 710 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM Charles Vaughn's yard is similar to the preceding, and is at the south end of the town. The clay is 10 feet thick. Gilliland & Day's yard is situated on Indian bay, 6 miles South of Plattsburg. The bricks are also molded by hand power. All these yards sell most of their brick at Plattsburg. The following is an analysis of the clay at J. Ouimet's brick yard. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65. 14 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 38 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '7. 65 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . 18 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . * e º e º e º 'º e º dº e º e º ºs e º 'º. . 2. 36 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. 51 99. 22 Oswego, Jefferson and St Lawrence co. yards Gouverneur, St Lawrence co. The brick yard of G. R. Thomp- son is situated east of the village and on the eastern bank of the Oswegatchie river. The clay bank rises to a hight of 10 feet above the river and the section exposed is: Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet Gray clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 “ * Blue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 “ 1S & K A Martin soft mud brick machine is used and the bricks are dried under sheds. The product finds a ready sale in the local market. A pallet yard has recently been started at this locality. Carthage, Jefferson co. Wrape & Peck. The brick yard and clay pit are situated in the Black river valley near the town of CLAYS OF NEW YORK 711 Carthage. The clay deposit, which is several hundred acres in extent and about 5 feet thick, is of a gray color with streaks of brown. The bricks are molded in wet mud machines and put in steam driers. Local market consumes most of the product. Potsdam, St Lawrence co. D. W. Finnimore's brick yard is situated a few rods outside of the village limits. The clay is of a blue color and 6 to 8 feet deep. It is overlain by 1 to 2 feet of dark sandy soil and underlain by gravel. The yard is equipped with a Quaker soft mud machine, and a Kells & Son’s dry press machine. The product is used locally. Watertown, Jefferson co. At the north end of the town on Main street are the works of the Watertown pressed brick co. They have about 20 acres of clay, red in color, horizontally stratified and averaging about 20 feet in thickness. It is underlain by Trenton limestone. The tempering sand has to be carted nearly 3 miles. Analysis of the clay shows: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64. 39 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.40 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.00 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.60 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 31 Alaklis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.66 Water and Organic matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 64 100 . ()0 The clay is rather tough. It is loaded on cars which are drawn by cable some 75 feet, up into the machine shed, where it is dumped into a disintegrator. It next goes to the pug mill for tempering, and is molded in a Martin machine. Drying is done on pallets and burning in scove-kilns, the latter occupying about seven days. The consumption is chiefly local. Ogdensburg, St Lawrence co. Paige Bros.’ yard is on Cedar cor. Canton street, at the southwest end of town. The clay is of a 712 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM . deep blue color, the upper 10 feet being somewhat sandy. It has been bored to a depth of 60 feet in places, but this depth is not con- stant, and in spots the underlying limestone rises to within a few feet of the surface. The sand for tempering has to be brought 2 miles. The following is an analysis of the clay. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49. 20 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17. 47 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 23 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.86 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.87 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. S.2 95.45 Only common brick are made. Soft mud machines are used. Drying is done in the sun and burning in scove-kilns. The bricks have been largely used in the asylum buildings at Ogdensburg. Madrid, St Lawrence co. Three miles north of the depot is the brick yard of Robert Watson. The clay is of a blue color and about 20 feet thick. The section is Yellow sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 feet Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 “ The bottom has not yet been struck. Horse power is used for operating the machinery. The clay has to be tempered with sand. Drying is done on pallets or in the Sun. Burning takes about one week. The consumption is local. . Raymondville, St Lawrence co. William Coats's works are at Raymondville, about 7 miles north of Norwood. The clay bank lies on the east side of the Racket river. It is about 25 feet in thickness and there is a covering of 12 feet of fine sand. The clay is rather tough and requires an admixture about one third sand for making brick. An abundance of unworked clay is still in sight. Hºr * CLAY'S OF NEW YOIRIK 713 Central New York yards St Johnsville, Montgomery co. J. S. Smith is the only brick manufacturer in this town. The clay bank is 60 feet high, and the following is the section involved. Loam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 feet Dark building Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 “ Gray clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot Quicksand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet Hardpan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 foot Blue clay. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 75 feet Total thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 feet Only common brick are manufactured. Fonda, Montgomery co. W. Davenport’s brick yard is about one mile west of the village on the north side of the New York central railroad. The clay bank lies to the north of the yard, is 12 feet high, and yellow in color. The brick are molded in soft mud machines operated by horse power, dried on open yards and burnt in scove-kilns. The product is sold in Montgomery co. Drain tile are also manufactured. Dolgeville, Herkimer co. A. C. Kyser has a bed of clay about 50 acres in extent, and 30 feet thick. He manufactures ordinary building brick, which are consumed by the local market. The clay is tempered in a pug mill with the addition of a certain amount of Sand, and passes thence to a Quaker soft mud machine. Drying is done on an open yard, and the bricks are burned in a scove-kiln. The latter operation takes five to eight days. South Trentom, Oneida co. II. L. Garrett has manufactured brick at this locality for 45 years. His clay bed is several acres in extent and about 4 feet thick. The clay is blue below and yellow and red in the upper portion of the bed, on account of weathering. It is slightly stratified. Underlying the clay is slate. 714 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM Amsterdam, Montgomery co. H. C. Grimes's brick yard is located on Florida avenue. The clay deposit underlies a tract of about 20 acres, and the section is as follows: Soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 feet Yellow clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 “ Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Common bricks are manufactured. The clay is first passed through a Cotts disintegrator and is then molded on a soft mud machine. Drying is done on pallets. This yard has been in operation 16 years. Gloversville, Fulton co. H. McDuffie's brick yard is situated on the outskirts of the town. The clay, which is of a dark brown color, is in a bed 24 feet thick. It is underlain by hardpan and overlain by a thin soil. The bricks are made by the soft mud process, being molded in horse power machines. W. A. Stoutner. His clay bank is about 3 feet thick, under- lain by hardpan and overlain by a few inches of soil. The clay is reddish brown and burns to a red color. The brick are made on a Peekskill hand power machine. The brickmaking season at Glov- ersville runs from about the middle of May to the end of Septem- ber. The Eureka pressed brick co. also operates here. Tlion, Herkimer co. S. E. Coe. Brick yard situated along the Erie canal, with the West Shore railroad crossing the property. Mr Coe has about 10 acres of clay land, the clay running in depth from 8 to 15 feet. It is of three different colors, black, gray and blue. The latter makes the stronger brick. No stripping to be done except a few feet of black soil. Rome, Oneida co. W. Armstrong's yard is located on the edge of the town and along the Rome and Clinton branch of the New York, Ontario and Western railroad. The clay deposit is about 25 acres in extent; the clay is of a dark gray color and 7 to 10 feet deep. The bricks are molded in soft mud machines. Plate 53 To face page 71.) H. Ries photo. General view of works of Onondaga vitrified brick co., Warners. CLAYS OF NEW YORK '715 W. W. Parry. Yard located near the town; the clay is obtained from the flats bordering the Mohawk river; the bed of it is from 6 to 9 feet deep. It is underlain by gravel, which rises to near the surface in many places. A light loam covers the clay. For making brick, the clay is mixed from top to bottom. Both soft and stiff mud machines are used and burning is done in scove kilns. Deerfield, Oneida co. G. F. Weaver’s Sons’ yard is situated on the Mohawk river about a quarter of a mile from the New York Central railroad depot. Their clay deposit is about 40 acres in ex- tent, and has been worked to a depth of 10 feet. South Bay. C. Stephens has brick and tile works at this town. The clay deposit is from 20 to 25 feet deep and underlies a tract of 800 acres bordering on Oneida lake. Underlying the clay is a fine and closely cemented blue gravel. The Elmira, Cortland and Northern railroad passes through the property. Chiefly drain tile are manufactured. These works were established in the spring of 1891. Camasłota, Madison co. M. Ballou has a brick yard at this locality. Syracuse, Onondaga co. At the northeast end of the town is an extensive deposit of clay, underlying the low lands at the end of Onondaga lake. It is worked by several brick manufacturers. The yards are mostly on N. 7th street. The first is that of T. Nolan, a horse power yard; adjoining him is the yard of Preston Bros., also a horse power yard. Next comes F. H. Kennedy, at whose yard the bricks are molded by hand. C. H. Merrick has a steam power yard on S. Salina, and farther out on the Cicero plank- road are the brick works of J. Brophy. A The clay is stratified, red above and blue below. In the center of the flat land it runs 7 to 10 feet deep, while at the edges it thins out to 2 feet. It is underlain by sand and gravel. The New York paving brick co. (See under Paving brick.) Warner, Onondaga co. The Onondaga vitrified pressed brick co. This yard uses both shale and clay. The works are situated about half a mile east of Warner along the West Shore track. 7 | 6 NEW YORK STATE MU SEUM Analyses of the shale have been made and are given below. f cº, * COMPOSITION layer in ...}}. Red shale Blue shale Clay shale bank "ºf...e. Shales Silica . . . . . . . . . . 25.40 54.25 52.30 57.79 45.35 Alumina . . . . . . . 9.46 16.89 18.85 16. 15 12.19 Peroxid of iron. . 2.24 5. 81 6. 55 5. 20 4.41 Lime . . . . . . . . . . 22.81 4. 34 3. 36 2.73 10.99 Magnesia . . . . . . . 10.39 5. 21 4.49 4.67 6. 38 Carbonic acid . . . 20.96 4. 30 3.04. 3.42 7. 24. Potash . . . . . . . . . .95 2.95 4. 65 4. 11 3.26 Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 1. 35 1. 22 1. 14 Water and organic matter . . . . . . . 7.60 5. 01 5.30 4. 50 8 . 90 Oxid of mangan- €Se . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trace Trace . . . . . Total . . . . . . 99.81 99.59 99.89 99.79 99.86 Analyst, Dr H. Froehling, Richmond, Va. The samples were all dried at 212° F. It may be of interest in this connection to give the composition of some other clays found at Warner, which are used in the manu- facture of cement. The following are only partial analyses. Silica . . . . . . . 45. 12 43. 19 46.00 41.78 41.70 44.00 Oxidofiron and alumina . . ... 13. 79 14.62 25.02 16. 09 18.24 17.33 Lime . . . . . . . . 12.91 12. 36 7. 13 12.40 12.71 11. 74 Magnesia . . . . 7.21 7.05 3.67 5.83 6.02 6. S3 The last analyses would indicate a rather fusible clay. The clay used by the Onondaga Co. is dug in a field adjoining the works. It has a pinkish color, stratified and runs about 15 feet in depth. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 717 The shale used belongs to the Salina formation and is obtained from the hillside about 1000 feet from the yard. It is of various shades of red, green, and some gray, and disintegrates very rapidly. The whole mass is traversed by numerous seams, so that a small blast brings down a large portion of the bank in small fragments. Tracks are laid from the brick yard up to the working face, the base of which is 35 feet higher than the yard. The loaded cars run down to the dry pans by gravity and are hauled back when emptied by a horse. Carts are used to haul the clay. Dry pans grind the shale — about one quarter clay and three quarters shale are mixed in a wet pan. A man shovels the mixture on an endless belt which carries it to the molding machine. The yard is fitted with both a plunger and auger stiff mud machine, the former being side-cut, the latter end-cut. The green bricks are placed on cars and run into the drying tunnels. These are of brick, heated by coal fires, the heat passing through flues under the tunnel. Round kilns are used for the burning, which takes about five days. The kilns have a capacity of about 60,000. Soft coal is used for burning. - The company manufactures paving brick, hollow brick and terra cotta lumber for fireproofing. Baldwinsville, Onondaga co. Seneca river brick co. The works are four miles west of Baldwinsville on the south bank of the Seneca river. Their clay bed is 6 acres in extent. It is blue clay weathered to red in the upper portion and the blue is stratified. Gravel underlies the clay. The red clay is chiefly used, as it burns to a better colored brick than the blue. The dry press process is used and the bricks are burnt in kilns of the Flood type. These are of both up and down-draft. They are 18 by 54 feet and have 20 inch walls, which are lined with fire brick from the doors up. There are four fireplaces on each of the long sides and between these is a series of smaller ones connected with a set of flues open- ing into the lower part of the kiln to give an up-draft. Wood fires are started in these smaller fireplaces for water-smoking. The larger openings, connecting with individual pockets on the inner '718 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM wall of the kiln, lead the fire into the upper portions first, whence it passes downward through the kiln and off through a large flue at the bottom. Water-smoking takes 10 days and burning 8 days, the whole time for burning, water-smoking and cooling taking about three weeks. The molded bricks are set directly in the kiln on coming from the machine. Oswego Falls. W. D. Edgarton. The brick yard is situated on the Syracuse and Oswego railroad, 11 miles from Oswego. The clay varies from 3 to 5 feet in thickness and is yellow. It is under- lain by gravel. A few inches of soil has to be stripped. The lower portions of the clay make the better brick. Soft mud ma- chines are used and both common and repressed brick are made. Weedsport, Cayuga co. There is a brick yard at this locality belonging to Mrs C. S. Gilette, but it is not in operation. Auburn, Cayuga co. John Harvey’s brick yard is situated on the outskirts of the town. * Owasco, Cayuga co. A. Lester has a brick and tile yard near the village. It is described under the head of drain tile. Séneca Falls, Seneca co. There is only one brick yard at this locality, that of F. Siegfried. His clay bed is about 12 feet thick, the upper 7 feet being used for brick and the lower 5 feet for tile. Gravel underlies the clay and there is a covering of a few inches of soil. The machinery is run by horse power and the product is sold locally. Geneva, Cayuga co. Five firms manufacture brick in this lo- cality. They are W. G. Dove, C. Bennett, Goodwin & Delamater, Mrs Baldwin, and the Torrey park land co. The last-mentioned company began operations in the spring of 1892; its brick yard is Some distance from the town. . Lyons, Wayne co. The clay bed of F. Borck is about 8 feet deep. The upper portion of the deposit is yellow, the rest is blue. Quicksand underlies the latter. Soft mud machines are used to mold the brick. Plate 54 To face page 719 - * º 2. tº L L - . Tºº- | - - - - - - º - sº º º J. O. Martin, photo. N. Y. state veterinary college, Ithaca. Terra cotta made by N. Y. architectural terra cotta co., Astoria L. I. Bricks made by the N. Y. hydraulic pressed brick co., Canandaigua. CLAYS OF NEW YOREC '719 Western New York yards Canandaigua, Ontario co. The New York hydraulic brick co.'s works are about three quarters of a mile southwest of the station; their property adjoins the New York Central railroad track. The clay deposit, which covers several acres, is basin-shaped and has a known depth of at least 20 feet. It is of a blue color, weathered to red above, and on top of it is about a foot of peat. The clay after being dug in the fall is stored under a shed till spring, when it is molded by a hydraulic dry press machine. The brick are set di- rectly in the kilns, which are of the Graves type. The blue clay burns buff and the other clay a red, so that by mixing the two a speckled brick is obtained. This firm has not been in operation very long. - The upper clay is quite siliceous, as the following analysis shows, and is similar in composition to the red terra cotta clay at Glens Falls. The composition is as follows: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (32.23 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 16.01 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.96 Lime . . . . . . . . . . • - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1. 24 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 * * * * * * * * * 2. 21 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • * * * * * * * * 5. 08 Water (est.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.30 99.03 A physical test of this clay showed that it required 22% of water to work it up. The air shrinkage was 8%, and at incipient fusion it was 15%, this point being at cone.05. The clay vitrified at cone.03, with a total shrinkage of 16%, while viscosity began at come 1. The clay contains .15% of soluble salts. The mechanical analysis gave: Clay substance and silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79. 55 Fine Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.68 720 NEW YORE STATE MUSEUM The buff burning or lower clay is distinctly marly in its char- acter. As might be expected, it takes only 18.50% water to work it up, but still is quite plastic. The air shrinkage is 6%, and at cone .08, 5%. The clay vitrifies at come 1 with 14% shrinkage, and becomes viscous nearly at cone 2. It burns buff, but with viscosity this passes into greenish yellow. The tensile strength ranges from 95 to 110 pounds a square inch. The clay contains .7% soluble salts. . - Rochester, Monroe co. The Rochester brick and tile manufac- turing Co. is on Monroe street, at the eastern end of the city. Ad- joining this is the German brick and tile co. The clay is reddish in color, 4 to 5 feet thick and underlain by hardpan. Lime pebbles occur in the lower portions. Molding sand is obtained from a neigh- boring eskar. The following is an analysis of this clay. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50. 55 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.46 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 4.38 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 10.95 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.35 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.30 * 90.99 The whole flat area to the west and northwest of the yards was formerly underlain by clay, but so much of it has been dug over that the pit is now nearly a quarter of a mile from the works. The section in the present clay pit involves: Loam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 inches Sandy clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 feet Fat clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • e o e s • e e s e e 4 feet Hardpan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plate 55 To face page 720 H. Ries photo. General view of Rochester brick and tile co. 's works. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 721 The clay (Pl. 22) is dug by means of a plow and loaded on cars, which are drawn to the yard by horses, where it is discharged either into the rolls for the soft mud machine or is carried to a conveyer that disclarges it into a series of rolls and pug mills (Pl. 27), which temper it for the stiff mud machine. The latter is used only for drain tile and hollow bricks. All the drying is done on pallet racks, some of which are pro- vided with a movable roof to allow the sunlight to enter (Pl. 37). The kilns are mostly of the Wingard type, but there are also four round down-draft kilns for burning the hollow ware, and a con- tinuous kiln (Pl. 47) which is used for burning common brick. The product finds a ready market in Rochester. The lower clay alone is used for making tile, while a mixture of the top and bottom clays works best in making the bricks. The lower or tile clay, as it is called, is very plastic, but requires only 20% of water to temper it. The air shrinkage is 94%, and the tensile strength of the air-dried briquettes ranges from 100 to 130 pounds a square inch with an average of 120 pounds. Incipient fusion occurs at cone .05, vitrification at .01, and vis- cosity at cone 2-3. At incipient fusion the total shrinkage was 12% and the color red; at vitrification, 16%. The soluble salts were .5%. The brick mixture is more sandy, but is also very plastic, and yet not so tenacious. It takes 18% of water to work it up, and the bricklets have an air shrinkage of 73%. The tensile strength ranges from 110 to 120 pounds a square inch. Incipient fusion occurs at cone .05 with a shrinkage of 10%. The clay vitrifies at come .01 with a total shrinkage of 16%, and a deep red color. It becomes viscous at cone 2-3. A mechanical analysis of the clay gave: Clay and silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '72.90 Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27. 85 100. 75 The soluble salts were .35%. 722 NIEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM Maplewood, Monroe co, Robert Gay's yard lies along the New York Central railroad. His clay is very similar to that just de- scribed, but somewhat lighter colored. It is underlain by quick- sand. This clay is used at Rochester to mix with Jersey fire clay in the manufacture of Sewer pipe. Clarkson, Monroe co. M. Parker’s brick plant is on the north- ern side of the ridge road, at Clarkson, one mile north of Brock- port. The clay is a shallow, loamy deposit, and is owned by J. Sigler. The yard is an open one and both brick and drain tile are made. The molding sand is obtained from near the depot at Drockport. Product consumed locally. Albion, Orleans co. There is a small yard about a mile north Of the town but nothing is known concerning it. Lockport. The Lockport brick co.'s yard is at the northeast end of the town. The upper portion of the clay is being used. It is red in color, due to weathering. The clay is molded as taken from the bank, the bricks are dried on pallets and burnt in scove- kilns. Product used locally. La Salle, Niagara co. Tompkins & Smith run a small yard at this locality. Clay is very similar to that at Tonawanda. It is underlain by hardpan. Rolls are used to crush the lime pebbles in the clay before molding it. The product is marketed in the vicinity. Tonawanda, Niagara co. To the southeast of the town is the brick plant of Martin Riesterer. The clay is of a red color passing downward into blue and has a thickness of about 5 feet. Only common brick are manufactured; the consumption is chiefly local. The burning is dome with coal. Lancaster, Erie co. There are two yards here, the Buffalo star brick co., near the Erie depot, and the Lancaster brick co., about 2 miles farther out. In the former's bank the clay is of a blue color below and weathered to red on top. Limestone pebbles are common in the clay, and for the purpose of separating them, the clay is stored in sheds to dry during the winter and passed through a barrel sieve before being used the following spring and summer. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 723 Plows are used to mine the clay; coke and coal are used to burn the brick in stationary kilns with one fire to each arch. The bank of the Lancaster brick co, is similar to the one just mentioned, showing: 8 feet red clay # foot blue clay 4 feet gray clay Rock Limestone pebbles are also present and the clay after drying is screened. The bricks are burned in stationary kilns, coke being used for the water-Smoking and coal for the subsequent firing. Buffalo, Erie co. At East Buffalo is an extensive series of flats underlain by red clay which varies in depth from 6 to 20 feet. The following firms situated chiefly on. Clinton street use the clay for making brick: Charles Berrick & Sons, Brush Bros., H. Dietschler & Son, F. Haake, L. Kirkover, Schusler & Co., G. W. Schmidt. Their combined production in 1892 was 65,- 000,000 brick. The clay is said to rest on the underlying rock. The following is an analysis of it. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57. 36 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16. 20 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 55 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 34 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.90 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 98 94. 33 Pebbles of limestone are scattered through it in places, and at a few spots several feet of yellow sand, suitable for molding or tem- pering, covers the clay. Below the limit of weathering the clay is blue, which does not give as nice a colored brick as the red. The addition of tempering sand is not considered necessary. Soak pits 724. NIEW YORK STATIE MUSEUM and Soft mud machines are used. All the yards dry their brick on pallets and burn them in stationary kilns, using coal fuel. One fire is made to burn one, two or three arches, according to the construc- tion of the kiln. The burning takes mine days. Buffalo and its vicinity consume a large portion of the product. Jewettville, Erie co. Brush & Schmidt started a brick yard at this locality in 1892. It is situated along the Buffalo, Rochester and Pennsylvania railroad, about a quarter of a mile northwest of the station (pl. 56). The material used is Hamilton shale. It is of a grayish color and is easily worked. An opening has been made next to the yard and at the same level. A black, gritty shale crops out farther up on the hill, but this has not yet been used. The shale is loaded on cars and run into the machine shed, where it is crushed in a dry pan and then molded. The yard is equipped with a Boyd dry press, and stiff mud machine. The dry press bricks are dried in tunnels, and the others on brick floors. Special shapes are molded in a hand power press. The burning is done in up-draft kilns. Springbrook, Erie co. There are extensive deposits of clay and shale at Springbrook, on the land of E. B. Northrup, but they are not worked. Evans, Erie co. William Bolton has a horse power yard here. The clay is a local deposit, chiefly blue in color, and the lower por- tions are stratified. It is underlain by sand and hardpan. The yard is run in accordance with the local demand for brick. Southern and eastern New York yards Dunkirk, Chautauqua co. William Hilton’s yard is situated in the valley, about a mile west of the town. The clay deposit is about 20 feet thick, and is underlain by rock. The upper 6 feet is yellow and below this is blue. Stones are found scattered through the clay and have to be separated. The yellow clay gives a better colored brick, while the blue clay shrinks more, but is said to give a harder product. The blue clay obtained from the main clay bank has to be tempered with sand; it has, however, not been much ſºliſ A110 Awºr "sytuow stoſuq npluutſos y usnuſ I waſ a leuauabſoļotid sº!? I 'H' fael 0.5ed ooit:J OL99: 91 BIJ CLAYS OF NEW YORK - 725 used up to the present time. Rolls are used to crush the stones and the clay is tempered in a pug mill. Mr Hilton uses a soft mud machine of his own manufacture. The brick are dried on pallets — the burning, which takes eight to 11 days, is done in scove-kilns. Coke is used for water-smoking and coal for Subsequent firing. Most of the brick are used in the vicinity. Jamestown, Chautauqua co. Two yards are in operation 4 miles east of this town, those of C. A. Morley and M. J. Mecusker & Son. The two yards adjoin each other, and the deposit of clay worked by them is of considerable size. In addition to brick, Mecusker & Son make drain tile and hollow brick. The clay de- posit is basin-shaped. A boring near the water works showed: Yellow sand . . . . . . . . tº ſº tº e º & Q & © e º 'º º . . . . . 4 feet Quicksand . . . . . . . . . . * > * * * * c e º e º 'º e . . . . . 6 inches Yellow clay . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * $ tº gº tº dº e º e º dº e . 5 feet Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 ?? Hard pan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Jamestown shale paying brick works are mentioned under “Paving brick ’’ and “Shales”. Randolph, Cattaraugus co. J. Turner owns a brick clay deposit at this town, but has ceased working it. Hornellsville, Steuben co. The Hornellsville brick and tile co. has its works at the north end of the town, which have been run- ning one season. It uses a Chemung shale for making brick, and has turned its attention thus far to paving brick. The shale is mined about a mile from the works. It contains several thin layers of sandstone which can not be used. The process as followed here Consists of grinding the shale in a dry pan, molding in a stiff mud, side-cut machine ºnd then repressing. Drying takes about 24 hours, and is done in chambers heated by a hot blast. Burning is done in down-draft cupola kilns and takes seven to 10 days. The paving brick are in extensive use in Elmira. 726 NIEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM An analysis of this clay made by C. Richardson in the office of the engineering commissioners, at Washington, showed: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.45 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.77 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.04 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.85 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 52 Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 95 Insol. in acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88. 74 W. H. Signor owns the other yard at Hornellsville. His clay bank is owned by M. Adsit. It is a shallow deposit, not over 7 feet thick and underlain by quicksand, the latter allowing the inflow of water from the neighboring stream. The bricks are molded by an auger machine, dried in the Sun and burnt in scove-kilns, the burning occupying about seven days. Alfred, Steuben co. Alfred clay co. This is another yard using a shale, which is in the same geologic horizon as that at E[ornellsville. The works are on the Erie railroad a few hundred yards south of the station. They have but recently commenced operations. A semi-dry clay brick is made. To dampen the ground clay, it is discharged from the hopper into a long box of Square cross- section in which a worm screw revolves. The axis of the screw is hollow and has nipples projecting into the tube three fourths of an inch, so that, if any of the steam which is injected to dampen the clay condenses, it will not escape into the clay. The shale used is mined near the yard and hauled in carts to the dry pan. Burning is done in a continuous kiln. Bigflats, Chemung co. Near the village is an extensive bed of clay owned by J. R. Lowe. It underlies an area of about 50 acres. Excavations have been carried to a depth of 15 feet without reach- ing the bottom of the deposit. The clay is of a bluish gray color. Plate 57 To face page 727 º --→º - - - - - - --- -- Bºº-º-º: - -º-º-º: - - Esº- - - - - H. Ries photo. General view of Horseheads brick co. CLAYS OF NEW YORIK 727 Mr Lowe manufactures drain tile only, most of which are for private TISé. Horseheads, Chemung co. The Horseheads brick co. has a clay deposit Several acres in extent, having an average thickness of about 20 feet. There is a covering of about 10 inches of soil, and under- lying the clay are sand and gravel. At present the material used is chiefly shale. (See also under “Shale,” p. 839.) The shale bank is on the north side of the valley and the shale is brought over to the works in cars. The softer portions are crushed in a dry pan, but hard pieces are crushed in a Blake crusher. The yard, which turns out common brick, has a capacity of 40,000 a day. The soft mud process and tunnel driers are used, and burning is done in a Haigh continuous kiln. Elmira. P. J. Weyer is manufacturing common brick from the same kind of shale as is used at Horseheads, but the quarry is at a higher elevation. The bricks are burned in a Wilford contin- uous kiln. Breesport, Chemung co." About a mile and a half south of the town are the yards of the Empire state brick co., Locy Bros., and P. M. C. Townsend. The bank from which they obtain their clay lies along the eastern side of the valley. It is about half a mile long and has a hight of 50 feet. It is chiefly of a bluish color and is stratified in places. We give here with the analysis of the clay: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.48 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16. 7S Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 63 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.59 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ~ * 7. 16 93.43 1 Since this was written for the original report in 1895, the yards have been dismantled. 728 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM At Locy’s yard, where borings show the clay to be 30 feet thick, a red clay ..lso occurs. Yellow sand overlies the clay at several points, which can be used for molding. The yards of Locy Bros. and Townsend are open ones. At the Empire state co.'s yard tunnel driers are used, the clay being mixed in a wet pan and then dis- charged through an opening in the floor of the latter on an endless belt which carries it up to the molding machine. The brick are . burnt in scove-kilns. * Spencer, Tioga co. W. H. Bostwick’s yard is about a mile south of the village. The clay which is dug in a field adjoining the works, is a tough reddish material 4 to 6 feet thick. It is under- laim by sand and gravel. The bricks are dried on pallets and burned in stationary up-draft kilns. Newfield, Tompkins co. F. C. Campbell's brick yard is about one mile north of the station along the Lehigh valley railroad. Adjoining the yard is the clay bank which rises to a hight of about 50 feet. The clay is of a bluish color, and forms an enormous, stratified, lenticular mass, which is imbedded in the terminal moraine crossing the valley at that point. The upper portions contain more sand. - An analysis of this clay showed: - Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.30 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. 21 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.32 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. 63 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.73 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.33 Organic matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 50 89.02 Notwithstanding the high percentage of lime, which gives the brick its cream color, a very strong brick is produced. Covering the clay is several feet of yellowish stratified sand. Lime pebbles CLA.YS OF NEW YORK 729 occur in the clay, and a special apparatus is used to extract them. The clay and a certain percentage of shale are ground in a dry pan, then carried up to an inclined screen. Those particles which pass through are mixed by means of wheels and scrapers at- tached to a revolving arm. The bricks are molded on stiff mud machines and repressed on a hand-power machine. Chamber driers are used and burning done in down-draft kilns, scove-kilns or a continuous kiln. The clay burns to a buff brick; farther burning at a higher heat gives a hard, greenish yellow brick, which is Smaller, but sold for paving purposes. The pavers made at this yard are a mixture of clay and shale, while the building brick are clay alone. The following is a report of tests made on these brick in the laboratory at Cornell university. All the bricks were tested on edge, as used for the purpose of paving. The sides were dressed to parallel planes on an emery wheel, so as to get a uniform bearing over every part. Single layers of thick paper were placed between the brick and the machine. Weight of brick in pounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.86 5.14 5. 1 5.00 Dimensions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7#x33x2.É. 8×3; X.24%; 8×4×2P, 7#x3}× 2.É. Cubic contents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.35 cu. in. 70.7 74. 67. 20 Area strained. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.95 sq. in. 18.5 18.5 17. 92 Hight of Column. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3# 3; 4. 3# Total Stress First crack. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 ()00 84 000 56 000 48 000 Splinters fly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 000 | . . . . . . . * e º & 133 000 108 000 Crushed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 ()00 172 000 180 000 141 200 Stress by square in ch - - First crack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * g e º º 12 230 4 580 3 508 2 600 Splinters fly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 800 | . . . . . . . . . . . 8 362 6 000 Crushed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e g º e 14 990 9 300 10 909 7 880 Color of brick... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Light cream Light cream Light cream Light cream * Homogen. Black wit: Homogen-| Homogen- columnar. rified €OllS €OllS Jºacávre Position of 1st fracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . One corner. . . Central. . . . . Central. . . . . At one end. Direction of fracture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vertical . . . . . Diagonal. . . . . Vertical. . . . . Vertical . . . . Kind of brick. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Repressed. . . . Common. . . . . Common. . . . . Common T. Specific gravity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.18 2.01 1.9 | 2. 07 Weight to cubic foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136.9 125.6 118.8 129 . () No. 1 No. 3 No. 3 No. 4 of soil. g CILAYS OF NEW YOREC 731 º This clay is one of the few very calcareous ones that are used in New York state. It is very plastic and gritty, and dries to a hard dense mass. When worked up from the air-dried condition it takes 22% of water. The bricklets shrink 5% in air drying — the air-dried briquettes show a tensile strength of from 105 to 175 pounds the Square inch, with an average of 118 pounds, which is very fair. Incipient fusion occurs at come .05, with a shrinkage of 8%; vitrification at once .02, with 10% shrinkage, while viscosity began at come .01. The clay burns buff, which turns to greenish yellow on vitrifying. Soluble salts, .5%. Homer, Cortland co. The brick yard at this locality belongs to Horace Hall of Cortland. His clay bed underlies the flat lands near the village of Homer; and is from 3 to 5 feet thick. Quick- sand underlies the clay; overlying it is a dark soil 2 to 6 inches thick. The clay is of a bluish color. Binghamton, Broome co. There are two yards in this town, viz, Wells & Brigham’s and the Ogden brick co.'s. Their clay beds are similar, both being shallow deposits 6 to 8 feet thick, underlain by Sand and gravel. The former of the two is a pallet yard, the other uses a tunnel drier. Their product is consumed locally. Brookfield, Madison co. The Brookfield brick co. is the only firm manufacturing brick at this locality. Oneonta, Otsego co. Two firms are manufacturing brick at this locality, J. Denton & Son, and Crandall & Marble. The works of the latter firm are situated on the Albany and Susque- hanna railroad near the village of Oneonta. Two kinds of clay are used; one of them from a bank, 5 to 20 feet in thickness, the other from a surface deposit 3 to 5 feet in depth. The latter bed is underlain by sand. The product is consumed by the local market. Goshen, Orange co. P. Hayne has a clay deposit 55 feet deep, underlain by black gravel. There is a slight stripping of sod. Both drain tile and brick are made from the clay. '732 NEW YORIK STATE MUSEUM Florida, Orange co. W. H. Vernon's brick yard and clay de- posit are situated in the valley near the town. The clay bed is 10 feet thick, blue in color and tough. The upper 3 feet is weathered to a red clay, which makes a better brick. The blue is of sufficient purity for making pottery. Underneath the clay is sand and hard- pan. Oakland valley, Sullivan co. A small deposit of clay at this locality was used for some time for making earthenware. About one eighth sand had to be added to the clay for brick or tile ware. The sand, which is of a bright yellow color, is in banks along the Navesink river, near the clay beds. This clay is also said to be available for paint. Oakland valley is about 12 miles from Port Jervis. New Paltz, Ulster co. New Paltz brick co. The brick yard is located on the outskirts of the town and near the Wallkill Valley railroad, with which it is connected by a switch. The clay deposit is yellow, red and blue in color, and varies in depth from 15 to 50 feet. It underlies a tract of 6 acres. The natural separation of the clay in 4 to 8 inch layers facilitates the digging of it. There is a thin stratum of overlying Sand which has to be first stripped. Soft mud machines operated by horse power are used for molding. Warwick, Orange co. Though there are no brick yards in this vicinity, extensive deposits of clay are undoubtedly present. A sample of clay from the Drowned lands, lying along the Wallkill river in Orange co., was analyzed in the laboratory of the New Jersey geological Survey with the following results: Silicic acid in combination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.9 Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 . 9 Silicic acid free . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 1.2 Titanic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Oxid of alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23. 1 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 733 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 100. 9 The clay is said to exist in large quantity, forming a thick layer at this point in the alluvial district of the Drowned lands, and un- derlying much of the black muck surface of this district. The specimen sent was thoroughly air-dried, was slate gray in color, and showed a little fine gritty sand. It contains too much oxid of iron and potash for a refractory or fine material. Washing out the fine sand might enable it to be used in some styles of paper facing. It is most interesting as the basis of a valuable, enduring and fertile soil, and if properly drained it would be unsurpassed for tillage or pasturage; as such, it furnishes another argument for the drainage of this tract of Drowned lands. Long Island and Staten Island yards East Williston, Queens co. W. & J. Post have two yards at this locality. Their clay pit is in a field some 500 feet west of the yard on the land of H. M. Willis. The clay has been excavated to a depth of about 15 feet. It is chiefly a bluish clay and can be easily dug. The clay is extremely silicious, as the following analysis shows, but the percentage of lime, magnesia and iron is low. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69. 7.3 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.42 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.58 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 66 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.27 97.35 734 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM Carts are used to haul it to the yard. Pumps have to be used to keep out the water which comes up through the underlying sand. The clay is tempered without the addition of Sand in ring pits run by horse power. The bricks are dried either on the Open yard or on pallets and burnt in scove-kilns with wood. They are shipped on the Long Island railroad, which passes by the yard. Oyster Bay, Queens co. An extensive deposit of clay is being worked on Center island, in Oyster bay, by Dunn, Dolan & Co. They manufacture common brick. The bank adjoins the yard, and the clay, which is in thin layers, separated by fine laminae of Sand, is of a bluish color in the lower portions of the deposit, brown- ish above. The brown clay is more sandy; there is 6 or 8 feet of it. Over the brown is a less gritty and tougher clay, which runs nearly to the surface. The total hight of the bank is about 25 feet, but the front is broken up into several wide benches. Springs issue from several Sandy spots in the blue clay. In making the brick the different grades of clay are mixed together, a certain pro- portion of sand, and some coal dust added. Ring pits are used for tempering. The brick are dried on an open yard and burned in scove-kilns. They settle 8 to 10 inches in burning. West neck, Suffolk co. The clay at this locality rises in a bank to a hight of over 100 feet. There are three yards but only two are active. Both are along the east shore of Coldspring Harbor. The most southern one belongs to Dr Jones. The clay in this bank is of a red and brown color, there being about 25 feet of the latter at the bottom, while above it is the red, which is of a more sandy nature. There is an upper covering of 15 or 20 feet of yellow gravel and sand, which after screening is used for tempering. This latter is done in ring pits. All the machinery is run by horse power. The bricks are dried on an open yard and burnt in scove-kilns. The product is loaded on Schooners and sent to New England and New York city. The lower brown clay has been used for coarser grades of pottery. Its composition is given below. To face page 735 - H. Ries photo. Plate 5S Clay bank at Hammond's brick yard on West Neck, Cold Spring Harbor. CLAY's of NEW YORK - '735 Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61. 01 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.23 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.43 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .96 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.88 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 60 93.11 Adjoining Jones's yard is that of Crossman Bros. It is leased by William Hammond. The clay in his bank is similar to that of Jones. The yard is also an open one, steam power being used for running the machines; the tempering is done in rectangular pits. Freshpond, Suffolk co. This locality is about 4 miles east of Northport on the north shore of the island. There are two yards, about a mile apart. The most eastern belongs to G. Long- bottom. It is situated some 500 feet from the shore and about 50 feet above Long Island sound. The clay bank is about 200 feet west of the yard and at the same level. A section in the summer of 1892 showed Sand and gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet Red Sandy clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S “ Red clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 6 “ The overlying sand and gravel is stratified and dips east. It is screened for tempering. Carts are used for hauling the clay to the machines. Molding sand is obtained from Hackensack. The clay and sand are shoveled directly into a vertical pug-mill, from which they pass to the molding machine. Coal dust is also added in tem- pering. The product is loaded on cars, run down to schooners at the dock and shipped to Connecticut. Adjoining Longbottom’s yard is the inactive plant of Provost. 736 NEW YORIX STATE MUSEUM About a mile west of Longbottom's, situated along the shore, is the yard of R. Sammis. His land extends 2000 feet along the shore and in the whole of that distance the clay crops out from un- derneath the sands and gravels. The lower portion of the clay is a bluish red, the upper, red in color and somewhat more gritty. The clay is rather tough but not so dry as Longbottom’s. The carting is done along the shore; the overlying sands which are highly stained with iron are used for tempering. A cutting has been made in the cliff just east of the yard for tempering sand. The bricks are burnt with wood. Greenport, Suffolk co. The works of the Long Island brick co. are some 2 miles west of Greenport on the shore of Pike's cove, opposite Shelter island. Its clay is a glacial deposit of red color, rather tough and contains numerous stomes. Mr Sage, the owner, claims a depth of 64 feet for the deposit in places. Several open- ings have been made in it, one of them 24 feet deep. It is said to thin out to the east of the yard, where it is found to be underlain by hardpan. It is undermined, the working face being about 8 feet high; and the clay is hauled to the machines in carts. It is tempered in soak pits, with the addition of one third its volume of sand. Hema- tite is also added in order to produce a good color in burning. The bricks are dried on pallets or on open yards. They are burnt in scove-kilns, loaded on schooners and shipped largely to Connecticut. Many also go to points on Long Island. South old, Suffolk co. 2 miles east of the village is C. L. Sandford’s yard. The clay is similar to Sage's. Mr Samford has about 29 acres of clay. It is worked chiefly by undermining, the working face being about 10 feet in hight. In places, gravel is scattered through it, but in others it is very free from Stones. Bor- ings have shown a depth of 65 feet of clay. The clay and coal dust are put into rectangular soak pits and from these are shoveled into the machine, the tempering sand not being added till them. The drying is done on pallets, whose total capacity is 154,000. Most of the product goes to Connecticut by Schooner. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 7 3 7 Below is given an analysis of the clay. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.05 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. 11 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 54 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 19 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.64 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 22 98.75 The plasticity of the clay is quite well shown by the amount of water required to work it up, viz, 40%. The air shrinkage was 8%; when burned at .08, which is about the temperature attained in the scove-kilns, the shrinkage was 9%. At this point, however, incipient fusion had barely begun. When heated above this point the shrink- age increased quite rapidly, so that at vitrification, which occurred at come 1, the total shrinkage was 16%. At incipient fusion the clay burns red; at vitrification a very deep red. Viscosity occurs at cone 4. The high shrinkage of this clay would probably interfere with its use alone for vitrified wares. The tensile strength of the air-dried briquettes ranged from 133 to 140 pounds a Square inch, but one gave a minimum of 108 pounds. The clay contains .7% of soluble salts. Fishers Island, Suffolk co. The extensive deposit of clay at this locality is worked by the Fishers Island brick manufacturing co., whose plant has a capacity of about 15,000,000. The yards are situated on the north shore of the island between Clay point and IHawks neck point. About 1500 feet from the shore is the bank of clay of a reddish color and thinly stratified, the layers of clay being separated by very thin Ones of Sand. In most places, how- ever, the mass has been disturbed by glacial movements. There is a stripping of 20 or 30 feet of a whitish sand, the finer portions of which can be used for tempering. Their present working face is 30 feet above tide at its base, and the clay, it is declared, has a 738 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM depth of 40 feet at least, below this, as shown by borings. A Sam- ple from the upper half of the bank showed the following composi- tion: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53. 77 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.49 Peroxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. 23 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.22 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.04 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º e º e º ºs e º e e º 'º e º e º e 9. 60 \ 99. 35 The clay, which is said to improve with the depth, is worked by undermining. It is then loaded on carts and hauled about 200 feet to a platform, underneath which cars are run to receive the clay and sand. These cars, in trains of three or four, are drawn to the yard by four horses, the grade being slightly descend- ing. Tempering is done in large rectangular Soak pits; Open yards are used for drying the brick, or it is done on pallets. A small quantity of hematite is added to the molding sand. The bricks are burnt in scove-kilns with wood. Most of the product goes to Con- necticut and Rhode Island. Farmingdale, Suffolk co. M. Meyers's yard lies about 1 mile north of the village, along the southern edge of the moraine, on a branch track of the railroad. The clay pit is some 300 feet from the yard, and several feet lower. The clay is chiefly a reddish yellow and very plastic, but tough in places. The lower portions are quite free from sand. Mr. Meyers claims a thickness of at least 25 feet of clay in addition to the 10 feet exposed. At the entrance to the pit the clay is seen to be underlain by a bluish white micaceous Sand, which is cross-bedded and dips under the clay at a very steep angle. Hauling the clay is done in carts, the tempering in ring pits with the addition of sand and coal dust. Soft mud machines are used, and the drying is done on pallets. The pallet racks have CLAYS OF NEW YORK 739 sectional roofs which are hinged and can be lifted by a lever for the purpose of admitting more sunlight. The bricks are burnt with wood in clamps; the product is shipped to various points on Long Island. Below is given an analysis of the lower clay. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62. 39 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23. 60 Oxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 39 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. S9 96. 07 The physical properties of the two clays from Meyers's bank are as follows: Upper clay. While this differs from the lower clay in color, because of the higher oxidation of the iron oxid, at the same time it is more sandy, containing a large amount of very fine sand and mica Scales. It is quite plastic and tough, but not very tenacious, as shown by its low tensile strength, which ranges from 20 to 25 pounds a square inch. It took 34.70% of water to work it up; the bricklets showed an air shrinkage of 6%. At come .08 the clay burns bright, but not dark red, with a total shrinkage of 7%. Incipient fusion occurred at come .05 with a total shrinkage of 10%. The clay had a shrinkage of 14% when vitrification began at come 1. It be- came viscous at cone 4. The soluble salts amounted to .14%. Bottom clay. This is more plastic and slightly more tenacious than the top clay, but otherwise does not differ from it very much. It absorbed 28% of water in tempering — the air-dried bri- quettes had a tensile strength ranging from 30 to 40 pounds a square inch. The air shrinkage was 8%. At cone .08 it amounted to 84%, at come .05 to 10%. Incipient fusion occurred at cone .04, vitrifica- 740 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM tion at 1, with 15% shrinkage. Viscosity at 5. Percentage of solu- ble salts, .20% About one mile north of the depot is the yard of the Garden City brick company. This is on the site of the old Stewart yard, but the plant is a modern one. The clay however is obtained from the opening that supplied Stewart's yard. In the mining of the clay three kinds are recognized: 1) top sandy clay; 2) middle clay and 3) black bottom clay. (For sec- tion of bank, see chapter on “Geology of clay deposits in New York’’, p. 605) - No analyses of the clay have been made, but no. 1 and a mix- ture of 2 and 3 have been tested. No. 1 is a red burning, gritty clay, with an abundance of fine mica scales. With 31% of water it worked up to a very plastic mass, that had an air shrinkage of 5%. The tensile strength was low and ranged from 50 to 60 pounds a square inch. The mechanical analysis gave 15.44 Sand, 83.75 clay Substance and silt. In burning, incipient fusion occurred at cone .03, with 11% shrinkage; vitrification at come 2, with 14% shrinkage, and viscosity at cone 5. Soluble salts, .54%. The mixture of 2 and 3 showed similar properties, but hardened at a somewhat lower temperature. The tensile strength was from 40 to 50 pounds a square inch; the clay was slightly more gritty than the top part, but was equally plastic; 33% of water was re- quired to temper it; the air shrinkage was 6% at come .04; incipient fusion occurred with a shrinkage of 12%; vitrification began at 1, the shrinkage was 16%. The clay grew viscous at 5. The color of the burned clay is light red, but deepens on hard firing. The solu- ble salts amounted to .2%. The bricks made at these works are all dry pressed; the product is used chiefly in Brooklyn. By mixing the clays, with addition of manganese, and by hard or soft burning, the colors buff, pink, gray, brown, red, and speck- led, are produced. - Plate 54) To face page 740 H. Ries photo. General view, Garden City brick co., Farmingdale. Plate 60 To face page 741 H. Ries photo. Black sandy clay, (Cretaceous 2 Age) Wyandance. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 74.1 The company has recently begun to use a white burning clay ob- tained near West Deerpark, formerly used in the brickworks at that locality. - In July 1899, a large opening had been made at the base of the hill about half a mile northwest of West Deerpark station. The section exposed at that time showed: Yellow gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 feet Black clay, with some yellow streaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. “ Black clay with white sand in streaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. “ Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e. e 2 “ | - * i 14 & 4 The clay is loaded on carts and hauled to a siding about 500 feet distant, whence it is taken by train to the works. About 600 feet east of the present bank, a second one is being opened up. The same clay also crops out at the base of the embankment, where the road from Farmingdale to the Garden City brick co.'s works crosses the railroad siding leading up to the works. There is probably an abundance of this clay between Farming- dale and Wyandance, but at most places there is a heavy over- burden of sand and yellow gravel, usually not less than 15 feet, except at the pit from which clay is now being dug. The highly sandy nature of the clay is indicated by a mechanical anālysis of the material which yielded: Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84% Clay substance and silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16% 100% All of the sand passed through a 100 mesh sieve. In spite of its highly silicious nature the clay is fairly plastic, and 23% of water was required to work it up. Scattered through the clay are scales of mica, and occasional grains of pyrite. The shrinkage in drying is 8%; up to cone 3, 11%, and come 6, 15%. At the former cone the '742 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM clay became incipiently fused; the color was yellowish white. At the latter it had deepened in color, and began to assume a reddish hue on the approach of vitrification. It fused at come 10. This clay is used for making front brick by the dry press process. It is doubtful however if it would work in a stiff mud machine without tearing as it issued from the die. The clay contains .15% of soluble salts. The following analysis was made by H. Ries from a sample col- lected in 1899 - Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60. 20 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23. O'7 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.45 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 20 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tr Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 05 Loss on ign. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. 10 99.07 Stalen Island has two yards where common brick are manu- factured. One belongs to McCabe Bros. at Greenridge. Their deposit is a stony glacial clay of a red color, and lies to the north- west of the yard. Small boulders are scattered sparingly through it; the upper portion is somewhat loamy. Borings have penetrated the clay to a depth of 25 feet and stratification appears with the depth. No sand or coal is added to the clay in tempering. It is first passed through rolls 2 feet in diameter, the one making 60, the other 600 revolutions a minute, and having an opening of half an inch. This partially breaks up the stones. The crushed material falls on a belt and is carried up to a pug mill, where the water is added before it passes to the machine. Drying the bricks is done either in the sum or in tunnels. In the latter the bricks shrink more. The tunnels are heated by coal fires. Wood is used for burning. The kiln settles about 4 inches. The products go to New York city and the vicinity. CLAYS OF NEW YORISC '743 Wood & Reeman’s yard is situated on the shore of Arthurs kill, opposite Carteret. It is an open yard of greater capacity than its output. The clay is of the same character as McCabe's. It is tough and has to be worked with picks. The pit is about 10 feet deep. Ring pits are used for tempering and the bricks are burnt with wood. New York city and Newark are the chief markets. The New York Anderson pressed brick co. has its works at Rreischerville adjoining Kreischer’s fire brick factory. Various styles of ornamental and pressed brick are made. The clay is ob- tained from a pit near Greenridge. It is of a black and gray color. The pit is worked in benches, the clay being hoisted in buckets and loaded on cars which are run down to the works. The works have not been in operation for several years. Paving brick The total number of paving brick produced in the United States in 1897 was 435,851,000, valued at $3,582,037. Of this amount New York produced 28,145,000, valued at $309,564, an average price of $11 a thousand. - One reason that paving brick have not been made in greater quantities is that New York lies in a region abundantly supplied with stone which can be used for the same purpose. Nevertheless many cities of the state have adopted brick pavements, among them Binghamton, Lockport, Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, Troy, Water- town, Ithaca, Corning, Elmira, Dunkirk, Jamestown, Tonawanda, Niagara Falls, and Brooklyn. Paving brick were formerly made only of fire clay, and indeed this was considered the only material fit to be used. At the present time however the material most used is either shale or clay (preferably the former) which burns to a vitrified body. e ... - The clays used should have sufficient fluxing impurities to enable them to burn to a dense impervious body at a moderate tempera- ture. The following average composition is given by Wheeler for a paving brick clay, being deduced from 50 sources." 1 Vitrified paving brick, 1895. Indianapolis, 744 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Min. per Max. per Cent, Cent, Average Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 3.0 1.5 Silica . . . . . . . . . . • - - - - ... • e e s e 49.0 75.0 56.0 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * > e e 11.0 25. 0 22.5 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 . () 9. () 6. 7 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3. 5 1.2 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 3.0 1.4 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. () 5.5 3. 7 Water (loss on ign.) . . . . . . . . 3. 0 13.0 7. 0 Total fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 0 In addition to having the proper chemical composition, it should also possess the necessary physical properties. Proper plasticity is of vital importance, but its excessive develop- ment is equally injurious. The reason plasticity has such import- ance is that clay when molded by the stiff mud process is very apt to tear when issuing from the die, unless of proper plasticity. Excessive plasticity tends to produce a laminated brick when auger machines are used. The effect of these laminations will be seen in the tests given below. As paving brick, unless made of fire clay, should be burned to the point of vitrification, it is essential that in clays used for this pur- pose the points of viscosity and incipient fusion should lie well apart, not less than 250° F. and preferably 400° Fº. The color of a paving brick is no indication of its quality. The clay should not show any disposition to blister as the point of vitrification is approached, but this is likely to occur if an excess of iron is present. In order to demonstrate somewhat definitely what are the char- acters of a good paving brick shale, the tests of a sample utilized in Illinois for the manufacture of paving blocks is given herewith. The shale is rather fine-grained, and breaks up quite easily in grinding. It was ground to pass through a 30 mesh sieve. 28% of * Olchewsky in Post, chem. tech. analyse. 1890; Wheeler in Vitrified paving brick. 1895. suoueae - ºoo suoſtų paupun ſa pºtpuotto · Moluq ºut ved uoſ stouuni ºtiſſup on oouteuluºl·ohoqd sºn 1 （ 11 †† 1. ºžuol º ot;J OJ,19 º 181，1 ‘zbrºvºva/ v^aoavºy wom/bºçº . $ º gſ.), 038đ 908J OJ, 2 m çaeno? - ? I & ? ? 0 ： • un « ! 6 ！！ 0 !! ！！ !! ： • • • • • • • • Œ œ • • • • • • • • :: º zao??ºgº yzoz72% . () ---- .. #2 ·etų Io ſoțiq 3uļA 8đ 3ūļu Inq JOJ UII}x{ QJ8Jp + 8H+ � ſë *- • D - 0 £ AA0 & ae ſe s ºu { ºc ！ »% à N ļš{ * ſºD - € v AA08 r., {• º „!! 0 NYſg J - Z 2 + 2 - 9 –ł J - 0 ºr -— — : wo an UIAA op 8 JO A9ļA IBUIOĮ109S - Z9 04 BIGH ！\， en į, į ș și-º |- .6× -I-J|- II Tķ-- Lg/- – – – // H52sr−1 , ... -- - - - - ...+9: § --- wº i- | K CLAYS OF NEW YORK '745 water was required to work it up. The air shrinkage was 4%. Up to come .03 it was 10%. It vitrified at 2 and became viscous at 5. The tensile strength was from 60 to 70 pounds a square inch. Manufacture of paving brick Shale is used more than clay in the manufacture of paving brick. It has to be prepared first by crushing in a dry pan, then screened. This screened clay is mixed with water and tempered either in a pug mill or in a wet pan. (For description see “Manufacture of common brick’’, p. 653) ſ Paving brick are commonly molded in an auger machine; they are either end-cut or side-cut. At a few factories the Soft mud method is used, but in this state it is only employed at Syracuse. Repressing the green brick is commonly practised, but there is a difference of opinion as to whether it improves the quality of the brick, though the experiments given on the following pages tend to indicate that the end-cut repressed brick are the strongest, while still more recent tests somewhat disfavor this view. The green brick are usually piled on cars and dried in tunnels. Paving brick should be burned in down-draft kilns, as they give better results than the up-draft kilns, and there is no loss from crushed, overburned brick. - - The type of kiln used in this state is either the rectangular down- draft kiln or a continuous one. The latter is extending in favor, as it is the more economical and yields good results. Circular kilns are but little used in this state for burning paving brick. Tests of paving brick - Tor a long period there has been some difference of opinion as to what constitutes the qualities requisite for a paving brick. Engi- neers have frequently laid considerable stress on the crushing test and the color. The latter is of no value as a guide; the former be- yond certain limits is to be looked on in the same way. With a view, therefore, to determine what the requisite qualifications of a paving 746. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM brick should be, and if possible to adopt a set of standard specifica- tions, a committee was appointed by the National brickmakers association two years ago. After a series of exhaustive tests their report has recently been submitted. The subjects which the committee took up for consideration were: 1 Rattling, as a measure of toughness and wearing power 2 Absorption, as a measure of vitrification and resistance to freezing 3 Cross-breaking, as a measure of structural perfection and freedom from defects due to manufacture 4 Crushing, as a farther indication of the same factor 5 Hardness, as a confirmatory test of vitrification 6 Specific gravity, as a guide to the density and fineness of the material The rattler. A series of experiments made by varying the charge, size of rattler, number of revolutions a minute, and time of rattling showed that - 1 Not less than 10% nor more than 15% of the volume of the rattler need be filled with the cubic contents of the charge. 2 It must be rattled for not less than 1000 and preferably not less than 2000 revolutions. 3 The length of the chamber is immaterial. 4 The diameter of the chamber must be between 26 and 30 inches. 5 The speed of revolution, between 24 and 36 revolutions a minute, is immaterial if the test is terminated when the requisite number of revolutions have been made. The use of cast iron and granite as abrasive and filling materials was also tested and found to be unsatisfactory. Large bricks showed less wear than small ones; normally burned, less than overburned or underburned ones. Absorption test. A series of tests showed that even after dry- ing 48 hours at above 110° C. a brick continued to lose water, and that immersed brick showed redundant gain in weight even after CLAYS OF NEW YORK 747 six months’ immersion, though the great bulk of the water was taken in the first week. Broken bricks absorb more water than whole ones, and Small pieces from the interior of the brick absorb more proportionately than large Ones. The following conclusions were reached. 1 That to obtain accurate absorption figures, a hard brick will require not less than four days' drying and eight weeks' soaking. 2 That only roughly approximate figures are obtained within time limits which would be short enough to make the figures useful for Ordinary competitive tests of material for immediate use. 3 That only rattled bricks should be used for the absorption test. as the absorptive power of brick in use is increased by its chipping and grinding under traffic. 4. No relation seems to exist between loss by rattling and per- centage of absorption. As a result of the committee’s experiments the following speci- fications were adopted. Specifications for abrasion test 1 Dimensions of the machine. The standard machine shall be 28 inches in diameter and 20 inches in length, measured inside the rattling chamber. Other machines may be used, varying in diameter between 26 and 30 inches, and in length from 18 to 24 inches, but if this is done, a record of it must be attached to the official report. Long rattlers may be cut up into sections of suit- able length by the insertion of iron diaphragms at proper points. 2 Construction of the machine. The barrel shall be supported on trunnions at either end; in no case shall a shaft pass through the rattling chamber. The cross section of the barrel shall be a regular polygon, having 14 sides. The heads and staves shall be composed of gray cast iron, not chilled or casehardened. There shall be a space of one fourth of an inch between the staves for the escape of dust and small pieces of waste. Other machines may 748 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM be used, having 12 to 16 staves, with openings from one eighth to three eighths of an inch between the staves, but if this is done a record of it must be attached to the official report of the test. 3 Composition of the charge. All tests must be made on charges composed of one kind of material at a time. No test shall be considered official where two or more different bricks or mate- rials have been used to compose a charge. 4 Quantity of the charge. The quantity of the charge shall be estimated by its bulk and not by its weight. The bulk of the standard charge shall be equal to 15% of the cubic contents of the rattling chamber, and the number of whole brick whose united volume comes nearest to this amount shall constitute a charge. 5 Revolutions of the charge. The number of revolutions of a standard test shall be 1800, and the speed of rotation shall be 30 a minute. The belt power shall be sufficient to rotate the rattler at the same speed whether charged or empty. . Other speeds of rotation between 24 and 36 revolutions a minute may be used, but in this case a record of the speed must be attached to the official report. - - 6 Conditions of the charge. The bricks composing a charge shall be dry and clean, and, as nearly as may be possible, in the condition in which they are drawn from the kiln. 7 Calculation of the results. The loss shall be calculated in percentage of the weight of the dry brick composing the charge, and no result shall be considered as official unless it is the average of two distinct and complete tests, made on separate charges of brick. Specifications for absorption test 1 The number of bricks for a standard test shall be five. 2 The test must be conducted on rattled bricks. If none such are available, the whole bricks must be broken in halves before treatment. 3 The bricks should be dried for 48 hours at a temperature ranging from 230° to 250° F. before weighing for the initial dry weight. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 749 4 The bricks should be soaked for 48 hours, completely im- mersed, in pure water. 5 After soaking, and before weighing, the bricks must be wiped dry from surplus water. 6 The difference in weight must be determined on scales sensi- tive to 1 gram. 7 The increase in weight due to water absorbed shall be calcu- lated in percentage of the initial dry weight. The commission which drew up these specifications considers that any brick which will satisfy the requirements of reasonable mechanical tests will not absorb sufficient water to prove injurious to it in service, and that for such brick the absorption test should be abandoned as unnecessary, if not actually misleading. 5 Specifications for cross-breaking tests 1 Support the brick on edge, or as laid in pavement, on hard- ened steel knife edges, rounded longitudinally to a radius of 12 inches and transversely to a radius of one eighth of an inch, and bolted in position so as to secure a span of 6 inches. 2 Apply the load to the middle of the top face through a hard- ened steel knife edge, straight longitudinally and rounded trans- versely to a radius of Hº inch. 3 Apply the load at a uniform rate of increase till fracture €IlSU16S. 4 Compute the modulus of rupture by the formula f_3 W I | b d” in which - f = modulus of rupture in pounds a square inch w = total breaking load in pounds l=length of span in inches = 6 b = breadth of brick in inches d = depth of brick in inches 5 Samples for test must be free from all visible irregularities 750 NEW YORIK STATIE MUSIEUM of surface or deformities of shape, and their upper and under faces must be practically parallel. 6 Not fewer than 10 bricks shall be broken, and the average of all be taken for a standard test. Specifications for crushing test, 1 The crushing test should be made on half bricks, loaded edge- wise, or as they are laid in the street. If the machine used is unable to crush a full half brick, the area may be reduced by chipping off, keeping the form of the piece to be tested as nearly prismatic as possible. A machine of at least 100,000 pounds’ capacity should be used, and the specimen should not be reduced below 4 square inches of area in cross-section at right angles to the direction of load. 2 The upper and lower surfaces should preferably be ground O true and parallel planes. If this is not done they should be pedded in plaster of paris while in the testing machine, which should be allowed to harden 10 minutes under the weight of the crushing planes only, before the load is applied. 3 The load should be applied at a uniform rate of increase to the point of rupture. 4. Not less than an average obtained from five tests on five dif- ferent bricks shall constitute a standard test. It was resolved by the commission that “from the experimental work done so far by this commission, or by others so far as is known to us, in the application of the cross-breaking and crushing tests to paving brick, it is not possible to show any close relation- ship between the qualities necessary for a good paving material and high structural strength as indicated by either of these tests *. JEffect of structure on wearing power of paving brick i Tecent experiments by Prof. Edward Orton jr on bricks made from the same shale, but molded on different machines and burned * Clayworker, February and March 1897. CLAYS OF NEW YORK together in the same kiln, show that end-cut bricks possess a de- cided superiority over side-cut bricks, and also show the marked advantage of repressing end-cut and the disadvantage of repress- ing side-cut bricks. Rattling tests made by Prof. Edward Orton jr on paving bricks END-CTUT BRICICS Description Repressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plain . . . . Average of both . . . . . . . . . Loss in wei O SIDE-CUT BRICKS Repressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plain . . . . . . . Average of both . . . . . . . . . * DIRY IPIRESSED IBRICICS Coarse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . As regards the crushing test, experiments given below show that, even with the same material, a wide range of results is ob- ght at the end loºglu wºu. Per cent Per cemt 18.23 26.67 21.05 28.48 19. 54. 27.00 26. 51 35.30 22. 73 31.42 24. 4.3 32.90 19.40 25. 20 23. S0 28. 26 20.07 29.71 21.09 27 . 72 Average modulus Of rupture Powmds 2 525 2 4.25 2 463 2 347 2 34.6 2 34.7 2 507 2 74.0 2 687 2 644 tained, depending on the method of preparing the surface. Prof. I. O. Baker prepared a number as follows: 1 Grinding as nearly flat as possible on convex side of emery stone and crushing between self-adjusting, parallel cast iron plates. 2 Removing the irregularities of surface and crushing between blotting paper. '752 NIEW YORK STATIE MUSICUM 3 Removing the irregularities of surface and crushing between straw boards. 4 Removing irregularities, coating with plaster of paris and placing under slight pressure till set (12–24 hrs), and then crushing. 5 Coating with plaster of paris which was afterward ground down, on a sand paper disk, to the surface of the brick so as to leave a minimum thickness with a perfectly flat surface, and then crushing. - After a number of experiments no great difference was found between the first three, but difficulties connected with the last two rendered them worthless. With a uniform grade of brick the first three methods gave 7000 to 9000 pounds as the crushing strength of cubes. Some samples of the same lot of brick were prepared on a rubbing bed at marble works, and the strength of these carefully prepared cubes ranged from 16,000 to 21,000 pounds a square inch, showing that a very small difference in flat- ness of surface makes a great difference in the apparent strength. * At a recent meeting of the National brick manufacturers asso- ciation, Gomer Jones, city engineer of Geneva, N. Y., advocated the following method for testing the resistance of paving brick to abrasion. A rattler of the usual type has the staves fitted with two longi- tudinal pockets each, in which the bricks are inserted and held end to end. These pockets are 3 inches deep, leaving about one inch of brick protruding. “When all the staves are in place, the interior of the rattler is virtually solid brick lined. During rotation the attack of the abrading material is at right angles to the length of the brick, and confined to the surfaces and edges which are ex- posed in actual use; there is sufficient space between the brick for the escape of any dust or waste, and incidentally allowing the abrading material free access to the unsupported edges of the brick under test, thus establishing the conditions of position and CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 753 line of wear produced when brick are laid with sand filler in the street ’’. The charge adopted by Mr Jones consists of 150 pounds of cast- iron cubes, each # inch each way, and weighing .87 of a pound. The rattler is revolved 3000 times. Bricks which are considered standard lose 5% of weight; these would be condemned if found on the street. Mr Jones analyzes the action of his rattler as follows. First, the ascending side of the rattler carries up part of the charge of cubes, imparting to them its velocity. When carried beyond the center they are thrown toward the opposite side of the rattler chamber, and therefore strike on the unprotected surface of the brick, chip- ping the edges, cutting into the surface, and doing all that the calks of a horse's shoe can do. Second, as only part of the charge of cubes can be carried upward by the ascending side of the rattler chamber, the rest slide and roll over the surface of the brick at the lowest point, grinding and wearing them away. Thus we have: 1 Brick in position as in the street 2 Continual raining of iron cubes on the surface the shock of horses’ feet 3 Attrition and rolling wear as of wagons analogous to 4. Wear confined to the narrow surface of the brick — as in the Street 5 Uniform and standard abrading material 6 Like conditions for testing any material from fire clay to shale 7 Influences of change of form minimized 8 Weight, cross-section, form and structure estimated at true value, as they are all reduced to surface and resisting quality of material. - As only one edge is subjected to abrasion, it is possible to multiply the loss of weight suffered by one brick by the number required to lay a yard and thus ascertain the number of pounds 754 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of material that would be lost from a square yard of pavement laid in the street. - Mr Jones gives the following test made at Geneva. 16 different samples were at his disposal; in order to eliminate the weakest, he put two of each kind of brick into the staves of the machine, with the usual charge and number of revolutions. The result was that, while the strongest material lost less than 3%, the weakest lost 7.35%. The wire-cut brick failed to develop as much strength as the same material repressed. In one instance, the difference of abrasion was as between 3.59% in the case of repressed brick and 6.26% for common wire-cut brick. The large fire clay blocks also failed in comparison with the smaller repressed fire clay bricks. Some of the comparative results reached by Mr Jones’s test were as follows: Abºve OSS Shale block no. 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.46% Medina sandstone block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.61% Fire clay block no. 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2% Tire clay block no. 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6% The method adopted by Mr Jones is undoubtedly from all ap- pearances very reasonable, but, in order to determine whether it or the old method of testing the resistance of brick to abrasion is the better, it will be necessary to carry on a long series of parallel tests on the same material, using both methods. Steps have already been taken to do this, by the National brickmakers association. More recently Prof. Talbot of the University of Illinois has brought forth a third method of testing paving brick which differs from the standard test of the National brickmakers association in placing a certain number of bricks in the standard N. B. M. A. rattler, along with cast iron shot of two sizes, the larger weighing about 7% pounds, the Smaller about 1 pound. A committee lately appointed by the association referred to above found that, while the Jones device gives more accordant or CLAYS OF NEW YORK '755 uniform results for any given make of brick, and while it is dis- tinctly more sensitive in indicating the softer grades of brick, the device as now manufactured embodies objectionable features which the committee think can be remedied. As between the present standard N. B. M. A. test described above, and the Talbot standard test, the committee found that the latter is much more sensitive in Selecting the soft brick, and also gives more uniform results than the present standard. The committee therefore recommended the abandoming of the present N. B. M. A. test, and the adopting of the Talbot standard test, which is to be carried out as follows: - 1 All brick shall be thoroughly dried before testing in the rattler. 2 The present standard rattler, 28 inches in diameter, and 20 inches long, shall be retained. It is preferably made of steel plates in place of cast iron, which peels and ultimately breaks under the wearing action on the inside. The rattler shall be run not less than 28 nor more than 30 revolutions a minute for 1800 revolutions. 3 The charge to be placed in the rattler shall consist of nine paving blocks or 12 paving bricks together with 300 pounds of shot made of ordinary machinery cast iron. This shot shall be of two sizes; the larger size to weigh about 7% pounds, and to be 24 inches square and 4% inches long, with slightly rounded edges ; the Smaller sizes to be cubes, 1% inches on a side, with rounded edges. Farther, the individual pieces of cast iron shall be replaced by new ones when they have lost #5 of their original weight. One fourth (75 pounds) of the short charge shall be always composed of the large cast iron blocks, and three fourths (225 pounds) of the small cast iron blocks. New York paving brick industry Most of the paving brick manufactured in this state are made from shale. The localities are as follows. Corning. The Corning brick and terra cotta company manu- factures a paving brick from the Chemung shales. The brick are 756 NEW YORIK STATE MUSIEUIM molded in anger side-cut machines and repressed. The shale from this locality is mentioned in chapter on “Shale '', p. 839. Catskill. The works of the Eastern paving brick company rank next in size to those at Syracuse. The material used is a mixture of Hamilton shale and Quaternary clay, both of which are obtained at Cairo. They are brought to the works by railroad. After crushing and mixing, the bricks are molded in auger machines, and burned either in rectangular down-draft kilns or in a continuous one built according to the design of Mr Haight, superintendent at the factory. A view of this kiln, which is in successful operation, is shown in pl. 45. +. Hornellsville. The Preston brick co. manufactures brick from Chemung shale. The quarries are located on the Erie railroad about one mile from Hornellsville. The bricks are molded in a side-cut auger machine, but are not repressed. They are dried in tunnels and burned in circular down-draft kilns. (pl. 44) The material is described under “Shale', p. 839. Newfield. The description of this plant is given on p. 728. The paving brick are auger side-cut ones, and are repressed either in hand or steam power represses. Jamestown. The Jamestown shale paving brick company at this place makes both end-cut and side-cut paving brick. The product is usually repressed, dried in tunnels and burned in down- draft kilns. One form used at this works is divided longitudinally by a brick wall into two compartments. A view of the works is shown in pl. 63. Syracuse. The New York paving brick company at Geddes, near Syracuse, is the only one in the state that uses clay alone. The material is brought by canal from Threeriver Point on the Oswego river, 10 miles northeast of Syracuse. The clay deposit is said to be 35 feet thick. It is a soft gritty clay of moderate plasticity and great stickiness. Plate 63 To face page 75t; H. Ries photo. General view of Preston brick co., Hornellsville. Plate 64 To face page 757 H. Ries photo. General view of Jamestown shale paving brick co., Jamestown. E’late 65 To face page 757. | º --~~ - º … - º - º º - - | - - º ** º º: ºº: L. ºº:: - -- º ºº: º º º º º | |- º º º º º: º ſº - º H. Ries photo. View of works and yard N. Y. brick & paving co., Syracuse. CLAYS OF NEW YORE 757 Experiments made with a sample of it showed that 28% of water was needed to work up the air-dried material, but in actual practice the clay is so moist when it reaches the factory that little water has to be mixed with it. The air shrinkage is 5%. At incipient fusion, which occurs at cone .05, the total shrinkage is 7%. Vitrification occurs at cone 1 with 11% shrinkage; this agreeing quite closely with the amount that takes place in the manufacture of the brick. At come 3 the clay became viscous. The tensile strength of the air-dried briquettes ranges from 60 to 70 pounds a square inch. The clay contains .55% of soluble salts. As the bricks are burned to vitrification these do not produce any harmful results. - The bricks are molded either in a Penfield soft mud machine or in a stiff mud plunger machine, in which case they are re- pressed. The works are equipped with a large number of drying tunnels, and both rectangular and circular kilns of the down-draft type. - - Samples of the product tested from time to time show a high crushing strength and very low absorption. Many of the streets in Syracuse are paved with brick from this factory. They have also been used at other places. 7.58 NEW YORK STATIE MUSEUM TERRA COTTA General properties The increasing tendency of architects to place considerable adorn- ment on the exterior of buildings has led to the extensive adoption of terra cotta as a cheap substitute for stone. The advantages ascribed to it are Durability Cheapness Permanent color Resistance to fire Lightness and strength. The term terra cotta is usually applied to those ornamental clay products for structural work which are more than 8 inches square. If the pieces are under this size they are called ornamental brick. Terra cotta objects should be burned to an even color, the pieces. should be of regular outline and not show signs of warping, neither should they discolor superficially. The hardness should be above 6 in the scale, that is, it should resist scratching with a knife. Terra cotta is seldom vitrified, but the slip covering the surface generally forms an impervious coating, and also serves to give the desired color to the ware. At first the forms produced in terra cotta were comparatively simple, but improvements in methods and experience have greatly extended the possibilities of the material. Among the more re- cent uses is to be mentioned its employment in columns and balus- trades. - In the manufacture of balustrades the solids and voids should be made in the proper proportions to prevent warping and cracking of the ware in burning. The strength of terra cotta brackets has been well shown by the following experiments: * An important and instructive series of articles on “Terra cotta in archi- tecture”, by T. Cusack, has appeared in the Brickbuilder. 1898. p. 7, 55, 98, 142, 185, 230. Plate 66 To face page 759 --- - - - - . - -- ºf. -- º - - - - - º - - Gºre | º |||| | | ||| | | vºrs in TERRA Cotta. - tº: Color Esº T. Cusack photo. Cubes of building stone and their color equivalents in terra cotta, taken before they were subjected to a fire test and cooling test. Plate 67 To face page 759 º T. Cusack photo. Cubes of building stone and their color equivalents in terra cotta, taken after they had been subjected to bright redness in the kiln, and then put into the cold water; the terra cotta at once and the stone after, first cooling a few minutes in the air. Plate 6S To face page 75%) * - , H. Ries photo. Dry pan for grinding grog and clays used in the manufacture of terra cotta. N. Y. architectural terra cotta co. CLAYS OF NEW YORK - '759. A cornice modillion made by the Northwestern terra cotta Co. was braced on a firm support, in a horizontal position, the portion which would project beyond the wall being free of course. At the wall line this modillion was 11% inches high, 8 inches wide on its face, and projected 2 feet. It carried a weight of more than 2 tons without breaking. A smaller modillion made by the New York architectural terra cotta company was similarly tested. It was 5% inches high, 6. inches wide at wall line and had a projection of 14 inches. Allow- ing the same thickness of shell (for these modillions are hollow), the second would have about half the sectional area, but more than half the projection of the first. It was loaded in a similar manner, and finally broke at the wall line under a weight of 2650 pounds. Another bracket made in the same mold was loaded with 2400 pounds and sustained this weight without breaking. A slightly larger bracket made from a different clay was loaded with 3200 pounds of pig iron without yielding. ~ * The relative resistance of terra cotta and stone to fire was re- cently tested in an interesting manner. Cubes of granite, sand- stone, limestone and marble, and terra cotta cubes of corresponding color were taken; all eight were placed in the hottest portion of the kiln. When thoroughly heated they were withdrawn, and the stone cubes allowed to cool slightly and then immersed in water, while those of terra cotta were plunged directly into water." The result is here given. Granite Cracked, and melted superficially Sandstone Crumbled. Timestone and marble Calcined Terra cotta Intact; two very slightly cracked Terra cotta clays Staten Island. The clays mined for this purpose in the pits of B. Kreischer's Sons have been mentioned under fire clays. In addition to that clay, much is also quarried by T. Ryan near Roseville. This is a sandy, somewhat ferruginous clay, and is 1 T. Cusack, Brick builder, Jan. 1899. p. 14. 760 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM One of those used by the New York architectural terra cotta co. It possesses the advantages of being very plastic, burning to a deep red, with a very dense body at a comparatively low tempera- ture. It took 33.70% of water to work it up. The air shrinkage was 6%, and at .06, 9.5%. Incipient vitrification began at .03, with 12% shrinkage; complete vitrification was reached at 4. Wiscosity at 6. The percentage of soluble salts contained in the clay was .25%. The tensile strength showed a minimum of 7 5 pounds and a maximum of 90 to the square inch. The clay slakes quite rapidly in water. Its composition is Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I e º 'º e º º tº e º e º e º e º e 57.00 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * c e º e s is s s a e e s e s s a 29. 20 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , e º e º ºs e e g º ºs e º 'º e 4.80 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . * @ tº e º e º ſº º e º 'º º e º e º e | e e s e . 65 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . | s a e e s e e s e e s s a e º e º e s e 1.80 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i º 6. 10 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glens Falls. Two varieties of clay occur here in the pits of the Glens Falls terra cotta co., the upper being red, and the lower bluish gray. The composition is indicated by the following analyses. º Red. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48. 35 57.46 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. 33 21.15 Oxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.02 5. 52 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15. 38 3. 65 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.17 1. 50 Organic matter . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 1. 18 & © tº º Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 05 4. 72 89.48 94.00 Plate 69 To face page 701 H. Ries photo. - Kiln room of a terra cotta works, showing clay stacked up around the kiln and spread out on the floor to dry. Plate 70 To face page 761 H. Ries photo. View in mixing department, N. Y. architectural terra cotta co. (a) Pug mills; (b) pugged clay which is being placed on the conveyor to be taken up to the molding department. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 761 The red owes its color to the higher state of oxidation of the iron; the lower percentage of lime is due probably to its having been leached out of the red clay by percolating surface waters. Elm Point, L. I. This clay was used for a time by the New York architectural terra cotta co., and also for stoneware, under which head it is described. Terra cotta manufacture It rarely happens that terra cotta is made from one clay, it being usually found necessary to mix several different ones to get the best results. In addition to this a certain amount of sand or ground brick is added to prevent excessive shrinkage. The clay and fire brick are ground in a dry pan; and the mixing is done in a pug mill. The clay is then stored in bins till used; and before the clay is sent up to the molding room it is put through another pugging. - A model is first made of every object to be constructed. For simple forms of straight outline this can be done with the aid of a templet. Thus, if a cornice is to be modeled, the ground form of the piece is constructed by putting together several slabs of plaster of paris; over these a mass of soft plaster is poured and the templet is then run along the surface, the pattern of it being the same as the profile of the cornice. In the case of complicated or elaborate forms, the model has to be molded entirely or in part by hand, requiring the services of a skilled modeler. When the straight edge and elaborated center of a panel or similar piece are desired, the latter is modeled, while the former is obtained by means of a templet. The model completed, a mold of plaster is next made from it. This is made of several parts, which are held together by an iron band, tightened with a wooden wedge. In filling the mold the soft, plastic clay is forced into all the corners, till it forms a layer about 2 inches thick all over the interior. The mold is allowed to stand for a short time, while the clay dries sufficiently to per- mit the parts of the mold to be lifted off, when the edges of the '762 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM object are trimmed off by means of a knife. Large objects such as a statue or column have to be molded in several pieces, a sepa- rate mold being required for each. Indeed extreme care has to be exercised not to make single pieces which are too large or too complicated, otherwise they would warp and crack in drying and burning. - - Drying of the wares needs to proceed with great slowness, and in the case of larger pieces has even to be retarded by keeping them covered with a damp cloth. The drying process is carried on in warm rooms; where, in Some terra cotta factories, coils of steam pipe are laid under the floor. The shrinkage of terra cotta in burning and drying is commonly about +'s. Much terra cotta is covered either with a soft dull enamel, or glaze. This is commonly applied by dipping the green ware into the glazing liquid, or it is put on by spraying. (pl. 77.) In the burning of the ware, simple forms can be piled on one another in the kiln, but larger and more complicated pieces have to be set in between slabs of firebrick, to shield them from any pressure during the burning. Both coal and oil are used as fuel, the latter having met with success at the works of the New York architectural terra cotta co. - The color of terra cotta is either that of the body or is imparted by a thin coating of slip. The slipping of terra cotta is extensively practised, the advantages being that it makes the color of the clay when burned immaterial, since the color of the object is given by the slip coating. - According to the composition of the slip, the surface is dull, enameled or glazed. The composition of the coating must be such of course that the coefficient of expansion of the body and of the coating is the same, otherwise a crazing of the surface is sure to GIOSUl62. The temperature reached in the burning of terra cotta depends on the refractoriness of the clay. For calcareous clays the tem- perature seldom exceeds 2000° F., but when semi-fire clays are Plate 71 To face page 762 H. Ries photo. º b Molding terra cotta, showing the green clay being pressed into the mold (a); the mold inverted and ready to be taken off of the object (b); molded piece with a plaster mold removed (c), and (d) the tempered clay ready for molding. Plate 72 To face page 762 .…" … H. Ries photo. | Molding room, N. Y. architectural terra cotta co. On the floor are freshly molded pieces of terra cotta from which the plaster mold has been removed. o face page 763 T Plate 78 N. Y. architectural terra cotta co. Modeling clay for terra cotta. H. Ries photo. To face page 763 H. Ries photo. Plate 74 - - Spraying the enamel mixture on the green terra cotta before placing it in the kiln, N. Y. architectural terra cotta co. To face page 763 | - Plate 75 Loading unburned ware into the kilns. Kiln room, N. Y. architectural terra cotta co. T. Cusack photo. I’late 76 To face page 763 T. Cusack photo. Interior view of terra cotta kiln with burned ware ready to be removed. The slabs and blocks which form a scaffolding around many of the objects are to protect them against the weight of the pieces above. N. Y. architectural terra cotta co. Plate 77 To face page 763 - - - - - T. Cusack photo. View in the modeling department of the N. Y. architectural terra cotta co. The ornamentation seen on the various objects has been molded by hand. To face page 76: |№， i ſ | || . |-|- |-|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| ，1，1）||（11） | ， ، ، ،|-|- |（11） ſaeſ|（11） | | | - . . |- - - ，：|：|| . ||-| | |-| | | || Plate 78 H. Ries photo. Barnard college, New York. The bricks are overburned ones from the Hudson river district and the terra cotta was supplied by B. Kreischer's Sons, Kreischerville. CIAYS OF NEW YORIK - 763 employed, 2200° or 2300°F. are not infrequently attained. Even in such cases, not all the clays of the mixture are able to resist the latter temperature; in such cases those whose fusibility is below this point serve as the bond for the body, while the more refractory ingredients tend to preserve the form of the ware. At the present day the manufacture of terra cotta has reached so high a degree of perfection that the manufacturer who is thor- oughly familiar with the behavior of his clays in burning is able to produce pieces of exactly the desired size, and of regular shape, which in their complete condition fit more or less perfectly to- gether. At the same time however a little trimming of the edges has to be done at times; therefore the burned ware is taken from the kiln to the fitting room, where the different portions of th design are placed together in their proper relation, in order t make sure that they fit as perfectly as possible. Terra cotta manufacturers are constantly endeavoring to pro- duce new designs and colors; while the handsome buildings of many cities attest their success. It is a common custom now to construct the first and perhaps the second story of a building of stone, and the succeeding stories of brick with terra cotta decora- tion; it therefore becomes necessary to see that the color of the terra cotta harmonizes with that of the other materials used. Terra cotta has thus come to be one of the most useful and durable of modern building materials; yet its use has become so wide spread that at times there seems to be danger of its being carried to an excess by some of its more enthusiastic advocates. In its place terra cotta has no equal, and if properly used will steadily grow in public favor. New York terra cotta industry The firms at present engaged in the manufacture of terra cotta in New York are - - The New York architectural terra cotta co., Ravenswood, L. l JB. Kreischer’s Sons, Kreischerville Glens Falls terra cotta co., Glens Falls Corning brick and terra cotta co., Corning 764 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The clays used are obtained wholly or in part from this state. The New York architectural terra cotta co. The factory is located at Ravenswood, borough of Brooklyn, and is the largest in the state. There are eight kilns. The product includes all kinds of architectural terra cotta, made in many different colors, either with plain or speckled surface. The clays are obtained in part from Staten Island, the balance from New Jersey. Among the many specimens of the company’s work may be men- tioned the new Delmonico building at 44 St. and 5 av., Colonial club, Fifth Avenue theater, all in New York city. . B. Kreischer's Sons' factory is at Kreischerville, on Staten Island. The clays used by them come largely from Staten Island, while the product includes various colors of terra cotta. Much gray and white ware has been made. The terra cotta decoration on Barnard college, at 120 st. and the boulevard, is one of the products of this factory. (pl. 78) - Glens Falls terra cotta co. at Glens Falls, N. Y. The factory of this firm has already been mentioned under the head of pressed brick. The same clays are used. The ware is either red or buff. Corning brick and terra cotta co. While the chief products of this factory are paving and building brick, some terra cotta is produced. roll! Alaqosjºuxſ 'suoS s, la qosqo,lył ºſi º tuoou º uſp101\·ohoqd saņI : II +4)， o， ed opus, o I,6L 91 l'L， I I’late S0 To face page 764 II. Ries photo. Plaster room, B. Kreischer's Sons, Kreischer ville. Plate S1 To face page 764 C. Kreischer photo. Terra cotta vase made at the factory of B. Kreischer's Sons, Kreischerville. Side view. Plate 82 To face page 764 Works of the Brick, terra cotta and supply co., Corning. Plate 83 To face page 164 Modeling department of the Brick, terra cotta and supply co., Corning. Plate S4 To face page 764 cLA-wººtº Pressing and finishing department, Brick, terra cotta and supply co., Corning. sytuow ſennoo uuuºn e uſ tuoou ºut ſuci·ohoqq xtoesn'O （L |- f!) 1 05 ed ºot， J OJ,£S 91 GIAI Plate S6 To face page 765 H. Ries photo. Rear view of roofing tile press, showing the green tile (a) which have just been received from it. age 765 To face p Plate 87 Alfred Center. Roofing tile press, Celadon terra cotta co., H. Ries photo. Plate 88 To face page 765 T T - - - - - |- - ºld - - - - H. Ries photo. General view of Celadon terra cotta co.'s roofing tile plant. To face page 765 Plate 89 Alfred Center. Tile roof, Celadon terra cotta co., H. Ries photo. Plate 90 To face page 765 H. Ries photo. Grath coking furnace used for burning roofing tile. Celadon terra cotta co., Alfred Center. | To face page 765 Lae ： / }} } }// Plate 92 |----- Alfred Center. Large roofing tile press, Celadon terra cotta co., H. Ries photo. Plate 93 To face page 765 - -- - - - H H. Ries photo. On left is car with green tile entering tunnels; in center, alongside of tunnels are empty cars Tunnels for drying roofing tile. showing pallets which carry the green tile. Plate 94 To face page 765 H. Ries photo. Stiff mud machine for molding slabs to be repressed in roofing tile machine. C LAY'S O L' N ly, W YORK 765 IRO OFING TILE Comparatively few roofing tile are made in New York state, nevertheless most of the product is of Superior quality, and bears a national reputation. Alfred center, New York. The works of the Celadon terra cotta co. are established at this point 2 miles from Alfred Station. The material used is a Chemung shale which is quarried along the highway, about 1 mile from the works. The quarry is located in a spur of the hill, and a practically inexhaustible supply of material is in sight. The roofing tile manufactured at this factory are of the inter- locking type, and are made in a number of different shapes. The color of the product is usually a rich shade of red; the body is vitrified. The works of this company began active operations about 1890; and since that time they have been gradually enlarging. The clay as it comes from the bank is first thoroughly crushed, in the dry pan, and passes from there to the pug mill, where it is perfectly mixed with water, producing a homogeneous, well tem- pered mass. This tempered clay is charged into an auger machine; and the bar of clay as it issues from the die is cut up into a num- ber of slabs. The slabs are put into the tile-pressing machine, where they are repressed in the form of roofing tile. The green tile are loaded on the cars and run to the drying tunnel, after leav- ing which they are set up in a kiln and burned. In placing them in the kiln, they are set on edge, and protected from pressure by means of fire brick slabs. The company has six kilns. These tile weigh from 750 to 1300 or 1500 pounds a square, the amount of tile required to cover a space 30 feet square, including overlaps. * The product of this factory is to be seen on a number of build- ings in various states, but, as examples of their work in New York state may be mentioned the episcopal church at Ithaca, the high School at Tarrytown, the Erie railroad depot at Jamestown, and the Dairy building, Cornell university. ºf 66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The Alfred clay co. While the chief product of this company is dry pressed brick, it has recently gone into the manufacture of •oofing tile, but the only style thus far produced by them is a hingle tile, one of the peculiarities of which is that it is made by he dry press process. The tile is also of the interlocking type, out differs in many respects from that made at Alfred center. Plate 95 To face page 767 - H. Ries photo. Clay cylinder of sewer pipe press. Shows hollow brick issuing from the press and being received on the table. In foreground molded hollow brick on trucks. J. Lyth & Sons, Angola. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 767 SEWER PIBE Clays used The qualities of clay required for this purpose are in general the same as those demanded for any ware with a vitrified body. They should therefore be sufficiently plastic to permit molding without cracking; a high tensile strength, while desirable, is not absolutely necessary. Many clays used in the manufacture of sewer pipe have a tensile strength as high as 125 or even 150 pounds a square inch, while on the other hand shales are used whose tensile strength when ground to 30 mesh is not over 90 pounds a square inch. The clay should burn to a hard, dense, impervious body; the amount of iron in such clays or shales is usually sufficient to color it a red, or deep red. The drying should be rapid, and the ware should not warp or crack in drying. Owing to the thinness of the body, sewer pipe may be burned more rapidly than paving brick. An excess of fluxing impurities may render a clay so fusible that in burning it softens and loses shape. It is a very common prac- tice to use a mixture of clays, the One being fusible to form a bond in burning, the other more refractory to preserve the shape of the ‘Ware. . Sewer pipe are usually glazed by means of salt, thrown into the fireplaces when the temperature of the kiln is at its highest, the vapors, passing through the kiln and uniting with the silica and the alumina of the clay, forming a glaze over the surface of the ware. The following is the reaction which occurs: NaCl-HH,O=HCl–H Na OH. - Na OH-HinSiO-NaO-H-nSiO2H2O. Glazing requires one to two hours; some manufacturers add manganese to the Salt in order to produce a glaze of the proper color. An excess of silica in the clay seems to be detrimental to the formation of a good glaze. '768 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Manufacture of sewer pipe If a shale or very hard clay is used the material is first ground in a dry pan, after which, or directly, if soft clay is used, the material is put into the wet pan, or chaser mill, either of which in a few minutes tempers a charge of clay in a thorough manner. This method of tempering is far more thorough and quicker than the work of a pug mill, though requiring more power. The tempered clay is usually conveyed to the upper floor of the factory by means of bucket elevators, where it is delivered to the sewer pipe press. This press consists of two cylinders, an upper steam cylinder and a lower clay cylinder, the ratio of their diam- eters being most often as 3 to 1. The steam cylinder has a diameter of about 40 inches; the piston of the steam cylinder is moved both upward and downward. The clay cylinder is filled with clay; and the piston then forced downward by the piston of the steam cylinder above, the pis- ton rod of the two being continuous. This forces the clay out through a specially constructed die at the lower end of the clay cylinder. Inside of the cylinder at its lower end is the bell, which regulates the internal dimension of the pipe. The clay pipe issues from the press till of sufficient length, when the machine is stopped, and the pipe cut off, and removed to the drying floor. The cutting off of the clay pipe takes place close to the mouth of the die either by means of a wire or an automatic knife edge set within the die. The drying of the pipe is often done on slatted floors, or at other times on solid ones, in steam-heated rooms. The small diameter pipe can be dried comparatively fast, but the large ones must be dried very slowly. - - Sewer pipe are usually burned in down-draft kilns, from 16 to 25 feet in diameter. (pl. 97) The pipes are set on one another, and when they are of several sizes can be nested. Sewer pipe should be free from blisters, cracks and other defects, and should be straight. Plate 97 H. Ries photo. Circular down draft kiln, J. Lyth & Sons, Angola. Plate 98 To face page 768 Circular down draft kiln for burning sewer pipe and drain tiles. J. Lyth & Sons, Angola. - Plate 99 To face page 769 H. Ries photo. General view of sewer pipe and hollow brick works. J. Lyth & Sons, Angola. 691 95 ed ºot}} oRI, ſianuſ w uſ pºrtuoſa sp uoſ quod uºAo pº Joou º qJ, retoºuy 'suos ? qnaerſ · T （xutºq ºleqs ‘ohoqd saņH - H |- 00T ºn bleſ |-！！！！！！！！ - - ） ------ |-|- . ---- - - - ~~~ ---- ---- ~~ CLAYS OF NEW YORIC 769 Elbows and Y’s are made by molding the clays in plaster molds; or in the case of Y’s and T’s, straight pieces of pipe are sometimes trimmed to fit together in the desired shape and the parts cemented by slip. Such complicated pieces need to be dried more slowly. Sewer pipe are made from 2 to 23 feet in length; the diameter ranges from 3 to 30 inches. * New York sewer pipe industra pºp $/ Angola. John Lyth & Sons. The works are situated along the Lake Shore railroad some few hundred feet southwest of the sta- tion. The material used is the Portage shale, of a gray color and containing streaks of bituminous matter. It is mined about 200 feet east of the factory. A small blast serves to loosen a large quantity of it. A part of the bank is roofed over to protect the workmen in winter. Cars drawn by horses convey the shale to the dry pans, where it is ground to a fine powder and then farther ground with the addition of water in a wet pam. The tempered material is carried in a bucket ladder to the upper floor of the building, where it is fed into the sewer pipe press. The composition of the shale used at Angola is Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x 3 e o e s > > * * * * e e 65, 15 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15, 29 Oxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 16 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 50 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 57 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 71 97.38 At the present time hollow brick and terra cotta lumber form the chief product of the factory. Rochester. Otis & Gorsline use a mixture of New Jersey fire clay and Quaternary clay obtained from Chili, near Rochester. The method of manufacture followed by them is very similar to that at Angola. Rectangular kilns are however used for burning, which takes about one week. 770 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Sewer pipe are also manufactured at Albany and Troy but from New Jersey clays. Drain tile A clay that is capable of making good building brick will usually make a good drain tile. That is to say, a plastic clay and One that will burn to a tough product. Unlike bricks, tile may be somewhat porous in its character. It is of importance that the clay should be thoroughly tempered before molding. The latter is, in most instances, done with some form of stiff mud machine, the clay being forced out through a die of desired pat- term ; the cylinder of clay as it issues from the machine is cut up into desired lengths. Drying is sometimes done on pallets such as are used for common brick, or it may be done under in- closed sheds. The drain tile should be thoroughly dry before being set in the kiln. Burning is done in ordinary scove-kilns, clamps or down-draft kilns. The smaller tile are set in the lower portions of the kiln and around the sides, while the larger ones are set in the center. Very often when several sizes are burned at the same time they are nested, the smaller ones being set within the larger. The dimensions of cylindric tile usually run: I)iameter Length Weight by piece 2 inches 13 inches 3# pounds 3 & 4 & 4 & 4 6 & 4 4. C & ( & & 4 9 & 4 5 ( & 24 & 4 1S & 4 6 ( & & 4 K & 24 & 4 8 ( & & 4 & 4 3 O & 4 The styles of drain tile made are as follows: Pſorseshoe tile, having cross-section shape of a horseshoe Sole tile, cylindrical with a flat base Pipe tile, plain cylinder Flange tile, like the preceding but with the flange at one end CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 771 It is considered by many that the best form of tile is the sole tile with an egg-shaped section having the smallest diameter across the bottom, which keeps the water collected in the smallest possible space and secures a good current to carry off the sediment. The horseshoe tile is objected to, as it is liable to break from the lateral pressure of the soil. In Westchester co. glazed sewer pipe are generally used for draining the soil, but it is doubtful if there is any special advantage to warrant the use of this more expensive material. In size the tiles range from 2 to 12 inches in diameter and 1 to 2 feet in length. They are laid at varying distances below the surface, according to the depth the ground is to be drained. A drain is said to draw water from the soil on either side for a distance of from 30 to 100 feet, according to depth of drain and character of soil. - The following firms in this state are making drain tile. Albany, Albany co. The New York state drain tile works are large producers. The drain tile are made in numerous sizes. Hudson river clay is used. Front brick are manufactured. Chittenango, Madison co. Central N. Y. drain tile and brick co. Only tile manufactured at present. The plant is situated about 1 mile from the New York Central railroad, and three quarters of a mile from the West Shore railroad, a few rods south of the Erie canal. The clay bed lies at the foot of the hill. There is no stripping, and sand underlies the clay. The tiles are made with horse power machinery, dried under sheds and burned in down-draft kilns. - Allenshill, Ontario co. B. G. Abbey’s are the only works here. Few brick have been manufactured for several years, as drain tile is the chief production. After stripping a few inches of soil the clay is mixed from top to bottom of the bank for use. The bank is 20 to 25 feet in hight, and the clay is blue in color, be- coming reddish gray near the surface. A small amount of coal dust is added to the clay. The tiles are made of various sizes. East Bethany, Genesee co. B. F. Peck manufactures brick and drain tile. The clay deposit worked is a portion of a strip 1 to 772 NEW YORK STATIE MUSICUIM 2 miles in width, extending east and west across Genesee co., a few miles north of its southern boundary. The clay is usually covered with a thin layer of clayey loam. Mr Peck has about 50 acres of clay of sufficient quality for making bricks and tile. It averages about 4 feet in thickness. The upper portion when dry is nearly white, but becomes blue with the depth, and below 4 feet is very much so. It is also tough, coming up in hard flakes of a stony nature. Below this it passes into the shale, hard enough to resist the pick but crumbling on exposure. The last- mentioned rock is said to contain calcareous layers, varying in thickness from 1 to 6 inches. About 250,000 feet of drain-tile is annually made for local use. The clay burns to a nice red in the drain tile, deepening to brown when burned harder. The machinery is run by steam power. Owasco, Cayuga co. A. Lester's clay bank and brick yard are located in the north end of Owasco village on the bank of Owasco Creek. The clay deposit has an area of about 9 acres and is from 10 to 15 feet in thickness. Gravel overlies the clay in places. Soak pits are used for tempering, and a Penfield plunger machine for molding. The tiles are dried in an open shed and burnt in scove-kilns. Drain tile is the chief production but a few bricks are made. The color of the product is white. Other manufacturers of drain tile, whose works have been al- ready mentioned in the detailed account of brick yards, are: William Davenport, Fonda C. Stephens, South Bay Rochester brick and tile manufacturing co., Rochester A. Mosell, Lockport James Sigler, Clarkson ſº J. E. Mecusker & Son, Jamestown B. G. Abbey, Allenshill J. B. Lowe, Bigflats P. Hayne, Goshen Clark & Sons, Union Springs Plate 101 To face page 773 H. Ries photo. Auger machine molding hollow brick. Rochester brick and tile co, Plate 102 To face page 773 Three styles of die used for making hollow brick. On the extreme left is a brick produced from one of them. Onondaga vitrified brick co., Warners. plate 103 To face page 773 C. M. Doyle photo. Some forms of fireproofing made in pipe press or auger machine. At the bottom of the pile is a flat arch. CLAY'S OF NEW YORIK 773 HOLLOW BRICK, TERRA COTTA LUMBER, FIRE- PRO OFING. The first term is generally applied to large hollow bricks of more or less rectangular shape, having cross partitions. They are made either of brick clay or semi-fire clay, the latter being the better if protection against fire is desired. The term terra cotta lumber is specially applied to bricks of this class made of a mix- ture of clay and sawdust, so that in burning the sawdust burns out, leaving the body of the ware porous. The shape of these bricks is quite variable, and can best be judged by reference to plate 103. They are used for the construc- tion of floor arches, partitions, flue linings, and for wrapping around steel beams and girders. They are also used at times as foundation blocks in buildings, in which case, the brick are salt glazed to prevent absorption, if the body of it is not vitrified. One of the purposes of these bricks is to combine lightness and strength, in addition the hollow spaces serve as nonconductors of heat. When used for fireproofing purposes, the product should be such that it will resist any heat to which it might be exposed in case of fire, and when heated it should be able to withstand a stream of cold water without splitting off or cracking. It is for the latter reason that hollow bricks used for fireproofing should be made from a semi-fire clay, and should not be vitrified. IHollow brick are manufactured at a number of places in New York state; the material used is in some cases shale, in other cases clay. They are molded in the same kind of press as sewer pipe. Reference to plate 102 will show the style of die employed. \ 774, NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM FLOOR TITLE Tiles made of burned clay are now used to a large extent for flooring as a substitute for marble and slate, for the reason that they are often more durable, wear more evenly, are harder, and can be made in a greater variety of colors and shapes. While floor tiles are made in this state, in the city of Brooklyn, yet most of the materials used in their manufacture are obtained from other states. In floor tile of a solid color, the tint extends through the tile from the face to the back. In “encaustic tile ” the pattern or face color is only about 4% of an inch thick, while the rest of the tile is made of a different kind of clay. Floor tile are made by the dry press process, and, like dry press brick, are exposed at times to the danger which accompanies this method of molding, viz cracking of the green tile with the ex- pansion of the imprisoned air. When properly pressed, this does not happen. It is highly essential that the composition of the body should be such that the ware will both dry and burn without cracking or Warping. The temperature attained in the burning of these tile depends naturally on the mature of the clay, but it often reaches the melting point of feldspar, as this material is used to a large extent to aid in the vitrification of the body. Tiles are open to the same trouble from efflorescence, due to the presence of soluble salts in the clay, as other clay products, and the trouble has to be corrected in the customary manner with barium. Another method of preventing the formation of these coatings On the surface, is to coat the face of the tile with petroleum or tar So that the evaporation in drying can take place only from the back of the tile. (Langenbeck’s Chemistry of pottery, p. 154) In the firing, this coating of oil or other material burns off, without having -º º \ º - W W wº- - --- - CLAYS OF NEW YORIK 775. done any harm. The soluble salts may also get into the clay from some of the materials used to color the tile artificially, umber, for example, being seldom free from sulfate of lime. Floor tile should be burned to a condition of great density, in order that they may not absorb water, nor permit the entrance of dirt into their pores, rendering their cleaning more difficult. Langenbeck (Chemistry of pottery, p. 156) gives the following percentages of water absorbed by floor tile of different colors. Water absorption of floor tile Color of the clay Extremes Averages Salmon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 – 9. 1 5.8 Buff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 — 7.2 4.6 Light gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.9 — 8.5 5.8 Dark gray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0 – 5.8 4.4 Chocolate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.0 — 7.4 4.8 Red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 — 8.4 6.0 Black . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 — 10.3 7.5 Fawn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8. 3 In the manufacture of encaustic tile, the clay that is to form the surface of the tile and give the pattern is charged into the mold first, while the clay that makes up the body is then put in on top and the whole subjected to pressure in the machine. The molds can be filled by machinery when the color of the tile is solid. With encaustic tile the molds have to be filled by hand. Where the patterm is made up of clays of several different colors, a frame- work of brass strips, so arranged as to mark the boundaries of each color is first set into the mold, thus dividing it up into cells. Into each of these the color is charged by means of a small hand scoop, till every cell is filled with the color whose boundaries it incloses. The framework is then withdrawn from the mold, and the latter filled up to the top with the clay that forms the body of the tile. It is essential that the clay forming the face and that which serves as the backing should have the same expansion, otherwise 776 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM they would separate in burning; furthermore the density in the burned condition should be the same. - Both solid and encaustic tiles are made in many different shapes and colors, and the former specially are capable of being laid in a great variety of patterns. CLAY'S Ol; NIEW YORK 777 DECORATIVE TILE While many of the tile mentioned under the previous head could be classed under this one, at the same time it applies more directly to those tile which are not only glazed, but also often ornamented with raised designs. They are used to a large degree for wains- cotting, mantels, Soda water fountains, etc. There is but one factory in this state engaged in the manu- facture of glazed tile; that is the Tarrytown porcelain tile Co.'s at Tarrytown. Glazed tile are made by the dry press process. The color of the body is generally white. The relief of the surface is often very prominent, and over this there is usually a heavy coating of colored glaze, the variation of the glaze in depth being depended on to bring out the decorative effect, as those portions over which the glaze is thickest appear the darkest. Glazed tile should show the Same freedom from warping in drying and burning as those pre- viously described; and in addition the glaze should be free from cracks or crazes, pin holes and bubbles. Sometimes colorless glazes are used, at others a tin glaze imparts a white opaque covering to the tile. For other colors the oxids of cobalt, nickel, copper, chromium, manganese, iron or uranium are used according to the colors desired. Methods of decoration. These have already been referred to in part under the descrip- tion of the methods of manufacture. . While the use of natural clays permits the production of a con- siderable range of colors, nevertheless these fall far short of the ambition of the ceramic chemist and the demands of the architect. As the use of artificial coloring materials is often expensive, the color decoration is applied to the surface of the ware only, instead of allowing the design to extend through the body. 778 NIEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM Slip decoration. A slip of coloring material is sometimes applied to the tile either in its burned or unburned condition. The latter can be done in all cases but the former only in certain ones; its use on dry pressed green tiles being among the impossibilities. Before slipping the surface of the tile, it is cleaned with a brush or blower; then it is dipped into the slip. The water of the latter is absorbed, while the insoluble constituents remain as a thin coating on the surface of the tile. If the glaze is to be extremely thin, it is some- times sprayed on, as is done in the case of terra cotta. The slip is best applied with a brush in the case of raised surfaces or where each color occupies only a portion of the surface of the tile. The usual method of decorating encaustic tile has already been mentioned in connection with the molding process. A second method is to pour the powdered clay for the different colors into depressions stamped in the face of the tile; while a third consists in painting the design by hand on the surface, or printing it On. The painting can be done on either the glazed or unglazed tile, while the printing can be impressed only on the burned material, either under or over the glaze. Painting can be done either on the green tile or on the burned ware either before or after glazing. Painting the greem tile. The color is applied by means of a brush, the portion to be colored being outlined by means of a lead pencil if the tile is flat, but with a relief surface this is not neces- sary. The design may also sometimes be painted by means of a stencil. If several colors are to be applied, great care should be taken that the different ones shall not overlap. The color, instead of being applied with a brush, is sometimes poured on. The painting on the unburned glazed tile is done in a similar way. If the design which is being painted on the tiles is very large, it is essential that the tiles shall be placed together in Order that the lines of color on adjoining tiles may fit together. Painting on the burned tile. This can be either over or under glaze. In the latter case of course the glaze must be transparent; CILAYS OF NEW YORK 779 for this purpose, only hard fire or underglazed colors can be used (D mmler Ziegel Fabrikation. p. 95). In producing definite and distinct colors the composition of the glaze exerts as much effect as the character of the coloring material. It is therefore highly essential that the colors used shall always be of the same compo- sition, be ground to the same degree of fineness, and burned at the same temperature. If new glazes or colors are used, they should first be tried experimentally. In the process of burning, the glaze may or may not exert action on the underlying coloring material. In some cases the color will dissolve in the glaze, in others it will only become suspended in it, but in the latter cases the shades are not often soft, and the change from one color to another will be sudden. If on the other hand a color is easily soluble in the glaze, there is the danger that it may run, causing the design to be blurred. In order to prevent this, the coloring materials are gen- erally combined with others, so that compounds of the spinel type are obtained. To prevent hard colors several devices are employed, such as Substituting for a portion of the coloring material a slight amount of arsenic, or placing a little arsenic in the kiln. This method is most advantageously employed when cobalt colors are used. In addition to underglazed painting, slip or engobe decoration is used. This consists in applying white or colored clay paste to the white or colored tile. The body can also be colored by dipping it into hydrochloric or acetic acid solution of the coloring metallic oxids. In this case the product is to be once more subjected to a slight ignition. In slip painting the slip is made of a mixture of the powdered tile glaze and metallic oxid or underglaze colors. These decorated pieces are dried and burned at the temperature of the melting of the glaze. The whole is then covered with a thin coating of glaze and burned once more. If the slip contains 50% or more of glazing ma- terial, the second glazing operation is not necessary. Overglaze decoration requires strongly coloring oxids which are mixed with some easily fused material, and rubbed together with 780 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM oil. Such colors are very susceptible and hence have to be burned in muffles. They are also strongly influenced by the degree of temperature to which they are subjected, and hence the different colors are often burned separately, those standing the highest tem- perature being applied and burned first, and those most affected, last. This method of decoration requires repeated burning, but it permits a variety and richness of color not attainable in under- glazed work. In preparing these colors, it is highly essential that they be ground as finely as possible, and underglaze colors are generally mixed with water before being applied, the porous body of the tile absorbing the moisture and causing the color to cling to it. If this does not happen, the color must be mixed with oil, in which case the ware must be fired lightly at first, to burn it off. At the present day, where a number of tile with the same design are made, the design is applied mechanically. This is effected by a process of printing, the pattern being printed on paper from a plate and this transferred to the tile. Usually but one color at a time can be printed on the paper. But in more recent years it has been found possible by a process of chromolithography to print several colors on the ware at once. Plate 105 To face page -781 H. Ries photo. Bank of Cretaceous fire clay, Kreischerville. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 781 FIRE CLAYS Definition. Strictly speaking the term fire clay can be said to include those clays which are able to withstand a high temperature. Regarding the condition of the plasticity, the shrinkage in drying and burning, the texture, and color, no fixed rules can be laid down; for, except in refractoriness, fire clays show a wide variation in physical characters. . Refractoriness. The degree of temperature which a fire clay should be able to withstand without fusing has not been entirely Settled in this country, but in Europe, specially in Germany, a clay is not considered refractory unless its fusing point lies above 2700° F. & Nevertheless many of the clays denominated fire clays which are marketed in this country are not up to this standard, while others are far above it. The color of fire clays varies, but they are not infrequently colored bluish gray, gray or black by Organic matter. Some of those mined on Staten Island are pure white or yellowish white, but at the same time they are highly refractory. Fire clays are divisible into two groups, the plastic, and the non- plastic or flint clays. The former sometimes occur in the form of hard shales which become plastic on grinding and mixing with water, whereas no amount of grinding renders the flint clays more than very slightly plastic. The latter are not found in New York state, but occur abundantly in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, Missouri and one or two other states. In chemical composition the flint clays stand close to kaolinite, and at times even exceed it in the percentage of alumina which they contain. (See Kaolin, p. 503.) Flint clays vary in color, being gray, black, brown or even yellowish. The iron contents of the bed are generally collected in concretionary masses. In 782 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM many Pennsylvania mines there often occurs considerable iron oxid, and iron carbonate, which are known as ore-balls.” The iron oxid concretions are generally near the surface, while the iron car- bonate is confined to the interior of the bank. In the mining of the clay, these concretions have to be picked out. This collecting of the iron by natural processes has therefore served to purify the clay mass; where it has not taken place the material loses its value as a refractory clay. Flint clays are hard, they lack plasticity, have a conchoidal or shell-like fracture, and sometimes a very faint luster. At times they occur in beds interstratified with other rocks, or again they may occur as basin-shaped deposits, in which case they seem to have been formed by chemical precipitation. The color of a fire clay is an indication of its refractoriness only to a limited extent. Many fire clays are bluish in color, while others are light gray or yellowish white. A given amount of iron will color a sandy clay more strongly than a less silicious one; the same is true of organic matter. The latter might even mask the color of iron. The condition of oxidation of the iron would also cause a difference in color, ferric compounds being red or yellow, while ferrous ones may be blue or gray. Whatever the color of the fire clay in its unburned condition, in the fired state it is always buff, unless vitrified, when it may be. come red. - The refractoriness of a fire clay is dependent almost entirely on its chemical composition. It can be said in general that the more powerful fluxing impurities, such as ferric oxid, lime, alkalis, and magnesia should not exceed 1% if possible. Many fire brick manufacturers do not seem to recognize the fact that silica acts as a flux at high temperatures. * The recent experiments of H. O. Hofman tend to indicate that in the case of fire clays at least the size of grain has no effect on the fusibility of the mass. The tests which he carried out are described under “Fusibility of clays” p. 563. . - * Annual report Pa. state college. 1897, p. 52. E’late 106 To face page 782 b H. Ries photo. -- Double pug mill (a) with belt (b) for feeding clay at the rear of it. B. Kreischer's Sons, Kreischerville. Plate 107 To face page 783 _º - -- tº sº--- --- --- ------ º - * \\\\\\, *** \\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\ H. Ries photo. Drying tunnels with cars of green brick ready to enter them. B. Kreischer's Sons, Kreischerville. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 783 The following figures indicate the fusibility of several well known American fire clays, the fusion points being expressed in terms of Seger's comes. For comparative purposes the refractori- ness of several standard European clays are given." 1 R reischerville, N. Y. white clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35+ 2 St. Louis, Mo. Christie raw clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31–30 3 Golden, Col. . . . . . . . . . . . . e = e s s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32—31 4 Mineralpoint, O. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 5 Mt Savage, Md. (hard) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34–35 6 Sayreville, N. J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Refractory clay products Fire bricks. These are the commonest fire clay products, since most of the refractory clay mined is used for this purpose. They are utilized in many different ways; consequently not only the shape but also the quality varies. In certain cases the brick has to withstand high temperature, in others corrosion by molten ma- terials, while again in other situations resistance to abrasion is required. - The bricks set in the upper part of a blast furnace must resist abrasion, those in the boshes must resist corrosion, and the same condition must be complied with in glass pots. An idea of the number of shapes and sizes of fire brick manu- factured can be gained from the statement that one large steel company in this country uses 200 different ones. Many fire bricks are used for lining coke ovens. For such ser- vice it is highly essential that they be able to withstand sudden changes of temperature and not crack when the coke oven is watered down after burning. The degree of heat which such brick are subjected to is not very high. None are made in New York state. 1 No. 1 tested by the writer. The others by H. O. Hofman, Trams. Amer. inst. min. eng. 25: 14. - 784 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Other refractory articles are locomotive and steamboat tile, steel runners, sleeves, nozzles, crucibles, stove linings, glass pots, gas retorts, tuyeres, rolling-mill tiles, hexagon stove shapes, grate backs and stove linings. In addition to fire bricks made from clay alone, several other types of refractory bricks are recognized. Dimas brick are made of about 97% silica and 3% of some material such as lime to bind the grains together. Silica brick is practically another name for the above mentioned. Ganister is a refractory silicious rock which has about enough clayey matter to hold it together when wet. Magnesite bricks are made of magnesite, the carbonate of mag- nesia. Manufacture of fire brick Fire brick are commonly made of a mixture of clays, to which is added a certain percentage of ground fire brick or burned clay, and sometimes sand. If the clay is in the form of shale, it is commonly ground in a dry pan, and the old brick which serve as grog are treated in the same machine. The different ingredients are often charged into a large pit, one layer over another, and the whole mass thoroughly soaked with water. When sufficiently soaked the mixture goes to some form of pug mill, in which it becomes more thoroughly mixed. In some works the clay is tempered in a wet pan, which for flint clays has to be of more powerful construction than for shales. The molding of fire brick is ordinarily done by hand in wooden molds, though a minority of fire-brick manufacturers use stiff mud or soft mud machines. y - * The machine-made fire brick meet objectors who say that their density reduces too much their resistance to alternations of tempera- ture, and the lamination imparted by stiff mud machines is also brought forward as an objection; but, as fire brick clays are often less plastic than many used for common or front brick, the lam- inations are less pronounced. Plate 108 To face page 784 H. Ries photo. Side view steam power repressing machine. B. Kreischer's Sons, Kreischerville. Bricks are put in at left hand side and removed from discharge belt on right of machine. I’late 100 To face page TS4 H. Ries photo. Circular down draft kiln used for burning fire brick. B. Kreischer's Sons, Kreischerville. Plate 110 To face page 785 ºrº . º - --> - H. Ries photo. Fire brick works, B. Kreischer's Sons, Ixriescherville. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 785 ! Tire brick when molded are commonly set on the floor to dry for a few hours, after which they are repressed. They are then loaded on cars and sent to the drying tunnels. (See description under Drying of bricks, p. 668) The rapidity with which the drying can be carried on depends on the porosity of the clay, its plasticity and the size of the molded object. The burning of fire brick is done either in up or down-draft kilns, of either circular or rectangular form. Behavior of refractory brick when heated In some experiments recently made by J. D. Pennock to deter- mine the heat conductivity, expansion, and fusibility of refractory brick, bricks made of Grecian magnesite, American magnesite, silica brick, and coke oven tiling made in Belgium, were used. In the charts and detailed figures given by Mr Pennock it is shown that the Grecian magnesite conducts heat the most readily, the American next, then the silica brick, while the coke oven brick is the poorest conductor. The poor conductivity of the coke oven brick is thought to lie in its purity and density. Expansion tests of fire brick ºn ºf - Imch. Imch, Grecian magnesite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.07 0.11 ( & e e º e º e º e º e s e e º ' . 07 . 11 American magnesite . . . . . . . . . . . . . 067 . 10 C & e e e º ºs e e º e s e & .057 . 088 Coke oven tiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O5 . O'76 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O5 . O'76 The expansion test was made by supporting a core of the brick in a horizontal position. One end was against a support and the other against a movable lever. The core was heated by means of burners placed underneath. 1 Trans. Amer. inst. mim. emg., September, 1896. p. 263. 786 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Analyses of fire brick used in above tests *memº arºses mºm, “- m-m-m-, sº -m-m-m- º, º sº ºn SiO . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 16 3. 10 94.07 69.89 Fe3Os–H A],Os. . . . . . . 72 6.64. 3.. 66 27.75 CaO . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 20 3.76 1.39 . 27. MgO . . . . . . . . . .. 93.03 86.50 . 19 . 17 The specific gravities and weight to the cubic foot were: Specific gravily of fire brick Specific Weight a gravity cubic foot Pow?vds Grecian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.54 170.2 American . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.44 160. 9 Coke oven tiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 56 109.9 Silica brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.54 111.4 º Glass pot clays Glass pots are made of a special grade of refractory clay, whose necessary qualities are given below. While no glass pot clays are found in this state, still many of the glass factories in New York obtain the raw clays elsewhere and make the pots at their works. Great care has to be exercised in their manufacture; not only must the clay be thoroughly weathered, but the molded pot must be free from the slightest cracks and exhibit a homogeneous structure throughout. * Requisite characters. A clay, in order to be suitable for the manufacture of glass pots or blocks for tank furnaces should con- form to the following requirements: 1 Sufficient refractoriness to withstand the highest heat used without changing form - 2 Great plasticity, such that the addition of 50%–60% of grog will not affect it appreciably 3 In burning, density at as low a temperature as possible A clay is generally considered sufficiently refractory for making glass pots if its fusion point is the same as that of cone 30. It . Plate 111 To face page 786 ſºlº H. Ries photo. Entrance to fire brick kiln which has been opened up at the end of the burning. B. Kreischer's Sons, Kreischerville. CLAYS OF NEW YOR.E. 787 should also burn dense at so low a temperature that when grog is added the heat will not need to be raised too much in getting the required density. The addition of grog will raise this point to an extent depending on the amount added. Thus the temperature of densification of a mixture given below is the same as cone 5, while that of the clay is come 1. If now a clay is used as binding material which sinters at high temperature, the temperature at which the mixture becomes dense will be so high as to make its burning difficult. In judging the tensile strength, the size of the grain of grog must be considered, as also the relation in which the different sized grains are mixed, but no fixed rule can be laid down for the last point. In the grinding of grog both a powdery product and angu- lar grains are obtained, and practice has shown that it is desirable to add both of these to the clay, since, if the grains alone were added, the mixture would show a tendency to crack. The following mixture is one given by E. Cramer (Thonindus- trie zeitung. 1897, p. 47): 100 parts by weight of clay and 120 parts grog. On a sieve of 10 meshes to the square cm the grog left no residue, but 20% remained on a 60 mesh sieve, and 12% on one of 120 mesh, 24% on a 900 mesh, 30% on a 5000 mesh, and 14% went through. The investigation of glass-pot clay is confined to a determination of plasticity, shrinkage, temperature at which the clay becomes dense, fusion point, and chemical composition. Clays fulfilling all these conditions satisfactorily are rare in the United States. They are thus far known in only a few regions, being found in Missouri and in Small quantities in Ohio and Penn- sylvania. In Europe they occur at several localities, in Germany, Belgium, Bohemia, Russia, England, France, and Scotland. Large quantities of the German and Belgian glass pot clays are annually exported to the United States". 1 For information concerning the properties of some of these European glass pot clays, see Report on kaolins and fire clays of Ewrope. 19th amm, rep’t U. S. geol. Sur. pt. 6. 788 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM New York fire clays Though there are several fire brick factories in the state, all with one exception obtain their clay from New Jersey. The New Jer- sey fire clays, which are of Cretaceous age, extend in a belt across New Jersey and over on Staten Island, and it is at the latter locality that the refractory clays of New York state occur. The fire brick factory of B. Kreischer's Sons is located on the southwestern shore of Staten Island at Kreischerville. They manufacture fire brick, cupola brick and gas retorts. Most of the clay used is obtained from Staten Island, and the rest from New Jersey. Many open- ings have been made in the vicinity of Kreischerville. The deep- est one made was opposite Kilmeyer’s hotel. The clay from it was used for fire brick. It is tough, of a whitish color and mottled with yellow, but its thickness is not very great and there is 15 or 20 feet of stripping. This pit has been abandoned. Southwest of it is another pit, but in this the clay, as first exposed, is of a more sandy nature and overlain by about 4 feet of sand. It was bluish in color and was chiefly used for mortar. In recent years, however, this bank has been strongly drawn on and is now of considerable size (pl. 105). The clay consists of an upper 4 feet of bluish clay, stained here and there with iron, while under it is a less sandy variety. Another opening was made near the shore some years ago, known as the “Wier bank’’. The material obtained from it was a stoneware clay, and in this pit the clay as exposed in 1892 was 10 feet thick, and is overlain by horizontally stratified fine sand. Since then the bed has been worked out. In the spring of 1897 a small pit was opened just north of the old one opposite Kilmeyer’s hotel. The clay found in this opening is white and extremely refractory. . It is also sandy in places, so that two grades are obtained known as no. 1 white, and sandy white. The white clay when mixed with water gave a moderately plastic and somewhat tough mass. 38% of water was necessary to temper it. The air shrinkage was 10%; the air-dried briquettes had an aver- CLAYS OF NEW YORK '789 age tensile strength of only 11 pounds to the Square inch, with a maximum of 14 pounds. In burning the total shrinkage up to cone 12 amounted to 18.7%; the color was whitish. At cone 34 in the Deville furnace the clay showed no sign of fusion whatever, and is therefore highly refractory. A mechanical analysis yielded: Clay substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97.66 Silt, very fine Sand, fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.00 99.66 The composition is: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47.40 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39. OIL Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tl. Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tr Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tr Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . 14.10 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100. 66 The rational composition is: Clay substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97.50 . Reldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 1. The Sandy clay was more plastic, and required only 31% of water to mix it up. The air shrinkage was less, being only 6.5%, and the tensile strength was 20 pounds a square inch. At cone 9 the total shrinkage was 15% and the color whitish. In the Deville furnace at cone 34 the clay remained unaffected. '790 NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The mechanical analysis is: Clay substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92. 50 Silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .* = e e s = * 2. 30 Very fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 60 100. 20 A sample of the better grade fire clay from the present large opening was likewise tested, as it represents a common type of clay found on Staten Island. This was far more plastic than the other two; it had a tensile strength of 45 pounds a square inch. 30% of water gave a workable mass, whose air shrinkage was 8.25%. When burned to come 12 the color was yellowish white and the total shrinkage 17%. The clay did not fuse at come 30 in the Deville furnace; so that it can be properly classed as a fire clay. The mechanical analysis gave: Clay substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Very fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Plate 112 To face page 791 Ries photo. Machinery for preparing porcelain and white earthenware mixtures. The ingredients are mixed to a slip with water in the blungers (a): the slip passes over the lawn sieves (b), and is then forced into the filter presses by the slip pump (c). Pass & Seymour, Syracuse. oDAYS OF NEW YORK 791 POTTERY The term pottery is properly applied to such articles for domestic or ornamental use as can be turned on a potter's wheel. While this was the original method of forming such wares, in the progress of the art many other methods have been devised, which, in Some cases, have superseded the potter’s wheel, though this useful ma- chine is still employed to a large extent. Description of different grades The more important grades of pottery which are recognized are quite numerous. Earthenware. This is the lowest grade of pottery, and is usually made from medium or poorer grades of clay. The body is either red or buff, and more or less porous. Earthenware vessels will not hold liquids unless glazed, owing to their porous nature. The common forms of earthenware are flower pots, crocks and jugs. : In recent years glazed or slipped earthenware for Ornamental application has found an extensive use. i º Stoneware differs from earthenware only in degree, the former being burned to vitrification, with the result that the body is im. pervious to moisture. The color of the body is either red, buff or bluish black, but this is frequently masked by a coating of salt glaze or slip. - . The burning and glazing are done in one operation; and if the ware is coated with slip the latter is applied to the unburned clay. The uses of stoneware are chiefly domestic, though much ornamental pottery has a stoneware body; the Flemish ware so ex- tensively imported to this country belongs to this class. Stoneware is commonly made from refractory or semi-refractory clays; the best results are often obtained by using a mixture of them. The clays used should have sufficient plasticity to permit their being molded without cracking. The tensile strength should '792 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM not be less than 125 pounds a square inch, though 150 is pref- erable. The clay should not shrink excessively in burning, and should give a vitrified body at not over 2100°F. if possible, for the lower the temperature of vitrification the greater economy in fuel. The clay should however be sufficiently refractory to hold its form at the temperature required to melt the glaze, and not do more itself than vitrify at that temperature. The fusible impurities in a stoneware clay should be sufficiently high to cause vitrification. Ferric oxid forms a desirable coloring ingredient, the same being true of lime if not in excess of 2%-3%. Sulfur in any combination is undesirable, as its escape at high temperatures causes blistering of the ware. - In mixing two clays, the one is generally used for supplying stiff- ness to the body in burning, and the other, fluxing qualities. For common earthenware, almost any plastic clay, one which is not too coarse, suffices. . - If the ware is to be glazed, the clay should be sufficiently re- fractory, so that at the temperature required to melt the glaze, it will not burn to more than incipient fusion. w Analyses of stoneware clays are given in the table at the end of this report. In addition, are given here the average of 10 stoneware clays now in use. (E. Orton jr. Clays of Ohio, Ohio geol. Sur. v. 7, pt 1, p. 95) - Clay base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56.65 Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.45 Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 44 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 57 100. 11 Plate 113 To face page 792 - || || ſº | H. Ries photo. Filter press for pressing the water out of the blunged porcelain or white earthenware mixture. The portion at the left end has been emptied and the leaves of clay taken from it are on the car. The workman is just removing a leaf of clay from the press. Onondaga pottery co. Plate 114 To face page 793 º | H. Ries photo. Buhrstone mill for grinding quartz and feldspar. Union porcelain works, Brooklyn. CLAYS )|F NEW YORK 793 Yellow ware and Rockingham ware. These differ from stoneware in that the body is burned first, then glazed and burned again. It agrees with stoneware in being made from natural clays, and with white earthenware, or porcelain, in being burned twice. In yellow ware the body is covered with a transparent, easily fusible glaze, while in Rockingham ware the glaze is colored brown or black by the addition of manganese. C. C. Ware, white granite. These are made of high grade clays, but not the best obtainable, with other materials. The mixture usually consists of kaolin to form the body, ball clay for plasticity, silica to prevent excessive shrinkage, and feldspar to serve as a flux. C. C. ware differs from chima or porcelain in the quality of the materials used, the clays employed having enough iron to give a slight off color to the ware. Attempts are made to counteract this by introducing coloring material into the glaze. In white granite or ironstone chima the best materials obtainable are used, but the body is not burned to vitrification, and differs in that respect from porcelain. In fact white granite bears the same relation to porcelain that earthenware does to stoneware. A very slight amount of iron will tend to produce a yellowish tint, which is neutralized by adding a small amount of cobalt oxid, that produces a greenish hue far less noticeable. The kaolins and sometimes the ball clays have to be purified by a washing process; for the percentage of iron oxid which a kaolin contains should be less than 1%. Even though the clay alone may not show any off tint when burned, the presence of a coating of glaze is sure to bring it out, if the iron is present. The kaolins used in this country are obtained mostly from England, North Carolina, and Georgia, while the ball clays come from New Jersey, Florida, Rentucky and Missouri. Quartz and feldspar are obtained from a number of localities, some of them in New York. 794. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Porcelain The same materials are used as in the manufacture of white granite, but the proportions are usually different; the ware is burned to vitrification, so that the body is transparent, and the fracture of it would show a vitreous luster. Porcelain which is fluxed by feldspar is spoken of as spar china. It shows a slightly yellowish color by transmitted light, while porcelain fluxed by calcined bones in part replacing the feldspar is spoken of as bone china. It shows a bluish white color by trans- mitted light. - The proportion of fluxes is greater in porcelain than in white earthenware; but still, taking porcelains as a whole, there is a wide range in their composition, as will be seen from the following figures representing the range of the ingredients used in the manu- facture of hard porcelains. (Hecht. Dammer, Chem. Tech. 1 :773 and following ) Pel cent, Clay substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40–66 Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12–40 Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , e. e. e. e. ' 15–30 Carbonate of lime (at times) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * G - 6 The variation outside of these limits should be very Small, for if the clay substance gets below 40%, the refractoriness decreases con- siderably, as does also the ability of the ware to withstand sudden changes of temperature. As excessive shrinkage in burning tends to cause cracking and warping, one aim of ceramic chemists has been to produce bodies of low shrinkage; and experiments have indicated that the use of porcelain sherds ground up gives a much more homogeneous mass than can be obtained by the use of quartz. (Chemiker zeitung. 1895. p. 89) Plato 115 To face page 79 | H. Ries photo. Machine for kneading porcelain mixture. The ring shaped mass is the white clay mixture being worked over by the corrugated rolls. Union porcelain works, Brooklyn. Plate 116 To face page 795 H. Ries photo. Pressing plates on potters wheel. A formed plate still on the mold is on the front edge of the table. Onondaga pottery co., Syracuse. CLAYS OF NEW YORK '795 One mixture of this type is as follows: Composition of porcelain mixture for the production of bodies of low shrinkage Parts by weight Quartz sand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Feldspar (Norwegian) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Marble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Zettlitz kaolin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 to 70 Porcelain sherds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 to 60 *s-sº sº. -ºm-m's mºs It has also been found that porcelains rich in fluxes are soft, while those poor in these ingredients are hard; neither do the most plastic masses always show the greatest shrinkage. The shrink- age of Seger's porcelain, which is rich in fluxes, occurs mostly in drying, and the total linear shrinkage is 10%; it expands in firing when a certain temperature is reached, owing to the high percent- age (45%) of quartz which it contains. Plastic clays give a very Smooth surface and are difficult to dry, and are not adapted to the manufacture of large pieces. A mixture poor in fluxes, with a high shrinkage, can be very lean when it contains no sedimentary clay but kaolin as the plastic element. Bodies of good plasticity, but low in fluxes, are of comparatively recent introduction, and are specially adapted to large objects and chemical stoneware." Owing to its high percentage of clay substance and low fluxes, the mass acquires little translucency when burned at high tem- peratures, but stands temperature changes very well. Hecht has recently published the results of some rather detailed investigations on the composition of porcelains and white earthen- ware bodies poor in lime. It has generally been considered that these two classes of ware vary in composition only between fixed limits, and that the predominance of feldspar in the mixture was generally confined to porcelain. This, however, has proved to be an error, and Hecht finds porcelains which are low in feldspar, and earthenware bodies rich in it. The following examples are given.” * Chemiker zeitung. 1894, p. 821. * Thonindustrie zeitung. 1897. no. 21, p. 714. 796 INEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM Comparative compositions of porcelain and white earthernware l Japanese Wegeli porce- Belgian porcelain lain mix- white earth- mixture ture enware mixture Per cent Per cent Per cent Clay substance . . . . . . . . . 49.44 81.37 58. 56 Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45. 36 5.53 30.36 Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.20 13.10 11.08 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100.00 100.00 100. 00 The conclusions are that the difference between porcelain and white earthenware depends on the temperature at which the mate- rial is burned, viz, to vitrification or incipient sintering, and not on the composition. Some porcelains are vitrified at a temperature of only 2400° F. (Seger's come 9). Examples of this are Seger's porcelain and Copenhagen biscuit ware, whose rational compositions are as follows: Compositions of Seger's porcelain and of Copenhagen biscuit ware vitrifying at 2400° F. Seger Copenhagen Pe?’ cemt Peº' cent Clay substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 32 Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 dº tº Feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 (38 * *º-º-º-º- *-* These bodies when burned show a glassy, conchoidal fracture. As the feldspar is that part of the porcelain which brings about the vitrification, we must assume from the Japanese and Wegeli porcelain mixtures, given above, that a much higher temperature is required to sinter them than the Seger and Copenhagen mixtures. It is possible to find mixtures showing all grades of transition in composition between white earthenware and porcelain. As to the behavior of easily fusible white earthenware glazes and porcelain glazes on these transitional members, Hecht finds Plate 117 To face page 796 - - - | T H. Ries photo. - Making cups. Onondaga pottery co. In foreground potter is turning the lining on his wheel; while his helper in the distance is shaping the same on a jolly in plaster mold; on the shelves are the cups drying in the mold, and molded cups ready to be carried to the drying closets are on the table. 7 Plate 118 To face page 79 h - H. Ries photo. Machine for turning oval plates. (d) Plaster form for pounding out sheet of clay on plaster slab (c); (b) sheet of clay laid on the plaster form; (a) the machine with plaster form on it. Onondaga pottery co., Syracuse. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 797 that a great number hold, without crazing, on bodies having the following composition, whether burned in a hard porcelain fire or moderate white earthenware fire: Composition of bodies on which many earthenware and porcelain glazes do not craze Per cent 80. . . . Clay substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 20. . . . Quartz and feldspar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '70 The degree of tenacity with which the glazes hold depends on the temperature at which the biscuit and glazed ware are burned, and to a greater or less extent on the relative amounts of kaolin and plastic stoneware clay in the body. - The practical value of the above observations is that it points toward much greater possibilities in underglaze decoration, for while in the past such work could only be done under hard fire glazes, we can now paint the porcelain with underglaze colors hitherto used only for white earthenware and cover them with easily fusible muffle glazes. The effect of excessive grinding on the ingredients of a porcelain mixture has recently been shown to be serious. (SprechSaal. 1896. Ino. 29. p. 812) It was found that, when a mixture of kaolin, quartz and feldspar was ground in a ball mill for 120 hours, the ware in burning became blistered and showed a finely vesicular structure throughout. If on the other hand only the quartz and feldspar were ground for 96 hours, and the kaolin then added, the result was a strong, translucent porcelain of normal color, free from blisters. The experiments suggest how porce- lains which are only slightly transparent can be made more so. Delft ware. This name was originally applied to a white ware made at Delft in Holland, which was ornamented with blue de- signs representing Dutch Scenery. It is extensively manufactured at many localities at the present day, the body of the ware being porcelain or white earthenware. The articles which are usually decorated under the glaze include clocks, vases, jardinieres, toilet articles, etc. . 798 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Belleek, or eggshell ware, is a high grade of porcelain of un- usual thinness and delicacy. It was originally manufactured at Belleek, Ireland, but its production there has nearly died out. The manufacture of it in this country has been attended with more or less success. The dull cream enamel of the surface bears some resemblance to the Royal Worcester porcelain. Sometimes the ware is finished with a transparent glaze showing the white color of the body, the decoration being over the glaze. Belleek wares are often formed by casting. - Electric supplies. This branch of the clay-working industry is rapidly growing, and gives every indication of being perma- nently successful. The supplies which have a vitrified body in- clude insulators, cut-outs, fuse-boxes, push-buttons, etc. They are manufactured in this state at Brooklyn and Syracuse and Victor. Majolica. This is an earthenware decorated in many colors, which are applied to the ware in the glaze either by slipping or with a brush. The ware is fired at a low heat, thereby permitting the use of softer tints. The clays used for the body are often of a low grade; the glaze is used to cover up a multitude of im- perfections, but the ware is cheap and the bright tints of the deco- ration are usually catching. On account of its cheapness com- bined with its rather bright and attractive appearance it is fre- quently used by merchants to give away with samples of their ware. Majolica was formerly manufactured in New York state, but the factory has turned its attention to other and more profitable lines of ware. Parian Ware is a term applied to white, unglazed porcelain, with a dense body, which is considered to resemble closely Parian marble. This class of ware is used somewhat for the manufacture of ornaments and busts, but has comparatively little sale in this country. It was for a time made in Brooklyn. Methods of manufacture Certain steps in the manufacture of pottery are common to the production of all grades of ware, but the higher the quality of the product the more complicated usually the process. Plate 114) To face page 79S -- H. Ries photo. l, c Pressing white ware. (a) Potter pressing out bat of clay; (b) pieces of plaster moºd; (c) green ware just removed from mold. On the shelves are molds from which the ware has not yet been removed. Plate 120 To face page 199 H. Ries photo. Casting clay wares. Union porcelain works. The slip is poured into the molds from the tube which the workman is holding. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 799 The different stages in the manufacture of pottery may be grouped as follows: Washing Weathering ſIn chaser mills Preparation. . . . . . . . . . . . : Wet pans Tempering. . . . . . . . . . . . . Pug mills | Tables - ſ Turning Molding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jollying Casting UPressing Drying Burning Glazing Decorating Burning Preparation In some regions the clay is prepared in a preliminary way by weathering, but this is not a very widespread custom. Clays for common earthenware are seldom washed, but those used in the manufacture of stoneware, specially of the higher grades, are frequently prepared in this manner; those clays which are used for white earthenware and porcelain are nearly always washed. Clays are washed by one of two methods. With the first method, the clay is thrown into large circular tubs filled with water, in which it is stirred up by revolving arms and the clay lumps thereby dis- integrated. By this treatment the fine kaolinite particles, as well as very fine grains of mica, feldspar and quartz remain suspended in the liquid, while the coarser grains settle on the bottom of the tank. The water with the suspended clay is then drawn off to the settling tanks. * A modification of this consists in the use of a large cylinder, closed at both ends, which is set in a horizontal position, and con- 800 NEW - YORK STATE MUSEUM tains an axis with iron arms, their revolution serving to break up the clay, which is charged through a hopper at the top. A cur- rent of water passes through the cylinder and carries the fine clay particles with it, while the coarse ones are left behind in the machine. The speed of the current has to be regulated by experi- ment, for if too much water is used coarse material will be washed out of the cylinder, and conversely if the current is too slow the clay will not yield a sufficient percentage of washed product. One objection to this apparatus is that it has to be stopped from time to time to remove the coarse sand from the machine. ^ The method most commonly used at the present day for washing kaolin is in its general detail as follows: As the kaolin comes from the mine it is generally discharged into a log washer, a semicylindric trough, in which revolves a horizontal axis, bearing short arms. The action of the arms breaks up the kaolin more or less thoroughly, according to its density, and facilitates the subsequent washing. The stream of water directed into the log washer, sweeps the kaolin and most of the Sand into the washing trough, which is about 15 inches wide and 12 inches deep, but should be wider and deeper if the kaolin is very sandy. The troughing is about 700 feet long, and to utilize the space thoroughly it is broken up into sections (50 feet each is a good length) these being arranged parallel, and connecting at the ends, so that the water, with suspended clay, follows a zigzag COUl]’SG. The troughing has a slight pitch, commonly about one inch in 20 feet, but the amount depends on the kaolin, and whether the contained sand is fine or coarse. If the kaolin is very fine, and Settles slowly, the pitch need not be so great, and vice versa. A large quantity of very coarse sand in the kaolin is a nuisance, as it clogs up the log washer and the upper end of the trough more quickly, causing much labor to keep them clean. As it is, con- siderable sand settles there, and, to keep the trough clear, Sand wheels are used. The wheels are wooden, bearing a number of Plate 121 To face page 800 H. Ries photo. Molding acid receivers, Graham chemical stoneware works. On the table at the right is a slab of clay for spreading on one half of the interior of the mold. On the extreme left is the mold, with upper portion removed, with the workman bending over into it in order to smooth the seams in the bottom and along the sides where the sheets of clay join. In the center is a fin- ished jar from which the plaster parts of the mold have been removed. Plate 122 To face page SU1 H. Ries photo. Molding washtubs. On the shelves on the left are the different parts of the plaster molds used. Graham's chemical stoneware works, Brooklyn. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 801 iron scoops on their periphery. As the wheels revolve the scoops catch up a portion of the sand which has settled in the trough, and, as each Scoop reaches the upper limit of its turn on the wheel, it, by its inverted position, drops the sand outside the trough. These sand wheels are a help, but it is often necessary in addition to keep a man shoveling the Sand from the trough. - If the sand is finer it is not dropped so quickly, and, distributed more evenly along the trough, does not clog it up so fast. The zigzag arrangement of the troughing has been objected to by some, as it produces irregularities in the current, causing the Sand to bank up in the corners, at the bends and at certain points along the sides of the troughing. (E. Hotop. Thonindustrie Zeit- ung. 1893) The effect is to narrow the channel, and consequently increase the velocity of the current, thereby causing the fine sand to be carried still farther toward the settling tank. This difficulty, which is not often serious, has been obviated either by having the troughing straight or by allowing the water and suspended clay as they come from the log washer to pass through a section of straight trough, and from this into another, of the same depth but 5 or 6 times the width, and divided by several longitudinal par- titions. The water and the clay then pass into a third section, twice as wide as the second, and divided by twice the number of longitudinal divisions. By this means the water moves only in a straight course, but as it is being continually spread out over a wider space it flows with an ever decreasing velocity. By the time the water has reached the end of the troughing nearly all the coarse grains have been dropped and the water is ready to be led into the settling vats, but as a farther and necessary precaution it is discharged on a screen of 100 meshes to the linear inch, with the object of removing any coarse particles that might remain, and also eliminating sticks and other bits of floating dirt. Two kinds of screens can be used, the first stationary, the second revolving. The stationary screen is simply a frame covered with a copper cloth and set at a slight angle. The water and suspended 802 . INEW YORK STATE MUSEUM kaolin fall on the screen, and pass through, otherwise they run off and are lost. A slight improvement is, to have two or three screens Overlapping one another, so that whatever does not get through the first will fall on the second. If the vegetable matter and sticks are allowed to accumulate, they clog the screen, and prevent the kaolin from running through; consequently stationary screens must be closely watched. The revolving screens are far better; for they are self-cleansing. Such screens are barrel-shaped, and the water, with the kaolin in suspension, is discharged into the interior and passes outward through the screen cloth. As the screen revolves the dirt caught is carried upward and finally drops; but, instead of falling down on the other side of the screen, it falls on a board, which diverts it out to the ground. - The settling tanks, into which the kaolin and the water are dis- charged, may be and often are about 8 feet wide by 4 feet deep and 50 or more feet long. . As soon as one is filled the water is diverted into another. The larger a tank the longer it will take to fill it, and allow the kaolin to settle. Clays obtained in this manner are expensive, particularly when the market takes the out- put of washed kaolin as soon as it is ready. Small tanks have the advantage of permitting the slip to dry more quickly, specially when the layer of clay is not very thick; furthermore a small pit takes less time to fill and empty. But one disadvantage urged against a number of Small tanks is that a thoroughly average prod- uct is not obtained, owing to the thinness of the layer of settlings and the small amount in each. In addition a series of Small tanks require considerable room. The advantages asserted in the case of large tanks are that the clay can be discharged into any one for a considerable period, and, if the clay deposit varies in character, the different grades get into one tank and a better average is thereby obtained. If the kaolin settles too slowly, alum is sometimes added to the water to hasten the deposition. When the kaolin has settled, Plate 123 To face page 802 H. Ries photo. Turning cups smooth on the lathe after they have been molded and dried, but before they are burned. Onondaga pottery co., Syracuse. CLAYS OF NEW YORK S03 most of the clear water is drawn off; the cream-like mass of kaolin and water in the bottom of the vat is drawn off by means of slip pumps and forced by these into the presses. The presses consist simply of flat, iron or wooden frames be- tween which are flat canvas bags. These bags are connected by nipples with a supply tube from the slip pumps, and by means of the pressure from the pumps nearly all of the water is forced out of the kaolin and through the canvas. When as much water as pos. sible is Squeezed out, the press is opened and the sheets of semi- dry kaolin are taken out. It is them dried either on racks in the open air or in a steam-heated room. As for every ton of crude kaolin usually only about 3 or 4 of a ton of washed kaolin is obtained, it is desirable to have the wash- ing plant at the mines, to avoid the hauling of 60% to 70% of useless Sand which has to be washed out before the kaolin can be used or even placed on the market. Tempering Chaser mill. This consists of a circular iron pan in which revolves a frame bearing two heavy iron wheels, about 30 to 36 inches in diameter. As this frame revolves, the wheels, by means of a gearing, travel from the center to the circumference of the pan and then back. The clay is dumped into the pan, water added, and by the action of the wheels, grinding and cutting it up, it is ground and mixed in from one to two hours. The action of such a machine is quite thorough, but requires considerable power to operate it. It is sometimes used for stoneware clays. Wet pans. The action of these has already been described, under bricks. This machine is occasionally used in the preparation of pottery clays, and is fully as efficient in its action as the pre- ceding one, while it has the advantage of operating continuously and also of requiring less power. The clay is also ground and mixed much more quickly in a wet pan than in a chasing mill; and the greater width of the wheels, and the presence of scrapers to throw the clay under them, insures the thorough grinding of any lumps 804. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM which may be present. A wet pan will grind a charge of clay in about 10 minutes. Pug mills. Those used in pottery manufacture consist of an upright rectangular box, in which revolves a vertical shaft, bearing iron blades. The clay is charged at the top, and is slowly forced downward to the opening at the bottom of the box, at the same time going through a thorough mixing action. Molding Pottery is molded in four different ways, turning, jollying, casting, and pressing. The clay after coming from the presses, is first wedged, that is a lump of the desired size is cut in two by a wire, the two halves united by bringing them down on the table with much force, the piece cut again, the two halves once more united, and so on, the object being to subject the clay to a kneading action, whereby all the air bubbles are eliminated. This operation is accomplished in many European factories by a kneading machine, which consists of a circular table about 6 feet in diameter, whose upper surface slopes outward. On this are two conical rolls, 20 to 30 inches in diameter and about 8 inches wide. These rolls have corrugated rims, and are attached to opposite ends on a horizontal axis, having a slight vertical play. The clay is laid on the table and as the rolls travel around on it the clay is spread out into a broad band. A second axle carries two other pairs Of rolls of the same shape but smaller size, which travel around in a horizontal plane. These rolls press the band of clay together again. In this way the clay is subjected to alternating vertical and lateral pressure and all air spaces are thus thoroughly closed. The rolls make 10 to 12 revolutions a minute, and a machine kneads two to three charges of 350 pounds each in an hour. Turning. This is done on a rapidly revolving horizontal wheel. The potter takes the lump of clay, places it on the revolving disk, and, after wetting the surface with a slip of clay and water, gradu- Plate 124 To face page 804 H. Ries photo. Kiln room, Onondaga pottery co. The green ware is being placed in saggers which are being carried into the biscuit kiln. Plate 125 To face page 805 H. Ries photo. Corner of decorating room, Onondaga pottery co., Syracuse. The girls are painting the decoration on the burned ware, while the man at printing machine in the rear is preparing transfer prints. CLAYS OF NEW YORK S05 ally works the mass up into the desired form. After being shaped, the object is then detached from the wheel by running a thin wire underneath it, and it is set aside to dry. Crocks, jugs, and similar articles are turned. This is the method almost invariably em- ployed for molding earthenware and frequently employed in form- ing stoneware articles. An expert potter is able to turn jars of very large size. - Jollying or jigging. This is a more rapid method than turning. The clay to be used for this purpose is tempered to a much softer consistency. The jolly is a wheel fitted with a hollów head to receive the plaster mold, whose interior is of the same shape as the exterior of the object to be molded. A lump of clay is placed in the revolving mold and is gradually forced up around the sides of the latter by means of the fingers. A metallic arm, or templet, as it is called, is then brought down into the mold and serves to shape the interior of the object. Cups, crocks, jugs, pitchers and even wash basins can be molded in this manner. Articles with tapering necks are generally jollied in two parts, which are subsequently cemented together with slip. Handles are generally stamped out separately and Subsequently fastened on the article. A modification of jollying, used for making plates and saucers, consists in having a plaster mold whose surface has the same shape as the interior of the object to be molded. The potter's assistant takes a piece of clay of the desired size, and pounds it into a flat cake, called a “bat”, which is laid on the mold, he then shapes the other side or bottom of the plate by pressing a wooden templet of the proper profile against it as it revolves. Ewers and vessels of oval or elliptic section are usually made by means of sectional molds, consisting of two or three pieces whose inner surface conforms to the outer surface of the object to be molded. A slab of clay is laid in each section and carefully pressed in. The mold is then put together and the seams carefully Smoothed with a wet sponge. After drying for a few hours the parts of the mold are lifted off. Clocks, lamps, picture frames, S()6 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM water pitchers and many other articles of a hollow nature are molded in this manner. Casting. Casting consists in pouring a slip of clay into a porous mold, which absorbs some of the water, and causes a thin layer of the clay to adhere to the interior surface of the mold. When this layer is sufficiently thick, the mold is inverted and the remaining slip is poured out. After a few hours the mold can be removed. This method is extensively used in making thin porcelain orna- ments; many white earthenware objects can be formed by the same process. Much of the success of molding depends on the proper consistency and composition of the plaster mold. Drying The ware after it has been molded is usually set aside on shelves in steam-heated rooms to dry. From this point on, the method of manufacture varies somewhat, depending on the kind of ware that is to be produced. Glazing stoneware Stoneware is most commonly glazed either with Salt, or by means of slip clays. Slip clays, which are really natural glazes, are very impure, easily fusible clays. The clay is mixed with water to the consistency of cream, and the ware before burning is either dipped into this slip, or the slip is put on the ware by a brush. The most desirable thing in a slip clay is that it shall fuse at a low temperature, form a glaze of a uniform color, and this glaze shall not crack or craze. Many fine-grained impure clays fulfil the first requirement but are seldom able to comply with the Second and the third condition. - Slip clays have been supplied to a considerable extent by Several different states, but the most important and the best thus far used is obtained from the Champlain deposit at Albany, N. Y. This Albany slip makes a splendid, even colored, natural glaze, and one which does not crack. It not only works well by itself but gives Plate 126 To face page 800 - - H. Ries photo. Dipping the biscuit ware into the glazing mixture. The plates on the table in front of the tub have already been dipped. Onondaga pottery co., Syracuse. Plate 127 To face page 807 H. Ries photo. Workman carrying sagger of ware into glost kiln, Onondaga pottery co, CLAYS OF NEW YORK S07 good results when mixed with other clays or with artificial fluxes. Analyses of this material are given beyond. The following analyses made by the Missouri geological survey gives the composition of the clay. Silica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56.75 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.47 Combined water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.87 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Protoxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 73 Protoxid of manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tr. Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 5. 78 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 32 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.25 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99.54 Another analysis made by H. H. Griffen (Clay worker. 28: 178) gives: - Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.02 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 14.80 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.85 Manganic oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 70 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.48 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.23 Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 07 Phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . 5.18 Moisture and carbonic acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.94 Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ." . . . . . . . . , 38.58 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99.14. Tests made by the Missouri geological survey showed that this clay shrunk 6% when air dried and 8% when vitrified, giving a 808 . NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM total shrinkage of 14%. Incipient vitrification occurred at 1700° F., complete at 1850°F, and viscosity above 2000°F. From the analysis made by H. H. Griffen it is seen that the clay approaches closely to the formula: rº 1RO, .713,Os, 4SiO2, which is similar to that of an alkaline glaze, but with an excess of R, Os. The addition of lead increases this excess of bases, and it is necessary to add silica also. For many years the slip has been used as a glaze without the addition of any artificial fluxes, for attempts in this direction had always been without success. A number of experiments were made by Mr Griffen, to determine in what manner it was possible to lower the fusibility of the slip clay, and make it run more easily without destroying its richness of color. The addition of lead alone gave a transparent and greenish colored glaze, which showed a tendency to blister; alkalis added alone gave the same result. It is, therefore, necessary to add other materials with the lead. Good results were obtained by adding iron alone, but the combina- tion of chromium, manganese and iron produced the best effect. The chromium, Mr Griffen finds, takes from the iron its tendency to run into greenish and yellowish tints. The best form in which to introduce the chromium is as chromate of lead, this giving the finest color effect; but, as an excess of this sort also has a tendency to cause blistering, it is well to add some of the chromium in the form of chromate of iron. The following recipe is for a moderately low heat glaze, the variation being for different conditions. Albany slip clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63.30 to 70 White lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.30 to 17 Flint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.30 to 7 Oxid of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 to . 79 Oxid of manganese . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 to . 61 Chromate of lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.27 to 1.40. Chromate of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 to . 73 Oxid of zinc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.88 to 2.07 ºu xixooaei sytuow uſela orod uopun suuoou ºtiņeuooap ºqº, Jo ºu o uſ wº! Aſolo qd sa!！! （H SOS 0.5ed oog J. 0，1,Sº, I ºl tº Ich Plate 129 To face page 809 H. Ries photo. Making electrical supplies on dry presses. Pass & Seymour. Syracuse. Behind the workmen are the molded goods, air drying on the racks. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 809 Artificial glazes are used to some extent on the better grade of stoneware made at the present day. - Stoneware is sometimes coated with a slip of white clay. Burning stomeware Stoneware is commonly burned in round kilns. The articles are piled one on top of the other till the kiln is filled, but they are set in such a way as not to interfere with an even draft through- out the kiln, and the larger pieces are placed in the center. If both salt glazed and slip glazed wares are burned in the kiln at the same time, the latter have to be protected from the salt vapor in some way. - The time of burning depends partly on the size of the kiln, and partly on the clay. It may be as short as 30 hours or as long as 90. The temperature attained in burning stoneware also depends on the clay. Experiments made in Ohic show that the temperature ranges from about 1850° to 2000° F. Other experiments made by the writer indicate that in the case of the New Jersey semi-fire clays the temperature in stoneware kilns reached 2300° F. at times. g The kilns used in burning stoneware are either up-draft or down-draft, both round and rectangular. Glazing white earthenware and porcelain In this grade of ware, the glazing and burning are not done in one operation, as in the case of the stoneware, but, on the con- trary, the ware after molding is first burned to a comparatively low temperature, after which it is dipped in the glaze and burned a second time. In the case of white earthenware the temperature of the second burning is lower than that of the first, while in the case of the porcelain it is higher. The production of a glaze on the surface of either porcelain or earthenware, free from the numerous defects to which such mate- rials are very liable, is often attended by considerable difficulty. The glaze on pottery consists of a fusible mixture which is applied to the surface of the ware, either when it is still in a green 810 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM State or after burning. In the burning the ingredients of this mixture unite during fusion and cover the surface with an im- pervious glassy coat. Pottery glazes are generally of two kinds, raw or fritted. The former consists usually of some mixture of metallic oxids, which is sprayed on the surface of the raw clay. In the case of the latter, the ingredients of the glaze are first fused together, forming what is known as a frit, the frit is then ground very fine, and mixed with water, this mixture being applied to the surface of the green ware. It is specially necessary to prepare such a frit when the glaze contains any soluble salts, the object of the fritting being to render these salts insoluble. The fritting is usually done in a special furnace, which has the bottom sloping toward one point, so that the melted material can be run out into a tank of water, at the proper time. Certain frits, either on account of the difficulty with which they flow on melting or owing to the corrosive action they exert when fused, can not be melted in the furnace, but are fused in a special crucible or Sagger. The proper preparation of the glaze often requires much skill and experience; for the production of a uniform coating of glaze on the surface of the ware is influenced by many different things, such as the degree of porosity of the ware when glazed, the cleanli- ness of the surface to be coated, the consistency of the glaze, etc. If the density of the body is too great, or there happens to be a film of dust or fat on the surface, the glaze is apt to contract into drops during the burning. If the glaze is too refractory, or the kiln fire is not hot enough, the glaze will not be homogeneous, but show little dots and pin holes. A frequent fault is the tearing or springing off of glaze, which is due to the glaze and the body having a different coefficient of expansion. If that of the glaze is greater, the body is apt to tear, whereas, if the reverse is true, the glaze spalls off. It may be said in general that with an increase in the amount of fluxes the coefficient of expansion of a glaze increases, while it decreases with the amount of acids. The CLAYS OF NEW YORK S1 || coefficient of expansion may also be diminished if the percentage of boracic acid in the clay is increased at the expense of the silica. The amount of alumina exerts but little influence on the expansion or contraction of the glaze, but a small percentage of alumina pre- vents glazes which are poor in alkalis from becoming opaque. The tenacity of adherence of the glaze to the body depends on the composition of both and also on the temperature of the kiln. We can say that the power of the body to carry a glaze without causing it to crack is influenced by its rational composition, its degree of plasticity, the fineness of the quartz grains which it con- tains, and the temperature at which it is burned. Burning white earthenware and china This is done in Saggers, which are oval or cylindric receptacles about 20 inches in diameter, 8 inches in hight, with a flat bottom. The Saggers are filled with the pieces of the unburned ware and are set one on top of the other, so that the bottom of one forms a cover for the One below it, the joint between them being closed by means of a strip of soft clay. The use of these Saggers is to protect the ware from the Smoke and gases of the kiln fire, which would tend to discolor it. The requisite of a Sagger clay is that it stand slightly more heat than the ware placed in it. Saggers are generally made from a plastic, refractory clay, with as great an admixture of grog (ground up fire brick or old pottery) as possible, but an excess of the latter is deleterious. The color burning properties of a sagger clay are of little importance. Saggers are made in various ways, sometimes being turned on a wheel, or again being formed in plaster molds, or around wooden forms. In Germany metal forms are now mostly used, because they permit the working of a stiffer mass, and, the clay containing less water, the Saggers after molding shrink and tear less, while in addition they dry more quickly. The interior of the sagger is frequently coated with a slip of kaolin and quartz, in order that the ware may not receive any discoloration from this S12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM source. When complicated forms are placed in the Sagger the over- hanging or greatly projecting portions are supported by pieces which have the same composition as the ware itself, so that in burning the shrinkage of both will be the same. The proper placing of the ware in the kiln as well as in the Saggers is a matter of great importance. The condition of the fires in the burning of porcelain or earthen- ware has to be taken into consideration. In the burning of spar china from redness up to the point of vitrification, it is desirable to have the fire reducing in its action, while above that point it should be neutral or weakly oxidizing. In using coal which contains pyrite, if the fire is oxidizing, sulfuric acid is set free; and this tends to unite with any lime carbonate or alkalis which the glaze may contain, the lower the temperature of the kiln the more rapid this union, for the lime and alkalis will unite with the sulfuric acid, as long as they have not entered in combination with the silica of the glaze. When the glaze has once melted, the danger that this will take place is far less. If the gases are reducing, any sulfate salts formed are broken up and sulfurous acid gas escapes. If the glaze particles have not yet been thoroughly fused the gas just mentioned escapes without causing any trouble; but, if the fusion has already occurred, blistering or scaling of the glazed surface re- Sults. ! Both the body and the glaze may sometimes have a small amount of gypsum, which may come from an Alsing cylinder, if such a machine is used for grinding the clay. The reducing action of the fire must, however, not be too strong, otherwise any organic matter which the clay contains will not burn off at the proper time, and will subsequently be liable to cause bursting in the ware during burning. A reducing fire tends to insure a whiter color in the ware by reducing any ferric combination of iron, thus carrying the color from reddish over into whitish gray, or the pale green of complex ferrous silicates. The latter are hardly noticeable so that the whole . body appears white. It sometimes happens that during the slow CT, A. Y S OF NEW YORK S13 cooling of porcelain in a muffle kiln the iron is changed back to the ferric condition with its accompanying yellow. When a kiln full of ware is finished, the material at times has to be sorted, as it seldom happens that all the ware drawn from the kiln is perfect. The sources of flaws in the burned ware may be either faults in the body or bad firing. In connection with body faults: the more plastic and finer grained the clay mixture used, the quicker it shrinks in drying; masses which are fat shrink more than those which are rich in fluxes, such as feldspar, or are very lean. The size of the quartz and feldspar grains is of importance, for, if they are in the form of fine powder, they are not very plastic, but if ground extremely fine they develop a certain amount of pastiness, and this is accompanied by an increased shrinkage. If the clay mixture was not properly worked, or was too soft, or the thickness of the molded object is not . the same throughout, or the mechanically combined water is not evenly distributed through the material, the ware is very likely to warp in burning. The shrinkage may also be uneven if the pressure exerted by the molder is not uniform, and cracks occur when the molded piece is stronger on one side than on the other. Flaws, such as air bubbles, appear only when the ware is burned. Firing errors are usually due to too quick heating or cooling. If cracks are caused in the early part of the burning, they increase as the firing proceeds. Cracks formed in the body as a result of too rapid cooling are not generally seen with the naked eye, but the ware produces no ring when struck. Another cause of cracking is an uneven temperature on the two sides of the object. Over burn- ing as well as under burning of porcelain tends to produce fine cracks in the body. The glaze is also a source of much worriment to the manufac- turer. It should of course have the same coefficient of expansion as the body to which it is applied. If under burned the glaze will not appear thoroughly glassy and develops fine cracks, but, if over burned, a chemical action is apt to take place between the glaze 814. NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and the body and the former absorbs elements of the latter, alter- ing its composition and consequently its properties. This over burn- ing of the glaze is the principle used by the Chinese to produce their celebrated crackle ware. Kilns. The type of kiln used depends on the ware, the tem- perature to be obtained, and the fuel. In this country a round vertical kiln is generally used for both the first and the second burning. The first burning, which is known as the biscuit burn, is done at a lower temperature. The second firing is done in a similar kiln, known as the Glost kiln. After the ware has been burned with a glaze on it, it is sometimes decorated and then fired a third time in what is known as a muffle kiln. The two points necessary in a kiln are first equal distribution of heat, and secondly economy of fuel, with a development of the maximum heat. - Most of the kilns used are down-draft, and in these we get a more complete combustion, for the reason that the air and gases must follow a longer path, and consequently, get a better chance to mix. The continuous type of kiln is little used in this country, though it has been used with marked success abroad for the burn- ing of both white earthenware and porcelain. Methods of decoration These seem to deserve special mention, as in many cases they form an important and distinct branch of the pottery industry. - Decoration may be imparted to a ware in three ways: 1) by the production of a raised design; 2) by covering the ware with a solid color; 3) by the decoration of the surface with various designs, ap- plied to the ware in one way or another. Common red earthen- ware seldom receives any decoration, though this has been decorated more within the last year or two. Stoneware, yellow ware and Rockingham ware often have the surface ornamented with a raised design, which is imparted to the article in molding it. Stoneware is often decorated under the glaze with crude designs made by I’late 130 To face page S1.4 H. Ries photo. Girls attaching brass work to porcelain electrical goods. Pass & Seymour, Syracuse. Plate 131 To face page 815 H. Ries photo. Room where the brass work for the porcelain electrical supplies is prepared. Pass & Seymour, Syracuse. CLAYS OF NEW YORK - S15 tracing the figure with a dull point and some coloring matter, which remains in the depressions of the design. Yellow ware is frequently ornamented with bands of various colors. In majolica the coloring materials are mixed directly with the glaze. It is the decoration of white earthenware and chima, however, that calls forth the ingenuity and skill of the potter. White wares may be decorated either over the glaze or under it. In the former the decoration is applied after the glaze has been put on and fired; in the latter the decoration is put on the biscuit ware, then fired, then the glaze applied and the ware fired again. The advantage of underglaze decoration is that it is more durable, the decoration being protected by the glaze, and oftentimes the effect produced is prettier than when the colors are applied on the glaze. The number of colors which can be used in underglaze decoration is limited, as they have to withstand the effect of the heat required to fuse the glaze. The colors which can thus be used are blue, brown, green, yellow. It is on this account that hard fired porcelains have their delicately tinted decorations applied over the glaze. Pink, for instance, has to be applied in this way, and so does gold. An imitation of underglaze work is sometimes made by applying the decoration on the glaze and then firing until the glaze softens and the colors sink into it. Underglaze work was the prevalent method of decoration in this country from 1845 to 1850. It was then abandoned for a time, and in the last 10 years the method has been steadily regaining favor. All designs and colors were formerly applied by a brush, but the prevalent method now is by printing. The design is engraved or etched on a copper plate; the reversed print is then made on specially prepared fine paper. This is applied to the piece of pottery to be decorated, either on the glaze or on the biscuit ware. The paper is carefully rubbed so that every portion of it shall come in contact with the surface of the ware, and it is then allowed to stand 816 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM for a while, when the paper is removed, leaving the design on the ware. This is them gone over with colors and the design filled in. The decoration is then called a “filled print”. The amount of “ printed * ware turned out annually is very great. Raised gold work, often seen on wares, is made by painting the design with a yellow paste overglaze, firing in the decorating kiln, and then covering with gold and firing again. Underglaze colors are fired at a sufficient temperature to drive off the oil. The overglaze colors are usually fixed in a muffle kiln in which the temperature reaches between 900° and 1000°F. A rather ingenious method of making border decorations on plates and cups consists in having a design, such as a flower or cluster of leaves, stamped on a flat surface of fine-grained Sponge. The plate, for instance, is then placed on a wheel, and while slowly revolving it receives a number of successive touches with the inked surface of the sponge. In this way a continuous design is stamped on the ware. The method is quick, cheap and well adapted to the cheaper grades of white ware, for which it is used. Chromolithographic decoration" The adaptation of chromolithographic printing to ceramics has been quite recently successfully attempted, and may very possibly Supersede line engraving. The great advantage of the chromo- lithographic decoration lies in the high excellence of the ornament that may be used and the purity of the color that may be obtained. By this means the design of a first-class artist may be reproduced with all its original delicacy and softness. This new method does away with the filling in of prints, which is often of unequal quality. Up to the present time chromolithographic work has been used only for overglaze decoration, but experiments are being made with it in underglaze ornamentation. The difficulties in the latter case are porosity of the rough surface of the “biscuit’ ware. The greatest difficulty is said to be this. In printing from engravings, the 1 Jowr. 80c. arts, 18 Sep. 1896. p. 322. Plate 1:32 To face page 815 - - Union porcelain works. Molding doorknobs and insulators in hand power dry press machine. E’late 133 To face page 817 |#-- - i º º : -- | Porcelain electrical supplies made at works of Pass & Seymour, Syracuse. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 817 “print” is really a relatively thick line of color; just in proportion as the engraver cuts deeply into the plate, so is the quantity of color “taken up ''. Now “underglaze plates” are cut much more deeply than “enamels’, and if the “transfer” or printed paper is ex- amined under a microscope the underglaze prints are seen to con- sist of raised (as we have previously said), relatively thick ridges of color, laid with the point of the ridge uppermost. It is this depth or strength of cutting that enables the underglaze prints to produce their strong patterns, for, owing to the action of the glaze, if only a thin film of color, as in chromolithography, were applied to the ware, the decoration would be so faint as scarcely to be visible. The number of colors which have a strong staining power when applied only in a thin coat is small. This is the chief difficulty. At present the best chromolithographic work is done by the French, and by some Staffordshire potters. New York stoneware clays Deposits of clay suitable for the manufacture of stoneware are found on Staten Island and Long Island. Those of Staten Island are at IGreischerville. The Long Island clays are found at Elm point, on Greatmeck, at Glencove, and Littleneck, near North- port. They have been shipped to a number of points, including Poughkeepsie, Rochester, Utica, in New York; also to New Haven, Stamford, Norwalk and Hartford, Ct., Newark, N. J., and Pittston, Pa. Most of the Long Island clays are rather sandy in their nature; consequently they have been found well adapted to mix with the New Jersey clays in order to prevent the latter from cracking in burning. The Sandy nature of the Long Island clays makes it difficult to turn many of them alone on the potter’s wheel. Elm point. A deposit has been worked for many years at a point about one and a half miles north west of Great neck, but the pit is no longer in operation, though the supply of clay does not appear to have given out, as a considerable amount of it is still to be seen outcropping along the shore at several points to both north :818 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and south of the pit. The one objection to the deposit is that the clay is overlain by about 20 feet of yellow gravel and drift, which has caused much trouble at times by caving. It would seem that underground workings could be established, which would be more permanent. A number of pits have been sunk in the clay, many 30 feet in depth, the usual diameter being 10 feet. This clay has been used for a variety of products, such as architectural terra cotta, common stoneware, chemical stoneware and clay pipes. The clay, which was of a dark gray color, was very plastic and often quite Smooth. At the time the samples for physical work were collected the bank had caved in and no specimens were ob- tainable, but the following is an analysis of it made by Dr H. C. Bowen on a Sample collected some years ago. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T6. 50 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15. 17 Ferrous oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 34 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . O'7 Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Water (combined) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. 27 Glencove. Carpenter Bros. have a bed of stoneware clay, fire sand and kaolin on the east side of Hempstead harbor. The clay is of a white and pink color, the layers being 4 inches to 1 foot thick, interstratified with layers of quartz pebbles. Nearer the shore this dips under a bed of the clay free from pebbles. Asso- ciated with the clay is a deposit of kaolin and fire sand. The clay burns a cream color. The quartz pebbles, which contain small cracks, crumble easily and seem to have been subjected to the action of some alkaline solution." When ground they can be used for the finest grades of pottery and stoneware. The fire sand and kaolin are screened and sold according to grade. *F. J. H. Merrill. “Geology of Long Island,” Ann. N. Y. acad, sci. 1884, Plate 134 To face page S.19 H. Ries photo. View looking north from head of Northport harbor, Long Island. Little Neck, which is underlain by cretaceous clay, is seen on the left. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 819 This clay is used chiefly for the manufacture of stoneware, being shipped to various cities in Connecticut and New York states. It is also used by Perkins & Pit of Stamford, Ct. , for the manu- facture of stove linings. In the latter case about 15% of it is mixed with New Jersey clay. Under an ordinary fire this clay burns to a light color, but with a hard fire it is said to blacken. The fire sand found associated with this clay bears a most excellent reputation as regards its refractory qualities. - - Owing to litigation the clay deposit of Carpenter Bros. has been inactive for several years, but work on it will be resumed again this Summer. An analysis of the material is given in the table of analyses below. . In the spring of 1898 a new deposit was opened on the north shore of Mosquito inlet almost directly opposite Carpenter’s pit. It is said that this deposit is fully 30 feet deep. It is on the property of Mrs Helen McKenzie. A sample of this clay was collected for physical examination. It is Sandy and grayish, quite different in appearance from that found in Carpenter’s pit. When mixed with 32.40% of water it gave a very plastic mass, but owing to the large amount of Organic matter which it contained it was impossible to form briquettes not free from flaws, so that the tensile strength was only 42 pounds a square inch as a minimum, with 50 pounds maxi- mum, which is undoubtedly low. The air shrinkage of the bricklets was 8%. At 2200 degrees F. the total shrinkage was 13%, and the clay had become thoroughly dense. Viscosity occurred at come 27 in the Deville furnace. The color when burned to vitrification is buff, but at viscosity the clay burns reddish. The mechanical analysis of the clay showed: Clay substance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S5 Silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Very fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 97 Balance mostly organic matter 820 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM An analysis made by the writer gave: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55. 39 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * e º 'º e º e 29.90 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 10 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tr. Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 50 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.75 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99. 29 Northport. The Northport clay and fire sand co. has an exten- sive series of pits on Littleneck near Northport. Both fire sand and clay are obtained. The clay bank has a hight of about 40 feet, the clay is of a bluish black and yellowish white color. The darker clay is the lower, and contains much carbonaceous matter. The deposit is stratified, the layers of clay being separated by thin sheets of a rather coarse sand. It is shipped chiefly to New England. At the eastern side of the bank a bed of white clay underlies the fire sand, but little of this has been mined. The following are analyses of New York stoneware clays and kaolin. Elm point Glencove Littleneck Kreischerville Kºr Silica . . . . . . 62 . 06 70.45 62.66 64. 26 82.5T Alumina . . . 18.09 21. 74 18.09 , 24.76 11. 57 Oxid of iron. 5.40 1. '72 (). 97 (). 83 (). 63 Lime . . . . . 1.05 0.24 (). '79 (). 'ſ 3 0.29 Magnesia . . . tr. 0.30 . . . . . tr. 0. 7S Alkalis . . . . 6. 11 5. ()0 2. 23 2.35 2 . 66 92.71 99.45 84.74 92.93 98.44 gººmsºmºsº ºmmas, ºs * -º-º-º-m ºmº-ºm-º º *== * * ſºmºmº = <== "(e) ſºwat oqq qe punoj º'º sº Aººſ snoºoºhano I （I quodqnuo N upou yoº N. einhyri -ooKetº ºuŲ ſuodqnuo N Jo snſd til øge snoooenero jo ketoºut}^\ºtions ‘ohoqd sº!? I 'H' 07° 0.5ed 90’ej o Lg8[ 04 GIGI CLAYS OF NEW YOIRIC 821 The following are analyses of Long Island stoneware clays made by C. H. Joiet. (School of mines quart. Jan. 1895) White clay Black clay White clay N ...: ort Nºort ğir Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68. 34. 58.84. 62.35 Alumina. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.89 23.40 23. 14 Ferrous oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 1. 18 1. 12 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 . . . . . . . . . . Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . tr. . . . . . . . . . . Carbonic acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sulfuric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.03 1.09 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 55 5.04 3.17 Soda . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * 84. . 34 1.76 Combined water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.03 9. 20 6.77 99.90 99.03 99.40 *- -- * *- - - -ms-smº - - *-*... sº sºm- *-* * *m-s A physical test of the yellow clay from the pits of the Northport It took 25% of water to mix the clay up to a workable mass, that was very gritty, clay and fire sand co. gave the following results. but possessed good plasticity. The tensile strength of the clay does not stand in direct relation to the plasticity, as the average is only 25 pounds a square inch with a maximum of 30 pounds. The air shrinkage of the bricklet was 53%, and at 2300° F. the total shrinkage was 12%. At this temperature the clay had burned buff, and was nearly vitrified. Wiscosity occurred in the Deville fur- nace at cone 27. The mechanical analysis of the clay shows the high percentage of sand contained, which is evidently responsible for its low refractory quality. Clay * e e s e s e e s w e o e º e e s ∈ e o e e s e e º e s e 30 Silt . . . . . . . . Very fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Time sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 822 NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM It is probable that the washing of this clay and the consequent elimination of the grit would greatly increase its refractory power. The black clay which underlies the lower is somewhat less Sandy, running thus: Clay substance and silt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.00 Finest Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.30 Fine sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16. 20 100. 50 Like the preceding, it is not a highly refractory clay, fusing com- pletely at cone 27 in the Deville furnace. It does, however, burn to a dense body of cream white color and its chief use is for stone- ware. There is apparently no reason why it should not work for the manufacture of white or very light buff brick. The shrinkage at come 3 is 8%, and at cone 6, 12%, at which temperature it is nearly non-absorbent, and begins to deepen in color. The following is an analysis of the Eaton's neck clay, made by Dr H. C. Bowen. Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66.46 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. 33 Ferrous Oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 38 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 07 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 52 Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . .* * * e º e º e s e e a s e e s e s e e . 58 Phosphoric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. Moisture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 21. 99.63. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK S23 Pottery industry of New York The products of this class made in New York include common earthenware, stoneware, both common and chemical, white earthen- ware, porcelain. Greater New York. The works situated within its boundaries al’6 . : D. Robitzels's Sons, Morrisania. White earthenware and hard porcelain Capital pottery, Brooklyn. Stoneware A. Benkert, Brooklyn. Stoneware Joseph Newbrand pottery, Long Island City. Earthenware Chemical pottery works, C. Graham, Brooklyn. Chemical stone- Wal’G The clays used are mostly from New Jersey, but at times some Long Island clays are used. The product includes acid receivers, vats, jars, stop-cocks, sinks, pumps and other articles for chemical works. W. T. Dufek, Brooklyn. Stoneware Dmpire china works, Brooklyn. White earthenware Green point porcelain works, Brooklyn. White earthenware Union porcelain works, Brooklyn. White earthenware The last factory makes a true hard porcelain, but it was origi- nally established in 1854 as a bone china factory. The chief product of the works is both plain and decorated table ware, though the factory under the guidance of C. H. L. Smith has turned out a number of high grade Ornamental objects, specially vases. Syracuse. The Onondaga pottery, situated here, was organized in 1871, the product at first being white granite. Subsequently (1886) the manufacture of porcelain was begun; this forms the output at present. The ware bears a high reputation for its strength and toughness, with which is combined lightness. Many of the plates illustrating the manufacture of pottery were taken at these works through the courtesy of Mr Pass, the presi- dent of the company. So successful have been the operations of this company, that the capacity of the plant has been doubled. 824. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The factory of Pass & Seymour is located at the western edge of the town. The product consists entirely of porcelain electric Sup- plies, many being quite complicated and their manufacture (which is by the dry press method) requiring considerable ingenuity. The Syracuse pottery company on N. Salina street, produces StoneWare. Victor. Close to the New York Central railroad station is the factory of F. Locke, manufacturer of porcelain electric supplies. Mr Locke’s products are made from a mixture of clays, obtained in part from New York state and in part from other states. The body is vitrified, and well fitted for the insulation of high currents. It is either white or colored. In some cases the ware is glazed with a Quaternary clay that is obtained in the vicinity of Victor. Among the large pieces of work turned out by this factory is a series of 600,000 insulators for a 40 mile line in California. Rochester. The Flower city pottery. Stoneware Utica. Central New York pottery Lyons. Lyons pottery co. Stoneware Fort Edward. Hilfinger Bros. Earthenware and stoneware Chittenango. Chittenango pottery co. Ornamental and com- mon StoneWare. Plate 136 To face page 824 * H. Ries photo. Stock yard, Graham's chemical stoneware works, Brooklyn. Shows different types of ware produced. CLAYS OF NEW YORK S25 SHALES OF NEW YORK These form an enormous series of deposits in the Southern region of the state, as well as some of the central portions. The origin of shale has already been mentioned (p. 502). From the fact that they were deposited in the sea they are usually much more extensive than the Quaternary clays immediately underlying the surface. The shales found in New York state are in every case quite impure, and often silicious, indeed are at times interbedded with thin layers of sandstone. Owing to their consolidated mature the shales have to be first ground in order to develop their plasticity; the finer the grinding the more plastic the mass. It has also been found that in some cases the finer grinding of the shale produces a vitrified brick at a temperature that formerly did not allow this, the brick made from the coarser shale showing 6%—7% absorption. Shales exhibit a great variation in hardness; this fact shows itself Specially during the grinding process. As has been stated in an- other place, shale is only a consolidated clay. Sometimes this hard- ening or consolidation has occurred by the weight of the overlying beds alone, while at other times the clay particles have become more or less cemented together. It is obvious, therefore, that those shales hardened by the former circumstance will fall apart more readily in the grinding pan, and tend to yield a more plastic mass. So far as the shales have been used and tested, the Devonian shales seem to work best for a vitrified product, as the points of in- cipient fusion lie from 250 to 300°F. apart. The Salina shales make a good strong brick if thorough vitrifica- tion is not desired, for they are often calcareous. The Medina shales, particularly the weathered portions, are util- ized in Ontario for making pressed brick and give good results. The deposit continued across west central New York awaits develop- ment. S26 * NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The physical and chemical characters of the shales can be judged from some of the tests given beyond under the locality descrip- tions. The shale-bearing formations occurring in New York state, be- ginning with that geologically oldest, are as follows: Lower Silurian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |Hudson river ſ Medina * * * Clinton Upper Silurian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - Niagara i Salina ſHamilton Devonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - Portage | Chemung A geological map will show the outline of the area underlain by the outcropping edges of each shale formation, and it will be noticed that they form bands of variable width extending across the state from east to west. º ſ As the formations have a slight dip (40-60 feet a mile) to the south, the belts of shale encountered in crossing the state from south to north will be successively older. Furthermore any one bed will of couse be higher above sea level to the north than to the south. The Chemung shales underlie the whole surface in the southern part of the state, but as we proceed northward they are found only on the ridges of the higher hills, the sides and bottom of the valleys being underlain by the Portage shale, which in turn succeeds the Chemung as the surface formation. Distribution and properties Hudson river. This formation is abundantly displayed in the counties of Lewis, Oneida, Montgomery, Schenectady and Colum- bia. Its tendency is to exhibit silicious or slaty phases, but in eastern Columbia co. it becomes at times argillaceous and at the same time contains considerable iron. - Medina. The Medina formation at times is shale-bearing, as along the Genesee river, where it is also marly, but the extent of CLAY'S OF NEW YORIX 827 the shaly layers is unimportant. (Hall. Geology of the ºth dis- trict of New York. p. 38) The shale beds are, however, well developed at Lewiston, where they are exposed in the sides of the gorge on both the American and Canadian shore. From this point they extend eastward and are to be seen at a number of points in the terrace escarpment. The shale is rather soft and crumbly, and in places contains abundant mica flakes. It is highly ferruginous and weathers to a red clay, which is more plastic than the mass produced by grind- ing the partially weathered shale and mixing it with water. This material has not thus far been utilized in New York state, yet it is extensively employed at several localities in Ontario, nota- bly Beamsville, for the manufacture of pressed brick. A sample collected from the exposures at Lewiston was tested with the following results. - The partially weathered shale gave a lean mass when mixed with 16% of water. The air shrinkage of the bricks was 3%, and the tensile strength of the air-dried clay was 15 pounds a square inch. The clay contains .6% of soluble salts. In burning it shrinks very slowly, and at 1 the shrinkage was only 6%. At this point the shale had vitrified and showed a deep red color. Incipient fusion occurred at .04, the clay burning bright red. It became viscous at above 4. & Its composition is: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.50 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.60 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.00 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SO Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 60 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 50 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98.35 828 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Owing to its highly ferruginous nature, it tends to blister when: burned to vitrification unless heated very slowly. Clintom. . The Clinton group is shale-bearing in its lower mem- bers in eastern Wayne co. It is a bright green shale and is about 30 feet thick. At Sodus Point the shale is purplish. It occurs at other localities, but is very thin, not more than 2 to 4 feet. (Hall. Geology of the 4th district of New York, p. 59) The second green shale of the Clinton group is less brilliant in color and every- where full of fossils. It is well exposed at Rochester and at Wol- cott furmace, in the banks of the creek, where it is more than 24 feet thick. The shale is probably frequently calcareous. Niagara. Though a prolific shale formation in New York state, the writer has not seen any exposures of it which were not either very silicious or calcareous, so that it would probably not work well for the manufacture of clay products. When ground and mixed with water it possesses no plasticity. According to Prof. Hall (Geology of the ºth district of New York. p. 80), the Niagara shale forms a member of great develop- ment in the lower part of the Niagara group. It is a dark bluish shale which, on exposure, forms a bluish gray, marly clay. It is well shown at Lockport, in the sides of the gorge at Rochester, just below the railroad bridge, and at many localities in Wayne and Monroe co. The lower layers of the shale are less calcareous than the upper Ones. The following is a partial analysis of this shale, the sample taken from the gorge at Rochester (16th ann. rep’t U. S. geol. Surv. pt 4, p. 569). Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2S. 35 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , - - - - - - - - - - - - ... 10.47 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.90 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.47 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '• e • * * * * * * * * * * * * 8. 24. Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5. 73 76. 16 II. T. Vulté, analyst CIL.A.YS OF NEW YORK - 829 The shale is also to be found in many of the ravines and gorges, from Rochester to the Niagara river. Salina. The shales of this formation are contained in a belt extending from Syracuse westward along the line of the New York central railroad to Buffalo. As a rule they are extremely impure and at times even marly. They are soft shales, which weather very easily, and are generally red or green in color and contain the beds of gypsum and salt. The Salina shales are well exposed at Warner, near Syracuse, where they are utilized for making brick. Prof. Hall says of the Salina or salt group (Geology of the 4th district of New York. p. 117), that it forms an immense development of shaly marls and limestones, with interbedded de- posits of gypsum. The formation extends from Syracuse westward through southern Wayne co., and northern Ontario and Seneca co., northern Genesee and Erie co. and a small part of the Southern portion of Niagara. This group contains important shale beds, though they are unfortunately very calcareous at times and conse- quently require careful manipulation. The red shale forming the lower divisions of the group was not observed west of the Genesee river. It appears in eastern Wayne co., as indicated by the deep red color of the soil overlying it. At Lockville the greenish blue marl with bands of red has been quarried from the bed of the canal. West of the Genesee this is the lowest visible mass; the red shale has either thinned out or lost its color, becoming gradually a bluish green; while otherwise the lithologic character remains the same. On first exposure it is compact and brittle, presenting an earthy fracture, but a few days are sufficient to commence the work of destruction, which goes on till the whole is resolved into a clayey mass. The green marl of the lower division appears near the canal at IFairport and again at Cartersville. The bed of the stream at Churchville shows the greenish blue marl. “The prevailing features of the second division of this group,” S30 NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM says Prof. Iſall, “are a green and ashen marl, with seams of fibrous gypsum and red or transparent selenite. It occurs in the vicinity of Lyons and numerous points farther west *. The third division contains large gypsum beds and is probably not suitable for use. The Salina shale, as stated above, is worked at Warner, Onon- daga co., by the Onondaga vitrified brick co. The shale as exposed in their bank consists of a green or red, soft, argillaceous shale, of considerable impurity, as the following analyses furnished by the company show. Calcareous Red Blue - layer in bank Shale shale Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.40 52. 30 57. 79 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.46 18.85 16.15 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.24 6. 55 5. 20 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.81 3, 36 2 . 73 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. 39 4. 49 4.67 Carbonic acid . . . . . . . . . 20.96 3.04 3.42 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95 4. 65 4. 11 Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 35 1. 22 Water and organic matter 7.60 5.30 4.50 99.81 99.89 99.79 Total fluxing impurities... 36. 39 20.40 17.93 These shales must be quite fusible owing to their high per- centage of fluxing impurities. At the works of the Onondaga vitrified brick co., the shale crops out in considerable thickness near the yard, and is of various shades of red, green, and gray; it disintegrates very rapidly, and the whole bank is traversed by numerous cracks, so that a small blast brings down a large amount. The material is mixed with a surface clay in the proportion of 1 of clay to 3 of shale; it is ground in a dry pan, and molded in an auger machine; the green bricks are dried in tunnels and burned in circular kilns; the product is of a red color, and very hard. Marcellus shale. This formation presents numerous undesira- ble features, so that its occurrence is of little importance to clay ， ' N suº uuu ^^ ººoo ſtoſuq pº uſu!! A tº epuoluo 'ºleus buſtes Jo blueſi·ohoqd sºņi （H 08.S 05 ed ºot:J OL18.I ºl tºtae CLAYS OF NEW YORK 831 workers. It is generally slaty, gritty, and contains not infre- quently much iron pyrite and bituminous matter. The rock is well exposed in the bed of the river at Leroy. As the Hamilton, Portage and Chemung are the most promising and most extensive of the shale formations occurring in this state, a series of physical tests was made on Samples from several locali- ties, to determine their characters as related to each other, also as compared with other deposits. The samples were ground to pass through a 30 mesh sieve". The determinations made on these samples were: 1) amount of water required to make a workable mass, 2) shrinkage in drying, 3) shrink. age in burning, 4) plasticity, 5) tensile strength of air-dried bri- quettes, 6) temperature of incipient fusion, 7) vitrification, 8) vis- cosity, 9) per cent of soluble salts. The localities from which samples that were tested came are Jamestown, Angola, Hornellsville, Alfred center, Cairo and Corning. ** Hamilton. The Hamilton is one of the great shale-bearing formations of New York state. It is also widely distributed, ex- tending from the Hudson river to Lake Erie, and at these two points shows wide extremes in its lithologic character. In the east it is a true sandstone, in the west a clay shale. “The valleys of Seneca and Cayuga lakes are both excavated, for more than half their length, in the shales of this group ’’. (Hall. Geology of the 4th district of New York, p. 187) The Hamilton shales extend from Port Jervis northeastward along the edge of the Chemung area in a belt about 5 miles wide, and then swing westward from a point a few miles west of Albany to Buffalo. In the central part of the state the Hamilton belt is about 20 miles wide, and thins to about 12 miles in the western half. The Finger lakes are largely bounded on the north by the Hamilton shale area. 1 Of most of the shales ground up by disintegrators, about 60% of any Sample will pass through a 30 mesh sieve, and the balance through a +'s 6 or *% inch mesh. 832 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Along the banks of Seneca and Cayuga lakes the full section of the Hamilton group may be seen. The lower members are the most northern, and dip to the south under the higher ones. Prof. Eſall makes the following divisions: 1 Dark, slaty fossiliferous shale, resting on the Marcellus shale 2 A compact, calcareous blue shale, of little thickness 3 An olive or blue shale, which in its upper layers is stained by oxid of manganese. This is one of the best adapted for clay products 4 Ludlowville shales, often sandy in their nature 5 A limestone 6 Moscow shales, of grayish blue color, and slightly calcareous in places e These subdivisions can all be seen along the eastern shore of Cayuga lake from Springport to Ludlowville. Cairo, Green co. This is one of two localities at which the Ham- ilton shale is mined. The material, which is shipped to the works of the Catskill shale paving brick co., at Catskill, is a reddish gritty shale possessing little plasticity. This material was at first used alone, but found difficult to work on account of its excessive lean- ness, and consequently is now mixed with 50% of common red clay also obtained from Cairo. Samples of this mixture were tested with the following results. The moderately plastic paste shrunk 4% in drying, and 9% in burning. Air-dried briquettes had an average tensile strength of 97 pounds a square inch, and a maximum of 100 pounds a square inch. . Incipient fusion occurred at cone .05, vitrification at cone .01, and viscosity at come 2. The mixture of clay and shale is ground in dry pans, then passes to the pug mill on the floor above, whence, after tempering, it is discharged to the auger side-cut machine. The bricks are re- pressed, dried in tunnels, and burned in down-draft kilns. The company has recently erected a large continuous kiln; in this kiln, most of the firing is done in temporary fireplaces built in the door- CLAYS OF NEW YORK 8.33 ways of the kiln, no grate bars being used; it is said that prac- tically no fuel is charged through the small openings in the roof of the kiln. The Hamilton shale is also utilized in the western part of the state at Jewettville, where dry pressed and also stiff mud brick are made from it. (See detailed account of brickyards, p. 724) Several samples have been collected by Prof. I. P. Bishop in Erie co., and tested with the following results. The numbers pre- ceding each locality refer to Prof. Bishop's notes. No. 2. Hamilton shale from near Windom. Forms a bed 10–12 feet thick. When ground to 30 mesh, it took 22% of water to work it up. The mass was fairly plastic. The tensile strength was 40 pounds a square inch, and the air shrinkage 43%. At .03 the total shrinkage was 9%. The brick was deep red, hard and semi-vitrified. Vitrification occurs at come 1, with a total shrinkage of 14% and viscosity at 4. The shale is slightly calca- reous, and the soluble salts were noticeable on the surface of the dried bricklet. A determination of these showed 9%. No. 3 of Bishop is a 5 foot bed above the preceding One, and took only 20% of water to work it up. The air shrinkage was 2%. At .06 the total shrinkage was 4%; the color of the bricklet deep red when incipient fusion had been reached. It vitrified at 1 with 8% shrinkage. Viscosity began at 4. The percentage of soluble salts was 6%. The analysis yielded: - Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57.30 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . 21. 61. Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 50 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 52 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 50 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e ſº tº dº Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '7.80 No. 4 of Bishop is from the top of the Hamilton shale at bridge west of Websters Corners. The bed is 5 to 6 feet thick. This 834. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM sample gave quite a plastic mass, with 21% of water. The air shrink- age was 3%. When heated to .06 the total was 4%, with incipient fusion, and the color deep red. The clay vitrifies at 1, with a total shrinkage of 7%. The shale has .2% soluble salts. No. 5 of Bishop is also from near Windom. It is a fine-grained shale, which worked up to a lean mass with 19% water. Tensile strength, 35 pounds a square inch. The air shrinkage was 3%. At .03 the total shrinkage was 7%, and the bricklet was nearly vitrified. It was completely vitrified at 1 with 9% shrinkage. It became vis- cous at 5. The soluble salts were .35%. Its composition is: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.15 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.57 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.20 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c e º e º e tº 3.06 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . 20 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.90 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.95 94.03 Portage. (See Hall. Geology of the 4th district of New York. p. 224.) Another important shale occurs in this member of the Devon- ian formation. The group consists of a lower shaly member, the Cashaqua shale, a middle member of shales and sandstones, and an upper One of sandstones. The Cashaqua shale is exposed along Cashaqua creek, where it is a soft green shale that weathers to a tough clay. It also occurs along Seneca lake and at Penn Yan, but east of this becomes very sandy. Good exposures are seen along Allen's creek and Tonawanda creek, and the branches of Seneca and Cayuga Creeks. On Lake Erie at Eighteen Mile creek it is 33 feet thick, while along the Genesee river it is 150 feet thick. Concerning the Gardeau shales, Prof. Hall states that they are exposed along the Genesee river, where the section involves al- ternating layers of shales and sandstones. Toward the east the CLAYS OF NEW YORK 835 sandstones become more prominent, but to the west the shales in- crease and predominate, so that along Lake Erie, “the Cashaqua shale is succeeded by a thick mass of black shale, and this again by alternations of green and black shales’, which aggregate Several hundred feet in thickness. * Angola, Erie co. The Portage shale is used by J. Lyth & Sons at this locality for the manufacture of Sewer pipe, fireproofing, drain tile and terra cotta. The clay is somewhat less gritty than that at Jamestown. It is a grayish, moderately coarse-grained shale and contains scattered streaks of bituminous matter. When ground to 30 mesh it required 21.4% of water to work it up, giving a moderately plastic mass. The air shrinkage was 4% and the fire shrinkage 10%. The air-dried briquets had an average tensile strength of 92 pounds a square inch, and a maxi- mum of 95 pounds a square inch. Incipient fusion occurs at cone .06, vitrification at cone .01 and viscosity at cone 4. The analysis of the clay is as follows:" Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65. 15 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15. 29 Ferrie oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 16 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 50 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. 57 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • e º e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º º º º 5. 71 97.3S Total fluxing impurities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.94. In general composition it resembles a Carboniferous shale used for paving brick at Kansas City, Mo.” This shows the following analysis: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64. 37 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19. '73 1 Bulletin New York state museum. no. 12, v. 8, p. 228. * Clay worker, December 1893. 836 NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. 07 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 32 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3. 78 Total impurities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.97 The principal output of these works is fireproofing. On ac- count of its softness the shale is easily mined and transported in cars to the dry pans, where it is first ground and then tempered in a wet pan. The tempered material is then conveyed to the upper floors and discharged into the usual form of sewer pipe press. The glazing of the sewer pipe is done by means of salt. Chemung. The most southern shale formations of New York state are included under this head. As a whole, the group COIA- sists of interbedded shales and sandstones, the former prominent toward the west, the latter becoming predominant to the east. The shales vary in color, and are black, olive or green. The shales sometimes pass into shaly sandstones; these are often highly mica- ceous. The members of the group recognized by Prof. Hall, be- ginning at the top, are: 6 Sandstone and conglomerate Old red sandstone Black, slaty shale Green shale with gray sandstones Gray and olive shales and shaly sandstone Olive, shaly sandstone Portage sandstone Of these members 2, 3 and 4 are the most important to clay workers; the beds of shale exposed are often 20 or 30 feet in thick- ness and free from sandstone. * - “On the Genesee river the shale is often in thick beds of a bright green color and scarcely interrupted by Sandy layers ”. “. Westward from the Genesee river there appears to be a con- stant augmentation in the quantity of the green shale, which is Plate 138 To face page 837 H. Ries photo. Shale quarry, Jamestown shale paving brick co., Jamestown. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 837 often the predominating rock, though from weathering to an olive color it does not always appear as distinctly ’’. “In the ravines in Chautauqua co., extending toward Lake Erie, the shale still retains its green color ’’. Jamestown, Chautauqua co. This sample of shale came from the bank of the Jamestown shale paving brick co. This was a rather gritty shale, which required 18.5% of water to make a workable paste; plasticity, lean. The paste shrunk 4.5% in drying, and an additional 7.5% in burning, making a total shrink- age of 12%. Air-dried briquettes made of this mud had an average tensile strength of 16 pounds a square inch, and a maximum of 20 pounds a square inch. This low tensile strength was due to the silicious character of the shale which, however, permitted rapid drying. - b Incipient fusion occurred at come .04, vitrification at coie .01 and viscosity at come 3. The clay burns to a deep red and dense body. - A sample collected by the writer a year later, representing an average of the material used, gave: water required to mix up, 17%; tensile strength, 45-69 pounds; plasticity, lean; incipient fusion cone.06, with 5% shrinkage; vitrification .01, with 10% shrinkage; viscosity at come 2. When vitrified the clay burns deep red. Sol- uble salts .55%. Alfred center, Allegany co. Chemung shale is used at this locality for the manufacture of roofing tile. The shale is some- what argillaceous, and moderately fine-grained. It requires 20% of water to make a workable mass, which is slightly plastic. The shrinkage of this paste in drying is 4% and in burning 9%. The tensile strength of air-dried briquettes was, on the average, 61 pounds a square inch, with a maximum of 62 pounds a square inch. Incipient fusion occurs at come .06, vitrification at come .01, and viscosity at cone 3. 838 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The composition of the shale according to an analysis furnished by the Celadon terra cotta co., of Alfred center, is: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53. 20 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23. 25 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. 90 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.01 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 2. 69 Sulfuric acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41 Titanic acid ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. 39 Manganese oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 99.90 Total fluxing impurities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15. 74 This shale corresponds very closely in composition to that used at Ransas City, Mo.," for the manufacture of paving brick, but there is a considerable difference in the fusibility, the Missouri shale being very fine and consequently more fusible. When this factory was first started, both terra cotta and roofing tile were produced, but now the Celadon terra cotta co. confines itself entirely to the manufacture of vitrified roofing tile, which is of a Superior quality, and bears an excellent and widespread reputa- tion. At first a mixture of clay and shale was used, but now the latter material alone is found sufficient; the shale after grinding and careful tempering is molded either by hand or steam power ma- chimes, and set aside to dry slowly. The tile are no longer burned in saggers as was formerly done, but are placed in pockets in the kiln. The shale burns to a tough, cherry red body. Alfred Station. A bed of shale is worked in a spur of the hill on the opposite side of the valley from the station. It is similar to Mo. geol, swr. 11, 565. Plate 139 To face page 83.9 - º - º - - -- -- -- º __ --- - - *º-º-º-º: - - H. Ries photo. Shale bank, Corning brick and terra cotta co., Corning N. Y. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 839. that from the quarry one mile north, and is used by the Alfred clay co. for the manufacture of roofing tile and dry press brick. Hornellsville, Steuben co. The shale at this locality frequently contains interbedded layers of Sandstone, which are separated in mining without much trouble. The shale is rather gritty, and on the addition of 20% of water gave a lean, workable paste, which shrunk 2.7% in drying and 5.3% in burning. The tensile strength of the air-dried mud to the square inch was on the average 34 pounds, with a maximum of 39. - Incipient fusion occurs at come .06, vitrification at come .01, vis- cosity at cone 4. . - * The shale burns to a dark red. It is used in the manufacture of paving brick. The composition of the clay, from an analysis furnished by the Preston brick co., is as follows: Silica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.45 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.77 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.04 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Magnesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1. S5 Potash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. 52 Soda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.95 - 96.16 Fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.94 The method of manufacture followed at these works consists of the usual dry pan for grinding the shale and wet pan for tempering it. The molding is done by a stiff mud, side-cut machine, and the green brick are repressed. The burning is in down-draft kilns. Corning. A gray, gritty shale is quarried at this point for the manufacture of paving and building brick. The quarries are located along the Erie railroad, about half a mile west of town. The 840 NIEW YORK STATE MUSICU. M. shale is argillaceous and contains occasional layers of Sandstone, which are discarded in the quarrying. A siding runs into the quarry, so that the material can be easily loaded and then shifted over to the works. A sample of this shale gave the following results: water required for mixing, 18%; plasticity somewhat lean; air shrinkage, 2%; shrink- age at come .05, 3%, with clay incipiently fused; vitrification at cone 1; Viscosity at 3–4. The soluble salts amounted to .3%. An analysis of the shale made by H. Ries gave: Silica . . . . . e ‘º ſº tº e º ºs e º & tº e º e º e º e º e º e e . . . . . 58.10 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e tº º ºs º ºs e º e º e º e º e & 17. 50 Ferric oxid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.00 Lime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º 'º C º gº e º e º 'º e g g º e 4.50 Magnesia. . . tº e º 'º º • * * * * * * * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.88 Alkalis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.15 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.90 Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99.03 Horseheads. An opening has been made on the north side of the valley along the Elmira, Cortland and Northern railroad, to supply shale for the manufacture of common brick. The quarry face is about 20 feet high and shows the shale to be mostly gray, with occasional yellow layers due to weathering. - The shale deposits of New York are destined to play an im- portant role in the future. They form an inexhaustible source of supply, easily located, adapted as present work shows, to a wide range of uses. The products now made from them are common and pressed brick, paving brick, roofing tile, terra cotta, sewer pipe and fireproofing. . From the tests cited above it will be seen that the shales used compare very favorably with the requirements of a paving brick material. Most of them are slightly more silicious than the average '.w. ’N speottºsuoſ I （sºlow ſtoliq aiſtītu） · (poſiad º untuatio) sitieq oſuus'proud sº：1 （1：1 OFS 95 bol ootaej oj,0+1 ºl l’I， I CLAY'S OF NEW YORIK 84.1 run of paving brick clays, but this is no serious objection. The lean character of many can be overcome by the addition of plastic clay, as in the case of the Cairo shale, in which instance the mixture, as already stated, had a tensile strength of 100 pounds a square inch. The amount of fluxes present permits their vitrifying at com- paratively low temperature. But if necessary their refractoriness could be easily increased by the addition of a certain amount of fire clay. - Feldspar and quartz Mineralogic characters. Feldspar, or “spar ’’ as it is com- mercially called, is one of the commonest of rock-forming min- erals, and yet, owing to its usual intimate association with other mineral species, commercially valuable deposits of it are compara- tively rare. The deposit must be large and of sufficient purity. Its most common associate is quartz, but the two possess properties which render them easily distinguishable. Feldspar is usually of a cream or red color, but at times may be white. It cleaves readily in two directions nearly at right angles to each other, so that fragments often show two smooth cleavage surfaces, the result of this property of splitting. Chemically, feld- spar is a complex silicate of alumina and potash, Soda or lime. Quartz differs from feldspar in lacking cleavage, and being harder. Its hardness is 7 in the scale, and it easily scratches glass. It has also a bright glassy luster, and breaks with a conchoidal or shell-like fracture. There are two well marked groups of feldspar minerals, the potash feldspars, of which orthoclase is the type, and the lime soda feldspars, or plagioclases. It is the Orthoclase feldspar that is usually mined, though there is undoubtedly some plagioclase in some of our commercial feld- spars, but a systematic chemical investigation of the American materials has, however, never been carried out. - While there is but slight variation in the hardness of these feld- spars, there is a variation in the chemical composition and fusibility. 842 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The following table gives the composition and fusibility of the different feldspar species according to Dana. Name Fºy so, Alzo, * Nº O Cao Feo Orthoclase . . . 5.0 64.7 18.4 16.9 e & a ſ Anorthite . . . . 5.0 43.2 36.7 . . . . . . . 20.1 # Albite . . . . . . 4.0 68.7 19.5 . . . . 11.8 ºf Oligoclase. . . . 3.5 64.0 24.0 2.0 9.0 3.0 * Labradorite. 3.0 54.0 29.0 . . . . 5.0 11.0 1.0 0ccurrence. Deposits of feldspar are found in the Southeastern portion of the state, near the town of Bedford, about 40 miles north of New York city. In this region the feldspar together with quartz forms large pegmatite veins, in the augengneiss of that region. The width of some of these veins is over 50 feet. The spar at times forms large masses, at other times it is more or less intimately associated with the quartz, necessitating Some sort- ing after it is quarried, and, when streaks of mica or black tourma- line are encountered in the veins, they are usually thrown out. The color of the feldspar varies from dark red to a creamy white, though most of it is a deep cream. The largest quarry is that operated by P. H. Kinkel & Son, where a large amount of quartz and feldspar has been taken out during the last 10 years. The feldspar in Mr Kinkel’s quarry is Orthoclase, as can be seen by the following analysis: No. 1 No. 2 SiO2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.97 65.85 Al2O3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.85 19. 32 FesO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tr. 24 K2O (by loss). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. 72 14.10 Na2O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * @ e º we e H2O (by loss). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 ë e 9 tº gº CaO . . . . . . . * * * * * * * e º e º e º e º ºs º e º e º e . 56 MgO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ()8 100. 0() 100. 15 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 843 No. 1 furnished by P. H. Kinkel. No. 2 Chemistry of pottery, p. 38. C. Langenbeck analyst. Other quarries occur in the vicinity of Bedford, on the farm of A. Hobby, and L. McDonald, but their output is not constant. Though in New York the quartz and feldspar are found in the same veins, still at many localities they occur alone, but in every case the vein is found in metamorphic rocks. Preparation. The quartz and feldspar are quarried in the usual way by blasting, and after sorting when this is necessary, they are ground in a buhr stone mill, similar to that shown in plate. This reduces the material to a condition of fine sand, after which it is put in a ball mill, with rolled flint pebbles, and ground for about six hours, the resulting product being a very fine powder, which is shipped. Uses of feldspar. Feldspar is used to a large extent as a fluxing material in the manufacture of white earthenware, and porcelain bodies, and is also one of the ingredients of the glaze for hard porce- lain. In addition it has also found some use as a constituent of glass, the feldspar furnishing the necessary amount of alumina for the purpose of hardening the product and as a wood-filler. Uses of quartz. Quartz is also used as an ingredient of pottery for the purpose of counteracting fire shrinkage, and, in addition to its uses in this direction, powdered quartz finds application in a number of other branches of the industrial arts. Much of the quartz produced in this country is mixed with oil, and is used as a wood-filler in painting. That utilized for this purpose is ground as finely as the quartz consumed by the potters. It is also em- ployed in the manufacture of Sand paper, powders and scouring soaps and glass manufacture. The entire output of the quarries at Bedford is hauled to Bed- ford Station, and shipped from there to the potteries at Trenton. The prices obtained for both quartz and feldspar vary naturally with the grade of the material, and also the supply and demand. Ground spar at Trenton brings about $7 a ton, while ground 84.4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM quartz is sold for about $3 a ton. The percentage of ferric oxid in the material influences its commercial value to a large degree, as, in the manufacture of white earthenware or porcelain, it is highly essential that the iron percentage in the mixture shall be extremely low. For this reason many deposits of feldspar, which would otherwise be of commercial value, are left untouched, CLAY'S OF NEW YORK S 4. 5 MINOR USES OF CLAY In the foregoing pages of this report attention has been given entirely to those uses of clay which depend on the presence of plas- ticity when wet and hardness when burned. There are, however, several other directions in which clay or shale can be used, in either the raw or the burned condition. At times the plasticity is of value in promoting the usefulness of the clay in some of the directions about to be discussed, at others it has no bearing on the matter, being entirely a question of proper chemical composition. The minor uses of clay may be classed under the following heads: Portland cement Mineral paint Clarifying oils and fulling cloth Filling paper Food adulterants Ultramarine manufacture Polishing and abrasive uses Road material In engineering work for making puddle Portland cement As there is a state museum bulletin in preparation, discussing the lime and cement materials of the state, this question need not be gone into in any great detail in the present report. Portland cement is made of a mixture of clay or shale, with lime- stone, marl or chalk. The essential ingredients of this cement are silica, alumina and lime, the first two being supplied by the argilla- ceous constituent, and the third by the calcareous one, the lime stone. As a rock containing these three ingredients mixed in exactly the right proportions is seldom found in nature, it is conse- quently necessary to mix them artificially. Both the materials are ground very fine in order that they be intimately mixed, and this 846 NIEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM mixture then burned in suitable kilns at a higher temperature than that arrived at in the manufacture of any except the most refractory grades of clay products proper, the object of the burning being to cause the component elements of the mass to unite — for which reason the material in burning has to be brought to a condition of sintering — the new compounds being calcic silicates and calcic aluminates. The burned mass"is then finely ground, after which most of it will pass through a 100 mesh sieve, and a large percentage of it through 200 mesh as well. This ground material when mixed with water has excellent hydraulic properties, the mass setting into a stonelike condition. It has been found by Newberry that in the best cements the percentage of lime is equal to 2.8 times the silica plus 1.1 times the alumina. New York, with her great series of Paleozoic limestone forma- tions, her Quaternary marls, and her clays and shales ranging in age from the Silurian to the Quaternary, is liberally supplied with raw materials to support a flourishing portland cement industry, and indeed there are already seven factories in operation in the state, while an eighth one is nearly completed, and several more are in contemplation. The characters of the different limestone formations are discussed in the bulletin already referred to, and an idea of the nature of the clays and shales can be gained from the analyses given in different portions of this bulletin. For farther reference there are given herewith some additional analyses of clays and shales used at differ- ent localities in the United States for the manufacture of portland Cement. . Up to a few years ago most of the portland cement used in the United States was imported from foreign countries, but at the present time it is being found that it is possible to make just as good hydraulic cement in this country, and the local production, already large, is increasing annually, and prejudice against it, which has unfortunately existed, is slowly disappearing. Clays and shales used in manufacture of portland cement SiO2 Ala Os | Feg Og CaO MgO SO3 |H2 O & Org Glens Falls, N. Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55.27 28. 15 5, 84 2.25 12 | . . . . . . . Warners, N. Y. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40.48 20.95 a 25.80 a .99 | . . . . . . 8. 50 Sandusky, O. . . . . . . . . . … 64.70 || 11.90 | 9.90 .90 .70 | . . . . . . 11.90 Bronson, Mich. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62. 10 2.09 '7, 81 . 65 .90 .49 '7.90 Yankton, S. D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57.98 || 18. 26 4. 57 1. 75 1.83 1.28 12.08 Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53. 30 23.29 9, 52 36 1.49 | . . . . . . 5. 16 a Determined as carbonate. § S48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Mineral paint By this term is meant a paint obtained by taking some earthy mineral or rock, which has the desired color, grinding it to a fine powder if it is not already in that condition, and then mixing it with oil. One of the commonest forms of mineral paint is the well-known ocher which is simply a fine-grained ferruginous clay, of the proper color. Common ocher is not quarried in this state, but a variety of ocher known as sienna is found, forming a thin bed in the glacial drift south of Whitehall, and has been worked for a number of years. In the Southern part of the state near Randolph there occurs a Series of shale beds which exhibit green, brown, bluish and olive colors, depending on the amount of iron oxid which they contain and its condition of oxidation. These are worked by the Elko mining and milling co., and ground for mineral paint. Mineral paints made from clays and shales form a cheap and Satisfactory form of color application for wooden surfaces. The value of the material depends to a large extent on the shade of the color, the amount of fineness which it naturally possesses and the percentage of oil which has to be mixed with it in order to give a mixture of the proper consistency. Clarifying oils and fulling earth Under this head is included the material known as fullers’ earth. Properly speaking, fullers' earth is not a clay, because it lacks plas- ticity, but some of the material which is put on the market under this name and does the work required of it as well as true fullers’ earth is ordinary plastic clay. FULLERs’ EARTH Properties and uses. Fullers’ earth is one of the most interest- ing materials with which the economic geologist has to deal. In appearance it resembles clay, in properties it differs from it very considerably, in that it usually lacks plasticity, and also has the CLAYS OF NEW YORK S4.9 power of absorbing large quantities of greasy substances. The ordinary quantitative analysis does not show it to differ much from ordinary clay, except that it usually has a relatively higher percen- tage of combined water. Fullers' earth when dried adheres strongly to the tongue, on account of its absorbent properties, but on the other hand some of the ordinary clays do the same. Fullers' earth was at first used for fulling cloth, that is cleansing it of grease, but at the present day its most important use is for bleaching cotton- seed oil, and also for clarifying petroleum. Up to within the last two or three years, nearly all of the fullers' earth used in the United States was imported from England, where large deposits of this material exist. Since that time, however, the importance of these materials has become more or less widely known, and it is mined in this country also, deposits having been found in different states, and in time the importation of the English material may perhaps cease altogether. The only reliable means of determining the quality of fullers’ earth is to subject it to an actual test, which can be done in the laboratory. This of course necessitates some careful manipulation and prac- tice in order to insure the best and thoroughly reliable results. Occurrence in New York. In New York, deposits of fullers’ earth occur at a locality known as McConnellsville, 12 miles north of Rome on the Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg railroad. The deposit has been worked for several years by the New York fullers' earth co., and is a fine-grained, dense, Quater- nary clay in layers 2 to 8 inches thick, interbedded with layers of sand of similar thickness. The total thickness ex- posed is about 15 feet, and there is a capping of about 4 feet of sand. To mine the earth, the overlying sand has to be stripped off and the layers of fullers’ earth taken off one by one, and spread in the sun to dry, the racks being movable, so that they can be shoved under cover in stormy weather. Thus far this fullers' earth has been used only for cleansing woolen goods, and it has been 850 NEW YORK STATE IMTUSEUM shipped to several factories in New York and neighboring states. A second mine of the same material has been opened on an adjoin- ing farm by M. A. Penfield. The New York material has thus far not been used for clarifying purposes, and it is doubtful if the deposit from McConnellsville will prove to be suitable for this purpose. Owing to its absorptive properties fullers’ earth has also found an application in the manufacture of certain soaps, which are adapted for removing grease and printers ink stains. The composition of both English and American fullers’ earth can be seen from the following table. : 3. : Analyses of fullers’ earth Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O H2O Moisture 23.06 2.00 4.08 2.00 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.95 | . . . . . . . . 6 92 3.78 7.40 2.27 | . . . . . . . .74 14.27 | . © º tº 11.82 6.27 6.17 2.09 | . . . . . . . . .84 13.19 | . . . . . . . . 10 35 2.45 2.43 3 12 .20 . 74 7.72 6.41 10.08 2 49 3.14 4.09 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 61 6.28 16.90 4.00 4 06 2.56 2 11 8.10 2.30 21.07 6.88 4.40 .30 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.60 7.90 10.99 6.61 6.00 300 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 30 7.45 P2 O 5 tº º ſº e º e º & tº e º 'º t e º sº. Na Cl * * * e º e º º tº gº tº $ tº , tº a tº LOCALITY 2 English blue earth . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 3 English yellow earth . . . . . . . . . - º e º 'º 4 Gadsden co., Fla. 5 Decatur Co., Ga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Fairborn, S. Dak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 River Junction, Fla. & e e g º e e s & g = e : * * 8 Norway, Fla. e e º it tº £ tº e º & © tº º ſº tº tº tº e e º te e SiO2 * -º 44.00 52.81 59.87 62.83 67.46 58.72 50.70 54.60 1 Penny encyclopedia, 11, Dr Thompson, anal. G. S., E. J. Riederer, analyst. amºn. rept. U. S. 2, 3, 19th amn, rep'l U. S. G. S. 4, 5, 17th amºn. rep’t U. S. G. S., P. Fireman, anal. 6, 7, 8, 17th 852 NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Filling paper Clay is one of the Several substances used for this purpose. It is mixed in with the paper pulp during the process of manufac- ture, the object of this being that the fibers of the pulp shall enmesh a certain amount of the clay particles which are in suspension in the water in which the pulp is. The plasticity and sandiness of the clay no doubt exert some influence on the degree of success of the operation, for it is found that a given paper will often retain a much greater proportion of some clays than others, those of which the greatest quantity is retained being the most plastic, of the several tried. Sand is an undesirable constituent of paper clay for the rea- SOn that the Sand grains tend to wear out the wires of the screens through which the materials have to pass. In certain lines at least clay is not used as much for filling as it formerly was. The color of the clay in its raw condition is all important for the higher grades of paper. For the best quality a very fine white kaolin or sedimentary clay is used, it being first carefully washed, but for the commoner grades, specially the colored ones, the manufacturer does not as a rule have to search very far in order to find the right material, as the requirements are not so strict. Food adulterants This use of clay is self-evident. It is used as an adulterant of those food products which it resembles in color, and which are used either in a powdered condition or caked form, either of which would tend to hide the presence of the adulterant. Ultramarine manufacture Raolin in its washed condition or even very fine-grained, white sedimentary clays are used in the manufacture of ultramarine to serve as a nucleus for the coloring material to gather round. For this work the clay should be as low in iron and lime as possible, and an excess of silica is undesirable, but if too little is present it may be added in the form of finely powdered quartz. Polishing and abrasive materials Many clays exert a combined polishing and abrasive action on account of the very finely divided grains of sand which they con- tain. The well-known Bath brick which has such an extensive CLAYS OF NEW YORK S53 domestic use for scouring steel utensils is simply a fine-grained sili- cious clay, which is deposited during high tide along the banks of the Parrot liver in England. Road materials Clay or shale is used in the construction of wagon roads and railroads. Wagon roads. Soft plastic clay when used by itself is a very poor road material, for the reason that in wet weather it makes the road almost impassable at times, and in dry weather it is exceedingly dusty. Shales if soft and very argillaceous are almost as bad, but, if the shale is silicious and well cemented by iron, it often makes a Splendid road, specially if the traffic is not very heavy. In many portions of New York state, shale is used to a large extent with good results. In some regions the shale has been partly changed to slate, owing to the folding which the rocks have been subjected to Subsequent to their formation, and the value of the shale for road metal is then increased. Railroads. In many portions of the west where rock is hard to obtain for railroad ballast, clay is used in a very ingenious way. The material is dug up along some railroad siding where a bed of it has been found, and piléd in long heaps interbedded with old rail- road ties. This mass of ties is then set on fire at the bottom of the heap, and the mass of clay is gradually baked from bottom to top, the result being a mass of burned clay lumps of the right size for putting on the road bed and as hard as almost any ordinary stone that could be used for the same purpose. While this is an import- ant use of clay, it would find no application in the east where stone for railroad ballasting is so plentiful. IFor a detailed description of this application of clay, see Min. &md. vol. 6. Puddle Puddle is a mixture of clay and gravel often used in engineering construction. The clay employed must be such that it will bind the pebbles firmly but not crack in drying. The best results would therefor be yielded by a plastic clay containing an abundance of l fine sand. 854. NEW YORIS STATE MUSEUM TESTING OF CLAY WARES The tests applied to determine the qualities of a clay product depend on the use to which it is to be put. Some wares such as paving bricks are subjected to sudden shocks and abrasion, others, which are placed in exposed positions, must withstand the influ- ence of weather, still others must resist sudden changes of tem- perature, etc. Porosity or permeability The denser a building brick the better it will be able to with- stand weathering influences. Soft mud bricks are perhaps an ex- ception to this rule, for they may often exhibit 15% or 20% porosity and still resist frost action. The porosity of course depends on the density, and is determined by the increase of weight which a brick shows when immersed in water. It may also be of interest or importance at times to determine the porosity of the different parts of a brick, in which case the brick is broken up and frag- ments taken from the center. - The absorption of common building brick may be as much as 20% of their weight, while in the case of hard brick it should not exceed 5%; in paving bricks and bricks for sewers not over 2%, and in sewer pipe and canal brick it should never get above 1%. According to Dümmler (Ziegel Fabrikation, p. 71) it is import- ant in the case of vitrified roofing tile and sewer pipe to determine not only the porosity but also the permeability. With roofing tile, which simply serve to drain off water, this is done by heating the tile first to 100° C., then placing On it a tube whose cross-section is 10 Square centimeters, and whose hight is 20 cm. This is fastened to the tile by means of wax, and then filled with 10cc of water. The time is then noted which this water takes to soak in, and additional quantities of 10 to 15 cc are added at a time till drops begin to appear on the under side of the tile. Roofing CLAYS OF NEW YORK 855 tile which allow the water to percolate through them in less than six hours should be rejected. IFor sewer pipes the water must be put under pressure, which is done by closing the two ends of the pipe with plates of iron, the joints being tightened by means of rubber bands around the edges. The pressure is then applied by means of a piston till the manom- eter shows the desired pressure, at which point it is allowed to stand. If the pipe is impermeable, the manometer will remain at that point, but if the pipe contains a flaw the liquid in the mano- meter will fall and moisture will appear on the outside of the pipe at the point where the flaw is. Breaking strength This test is made by allowing the stone to lie flat on two parallel Supports with sharp edges, while a third edge is caused to press on the upper surface halfway between the two supports. The pressure required to break the stone is then measured. If the upper surface of the stone is not perfectly flat, it can be made so by laying on the upper surface two parallel cleats of portland cement one cm wide. See “Paving brick’’, p. 745. Hardness test The hardness of building material can be determined by means of Moh’s scale of hardness. This scale is made up of 10 different minerals, of which each is harder than the preceding one in the series, and softer than the succeeding one. The order, beginning with the softest, is: 1 Talc 2 Gypsum 3 Calcite 4. Fluorite 5 Apatite 6 Orthoclase 7 Quartz 8 Topaz 856 NEW YORIK STATE MUSEUM 9 Corundum 10 Diamond If the hardness of the brick is such that it can be scratched by Quartz but not by Orthoclase, its hardness is no. 7 of the scale. Vitrified products should show a hardness of 6–7. Determination of deleterious impurities The stone or brick is to be subjected to a damp atmosphere for a period of time. If it contains any lumps of carbonate of lime or pieces of pyrite, these will soon show themselves by causing the brick to flake off. The moist atmosphere can be produced by placing the brick under a bell glass containing a bowl of water. The method suggested by an international committee appointed to decide on a standard test, was that a portion of the brick should be put in a Papin digester containing vapor under one fourth atmospheric pressure for three hours. - It is advisable in all cases to subject the raw material to an examination to see if any harmful impurities are present. Determination of soluble salts These are determined by breaking off chips of the brick and grinding these to 100 mesh fineness. 25 grams of this powder are boiled for one hour in 250 cc of water. The water is then filtered, and from this filtrate by evaporation the amount of dis- solved salts is determined. Salts of vanadium show themselves by the presence of a green tint on the surface of the wet brick after it has been set aside in a place protected from dust. Resistance to weathering One method of testing this is to subject the bricks, which have been immersed in water, to a freezing temperature, which can be easily done by covering them with a mixture of ice and salt. The frozen bricks are then subjected to water having a temperature of 20° C. This process of freezing and thawing is repeated 20 or 25 times. The particles which break off in the CLAYS OF NEW YORK 857 operation are weighed, thus the percentage of loss is determined. The bricks themselves are also to be examined for cracks after this treatment. Resistance to acids Certain structural clay products, such as bricks for sewer works, pavements and walls, as well as those used in acid works, which are more or less subjected to the action of acids, are to be tested for their resistance to the latter. The best way to do this is to pulverize the product to be tested, separating the fine powder, then subjecting the coarser material to the action of acids of dif- ferent degrees of concentration for 24 hours. The acid is then filtered off, and the powder is washed, dried and weighed to determine the loss. Abrasion test This is described under “Paving brick’’, p. 745. SECTIONS OF CLAY DEPOSITS T.OCALITY Owner | : Color Underlying material Overlying material Albany. . . . . . . . . . Rensselaer . . . . roy it tº tº * * e º e º 'º e s tº e º a g * * * * tº ºn tº e º O ſº tº $ tº g g e g º º e t e º e º º * * * * * * * * * * * * tº tº e º 'º' Cohoes . . . . . . . tº tº e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º - Lansingburg . . . . . . . . . Crescent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mechanicville . . . . . . tº º ºs e º is ſº º q Saratoga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ſº tº tº tº Middle Granville. . . . . . . . . . . . Hoosick Falls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plattsburg . . . . . . . . . Gouverneur. . . . . . Carthage Watertown . . . . . . . . . & e º 'º º 3 tº tº dº tº tº 4 ſº º ſº tº e º 'º e º e º º • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * : * * * * Ogdensburg...... ........... Madrid . . . . . . . tº ſº º tº e º e º e º 'º p * * * Raymondville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BreeSport ... . . . . . . . & 6 s is tº e º ſº gº Spencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Newfield . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 ºn tº $ 4 tº º e Homer ...... tº e º 'º e is . e. Binghamton . . . . . . . tº º is tº tº e º º º Goshen . . . . . . . . . . . 0 tº tº e º 'º & tº $ & Florida . . . . . . . . . . tº º tº e º e º tº º e º s Oakland Valley ... . . . . . . . . . . New Paltz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chittenango e & 8 & s tº º is tº e º e º e º º Allenshill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Owasco. . . . . . . . tº tº dº e º º tº gº is tº º is 4 & South Trenton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amsterdam . . . . . . . . tº tº e º ſº tº e º g Gloversville ........ & # g º 'º º £ tº º $ tº tº t e º ſº Ilion ........................ Rome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * tº e e º a s g g g g g g g g g g g g g º e e T. McCarthy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Hunter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. Roberts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mrs T. Rigney . . . . . . . . . A. Ferguson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º tº e º e º s º J. B. RobertS . . . . J. E. Murray . J. Baeby. . . . . . . . . T. F. Morrissey. . . . . tº ſº tº g tº º © tº 9 º' tº tº g c tº e g º e º e a Newton Bros * * * * * * * e º e º e º 'º e º 'º e g º t e º Mechanicville brick Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C. L. Williams. . . . . . * e e º e º 'º tº e º 'º e º e g o e º e g tº J. H. Pepper. . . . . . . . . . J. DOlin . . . . tº e º e º a sº tº tº g g g g g g g g º & & tº º ſº tº $ tº e º ſº º is J. Ouimet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e is tº e º e º e = G. R. Thompson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wrape & Peck. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * Watertown brick co. . . . . . . . q e º e º e º e g º ºs e º e Paigel Bros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº tº g º º e º tº R. Watson & & © e is a tº $ tº tº ſº $ tº 6 tº gº tº Coats Bros. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º g º & Empire state brick co, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W. H. BOS twick . . . . . . tº tº tº tº º te e º ſº tº e º e º c tº 0 tº º tº T. C. Campbell . . . . EI. Hall • * * * * * g e * & º gº tº e & e º ſº tº tº g tº $ is ſº e º 'º e s tº e º ſº Wells & Brigham. . . . . . . . . . . . P Hayne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W. H. Vernon tº e a g º ºs e º a tº e º e º ºs e º ſº º e e g º ſº dº º g s O. B. Wheeler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº $ tº a tº e º 'º e & New Paltz brick co. . . . . . . . tº 8 tº ſº e º e º 'º e < t e º is Central N. Y. drain-tile co. . . . B. G. Abbey . . . . A. Lester . . . . . . . . tº e º e s º e º ºs e e º 'º t e º 'º tº ſº tº & tº $ tº $ H. L. Garrett . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. C. Grimes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. McDuffie . . . . . . . s tº º tº e º º is e o e tº tº g º g º e º ſº tº tº e W. A. Stoutner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e & S. E. Coe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W. Armstrong. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W. W. Parry. . . . . . e & g º & s g is c e º ſº e º 'º º tº tº e º e º ſº tº e tº e º ſº g º º is a s e it & & © tº e g g g is is g º º * * > 0 tº tº G tº e tº e º ſº tº e º 'º e º e º & tº º tº e º 'º º g g g g tº º ſº e º ſº º 'º º ſº e º e º º i ; * * * * * * g is e e º e * o tº tº | Blue . . . . . . . . . . . * * * g tº tº e #. and yellow.......... lue Blue and yellow. . . . . . . . . . Blue and yellow. . . . . . . . . . Yellow . . * * * * * * * * * * * g e is & & gº tº º e º & # * * * g e Red 3/6, blue 3% Gray and tiº* tº tº e º is s & # tº to . Yellow 10 ft, blue 40 ft... Blue Yellowish brown......... Gray 8 ft, blue Gray . . . . . . . . . . Red tº e º e º e º g º e & Blue . . . . . . . . . . Blue . . . . Blue . . . . . . . . . . Red . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * g e º ſº e º 'º fl º Blue . . . . . . . . Red and blue , Red * * * * * * tº tº º ſº tº º Blue tº e º gº tº e tº & © tº Yellow and blue . . . . Dark brown... Red brown. ... Blue . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 ft. . . . . . . tº tº ſº ſº tº tº e º ſº tº & g tº e º e e º 'º º s © tº 9 & © e º º ſº e & © tº o g is e º g tº tº tº e tº t e is e º & © e * : * * g g tº e º 'º tº e º a ſº tº tº º e º e º e º & & tº g º O & ſº tº & e º e e tº * * * * tº e º e º ſº tº e * c e º ºs e º e º & tº º e º c e s e e º e Black, gray and blue : Dark gray. . . . . . • * * g e o e º ºs e is Sand. . . . G tº g º & 6 º ºr tº e & e º 'º e º # 9 & ſº e º º tº gº tº & tº e º t e º e º e º e º 'º º e º e º º e º 'º tº e a 30 ft sand.’....... tº e º º ſº gº º © tº º tº dº tº tº º e º 'º a e tº tº º e º 'º e e is e g tº e º e e : * * * * * * * * * * g e = * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g º e º º s Quicksand . . . . . . . . . tº tº e º e & Sand and gravel . . . . . . . . . Black gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sand and hardpan....... Sand tº tº gº tº ſº tº a p * tº t e e * @ tº o Hardpan . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº a tº e. Hardpan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e º e g º 'º e e º is e º e e a Gravel.................... SOil Soil Loose soil Loam Loam 1 foot loam Loam Soil 2-4 ft sand 3 feet Soil 1 foot soil ..] 1 foot soil Sand 4 feet Soil Sand 3 feet Fire Sand 12 feet Soil Soil Sand 4 feet Soil Soil SOil Sand few feet Oi Soil Gravel Soil 1–3 feet Soil Soil Few feet soil Loam ; : : § 3 : © South Bay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Syracuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Warner's . . . . . . . . . . Oswego Falls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baldwinsville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seneca Falls Lyons • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Canandaigua. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rochester . . . . . . . . Tonawanda. . . . . . . . e s e º is s a tº a 6 Buffalo . . . . . . . * c s s a e º e s e º e s a “ Evans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dunkirk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jamestown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bigflats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • a e e º s a c e s = e e º 'º a * * * * * * * * * * * C. Stephens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º a tº e o e º e g º is e Preston Bros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * c e º e e Onondaga vitrified brick Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . W D. Edgerton . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º e o e º e º e e Seneca river brick Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F. Siegfried. . . . . . . . . . . . . F. BOrck & Burke & Mead . . . . . * * * g e e º e º e Rochester brick mfg. CO ... . . . tº º e º 'º e º e º e º e M. Riesterer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brush Bros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W. Bolton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W. Hilton . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº a tº e º e J. E. Mecusker & Son . . . . . J. R. Lowe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * © º 'º e º ſº e º e º e º e 8 & 9 tº 8 tº e º 'º e º e º a * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º 'º - e º 'º & e º e º e tº e • * * * * g e º & © e º e º 'º º e & L e º e s tº e º a - ºr e º i tº e g g tº Yellow . . . . . .............. Red and blue . . . . . . • e s = e < * * * * * to e º 0 e º e g . * * * * * * * * * * tº e º e º e º e º & € • e º ſº tº tº * tº a tº © tº e e º ſº e º 'º e ∈ Blue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº a tº e º a Yellow and blue . . . . . . . . . Yellow 5, blue 70 . . . . . . . . Gray and blue . . . . . . . . . . . Cemented blue gravel ... Sand and gravel . . . . . . . . . Gravel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . QuickSand . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hardpan . . . . . . . . tº dº e º e º e º 'º Šand and gravel . . . . . . . . Rock . . . . . . tº º tº a e º 0 ° e º 'º º e º s Hardpan . . . . . . . . . . © tº e e s e a c e s e e º e º 'º e e º e º 'º - e º a e i e s e º e SOil Soil Soil Soil Soil 1 foot peat Yellow sand 4 feet 860 NIEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM number of different sources. CILAY The following table of clay analyses is probably the most com- The analyses are arranged under clays, slip clays, adobe soils, brick clays, shales, paving brick clays, the clay whose analysis is given is available for only one purpose, used for several different products. The constituents given, in nearly every instance, are silica, Water. The following abbreviations are used. In many cases titanic oxid, organic matter, phosphoric a ferrous oxid b lime carbonate Residual SILICA. State and county Town Material C Alumina *...* - OIIl- - & j| Free 2. Alabama: Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Morrisville . . . . . . . . . . . From Knox- ville limestone 55.42 £2, 17 8.8 2 | Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . y s 6.6 s e e s e º e s s a s a • From St. Clair limestone .. 33.55 30.18 1.98 Georgia: 3 Bartow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cartersville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58.63 20.47 8.58 4 Polk. . . . . . . . . . tº e º e e is . . . . Rockmart . . . . . . . . ... Caen stone... 61.66 19.64 7.54 Rentucky: 5 Graves . . . . . . . . . . . . # º tº $ is a tº e º e º 'º º e º º q g º e s e a e e g tº From Chert .. 76.78 14 74 1.64 Massachusetts: 6 Hampden. . . . . . . .. . . . . . Blandford . . . . . . . . . . . o tº is º º 52.03 31.76 tr. Missouri: 7 Iron . . . . . . . • * * * * * . . . . . . R. R. Cut at Tiptop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90.05 4.63 2.31 8 Lincoln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Morris shaft. . . . . . . . . . © º e º e tº 72.35 15.86 2.25 9 “ . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº Colbert. . . . . . tº g º e º e º 'º tº 6 & © tº e º 'º e º 'º º 65.85 21.2 2.05 North Carolina.: 10 Wake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cary . . . . . . . . tº e g g g tº e e s I e º 'º e e tº 6 tº e g º º 54.54 26.43 9.04 Pennsylvania: 11 Lehigh. . . . . . . . . . . . , ... Fogelsville . . . . . ... . . . . From Slate... 72, 164 2] .764 .99 Wisconsin: - 12 Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grand Rapids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * g e t 70.83 18.98 1.24 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 861 ANALYSES plete that has ever been published; it has been compiled from a the following heads: residual clays, kaolins, fire clays, pottery terra cotta clays and pipe clays. This is not intended to mean that for, on the contrary, it frequently happens that one clay can be alumina, ferric oxid, lime, magnesia, alkalis, combined and free acid and sulfuric acid have been determined. c titanic acid ? d magnesium carbonate e organic matter clays WATER, Lime Magnesial Alkalis C - i. Firm ºw. OTYl- t &V Ll c o biºd | Free 23 1 .15 1.45 2 49 9.86 | . . . . . . . . . . e - 2 3,89 .26 || 1.57 10.72 P2 O5 2.58|| From Ark., geol. sur. rep’t on manganese 3 tr. 1.42 4. 7.26 . . . . . . . . . . . Georgia geol. sur. 1893 4 tr. tr. 2 32 © e & º e tº dº º 0 tº ſº tº * * * * * * e º ſº º & { { 5 tr. ,389 1.557 4.894 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ky. geol. Sur., chem. rep’t A, pt 3 6 tr. .54 | . . . . . . . . 15. 55 Tech quart. 1890 7 tr. tr. und. 2.72 . . . . . . . . . . . . Mo. geol. 564 - LOSS Ibid., 2: 1872, 11: 288 1.09 1.48 | . . . . 3.05 1.46 2.46 Loss 9 .52 1.27 & tº 4.83 2.14 2.64 10 tº º e º e º O & • * * * * * * * © e º 'o e C tº 6 9 87 tº e º e º e º 0 e º { { 11 .224 .698 5,139 4.758 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Penn. geol. Sur. D, p.13 12 .24 .02 2.59 5.45 CO2 1.02 || Wis. ae, sci. 1870-76 862 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ECao SILICA º Terric State and county TOWn Remarks |c Alumina | “...; & i. Free 2. TI Alabama: - 1 | Calhoun..............., | 12 miles southwest of Jacksonville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.77 39.45 • * * * * g º e 2 Talladega. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Talladega. . . . . . . . . . . . . e e g tº e º e º e s is e a º 43.21 37.27 tr. Arizona: 3 || Graham. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clifton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.4 32.5 16.17 Arkansas: 4 Pike * tº e º tº * @ e s is tº e º 'º º 0 & # I e º e - e º 'º e e s tº e º e a ſº dº e º 'º gº tº e tº e - e. tº t e º 48.87 36.54 .98 5 Pulaski. • e e s e º e e s e e º a º “ a s e º e º e s w tº 9 tº e º 'º a tº e º tº 8 e s w & e tº 46.27 38.57 1.86 6 Ouachita e - © e º 'º tº gº e º 'º e º º ſº e a e e º 'º º e º 'º º º & * e º 'º o & O e e º e º e º 'º © tº e º & e º 48.62 36.52 1.74 Colorado: 7 Jefferson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Golden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * ~ * * * * * * 56.41 26.37 e e g c & 6 c tº Connecticut: 8 e - e. e. e º & e • * * * * * e i e º e º e o 'º - a Sharon... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washed kao- lin . . . . . . gº tº e 46.5 37.4 .8 Florida.: 9 || Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | Palatlakaha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.11 39.55 .85 \ Indiana: 10 Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e º ſº i e a e º e º e s e e º 'º tº e s a e º e º e º 'º e e º 'º e º 'º e e s tº º e º & 68.5 17.2 1.3 11 Lawrence e e º tº $ tº º © tº e º 'º s • * * * e e s s e e º 0 ° tº t e º 0 ° a e e º e s - e º e º e º e º a 44.54. 41.18 tº g e s tº e º º 12 * { e & a tº º Huron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e s e º 'º - 0 tº e º 'º e º 'º 41.125 39.26 18 § { e e º e º e º e º e ] e e º e s m e º e º º º . . . . . . . . . . . . No n plastic white kaolin 44.75 38.69 .95 Massachusetts: 14 || Hampden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blandford. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.03 31.76 tr. Missouri : s 15 | Bollinger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glen Allen. . . . . . . . . . . . . Used for White W8 l’é . . . . . . . . 72.8 18 94 .4 16 ' ' . . . . . . . * @ tº e º º { % e e º e g c tº e g º C & { % 63.5 24.55 & © tº $ tº º ſº 17 | Cape Girardeau. . . . . . . . Brook's Land . . . . . . . . { % 91.05 5.04 .69 18 Carter ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . M. E. L. and M. Co., |Kaolin washed: lace) near Chilton. . . . . . . . . not worked. 78.82 18.16 1. 32 Stirling (Macy place), 19 º e - tº e º 0 e º 0 • e e º 'º e e º 'o e s e s e s e e s e º s e . . . . . Washed, not worked . . . . . 57.75 27.6 2.09 20 | West Plains ... (Yates bank), Howell tº e º º e º & I & 2 º º º e s e e g º º e s tº º ºs e º e º 'º º Not worked & a 60.55 24.77 .84 21 LaWrence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aurora. . . . . . . . . . . . Halloysite. . . . 44. 12 37.02 .38 22 || Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | Porter and Coates - shaft, Aurora. . . . . . . Halloysite not l le S h a fit [worked . . . . . 34.53 6.41 2.59 Lawrence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Louis Ville S h a 23 8, \ Aurora............. Halloysite not - worked .... 32.44 5.53 2.17 24 | Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Arnold land, Thayer. . . Ka'lin (w'sh'd) not worked.. 81. 18 12. 14 1.88 25 | Shannon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .] Trusty land, Winons. | Not Worked . . 56.74 27.29 6.87 ‘th Carolina: 26 No.• * * * * eº • * * * * * * e tº e º e º e º 'º Sylva. . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * Wash'd kaolin 44.08 36.26 1.86 27 | . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * Webster . . . . . . . . . . . . Wash'd kaolin 45.7 40.61 1.39 28 . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * . . Webster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude kaolin. 62.4 26.51 1. 14 29 • e s e a t e a • * * * * * * e e . * * * * “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cl’y Sub'st’nce of above. . . . . 50.5 34.24. . 74 FeOa. 30 • * * * * * * * • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * { % e e e º e º e s e s s a ... Wash'd kaolin 45.78 36.46 *::: 81 l . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * West Mill . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude kaolin. 53.1 33 06 1.15 82 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { % e tº 6 c e º ºs e º a º Clay s”b'st’nce 45.41 39.56 .86 33 || Four miles west of Troy . . . . . • * * * * * * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude: dark | kaolin . . . . . . | 90.13 4.99 || 1.86 CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 863 lins WATER, Lime Magnesia, Alkalis Miscellaneous Firm names, authority, Com- Tree or analyst o bined 2. 1 .79 tº $ tº e º sº tº ſº I tº g º ſº tº e º 'º 13.96 e e º e º tº e ſº tº tº ſº ºn tº g º º O & tº ..... G. H. Bivan, anal. 2 . 11 .68 18 tº º e º ſº e tº e º e º º tº gº º 0 tº U.S. geol. Sur. bull. 3 2.17 tr. tº e § tº a tº e e º 'º & © tº e < * g g tº º tº e tº e e e g º e º e • * * * * * 4 . 19 .25 tº gº tº gº tº e º e 18.29 & tº º tº tº $ I e g g º g e Min. res., 1891 5 .34 .25 13.61 tº e º e º e º e e º e e s tº & g º e º e | { 6 tº $ tº € 9 e º & tº tº tº e º ſº tº & ſº e º g g g tº 13.4 * * * * * * * * : * ~ e º e < | < e < e º º { % 7 .29 .2 1.55 14.66 * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * e º e º 'º s N 8 tr. 1 . . . . . © tº º 1.1 13.49 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | H Regi, anal. 9 | . . . . . . . . 18 . . . . . . . . 13.78 SO3.07 | . . . . . . tº tº Min. industry, 1593 * Loss ) 10 .25 a tº e º e º e .79 .3 tº e * * * * 11.17; Ind. geol. Sur. 1878 p. 158 11 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … . . . …) 12 , 365 • * * * * * g | * * * * * * * * 19.05 & © tº gº º O Ú º tº e º 'º e I e º e º e a Penn, mineral co. 18 .37 .8 ,35 15.17 | . . . . . . . e e º e º e º e tº e g º º º ... Ind. geol. Sur. xx, 105. 14 tr. .54 tr. 15.55 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . Tech. quart., 1890 15 .68 , 39 .42 7.04 e tº e e g º º & tº $ tº º © e º & © & 1 tº e < * g e Mo. geol. Sur. 11: 536 16 1.6 .48 tº tº 6 tº t e s tº 7.3 tº gº tº 0 ° tº º e Q ſº º is tº º g s tº tº º 2.2 From Glen Allen Kao- lin washing co. 17 , 24 .22 • 13 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & Cº º is tº º tº & e º ºs e e I e º a tº e e Mo. geol sur. 11:536. 18 tr. .21 .24 6. 16 * I tº º * Q & # 8 tº tº . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. 19 .24 .31 .6 11.33 e & tº tº e º e º ſº tº e I e g c tº e e i e g tº e º & Ibid., p. 564 i 20 .25 .41 .68 52.86 tº º e © tº © tº e º ſº t tº e { { 21 .19 . . . . . . . . .24 | . . . . . . . . . . & º e º 'º tº ſº tº e º ſe e e * is tº tº e < ... e. e º 'º tº º Mo. geol. sur. 11: 666 22 2.2 & 9 tº tº e º 'º tº © & O 7.19 9 97 | . . . . . tº $ tº tº tº ZnO. Ibid., p. 566. 37.2} 23 2.58 88.9 * * * * * G - e. 6.94 11.65 © tº e º tº e º tº tº tº e º tº tº tº § ºn tº s { { 24 . 16 .14 .18 4.52 | . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e i tº $ tº e º 'º º ºs e s tº º t (, 25 , 26 . 18 1.21 6.20 1.20 e tº e is e º e is e º e tº e s tº s º Ibid., p 570. 26 .43 .20 .5 | 13.56 3.07 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mining & manufac. co. 27 .45 .09 2.82 8.98 .35 * * * * * * g e I e º e g º & I e º 'º º tº º Harris clay co. 28 .57 .01 .98 8.8 .25 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Springer 29 .86 .01 . 1 18.35 | . . . . . . . # tº e e º e º e I gº tº a tº £ tº tº º e * { 30 .50 .04 ,25 13.4 2.05 ! . . . . . . e a tº e º 'º º e e e º e º º { % 81 .38 .08 .83 | 11.32 | . ..... tº e º 'º tº $ tº e ] e : e e g º f tº º e º 'º e G. Brindels 82 .45 .09 ,03 18.58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . gº tº ºn tº tº g g tº a º $ $ 83 , 13 .01 1.03 1.93 .48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © tº $ tº º º 864. NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM . 21 Eaolins. SILICA º Tel' ric State and county TOWII Rea arks |com. Alumina. º o bººed | Free 2. North Carolina (cont'd) 1 ‘‘ . . . . . . . . . § tº º tº e º ſº tº º sº e º te Clay s”b'st’nce and Fe2O3. * 38.58 33 66 10.46 { { tº t e º ſº tº . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washed dark kaolin . . . 86,03 6.46 2.14 3 { % tº º tº e g º e s e e tº ſº tº ſº º e - e. Clay s"b'st’nce 4 { % . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washed white kaolin 63. 1 23, 33 2 97. 5 Bosticks Mills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude kaolin, 21 . . . . . . . . . . 68. 15 19.99 1.86. 6 { { & © tº ºr tº e º & & O & ſº tº e s is e tº º º Crude kaolin, 20 . . . . 70.63 21.81 1.49. 7 { % tº is ſº tº º $ tº s e º ſº e º & e º & Clay slo'st’nce 47.88 39.04 1 9 8 § { . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude kaolin, 22 73.7 16.03 1.57 9 ‘‘ . . . . . tº dº tº tº e º e º e º 'º e º 'º e s tº No. 20 washed. 71. 12 19, 61 2. 18 10 ‘‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº dº e s tº e º 'º Clay s”b'st’nce 49,33 35.9 3.15. 11 C'eveland......... ... Grover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º e º e e 55.24 30.84 .84 12 Jackson . . . . . . ... . . . . . . Harris mine, near Webster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº a tº e º e º º 41 62 2.28 40.66 14. Pennsylvania: • 13 | Chester..... . . . . . . . . . . . Glen Loch, White land - kaolin Co..... * * * * * 1 s e º e º e º ſº tº tº e g º ºs e 50.96 33 30 14 { % Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.88 40.96 .82 15 $ (, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº E tº ſº tº e is e e º 'º e e 70.88 20.99 | . . . . . . . es 16 * { National kaolin and fire brick Works . tº gº e º 'º tº gº tº e º tº tº 71.02 19.72 1.58 17 { % National kaolin and fire brick works. . . . . . . . . . . . e q e º e e 67.71 20.53 3.12 18 Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brandy Wine Summit] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.278 36.25 1.644- 19 ‘‘ . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * | * * g s e º s e º e º e 47,22 34.1 2.49 20 ! Berks............. . . . . .] Hunter Mine.........] ........ 66 173 19.89 a.783 Lancaster. . . . . . . . . . . . . Chestnut Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº e º 'º e º e º & (7.1 20.1 3.9 * | Chester ...............] East Nottingham ....] ..... ....... 46.34 36.32 .64 28 || Berks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mertztown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e & G tº dº tº 54.62 28.18 2.24 South Carolina: 24 Aiken . . . . e º $ tº © º tº e G e º e º 'º e º 'º º e º e º s is tº e s tº e º 'º e e tº o tº e º e º – º tº e º 'º & 44.94 39.18 .52: 25 26 27 Texas : 28 Edwards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º $ tº a tº gº tº e º e º e g e º 'º º tº e º $ tº gº tº ſº º tº dº º is a 48.61 43. 17 tº e g g g g º ºr Virginia : 29 Nelson. * tº e º 'º & tº ſº tº a e g º º e & e º 'º tº $ tº e s e º e º & e º e g g º ſº tº e e tº tº $ 9 & tº º tº tº 9 69.5 19.1 e º ºs e º e º ºs Wisconsin : 30 Wood . . . . . . . . . tº ſº tº Grand Rapids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78.83 13.43 # .74 31 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . § { tº 4 & 8 tº º Washed . . . . . . 49.94 *6.8 .72 82 St Croix... . . . . . . . . . . . . Hersey........ . . . . . . . . . Crude kaolin. 58.82 31. 18 tr. 33 { % e e e s e g º 0 ° 9 º' s e e $ $ tº e º e º is a $ e tº e º e Washed kao- lin. . . . . . . . . . 49.7 38.25 .05 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 865. (concluded) WATER, * Mag- tº * Fi g Lime ja || Alkalis Miscellaneous irm names, authority, €S1 Com- Free Or analyst o bined 2. 1 .91 .07 2 7 13.56 | . . . . . . . 2 .17 .04 1 2.9 | . . . . . . . 8 .84 .19 1.33 14, 35 e i º e º ſe e 4 .15 .09 1.9 7.65 ! . . . . . . . 5 . 13 .16 2.85 4.7 . 17 6 .20 .29 1.45 4.04 .03 7 .42 .60 1.04 8.58 . . . . . . . 8 .38 .47 1.9 4.33 tº a s 9 .17 .08 2.48 4.33 is * * * 10 .31 .14 3 15 8. is º e º 'º tº 11 , 08 .02 tr. 12.89 § tº $ tº $ tº tº q . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W. M. Bowran, anal. 12 tº ſº e º 'º º 'º º .46 14 .84 * tº e º is ºn tº e º ſº tº * * * * * J. A. Holmes, T. A. I. M. E., 20 ; ''' tr.” #! * * * #: • * * * * * : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *; Barnes, anal. I”. T. . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * * * | * a e s s e e s ] e º e e s s lie e g c < * l Census, 2, p. 1078. J 5 .65 .13 | . . . . . . . . 10.28 * * * | * * * * g e s ∈ I a w w w s ..., |} ls, 4, p 16 .32 .03 .27 | 7.04 ..... e e tº c & e º º tº gº e º 'º e tº a Rep. Penn, geol. swr. rºw ºf 1885; p. 589 17 .39 .04 .29 7.78 . . . . . . . tº dº e º ºs e º a º 'º e º e tº e º 'º e 18 .192 321 2.536 | 13.535 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ſº tº e º e º º e g º s e 19 tº ſº tº e * . 39 1.91 13.68 • * * * tº e º is a tº tº e tº º tº § tº e º 'º 4 Pa. eol. SUII*. D. 3 20 .25 1.902 6.211 4.784 . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * || 8 e s e º & geol, 21 .1 .7 2 5.9 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1885 Rep’t. Pa.. geol, 22 .04 tr. .77 13.75 | . . . . . * * * * * | * * * g e * Sll I’, p g 23 .1 2.53 | . . . . . . . 7, 16 | . . . . . . . . & ſº e º e º e º e a Booth, Garret & Blair, anal. 24 tº º ſº tº º tº e º t t e is a 13.38 e c e is tº e º tº tº t tº TiO2 U. S. G. S. bull. Il Oe. 148, p. 290 25 e e e s e º g º e º e º e º e º ºs º º tº e º 'º tº it tº e º is tº e e e a .65 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * : * c e s e = . . e. e. e. e. e. e. P2O 5 ×7 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº £ tº e & . 12 28 , 3S .1 1.78 6.05 tº e tº e º 'º ºn tº tº t e º ſº tº e tº Tºº, geol. sur., 1890. p. 1. 29 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 11. 12 e & © e º 'º e º tº e e s tº g Q & © tº º 5.45 CO., . O .64 .07 .44 2 * 1 | . . . . . tº e º tº e º & © tº e º e * & ; § tº ſº tº º .59 | 11.62 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . © º tº º ſº tº s e º 'º e | wis. a C. Sci. 1870–76. 32 . 07 .05 .38 | 10.04 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t * c e º 'º e | p. 1. Superior China cla 33 tr. tr. .87 12 | . . . . . . tº e º a tº e º f * * * * g e i º e g c e e CO. y 866 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fire SILICA State and county, TOW m Remarks Alumina | Ferrie Com- Oxid c biºd | Free 2. * - ºmº ºmºmº-º-º: Tl Alabama: 1 | Randolph . . . . . . . . . . Louina . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.29 31.92 tr. 2 | Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . Jacksonville . . . . . . White clay. . . . . . . . . 44.6 38.92 .78 3 | Choctaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hard clay . . . . . . . . . . 36.3 5. 12 1.6 4 || Marion . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pikeville . . . . . . . . . . . White Clay. . . . . . . . . 47.2 37.76 .91 Arkansas: Poinsett. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e s tº a tº tº e e º º tº tº . g g g tº º g º e e tº tº 9 tº it tº tº º tº º 61.76 22.91 3.82 6 || Greene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e º 'º º e º e º º e º e º e º e º e º e s tº e tº tº 70.43 19. 15 1.7 7 | Lawrence . . . . . . . . . . . Black Rock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº ſº tº C tº 84.24 11.5 .08 California: 8 . Almador . . . . . . . . . . , Carbondale . . . . . . . . . Washed clay. . . . . . . 59.98 30.29 .27 9 | Nevada. . . . . . . Grass Valley. . . . . . (, . tº º & e º ſº 57.75 30.6 .48 10 | Placer. . . . . . . . . . . ... I Lincoln. . . . . . . . . tº G tº e { { e tº $ tº tº g tº 49.08 37.09 1.91 11 | San Bernardino. . . . . . . . - * @ Q & “ . . . . . . . 12.54 42.97 .63 12 | Lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sulphur banks. . . . . . Alum clay . . . . . § tº e & 66.75 37.35 .25 13 | Trinity. . . . . . . . . . . . . Carville . . . . . . . . . . . . Wash’d white clay.. 88.3 .85 .15 Colorado: 14 || Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . Edgemont . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº ſº º tº e º ſº tº º ſº 46.61 37.2 .15 15 | Pueblo . . . . . . . . . . . . | Pueblo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . gº tº dº ſº tº ſº e º 'º e g 28.76 34.46 24.72 .43 16 || Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . Golden . . . . . . tº a tº ſº e º e I e º e is tº tº º g º e g tº e C & & e 46,88 35.42 a 1.74 17 { % tº tº e º g tº e º e º ( & tº e º º ſº e º e & Crucible clay . . . . . 71.81 15.09 a 1.75 18 { { * * * * * tº “ . . . . . . . . . . . . Shale. . . . . e a c e g º & 49.54 34.04 a .88 19 “ . . . . . . . . . * “ . . . . . . . . . . ... | For crucibles . . . . . . 39.134 33.64 .75 Delaware: - 20 | Newcastle . . . . . . . Wilmington..... tº it tº e º 'º e º 'º tº e º 'º e º 'º º e º ſº e º ſº 72.4 14.8 tr. 21 { % . . . . . . . . . Newcastle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº E tº e º is 72.33 16.75 a 1.29 Georgia: 22 | Baldwin. . . . . . . . . . . . . Stephens pottery . . . . . . . . . tº tº e º e º O tº º e º e º 'º 41.2 38.6 1.45 23 “ . . . . . . tº tº e º z “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º º 54.32 80.24 .06 Illinois: * 24 | Henry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geneseo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º G & © e º tº 62.55 29.1 1.67 25 | Scott. . . . . . . . . . Winchester. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º tº e º º tº © 69.85 17.08 3.47 26 || Met cer. . . . . . . . . . . . New Windsor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º º º is tº tº tº 76. 1 15,04 a 1.08 Indiana: e & 27 | Lawrence. . . . . . . . . . . Huron . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indianaite. . . . . . . . . . . . 40.5 36.35 . 15 28 || Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Knightsville. . . . . . . . tº e º ſº e . * * * * * * * * * tº º e e 67.87 12.7 7.24 29 Parke . . . . . tº dº tº e g tº tº 9 º' Bloomingdale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & & ſº tº ſº tº £ tº º e º tº e 69.82 14, 27 2.13 80 '' . . . . . tº e º e º 'º º Leather wood creek % mile from Bloomingdale . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e º te e º 'º * 73.32 16.06 1.1 8 “. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mecca (S. L. Mc- 1 Ul U e ) . . . . . . . . . . Under clay no. 16... 63. 28.57 || “...}} 32 | Vermilion. . . . . . . . . . West, Montezuma, a .38 (J. Burns) . . . . . . . TJnder clay no. 10... 83.44 10.86 || #} Iowa: 38 || Woodbury. . . . . . . . . . Sergeant bluff... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e a t t e º e & 76.8 12.09 3.03 34 Dallas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Van Meter. . . . . . . tº º ſº tº e º 'º G & © tº 86.63 10 92 . 1 35 “. . . . . . . . . * “ . . . . . . . . . * c < * * * * § tº 55.11 26.71 4.29 36 “. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crills mills..... , , , , | Cretaceous clay. . . 67.14 19.93 2, 33 IXentucky: º 37 Ballard ... . . . . . . . . . Blandville. . . . . . . . . . tº e º º tº º tº e º ſº º e º 'º tº º e º e º e 74.84 16.58 1.4 38 “. . . . . . . tº tº Wycliffe..... • * * * * e º 'º e º ſº e º e º e s tº e º e º e s s 73.24 15,76 1.92 39 || Muhlenburg. . . . . . . . Ross mine. . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e g º º e * Q tº e º ſº tº e º 'º º s 63, 18 26,281 40 Thomas bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº s is ſº e g º º a 47.56 46.61 tr. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 867 clays WATER, Li Magnesial Alkalis Miscellaneous Firm names, authority IDOle gnesia] . Com- Or analyst o bij | Free 2. * *** -º 1 |. . . . . . . . . .72 ........ 15.09 | . . . . . . * * I s e e º is e º e e . . . . . Trans. inst. Imin.eng.,10 2 . . . . . . . . . . 1.03 | . . . . . . . . 18.88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { % 3 .46 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 e tº e º & © e º e s = e s ∈ I e g g g e . Ala. ind, and sci soc., 2 4 tr. tr. tr. 14.24 tº e º e s tº s e I e e s e s e ] e a e s s e ( & Loss 5 .75 .9 1 tº º $ tº a t t t e º e º e a tº e I e º dº e s e º e º sº e º sº s º 8.75 | Ark. geol. sur. 1889, 139 LOSS 6 .52 tr. 1.84 tº e is tº * & G & ºt tº ºr tº di & e tº e e 24.27 { % 7 .52 .02 .42 3.98 | # tº € 9 & 6 tº º & 8 ° 9 || e º e e Jour. chem. soc. Octo- ber 1896 8 .28 . . . . . . tº º 1.02 8.05 tº a tº a tº e g º e º e º e s : * ~ e º e | Cal. State min.,9th rep’t 9 .2 . 1 1.3 10.15 * * * * * * * * | * * * * e º & e s a s e { % 10 .58 | . . . . . tº ſº e i & e g g c e s e 10.6 * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * | e º e º e e { { 11 | . . . . . . . . . 9 e º e º 'º a 4.7 38.4 & © tº * * * * * | * * * * * * | * g g g º º { % 12 .2 is º g º ºr it º tº 4.32 . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * : * * * * * * * > . e. e. e. e. e. e. I e º e e º e { { 13 1.03 .48 5. 07 5.4 tº e º e º e º e e º a e º ºr I e g is a e e $ (, 14 .44 .25 1.23 13.65 .47 Org. e M. Moss, anal. Ti92 || Loss - 15 .3 . 13 tr. 8.63 1.36 .4 .68 || 10.39 || Steiger, anal. 16 .44 .2 1.19 1 tº º º O tº e º 'º tº º e º e º f * * g e º a Crossley, Analyses of Clays 17 .14 ,05 1.02 10.14 tº 9 tº tº ſº tº tº tº tº a º ºn tº tº s a e s a Denver fire brick co. 18 .61 .36 tr. 13.91 tº gº tº $ tº e º tº tº gº tº º º b.27 Furnished by Golden preSSed and fire brick Clay subs Qtz. CO . 19 |. . . . . . . . . tr. .58 11.75 2.13 | 84.524. TiO3.80 11,216 || Mon, 27, U. S. G. S., LOSS p. 390 20 .35 & © e º e º 0 tº .85 .5 dº e º e º 'º º is e º 'º e º º 12.4 Ind. tºol. sur. 1878, ... 10 21 2. .07 | . . . . . . . . 7.98 tº º tº tº $ tº tº t e º 'º e e º º te º Cºlºy, Analyses of & C18, WS TiO2 y 22 | . . . . . . . . .3 .11 16.7 tº e º ſº e dº 1.95 | . . . . . § Gºgeol. sur. 1893, p. 23 ,09 .81 .62 12.86 Org. .84 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. C. White, anal. 24 tr. tr. . . . . . . . . 7.5 ! . . . . . . . . TiO2 E. A. Terpening, anal. 25 .88 | . . . . . . . . 1. 1 4 4 9 tº º º .9 | . . . . . . 26 .62 .3 1.55 5.2 0 tº ſº tº gº tº g tº tº g g g º tº tº º s º º Crossley, Analyses of clays 27 | . . . . . . . . . 13 . 14 22.6 * * * * e * * * : * * * * * 28 ,72 .85 .25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [MnO 1.95 SO3.29 Hº Ind. geol. sur. 1878 29 .9 .6 12.28 e e g c e º ſº tº tº s º ºs e º e º 'º e º e & e º s i s m > * * * | * * * * * * Helwig & Eſobbs 30 .7 .7 tº e º & O tº tº e 8, 12 9 & tº dº ſº e º º e s e º e º s ∈ e º e e Ind geol. Sur. vol. 20, p. 49 31 .44 .89 2.69 6.45 | . . . . . . ſº * * * * e º e º e s c1.1 | Ibid., p. 133 82 .36 . 14 .74 3.15 tº e º e I e º ºs e e tº º ... . . . c.1.29 { % 33 .4 2.9 tº e º e º e s tº 4.7 • a s s & e º e I e e s e e s ] * * * * * * J. H. Hurtz, anal. 34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.82 | . . . . . . * * } e º e º e • I e º e s e e W. S. Robinson, anal. 35 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº g tº e g tº * * * 9.69 * * * * * * | * * * * g e SO3.41 ( * 33 .55 . 25 1.28 5.59 2.93 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... G. C. Patrick, anal. furnished by Iowa geol. Sur. 37 .269 .209 1.576 5.126 • * * * * * * | * * * * * * | * , , , , e. º geol. Sur. Chem. 38 ,325 .579 1.614 6,622 e tº * * * * * * I e º e e e e 9 º º ſº e de ep’t A, part 3. tº Po O SO & 39 .203 .255 2.425 4, 195 Q @ tº º O p q tº 2 jº 3 Ibid., analysis no. 1613 & 3.282 40 .28 .497 .717 10.036 tº e º e º e º e P2 O 5 tº e º 'º º º Ibid., Il O. 1488 .49 868 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fire clays 13. 41 State and county TOWn Remarks Kentucky (cont'd) Carter . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boone furnace . . . . . e e º t t e e s a e º 'º e tº e . | Powdermill hollow. | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hickman. . . . . . . . . . . Columbus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © tº tº tº Carter. . . . . . . . . tº º 'º º tº Olivehill. g tº e º ºr tº ſº ſº tº tº tº tº º tº ſº tº © tº e º ºs e º e º e º 'º { { e e º 'º e º ºn tº tº e º º ſº Gorman . . . . . . . . . . . . is a t t e º e e s e e tº e º & 4 is g © Boyd . . . . . tº t e º g g g tº a tº Summit . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crucible clay . . . . . Carter...... . . . . . . . . . Louisville . . . . . . . . . . Flint clay . . . . . . . . . “. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grahm's Station. . . . Plastic clay . . . . . . . . Boyd . . . . . . . . . tº $ tº º Ashland . . . . . . . . . . . . Plastic . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . tº g e º e º e ( * e e g & G & º º e s tº Nonplastic . . . . . tº e e Fulton tº e º 'º e g º gº tº e º O e g e º ſº e s e s e g º e º 'º e º g Tertiary clay. . . . . . . Graves... . . . . . . . . . . tº tº º § tº e º ſº e º is tº º $ tº “ . . . . . . Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e º º ſº $ tº tº tº © º º tº $ tº ſº tº e tº e * * tº C & g is tº Graves . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1% miles east of Pryorsburg . . . . . . tº a tº e º e e s º e º e e º e s e º e º e Carter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Olivehill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carlisle . . . . . . . . . . . . Milburn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º sº e º & 9 º' Calloway (N. W.). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . White clay . . . . . tº e º tº Graves . . . . . . . . . . . . . Boaz Station . . . . . . 'lay ... . . . . . . . . . . . Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ballard e e º e º te tº tº dº º te tº I lovelaceville & tº e º 'º t { % & e e e º is tº Maryland: Allegany . . . . . . . . . . . Mount Savage. . . . . . Flint clay . . . . . . . . . { { ........... M-O unt Savage tº e º is 3 & e g e & tº º e union mining Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . © tº e º ºs º e Michigan: Genesee . . . . . . . . . . . | Flushing . . . . . . . . . . . Used for fire brick. Minnesota: º Blue Earth. . . . . . . . . . Mankato... . . . . . . . . . . Cretaceous clay.... Missouri: f Crawford . . . . . . . . . . Oak hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . is & & St. Louis. . . . . . . . . . . . Cheltenham ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . § e º # (, , e e º e º e e s e s & Evens mine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº tº “ . . . . . . . . . . . St. Louis. . . . . . Washed pot clay... Audrain. . . . . . . . . . . . . Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ tº e = * * * * * * * , * @ º “ . . . . . . . . . . . . { % tº e º 'º $ tº º TJsed for buff fire brick . . g { { tº tº $ & © tº , “ . . . . . . tº $ tº o tº € 8 Used for buff fire brick . . . . . * e “. . . . . . tº e º e º 'º tº “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . |Used for buff fire brick . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vandalia. . . . . . . . . . . Washed fire clay... Boone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Columbia (Fay's bank). . . . . . . . . . . . . Used for stoneware. Callaway . . . . . * Fulton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . |Used for fire brick. “ . . . . . . . . New Bloomfield . . . . Not Worked * * * * Crawford . . . . . . . . . . . Leasburg . . . . § e g Fº: clay for fire rick . . . . . . . . . . . . . g is e a e º 'º e º e º 4 & 6 e º is a e º e Sankey mine . . . . . . | Flint clay In Ot Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . Dry branch . . . . . . . . worked . Flint clay for fire brick e e g º ºs e º e º e º e º SILICA g FerriC. Com- rº Alumina Oxid biºd Free 48.56 37.471 tr. 62.92 20.735 3.82. 85.18 10.26 1.12: 50.95 89.49 | . . . . . . . tºs 49 75 35.16 .3 67 99 25 tº $ 9 tº e º 'º s- 47.2 39.9 tº e º e º sº. 45.4 40.04 tº e º e º e 40.14 43.72 1.98 43.58 40,86 **** 81.06 13. 609 75.555 16,751 1.198. 73.9 17, 6 3 56 e 4 30 © tº tº gº tº e tº 43.76 40.21 .53 76.54 14.82 96. 46.02 38.98 (31.92 30.06 .3 52.58 31.07 1.51 66.32 22.93 1. 19 50.46 35.9 a 1.5 44.4 38.56 1.08 56.8 30.08 1.12 56.15 83 295 .59 70.55 21.2 3.2 93. 65 2 15 .25 64.32 22 82 1,75 38.1 | 12 7 31.53 1.92 43.93 , 6 40 09 .88 61.15 | . . . . . 24. 55 2 37 55.62 30.71 1.51 53.77 .30.9 1.74 51.4 33.64 1.26 55. 12 30, 71 1.51 53.77 32.52 1.42 61.22 25.17 1.47 7 3 37 54 1.48 48.6 85.65 1.95 43.82 38.24 .23 50.18 33.03 2, 31 42.6 41.88 .62 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 869 (continued) WATER, - Lime Magnesia, Alkalies Miscellaneous Firm names, authority, 99m, Free - Or analyst o bined 2. *-*-Eºmmºn E * *-* *-º-º-º: *-* * * 1 .112 tr. .572 13.03 | . . . . . . . . P2 O 5 | . . . . . . Ky. geol Sur. Chem. - 550 Rep’t A, part 3, analy- - g SiS no. 1337 2 .213 2,281 3.26 6.4 | . . . . . . . . P2 O5 . . . . . . ] I bud., no. 1478 . . 371 - 3 tr. .064 1.1 2.276 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IKy. geol. Sur. analy- sis no 2715 4 .3 .28 .31 9. 18 tº ſº º e g e º ſº I & tº e º e s I e g tº e º 'º 5 .54 . 15 .07 14.03 & tº # 4 g tº $ tº * * * * * * | g g g g g º Crossley, Analyses of {3 | 1.99 undeter. 3.15 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . clays 7 tr. tr. .21 12.69 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | 8 tr. tl’. .21 14.35 tº ſº º tº e º 'º & I it tº e º 'º e I & e g º ſº e Louisville fire brick r - works 9 1.60 5.216 | . . . . . . . - tº tº $ tº $ & & ºt Ign. 7.34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R. Peter, anal. 10 , 29 . 14 .24 | . . . . . . . tº e º e º e º & , Ign. 14.43] . . . . . . . . . . . . . * { If .314 . 139 .252 .36 P20 5.051 gº tº tº e º e tº $ $ gº tº Kyºseol, Sur., n. S. 1, 12 t]". .144 1. 11 5.047 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid., p. 433 I8 .336 | undeter. . 1 5.7 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *śl geol. Sur. O. s. 14 4 tr. 5.27 e e g g c e i t t e º º & & e º ºs e e R. Peters, anal. I5 SS .06 14.56 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 tl 331 1. 155 6 e e g º e º e º e º e s e e . . . . . . . Ky. geol. Sur. Chem. - Rep’t A, pt. 3, no. 2570 17 .773 , 136 .481 13.61 tº e º e g º ºs e i e & tº º e s : * * * * e Thid., no. 2639 18 tr. 064 1.841 5.815 e e º a s gº e º e º e º º e I e e º e s a lbid., no. 2665 19 . 137 245 2.093 12 365 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid., no. 2760 20 .437 209 1.577 7.337 tº t e g g º e º $ 8 & e & e . . . . . . Ibid., no. 2778 21 .13 .02 & e º e º is º º 12.74 * * * g º º te e tº ſº e º 'º ſº g º e e º o Pa.. geol sur., M. M. p. 266 22 tr. . 11 .25 14.57 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * tº e g e is 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 10.5 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. J. clay rep’t, 1877. 24 17 . 115 | . . . . . . . . 9.68 & © e g g g º e I & tº tº º & e ....., | Otto Wuth, anal. 25 1.9 1.5 1.65 . . . . . . . . . . . * c e º e i s & e º e s a e tº Q & © & º e º 'º e º e Saginaw clay mſg co. 26 .2 .12 tr. ... . . . . . . 2.25 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minnesota geol. Sur. 1872, 1 27 .45 .12. .77 | . . . . . . . . . . . . ..., | SO3 .12 . . . . . . . TiO2 chºſenet & Blair, & £1,118,1. 28 l . . . . . . . . tl .4 11.3 2.5 | . . . . . . . . 1.50 | Evans & Howard 29 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 13.8 .5 ! . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * | g e is e e is { % 30 tl’. .68 . . . . . . . . 11.25 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Christy fire clay co. 31 .54 tr. 1.87 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [Ign. 10.56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . St. Louis Samp. and test. Works, anal. 32 .39 .32 .49 13.68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MO. geol. sur. 11: 563 33 .71 | . . . . . . . . 1.28 11.48 | . . . . . • * * * * * * * I e º a s e e i < e e º e a { { 34 .54 tr. 1.37 10.56 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 ° W & e e s e I e g is º e e { { 35 .28 .22 .52 13.84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { % 36 .31 tr. 1.88 8. 14 1.66 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . is tº * * * * { { 37 .57 | . . . . . . . . .5 12.76 . . . . . . . . . . . . * Q & I e º 'º e s ∈ I & & & e º º { % 38 .51 , 26 .49 12.48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ſº tº e e g tº { % 39 1.93 | . . . . . . . .73 14.94 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MO. geol. Sur. 11:564 40 .24 .68 2.06 10.43 1.45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * { 41 .2S .2 .54 14 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . § { 870 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fire clays 1 º 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 21 22 23 26 27 28 30 32 33 34 State and county Town Remarks Missouri (com.timwed) Gasconade . . . . . . . . . . Drake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | Flint clay not Worked . . . . . . . . . . . { { ſº e º e = Owensville ..... . . . . | Flint clay not Worked . . . . . . . . . . . Lincoln. . . . . . . . . . . . Baker's shaft. . . . . . . . . . tº e e º g º e e º e º 'º e º 'º tº s º e a Monroe. . . . . tº º e º g º a w Clapper (William- { % SOD ) . . . . . . . . . . . |Used for stoneware Montgomery. . . . . . . High hill . . . . . º º Fº gay for fire T1CK . . . . . . . . . . . . . Morgan . . . . . . . . . . . . Versailles . . . . . . . . . . Not worked . . . . . . . . St. Louis. . . . . . . . . . . . St Louis....... . . . . . . Washed clay for glass pots. . . . . . . . Osage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Linn (Gostang) Flint clay not w”k'd Phelps. . . . . . e c e º 'º º º is St James (Buskett bank ). tº e s e º e º s e e º ſº tº c is a s e tº 6 e { { . . . . . . . . . . | St James (Buskett bank * : * tº º e º 'º tº º e º 'º e e g tº gº º º gº tº “ . . . . . . . . . . . . .., | St James (Buskett ank) • * * * | * tº t e º e & tº º a tº ſº tº e º tº ſº ºn * * * “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Polla (Bus ket t $ $ bank) ; : . . . . . . tº º 'º º Flint clay º a tº e º is St. Louis . . . . . . . . . . . Bartold (Jamie- Son's) . . . . . . . . . . . . Flint clay for fire brick . . . . . . . . * & © tº wº $ (, it ſº e º e o e º 'º º Bartold (Jamie- Son's) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washed fire clay for clay pots. . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . St. Louis. . . . . . . . . . . . Silica clay. . . . . . . . . . { % . . . . . . . . . . . St. Louis Christy clay CO . . . . . . . . . . . Washed fire clay... { % . . . . . . . . . . . St Louis Christy clay Co. . . * * * * { { { % . . . . . . . . . . St. Louis Christy clay co. . . . . . . . . . . Tſsed for fire brick { % . . . . . . . . . . | St Louis, Laclede mine. . . . . . . . . . { % t (, tº e º ſº St. Louis, Evans & Howard . . . . . . . . { % { { . . . . . . . . . . . St. Louis, Parker & Russell. . . . . . . . . . . Fire brick and gas retorts . . . . . . . tº 9 0 tº { { . . . . . . . . . . . St. Louis, Columbia B. road (Sattler). Washed clay for glass pots . . . . . . . . { { tº tº e º 'º e º s & St Louis, Jamieson . French fire clay CO . . . . . . . . . . . . , Washed pot clay. . . { % . . . . . . . . . . . Columbia, B. road, St. Louis. . . . . . . . . Not Worked. . . . . . . . { % . . . . . . . . . . . Columbia, B. road, St. Louis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº g c e º e º e ( (. . . . . . . . . . . . Coffin & Co., Gratiot Washed for glass - pots . . . . . . e e º sº e º s is ( (. tº s º ºs t e º e is e { { Washed for glass ots . . . . . . . tº dº e º e º 'º { { * * * * * * g tº t tº { % Fire brick. . . . . . . . . { { & e º e º e g tº tº { { { { & tº e g º º Shelby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Higgins pit, Lake- IIl&D. . . . . . . . . . ...] Used for stoneware “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Biggins pit, Lake- In a D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chiles bank . . . . . . . Fli t clay. . . . . * c e º a SILICA º Ferric Com- Alumina Oxid bined Free 40.5 43.22 .31 44.7 35.92 3.35 34.4 18.62 tr. 70.3 20.35 .15 67.76 21.9 , 69 45. 12 40.4 .47 68.94 21.18 .78 60.31 23.52 2.57 47.87 37, 14 .83 51.05 34.28 . 39 46.33 40.07 .5 47.306 38.173 ,823 61.408 25.551 .281 6.339 22.75 .82 53.9 28.85 4.19 55.61 27.36 2,78 72.17 18.72 1.2 64.35 21, 16 2.63 60.66 24.51 2.28 61.73 23.56 ,516 57.34 24.68 2.6 59.86 23.26 3 67.47 19.83 2.5 52.98 28.87 2.48 52.52 31.4 2.34 51.66 30.78 2.9 53.54 28.21 4. 55 29.62 2, 18 56.01 31.68 1. 13 48.27 31.85 4.97 56.47 28.24 2.26 58.5 30.5 2.34 67.6 18.97 1,25 46.18 38, 12 .32 OLAYS OF NEW YORK 871 b Ignition (continued) WATER, Li * •,• T : g |Firm names, authority, ime |Magnesia. Alkalies C Miscellaneous or analyst - OD1- o i,j | Free Z! 1 1.11 tr. .51 14.15 tº e º º & tº tº tº tº G tº ºn tº e º e º 'º dº || 4 tº . . . . . Mo. geol. Sur. 11; 564 2 15.27 .21 .29 12.20 .43 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. 11:564 8 8 6.25 0 0 & 0 & e º & e º e s e a tº 2 | * * * * * * * LOSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. 1872, 2:288 23.08 4 .67 ,33 .49 7. 12 .79 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. 11:566 5 .96 .24 , 24 7.8 .43 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 & 6 .29 tr .3 13.84 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e i e º 'º e º e i t e º 'º e & { { 7 .61 .43 .66 7.08 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { { 8 tr. .9 ,59 10.11 1.96 | . . . . tº gº & e º e º a tº Christy fire clay co. 9 .42 .58 , 5 13.18 .87 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mo. geol. sur. 11:568 10 tr. tr. .11 14.33 ſº tº ſº & e º e º is a g gº º e º is ſº I º 'º e º º º { % 11 1,26 .24 | . . . . . . . . 13.4 . . . . . . . . e & e º e e s a e e i & © tº tº a tº { { 12 .058 .09 1.41 13.6 tº t t e º I e g º e e º e º I e g º e º e i º e º e º e { { 13 1.32 1.43 | . . . . . . . . 9.78 | . . . . . . . te e s ∈ I e g a e º e i t t is a tº º { % 14 .22 ,05 .89 3.27 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( & 15 1.01 .11 .85 11.61 1.75 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SO 3.22 { { c1.05 Aº { % 16 .87 .07 .71 11.13 3.26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SO3 .51 { { c1.36 17 .2 .11 & © tº e º e º º 6.56 1.68 tº e º e g tº e S 9 s e e | * * * * * * Furnished by H. Bur- - den, 2d. 18 .61 .3 , 51 8.94 3.63 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c1.07 || Mo. geol. sur. 11:568 19 . . . . . . . . .46 .7 11.89 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . From Christy clay co. 20 , 55 .15 1 9.25 2.94 | . . . . . . . . . ...... SO 3 Mo. geol. sur. 11:568 .56 c1.96 21 .9 .49 .67 11.55 2.86 © tº e º § e tº SO 3 Ibid. 11: 570 .54 c1.6 22 .65 .42 .68 10.2 2.74 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | SO 3 Ibid. 11:570 .35 c1.01 23 .41 .07. 1.07 7.73 2.72 tº e º e º $ º e s e e º SO 2 ( (. • 24 24 .51 .87 1.01 11.42 8.68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e º (, i. 25 .4 .42 .61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |b 12.42 | From the company 26 1.22 .88 .99 11.86 4.06 | . . . . . . . . tº e º e c1.85 Mo. geol. sur. 11:568 27 1.01 .11 .76 13.26 e = * g tº tº a tº e º e º e º e tº g tº e º 'º e º s e º a { { 28 .91 .29 .27 11.61 tº º e º 'º & ſº e º 'º e º e º 'º tº tº tº { % 29 1.17 .21 ,09 8.77 .74 . . . . . * @ tº tº e e º ſº tº e.2 { % 80 2.13 .21 1.28 8.42 1.27 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 { % 31 1 .32 .45 11.44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * tº º e e º 'º e tº e º e º 'º { % 82 1.2 .51 .3 6.74 .4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº Mo, geol. sur. 11: 570 33 , 3 tr. .96 | 10.03 | 1.42 |........ . ...... tº v c e º º (, , 34 .54 tr. 1.2 14.01 . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * : s , º, e º . . . . . . . Mo. geol. Sur. 11: 572 NIEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM Fire clays i*3 8 State and county TOW In Remarks | Missouri (cont'd). W tº Tl’ed . . . . . . . . . . . . Kelly's pit . . . . . . . . . Flint clay . . . . . . . § tº & ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . National pit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . Sandy clay. . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . Fire clay. . . . . . . . . . . t § { * * .. tº G & º & 8 º' a e º tº National pit. . . . . . . . Fire clay . . . . . . . . . . . Montana: - Deerlodge...... . . . . . Blossburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & a c e s e New Jersey: Midd €sex. . . . . . . . . . Woodbridge. gº tº º tº º tº e * § º $ tº º * * . . . . . . . . . . Bonhantown . . . . . . . . Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . § { tº e Woodbridge. . . . . . . . . Retort clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº & “ . . . . . . . . . Rarit m river. . . ' ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º ſº tº e g g is Sandhills . . . . . . . . . . * * § { * tº tº e º 'º e º ſº tº $ tº $ tº tº q t t t e g º º Eaglewood . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . S. Amboy . . . . . . . . . . Paper clay . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . Eurnt Creek . . . . . . . . . Washed clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sayreville . . . . . . . . . Clay . . . . . . . . . . . * * tº º ſº e º 'º e s & Martins dock. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * G tº e g º º te tº tº e & Oldbridge . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º & a tº 6 e s tº t e º e e º º g Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . Trenton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ſº tº € $ tº loucester . . . . . . . Cºnrad . . . . . . tº ſº º te tº e º e e s s is tº a 3 e a s a • * * * * * * * * Cumberland. . . . . . . Millville . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crossley's clay. . . . . Middlesex. . . . . . . . . . . South Amboy . . . . . . H. C. Perrifle & Co. $ $ & © tº $ s & tº e < * Woodbridge. . . . . . . . Crossley's clay..... { % § {} tº 9 & & ſº tº * * S e I e terra-cotta lumber CO . . . . . . . . tº º e e e s e º sº e º e º e & © tº tº “ . . . . . . . . . . . Valentine & Co. Woodbridge. . . . . . tº e º e is e is e º e º ºs e g º tº e º º & s “ . . . . . . . . . . { % tº º tº ë e º 'º dº tº tº tº t e º O e e º º tº e º e New York: Richmond . . . . . . . . . ICreischerville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº ſº tº $ g g g . North Carolina: Moore. . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * e º s > * * * * * g e º e tº a tº t e º ſº a 4 tº e º e g º e tº ſº tº Harnett. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - * * g e e s tº s e e º & e º e º 'º e is e e g º e º ſº e º e s tº g e Cleveland. . . . . . . . . Grover . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e g º e º a e º 'º e e s º g º º Guilford . . . . Pomona. . . . . . * * * * * * * & ºf tº a tº gº º ſº e º ſº e o & § º { { . . . . . . . . . One mile north of Pomona. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * North Dakota: Mercer . . . . . . . . . . . . Plenty coal mine. . . . . . . . . . . . © e a t e º is e a e º & Stark . . . . . . . . . . . . Dickinson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ward . . . . . . . tº e º 'º - Minot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Black C'ay. . . . . . . . . . Ohio: Summit. . . . . . . . . . . . . Akron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ſº tº º & 3 g º º Scioto . . . . . . . . . . . . . S. Webster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . Freeman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trumbull . . . . . . . . . . Niles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jackson . . . . . . . . . . Oakhill . . . . . . . . . . . . * • & e º e s tº dº e a Tuscarawas........ Mineralpoint . . . . Tlint clay . . & Scioto . . . . . . . . . . . . Scioto * * * * 'lay & * * * Columbiana. . . . . . . . Salineville . . . . . . . . . Flint clay . . . . . . . . . Perry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mocahala. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * > SILICA. § Free *mºm & 4-3 ºmºmº- 43.56 44.34 78.44 56.69 55 6 53 14 52. 0 72 2 4 5 ...) i i§ 56.62 56.82 64.9 64.28 75.34 70.6 68.28 70.45 71.6 60 70 7 2.66 53,72 S 5 I ſ 5 51.21 | 8.13 45 66.77 |Alumina 32.4 ; 5.28 24,76 17.06 20 46 18, 8.3 17.34 15.27 16.23 17 33 17.78 27.62 4 58.25 35. 39 17 44.34 59.92 49.2 13 .x6 19 35 40. 15 31. ( 2 #0 ºff 27.56 3, .78 Ferric Oxid 1 1 } O 1 i .15 .52 .83 a 1.94 1.82 2.6 3.16 CLAY'S OF NEW YORK as tº 8'ſ 3 (continued) WATER Lime Magnesial Alkalis - Miscellaneous Firm names, authority, Com- or analyst bined | Free .45 . . . . . . . . .2 14.05 | ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MO. geol. Sur. 11: 572 tr. .35 .2 14.18 . . . . . . . ë e º e & & © tº e g º e º e e º e º e is * * 1.08 1.6 2.74 9.63 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { % .81 1.22 2.62 10.64 e - e º e º 'º * * * * * * * * tº ſº e º e º e s tº º e º { % .7 1.01 .97 14.50 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { % 1.22 2.24 2.14 13.68 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { % :3. t; r 3 7 1 8 5 6 2 8 * 2. 3. e e º ſº e g c tº is tº ſº tº o ſº tº e º e º ſº tº tº º ſº e º e º a tº e º & © e tº ſº tº e º ſº Mullan fire b. & t. CO, 9 .46 .86 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . [Ign. 5.08 || cº.6 . . . . . . . J. Pohle, anal., W. B. . Dixon, Est. . . . . . . . . . c1.6 . . . . . . . N. 'iº clay rep’t, 1878, 165 C & & © tº º tº gº C1, 3 tº º e º a tº Ibnd. D. S2 • * id. p. 94-96 p. 144 tº e º ſº & . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 153 ſº * D J) p .3 . 135 . 200 J tº a c e º 'º º e C1 2 e º g º º º Ibid. D. 197 S C- 1 6 Ib 7 d . 188 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 170 tº º e º ºr © º e c1 . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 180 • * * ... p. 1.6 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . joia. p. 258 1 4 0 4 I 5 J 2 9 2 0 2 2 2 j. : 7 9 Furnished by H. Bur- 26 tr. g tº e g º & ſº tº 0.74 * * * * * * * * c > t c s s tº e º e º e g s * * g g tº tº & e º e º 'º den, 20. - 27 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.04 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ú º & 28 • * * * g e e s ] e º 0 ° a e º e 6.68 * * * * * * * : * * * g g g & tº Q 6 tº º ºr tº * I e g g g tº tº E tº ºn tº gº 29 .73 tr. 2.35 | ................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... H. T. Vulté, anal. 30 2.56 C & Q & e º 'º 3.1 © C tº e º e º ſº | * * * * * * . . . . . . . Crossley, Analyses of -- | clays 31 1.85 e e º e s & $ tº 5.27 tº e tº e º e º e a g º e º º * * * * * * 32 .7 . . . 13 2.29 .76 6.47 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. 27 | Eskridge's pit, Bull. Ferr. 13, § C. geol. Sur. 1 p . 33 .25 .22 .7 .98 6.63 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33 || First pit. Pomona ter- ra, cotta co. Ibid. p. 84 34 .17 .21 2. 12 1.43 5.4 • & tº º & © & º tº # e. e º 9 e g º e s e Woodroff's clay bank e * Ibid. p. 85 35 .65 1.02 .47 16.35 * * * * * * * is tº $ tº e º 'º a g º e º e e * * * e e º 'º º .74 9.35 is e e º s e º e I e º ſº e º e I e º e s is e 37 .81 .5 2 21.82 & ſº tº dº ſº e º º e tº e g º º * - e º ſº tº - * * * * : * * * * * * : * * * * . . Webster fire brick co. 5 1 e e s ∈ G e º e 5.4 MnO 2.05 • * * * * * ' s e s e a e E. Orton, anal 41 tr. tr. e tº e g º ºs e = 13.77 • * * * * * * * | * * * * * * | . . . . . . M. Shiras, anal. 4; ‘’’.5 ‘’’’.19 .5% 11.68 f .69 |........ ci.68 ...... Ohio geol. ºur. 7, 1898 44 & - a ſº * * - s g 45 tr. tl’. .67 9.7 | 1.12 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - $ $ 46 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & tº $ tº e º 'º 11.68 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. Tharp INEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fire clays 3. SILICA State and county Town Remarks Alumina Com- Fr bined | "Tee Ohio (continued) Shelby . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ballou. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.07 | 27.71 26.47 Hocking . . . . . . . . . . . Phelps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * e e g º e g 60.77 | . . . . 25.74 Tuscarawas... . . . . . . Canal Dover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e g c tº e & 47.6 35.02 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . Steubenville . . . . . . . tº e º 'º º tº wº & & tº º a tº º e º e ... . . 29.22 || 31.34 24.97 “ . . . . . . . . . . Newcastle . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e is is e º g * * * * * * g e º is e 55 49 28.33 (, i. e e g tº a t tº Freeman (Freeman fire clay Co.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e e g e º º 66.75 19.95 Lawrence. . . . . * * Hanging R O C k (Means, Kyle & Co.) | No. 2 fire clay...... 58.72 25.34 Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . Irondale (Martha L. - Lacey) . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * is s a e º e º s e a s £2. 24. Stark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Massillon. . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * g e e e 61.58 24. 14 “ . . . . . . . . . * tº Canton. . . . . . . . . . . . For fire brick , , , , , , 69.85 19.43 Tuscarawas. . . . . . . . Strasburg (Dover fire brick Co.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.09 36.06 Pennsylvania: Fayette. . . . . . . . . . . . Connellsville (Sois- son mine) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº e º & © tº 55.38 30.42 Clearfield . . . . . . . . . . Woodland . . . . . tº a s a º e o e < * * * * e º ºs e e tº tº $ tº 45.29 40.067 “ . . . . . . . . . Curwensville. . . . . . Bilger clay. . . . . . . . . 43.92 38. 195 Cambria. . . . . . . . . . . South Fork . . . . . ... | Flint clay . . . . . . 43.46 41.61 Westmoreland. . . . . King mine . . . . . Flint clay . . . . . . . . . . 63.81 26.39 * { ... Reese, Hammond & Co . . . . . . . . . . Fire brick.......... 53.08 43.41 Clearfield , . . . . . . . . . Clearfield (5 miles - South West). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . g is tº g 44.05 37.51 Clinton. . . . . . . . . . . . . Queen's run. . . . . . . . Raw hard clay.. 46.65 36.36 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . Calcined hard clay 52.73 40.63 Somerset . . . . . . . . . . Savage mountain..| Raw flint clay...... 53.86 35.484 “ . . . . . tº dº º is s § {. Calcined flint clay. 59. 16 38.7 Westmoreland ....| Hunker Station . . . . Flint clay .......... 52.58 33. 12 { % Bradyss run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * 02.02%) 23.656 Blair. . . . . . . . . . . tº e Benezet . . . . . . . . . . . Raw clay. . . . . . . . . . . 47. 233 38.409 Cambria....... . . . . . | Figart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hard fire clay....., 48.878 32 002 SomerSet . . . . . . . . . . Keystone Junction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º 54.65 30.74 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . Farrandsville . . . . . . & e º & & © tº e º 'º e º ºs e º e º 'º 45.26 37.84 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . Retort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº 42.32 37.01 Fayette. . . . . . . . . .... Brillskin township. | Flint clay . . . . . . © tº º & 55.2S 34.17 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wymp's gap... . . . . . Glass pot clay...... 54.23 32.8 Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . Renovo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº a tº e º e 53.84 32.6 Armstrong . . . . . . . . . Kittanning . . . . . . & E * : e º e = e º a º t e º e i s e e tº º q 97.03 Plk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jay township * * * * * * * * * * * * g e º e º e g º e tº e 67.57 21.042 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Glen Mayo colliery. . . . . . . * : * > * > * G tº e º e º º 51. 72 21.738 Clarion . . . . . . . . . . . . New Bethlehem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº g º e º 'º º 44.61 38 0ſ “. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sligo . . . . . . © e º e e s e º e * & 6 is a tº dº e º tº e º e º e º e º e º a 56.68 28.85 Indiana. . . . . . . . . . . .., | Bolivar. . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº º O & tº e g g tº t e tº e g º e © tº e e 59.83 24.58 Westmoreland ....] Salina ..... , º & © tº e º 'º tº 8 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e º s 51.92 31.64 $ - . . . . . Laughlintown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .". . . . . . tº º tº 55.68 29.18 * * ... Jacobs Creek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & © tº tº tº gº e º 'º tº º a 56.78 26.89 Fayette . . . . . . . . . . . vi eadow run . . . . . . . & e º 'º e º e º te e º $ tº e g º g g g g 52.23 31.31 Beaver . . . . . . . . . . Vanporte • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e g º ºs e º 'º e º e & e tº 60.19 24.23 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . Rochester. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº dº e º 'º & 61.98 23 88 Indiana. . . . . . . . . tº º Bolivar. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e g g tº º º º 50.84 30.745 Clarion . . . . . . . . . . . Climax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº g tº 42.82 0.2 Cambria. . . . . . . . . . . . . Altoona . . . . . . . . . . . * | * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº e º tº ſº tº 68.35 22.78 wº 64.83 23.95 Indiana. . . . . . . . . . ..] Black lick . . . . . . . . . . . Flint clay .......... 68.49 18.46 Ferric Oxid *-mº -* | 3g 4 a 1. .2 . 896 3.6% a .08 2.03 OLAYS OF NEW YORK 875 (continued) WATER Lime |Magnesia. Alkalis C Miscellaneous Firnh ºnor ity OTO- - o bij | Free 2. 1 .59 .32 .99 9.96 1.04 | . . . . . . . c.94 | . . . . . . Ohio geol. sur. 7, 1893] 2 .89 .63 1.2 9.46 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • tº e º tº e º 'º e º & { { 3 .54 .04 | . . . . . . º 14.5 is e e s e º e s I e º e e s a e tº a c - º 4 .63 .4 .28 | 1.69 | . . . . . . c1.3 tº e º º Ohio geol. Sur. 1884 5 .26 .08 1.37 11.38 * 6 tº e º e º 'º e º e º e is • * ~ * * 6 .6 1. tº e º 'º - ſº e e 5.4 & © tº € e º ſº tº e e a e e a & Q e º 'º º by CODOl- 7 b.6 d.43 2.28 8.95 & & © e º 6 c e i < e < e s tº e - G pany 8 • * * * tº e º e • * * * * * º e tº 0 0. 10. * & e s 2 to a º e e e º c tº e º 'º e Furnished by M. L. Lacey 9 .45 .7 tº º e º e o º 11.93 * * * * * * * * I e e º e s a tº e º e From Massillon stone - and fire brick co. 10 . 12 .1 2.59 7.35 e tº e º e º e a . . . . . . . . . . . . From Royal brick co. 11 .3S . 12 tr. 12.4 to 9 0 tº e º 'º e tº e º s e e e e s - e. J. EI. Cremer, anal. for: Company 12 . . . . . . . . .** .52 .22 6 º' e e s e s e º e º a & © º 0 | * * * * * * tº e º tº tº J. Soisson & Sons 13 .257 .08 .048 13.184 © tº e º 0 ° tº tº º' e e e Q e º º Woodland fire brick co. 14 .2 .054 255 14.2 . . . . . . . . c 2.61 | . . . . . . 15 , 24 .09 | . . . . . . . . Ign. 18.29 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1897 Rep’t, Pa.. state. college 16 tr. tr. . . . . . © e tº Ign. 9.12 * * * * * * * | * * * * * * tº e º O tº id. 17 .33 .18 tº tº e º º ºs e a Ign. .26 tº tº tº e º a e tº a 9 º' tº tº e º 'º e Ibid. 18 .49 , 181 .065 15.21 “. . . . . g ...}} | ..... w 19 .08 º e s e º e º e 1 .3 13.01 tº e g º e C 2.64 © tº e - e tº | Queen's I’ll]] fire brick 20 .21 .04 1.83 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c 2.94 | . . . . . . CO, 21 .302 .144 e tº e º 'º - G tº 8.75 tº e º 'º º tº e o e º º tº e º e Welch, Gloninger & 22 .331 1.36 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e o e º & © 2 & 3 & 8 º' | * g e o e s e s a e Maxwell 23 | . . , 29 .08 13.68 tº e º e º 'º - e e e s is a e • * Westmoreland fire. brick Co. 24 2.335 .8.19 1.661 8.049 * * * * * * * * I e s e e s s . . . . . . ] G. G. Pond, anal. 25 | . . . . . . . .192 | . . . . . . . . 13.775 | . . . . . . . . tº t t e º * * * * Harbison & Walker 26 .374 ,079 1.742 | . . . . . . . . tº g c tº 0 ° tº º Loss © º º e g tº o º º G. G. Pond, anal. 15.609 - 27 . 19 , 13 .11 * e º e º a s tº e s - * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº e e 28 .08 .02 1.26 13.3 tº 8 tº e o e LOSS 201 . . . . . . J. B. Britton, anal. 29 .47 . 16 1,29 17.74 tº 3 tº e º e 3.83 |LOSS.23 E. E. Melick 30 1.31 2.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * I e º a • * * : * ~ * . . . . Soisson & Kilpatrick. 31 | . . . . . . . . tº e º e s - e s tº e ºs e º e º e Ign. 11.24 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 1897 Rep’t, Pa.. state º college. 32 1.35 .1 .59 5.89 tº e º is e º E e 4.62 | . . . . . Renovo fire brick and Clay co. 33 • * * * * * * e , 11 tº e º e e º º . 15 gº tº tº 0 tº tº e e * e - a tº a tº 34 .1 . 147 tr. 9.59 0 g º e º G tº Q .93 ...... 35 .06 2.378 4.581 10.78 tº e º e o e - e. .87 tº e e - tº 36 .08 .407 1.735 13.63 & e º e º e º 'º 1,02 * - - - - 37 .26 .079 , 694 11.85 tº e º e º e º e .99 4 tº e s - 38 .2b .87 3.114 7.83 tº e º e º 'º º º 1.17 . . . . . . . ) | p 39 .03 .443 .402 13.49 & Q & © tº e º 'º 1.16 | . . . . . . Pas gºol. Sur., MM, 40 , 13 .18 .245 12.49 . . . . . . . . . 1.49 | . . . . . . | . 259 41 .369 .987 3.92 8.3S * G tº e o e tº • 9 tº e tº tº e º e J 42 .13 . 165 .72 13. 19 . . . . . . . . . .38 | . . . . . . [Ibid. p. 260 43 .85 ,036 1.669 9.015 tº e º a º e º e 2.345 . . . . . . Ibid. p. 263 44 .04 .281 1.217 9.28 tº º e º 'º e º º 1.83 . . . . . . Ibid. p. 262 45 . 16 .288 1:#" 12 * 1.26 ...... 46 tr. .85 e e • * 0 (0 tº 0 || 5 e i t c s e e tº e tº º e º & Climax brick works. 47 .82 .37 tº tº e º s e º a 7.57 * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº º e - e. Otto Wuth, anal. 48 { .1] . 187 , 296 9.39 O2 .88 tº e º is e e - e. e. Pa.. geol. sur. H4 .23 .551 2.755 6.31 c 2.15 * * * * * I e e º a • j9i - e ; P. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fire clays 3. 1 SILICA. State and county TOWn Remarks Com- Free bined Pennsylv’nia (cont'd) tº Iudiana. . . . . . . . . . ... I Layton Station . . . . . Glass pot clay. . . . . . 64.89 Clinton . . . . . . . . . ...] Lockhaven. . . . . . . . . . Soft clay . . . . . . . . . . . } 50.8 § { ..........] Lockhaven . . . . . . . . . Hard clay. . . . . . . . . . 45.65 Westmoreland. . . . . Salina. . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº 8 tº º º q > * > tº º ºs e º 'º e º e 43.75 Chester . . . . . . . . . . . . Valley Forge. . . . . . . . M. J. Bean's clay .. 71.88 “ . . . . . . . . ....] Brady's run (B. R. fire brick Co.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º ſº º 68.92 Allegheny . . . . . . . . . . Manown . . . . . . . . . tº g g : * ~ * & tº e º 'º s e º ºs e & * is º º G & 64. 17 “ . . . . . . . . . Hunker Station. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * tº º º 41.75 Clarion . . . . . . . . . . . . Arthurs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . e tº tº $ tº tº 42.56 Allegheny . . . . . . . . . Pittsburg . . . . . . . . . . . Silica brick . . . . . . 96.79 South Dakota, ; Pennington ... . . . . . Rapid City. . . . . . . . . . Hard clay. . . . . . . . . . 84.42 tº º, * * g e { { C. A. Marshall's... 87.05 “ . . . . . tº t { { Dark clay, base of hill 83.3 Texas: Montague. . . . . . . . . . . Bowie . . . . . . . . . tº e e º e I e º e º 'º e º e º e º e a e e s e s e e 60,48 Henderson. . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * s e º e ſ º 'º e º e º e º t t e º e º 'º e º e e º e 68,55 Athens . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº tº tº e º ſº tº 31.82 | 37.06 Washington: King . . . . . . . . tº º tº Black diamond field! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º e 57.5 Pierce ... . . . . . . . . . . . Green river fields. . . . . . . . * * g º 'º e º 'º º º tº e & 69.71 Skagit . . . . . . . . . e tº e º e º e º ºs * = a e e º e º te e s e e s ∈ e tº Q tº e º ſº º e º e º s is e º ſº e º s 49.73 West Virginia: Fayette. . . . . . . . . . . . . Great Kanawha. . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº tº $ tº tº $ tº e º 'º º e 55 67 Kanawha . . . . . . . . . . . Charleston . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . § 2 s ſº a º 6 g º ºs e s p * * 39.9 | 16.9 Marion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . º e e s tº c e º e º e º a t < 5.86 Monongalia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e tº e º s e e a c e s = * * * . . . . . . . 54.27 Presto a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . § tº e º º 68. 16 { % Spragueville . . . . . . . Hard clay . . . . . . . . * tº 47.88 { % • ‘ º ... Soft clay. . . . . . . . . . . 68.315 Wyoming: - Albany. . . . . . . . . . . . . Rock Creek. . . . is º º tº tº gº tº tº * * 59.78 Crook . . . . . . . . . . . . . º e º e º 'º e s a e º e º e e s 6 tº e g e º e s tº 8 © e º º ſº e º tº e º e º & 61.08 Virginia: Chesterfield . . . . . . . Robins . . . . . * * g e tº º ji g e s tº e º 'º e º e º a e < * e g 80.76 * Ferric Alumina Oxid 24.08 a .21 32.28 1.77 36.36 1.19 40.966 .769 19.26 22.38 .98 29.75 2.6 40.09 .65 43. 16 tr. .93 . 14 9.41 1.07 6.56 .64 12.3 .8 24.6 2.43 26. tr. 20.71 1.01 34.37 1.24 18.39 1.44 32.57 1, 52 30.3%) , 61 30.08 1.33 33.83 .01 24. 11 .01 33.985 1.368 19.62 1.575 15.1 2.4 17. 12 3.17 11.004 1.396 CLAYS OF NEW YORIK 877 (concluded) WATER. Lime Magnesia, Alkal Miscellaneous Firm ºrity. 99m, Free - o bined Z. 1 .41 .19 1.03 9.29 tº tº a tº g º e º is e º e s e 1897 Repºt, Pa.. state college d 8.94 Queen's run fire brick 2 .05 , 47 4.56 tº a tº º tº $ tº $ tº e tº e g º e e c e s e º e º e º C tº tº a gºº. co., P. W. Shimer, b 1.25 anal. ; Queen's run fire brick 8 .08 & 0 tº e º O tº e 1.3 tº & tº e º e º ſº e º 'º e g º g & tº tº º e º e tº e ~! ##! ial Shimer, all £11. 4 tr. gº tº e º 'º e º º & © tº ſº e º ſº e 14.41 § 3 º e º e º is tº e º e º 'º tº º e º º Kier brothers, Pitts- burg, Pa. 5 1.5 1.04 & © to º ſº º tº º 5.4 tº G & G e º 'º © º ſº tº tº Furnished by EI. Bur- den, 2d 6 .19 ,172 tº e º e º tº e 6.14 e tº e º 'º & & 6 & e e s is a w tº tº c F. G. Frick, anal. 7 .4 . 12 tº e º e º e e º e º 'º. . . . . . . . e º O & 1 & e º is a e tº º tº e º 'º ºn tº © tº ſº tº e From Manown mfg CO. 8 .03 1.02 . . . . . . . . . 18.2 . . . . . . . . tº tº a g º º is tº e º e º º . . . . . . From Westmoreland fire brick co. 9 .44 .15 . . . . . . . . 13.99 .24 | . . . . . . . . tº tº e g º º e º 'º e º º From Erskine & Co 10 1.86 tº tº e º 'º e º e tº tº e º e º º * e º 'º º .14 tº t t t e º 'º tº tº tº From Stuart fire brick CO. 11 tr. . 39 tº is tº tº º 3.42 tº º tº ſº tº º e º ºs tº e tº e e º e Rapid City Steam * 1.243 3.008 brick works I2 .95 e e tº ſº tº * c tº e º e º e º e º e e tº ſº tº a tº º º tº tº tº e o tº ſº e º º ſº Furnished by F. C. 18 1.3 tr. 2.7 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º I g º e º ºs e I e º e º º s Smith 14 .89 .75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº e • . . . . . . . . . . . . Montague coal mining CO . 15 tr. .11 tr. 6 tº C tº e º 'º - e. tº e e º e e tº tº tº º ſº tº Tºº geol. Sll l’. 1890, - . 197 16 .22 ,39 1.08 || 7.17 | 1.82 | . . . . . . . . … ſignsºl d'Eºiada, anal. 17 .5 1 .68 4.71 e is e e º is * * * * * * tº º 'º a tº | 1891 Rep’t, Wyomin 18 .35 .15 1.02 a º e º e º 'º e s = e 0 0 tº º º e e s - e º º e * Loss | State ºl. y g 19 .42 1.28 1.1 12.38 b .43 CaSO4 8. J . 10 tº e º º 20 .37 tr. .12 12.87 & ſº tº ſº e e º & g g g º e . tº º is W. A. Bradford 21 tr. tr. 2.2 d 05 .9 g tº ºn e º e º 'º 1.15 . . . . - 22 .24 .36 tr. g tº 9 tº tº º tº tº € g tº t e º e & º 'º º tº Bull. OI! min. TeS. Of 23 tr. .02 1 11.01 * * * * * g e is e º º e s e I tº º & © º º West Virginia, 1893 24 tr. tr. tr. 7.51 & ſº tº º & tº 0 º e º e s = e tº ſº º ſº tº 25 .36 .346 .481 12,388 tº 9 tº ſº e º ſº e 3.185 tº e º e º º I. C. White, anal. 26 .1 , 692 2.704 5.58 & © g tº 1.37 * * * * g e * * e e g º e 16.26 it tº e tº º e - e. tº º E & 27 | .78 4.14 Bull. 14, Wyoming 28 2.69 1,82 .2 12.1 tº º tº a tº e g tº * tº e º ſº tº SO3.88 eXper. Sta. 29 504 .108 .832 5.025 | ... . . . . . . tº e º 'º . . . . . J. R. Jackson 878 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Pottery SILICA State and county TOW m Remarks C Alumina *...* ODOl- o bined Free 2. Alabama: 1 | Tuscaloosa ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tuscaloosa Creta- CeOllS. . . . . . . . . . 66,122 24,781 T 2 { { Prattville . . . . . . . . . . . Stoneware clays . . . 62.6 26.98 .72 8 || Fayette............] W. Doty .......... { % 65.58 19.23 4.48 4 ‘' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 miles from Fay- ette C. H. . . . . . . . { { e - e. 67.1 19.37 2.88 5 “ . . . . . . . . ... . . Shirley's mills . . . . . { { tº a tº 72.20 17.42 2.4 6 || Colbert ............] J. W. Williams, Pe- £1 a Dºl . . . . . . . . . tº $ 66.45 18.53 2.4 7 | Pickens ........ . . . . . Roberts Hill, coal fire Co..... tº * * * * ( \| 68.23 20.35 3.2 8 Lamar ............. I. B. Green, Fern- bank . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( 0. 69.5 13. 6.4 9 || Fayette............] H. Wiggins, east of Fayette E. C. H. . & 9 63.27 1968 8.52 10 ! Tuscaloosa ........ H. H. Cribbs, Tus- - Caloosa . . . . . . tº e º 'º - ( (. 65.35 21.3 2.72 Georgia: 11 || Baldwin. . . . . . . . . . . . . Stephens pottery .. • * * * * g c s s e < e º e 46.07 21.72 15.75 Illinois: 12 Pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © º 'º º ºs tº ſº º tº º O ſº º tº º tº $ tº t § 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 < e < * * * * º e º a 46.9 31.84 . 16 Indiana: 18 | Putnam....... . . . . . . Reelsville. .......... tº e º e º 'º e º tº G & s tº tº a º º 60.56 27. 3.48 14 Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Martz tº e º tº e º tº e º e º a 0 tº I e º e º e s e a tº e s e e is tº º º " º 65.66 17.2 4.05 15 | Porter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sumanville. . . . . . . . . . Blue clay. . . . . . . . . . . 68.5 17.55 1.88 16 | Fountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Yellow clay . . . . . . . . 50.43 22. 18 4,37 17 | Vanderburg. . . . . ...] Evansville. . . . . . . . . . . Clay . . . . . tº e º º 0 tº º e o e 59.5 26.22 .8 18 t { 4 & 8 tº º is e a e “ . . . . . e - e e { { tº c e s a e º 'º e e 79.41 10.8 2.07 Kentucky: 19 | Madison...... ......] Wasco. . . . . . . . . . . . . | Pottery clay. . . . . . . . 59.976 27.64 . . . . . . . . 20 | Franklin ........... Frankfort. . . . . . . . . . { { © e º e o e s a 69.8 21.78 21 Hickman . . . . . . . . . . . • * c is e º e º 'º e e g c e s is º º e º ſº & 4 tº º tº 0 & 0 & 76.86 14.95 2 11 22 Butler. . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e º is e º e º e º e º s g º e º e e { { & e º a tº e º º 51.66 15.56 7.68 23 Ohio * * * * * * * * * * g e e s a tº s e º e º 0 & 0 & 0 & e º e º E tº e { { e - © e o e º 'º 70.06 17.94 .38 24 || Madison. . . . . tº tº º e e º 'º . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Black Shale . . . . . . . . 62.56 24.78 1.8 25 Fulton . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º is a t e º 4 e º a tº t e º & © tº e e is e º & G & º e º ºs e e º ºs e g º e e e 71.021 17,977 3.417 26 Graves . . . . . . . tº º tº e e - 27 | McCracken ......., | Pryorsburg ...... e e i e o e s - e. e - e º e s e Q & © tº e e º e 56.4 80. e - © tº 9 º' e 0 Paducab (3 m. S.)...] Black shale ........ 59.5 24.96 .72 28 Calloway . . . . . . . . . . 29 Graves . . . . . . . . . . . . . Murray (6 m. e.)...] Black Shale . . . . . . . . 54.84 30.34 1.18 Bell City . . . . . . . . . . .] Black Shale . . . . . . . . 56.98 32. 16 2. 16 Minnesota: - 80 | Blue Earth. . . . . . . . " | Mankato . . . . . . . . . . . . Red clay . . . . . . . . . . . 73.34 14,75 5.45 Missouri: w 31 Barton . . . . . . . . . . . ...] Wear mine, Minden. Not Worked . . . . . . . . 50.94 24.24 7.18 32 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waltman's ......... Stoneware clay .... 65 32 22.63 1.81 33 || Guthrie, Callaway. | Moore place......., | Used for stoneware 48.92 32.9 8.1 34 * { * (, e e o e g c e e * { 47. 13 84.98 2.92 85 | Cass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harrisonville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e a e * * * * 63.93 19.73 3.69 36 ‘‘ . . . . . . . . tº º e º e º 'º • { . . . . . . . Washed clay, not Worked........... 64.62 19.98 2.91 37 | Franklin . . . . . . ... ..] Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44.14 39.86 .46 88 | Henry . . . . . . . . tº e e Calhoun . . . . . . . . . . . . Used for stoneware 71.94 . 17 6 2.35 39 tº be . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dunlap pit, Clinion { % 67. 49 21.11 2.45 40 { % & 1 & . . . . | Frawe'n pit, Clint'n & 6 64.97 22.64 3.28 CLAY'S OF NEW YORK clays WATER Lime |Magnesia. Alkalis Miscellaneous Firm names, authority, Com; F or analyst o bined I'ee 2. w 1 tº º e º 'º * e º tº tº tº e º ſº tº * @ tº e º e º e 6,287 tº $ $ $ tº tº $ & e º e s e º e º 'º º s s º º & e º e Rep’t OT) valley re- flºw §: geol. Sull’W. ZU : 2 . .4 .36 .65 8.6 .7 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº g e º a tº V 3 | tr. tr. tº º e º e º e 5.5 1.4 * a t e º 'º e s \ is º a º 'º $ * * * * * * 4 tr. .725 .672 6.08 1.71 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * 5 |. tr. tr. , 56 7.4 .12 . . . . . . . tº a tº e º & tº º e : 6 | 1.5 1.25 tr. 8 68 .78 . . . . . . . . tº º te tº º e º 'º e tº 8 7 .34 tr. .74 6.1 1.06 | . . . . . . . . tº t e º 'º # tº ſº º tº 8 .25 tr. tr. 6.7 3.4 e e º e g g g g e º e º 'º e g º e º º º . 9 1, 86 tr. 1.2 6.05 3.75 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº g tº ſº tº 10 .6 .86 tr. 7.85 1.44 | . . . . . e g º tº $ tº * * * | * * * * * * 11 .25 .67 .48 11.72 c. 84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . R. Peter, anal. 12 * * * * * * * * ... 1 .95 20. & © tº e º ºs º e tº e º tº º gº tº º it tº ſº. # 13 725 e e tº 2.8 tº e e º ºs e e º & tº tº º e º º LOSS 6.3 SO2 e tº e º e e - .27 Ind. geol. Sur. 1878 14 | .865 | . . . . . . . . 2.73 | . . . . . . . . . . . . ... Loss 8.1 so, Mno.8 || “... iś" “ * .74 & .25 e tº g º e tº tº e º g tº ſº tº º e e tº 15 | 1.2 2 61 8.51 Crossley, Analyses of 16 || 6.58 1.74 2. ſ.3 12.62 & e º e º s e e 4 º e º 'º e I tº t t < * clays 17 .56 2.76 2.96 ſº tº º e º & t e º f is tº a 6 tº tº 6 e º e º 'º e e º e º e * * * > U les Otter 18 .6 , 62 tº e º t e tº a tº ſº & tº º | 6.5 gº tº ſº tº tº $ tº & e s tº º e tº t e º e tº B. H.W 19 b. 28 . 606 4.478 7.02 p tº e s tº 6 tº e tº e º a tº e tº e º 'º º º Ry. geol. SUII*. chem. rep't A, pt 1, no. 1876 20 . 158 .331 || 2.936 5 435 | P2 O 5 p’t A, pt. 1,no. 1876a .06 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. Ino. 2007 21 b. 83 .17 .71 4.31 tº º tº gº tº g tº tº º tº º & T & & t e ∈ 22 || 7.27 .82 3 57 13.44 & e g º e s e a e º e º e º a tº e º e cºy, Analyses of 23 tr. .66 2.96 4.56 & e e s e e s ∈ I e s tº e s = e e º e a º 24 tr. .32 3.57 6.87 ſº e s ſº e s a s e s e e s • tº e 25 | 1 , 0.19 .262 .95 5.276 tº ſº tº e º tº tº e ... . . Ky. ºol. Ul I’. In , 8. 26 .4 tr. F.27 7.93 © tº tº ...... . ...... R. Peter, anal. 27 .325 .396 2.22 . . . . . . . 11.879 | . . . . . . . & º $ tº ſº tº a º º ICy. geol. Sur. chem. rep’t A, pt. 3, no. 2777 28 .011 .05 1.137 9,442 tº tº € º * * * tº º e º ſº Ibid. no. 2643 29 tr. 2. .949 7.542 tº tº º g tº º tº e º ºs . . . . . . . Ibid. no. 2666 30 .28 .05 tr. 4,71 e is g g g g º & e º e e s ] tº * * * * * Minn, geol. sur. 1872- 1882 * 81 .95 1.6 3.6 11.58 tº e º 'º e º e º ſº tº e º 'º º © tº $ tº ... , , , || Mo. geol. Sur. 11:568 32 .25 .67 1.72 7.42 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . te $ $ 38 .4 .3 .82 13.58 tº tº ſº º tº º is tº 0 tº 4 tº tº º q * * * * * * { { 34 .37 .32 .52 13.88 * tº º tº $ tº e º tº t tº e e º e º º © wº tº e º ( tº 85 .53 1.21 3.4 7.58 e g tº a s g º e º 'º e i < e e º e e tº g º is tº º { % 36 .44 1.31 3.25 7.42 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e { { 37 .77 .46 .7 13.84 • * * * * : * c e s e e s a e º 'º e s ∈ I e o a s e e Ibid. 11:564 38 .62 .56 1 : 5 5.27 1.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . e ſº tº e s tº (, , 39 .17 .68 2.83 5 95 1.04 | . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº * § { 40 .61 .8 2.74 5.5 1.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º º º tº (, 880 INEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Pottery clays 3 10 11 12 18 14 15 16 17 85 36 87 State and county TOWn Remarks Missouri (continued) ë €Illy . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grant farm, Clinton Not worked . . . . . . tº e “ . . . . . © tº e º 'º tº 0 Missouri clay co...] Used also for sewer { { Deepwater . . . . . . pipe tº tº e º ſº e º e s & e a s ... .............] Fields creek. ....] Used for stºneware Jasper …: Jefferson • . . . . . { { Lafayette. . . . . . . . tº tº Morgan . . . . . . . . . . . . Randoph . . . . . . . . . St. Louis. . . . . . . . . . . . Saline . . . . . . . . . . . © tº Schuyler. . . . . . © to tº tº a Scott. . . . . . e e a g º e º e Stoddard . . . . . . . . . . New Jersey: Sussex . . . . . . . . . . . . New York Queens tº º 0 & e tº e º 0 ° tº tº Suffolk ............ Ohio: Muskingum. . . . . . . . Perry . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e Summit . . . . . • * * * * * Columbiana . . . . . . . Stark . . . . . sº e º e º e º a Muskingum . . . . . . . . Summit Columbiana (, i. Pennsylvania: Beaver . . . . . . . . . . © tº e • * Tennessee.... Texas: Henderson. . . . . . . . . Marion. . . . . . . . . . . . . Michigan. . . . . . . . • New York: Albany. . . . . . . . . . . . . Ohio: Summit. . . . . . . . . . . e Gilkerson ford. . . . Chancy sh'ft, Joplin Mammoth mine, DeSoto - Mandel's pit,Regina tº s º º - 6 - - - - Strasburg Mayview . . . . . . . Pricel’nd, Versailles Lanigan shaft. Mo- berly Imine, * * * * * * * * * * e º 'º Rºſebergs Allen- On . . . . . . . . . . . . Oer pit, Slater . . . . . Chariton river, Glenwood ... . . . . . Anderson place, Commerce ......, Dexter . . . . . . . . . tº e e Woodbridge........ Glencove . . . . . . . . . . Elm point . . . . . . . . . . Littleneck..... a C & e e Roseville. . . . . . . . . . . Uniontown. . . . . North Springfield.. East Iliverpool..... Green town..... G tº º te Zanesville. . . . . . . . . . Akron. . . . . . . . . . . . East Palestine . . . . . Salineville....... © º e New Brighton. ..... Oak Hill.... e - © tº a 9 Loudon Rowley. . . . . . . . . . . . . Albany. . . . . . . . . . . . . Brimfield. . . . . . . . . . . Not worked . . . . . Ball clay for white Ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ball clay for white W&l'6. . . . . . . . . . g e º e Not Worked :::::::: Used also for pav- ing brick..... tº e o s Not Worked . . . . . . . . Used for stoneware { * Stoneware clay . . . . t { % { { { { { { { % * { Yellow ware clay.. Stoneware clay . . Cooking ware clay. Stoneware clay. . . . . Yellow ware clay .. Drift clay Yellow clay. . . . . . . . - Clay, ... e - e. e. e. e. tº e º e º 'º Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { % e Q e g º O & tº e º e º e º e G ! { Sll_ICA - FerriC Com- Alumina Oxid biºd | Free 59.83 25,09 4.09 72.86 12.99 2.95 74.02 15.26 2.02 55. 39 25.79 4.83 86.98 14.72 2.48 60.98 21.83 1.93. 49.04 34.85 .71 45.97 86.35 1.08. 48. 12 17.04 3 82 54.1 • 4.01 66.24 20.32 2.8 60.07 22.81 2 71 50.36 32.34 3.9 53.54 15. 39 4.17 71.78 17.01 2.01 68.5 20.81 1.79 19.44 || 48. 21.83 1.57 70.45 21.74 1.72 62.06 18.09 5.4 62 66 18.09 .97 25.6 || 43.73 19.08 1.26 29.35 | 35.85 23.05 .99 , 72.1 e 19.38 * * * * * ~ * e. 42.28 || 18.02 24. 12 1.46 72.26 . . . . . 19.23 e e s - - 25.4 | 40.81 21.13 1.28 2'ſ .68 || 36.58 22.95 1.28 29.93 29.61 25. 12 1.57 32.33 24, 11 26.6 2. 57.67 27.52 a 1.494 46. 16 26.976 7.214 45.06 30.03 a 4.5 68.57 28.24 tr. 58.2 23.97 4.43 Slip, 12.85 || 31.09 11, 17 3.81 14.33 || 46.26 12,46 5.79 15.65 || 47.98 18.57 7.77 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 881 (concluded) Lime |Magnesia || Alkalis o 24 1 .84 1.17 2.74 2 .35 . 47 1.18 8 .48 .51 2.87 4 . 53 . 31 3. 89 5 .65 .58 2.32 6 .42 1.95 4.69 7 1.33 1.04 .85 8 1.14 1.09 1.84 9 9.9 2.65 2.97 10 1.31 1.25 4.01 11 63 .48 2.04 12 1.65 1.55 4.42 13 1.04 .37 2.01 14 8.54 2.17. 8.2 15 .34 .43 .78 16 .77 tr. .53 17 .28 .24 2.24 18 .24 .8 5. 19 1.05 tr. 6.11 20 .79 . . . . . . . . 2.38 21 .6 .63 2. 16 22 , 58 .58 1.45 23 1. 38 .23 © g º a tº 24 .59 , 68 2,42 25 e e Q * * tº e º e º a “ & tº e tº e 26 . 51 . 18 1.8 27 .45 . 37 1.96 28 .57 .51 1.95 29 .47 .63 3 46 30 . 38 . 122 . 619 31 2 2 1.52 3.246 32 4.7 4.8 e - tº a tº e º e 33 tr. 1.25 tº e º e º e º º 34 te e º e º & tº º ſº tº º is e ſº clays 35 11.64 4.7 3.61 36 6.84 3.28 4.39 37 2.55 1.47 2.63 | WATER * e Firm names, authority Com- Miscellaneous Or analyst biºd | Free 8.74 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº ſº º e º tº e º 'º e e Mo. geol. sur. 11:564 4.76 2.02 tº e º te e º e a tº e º tº º e g tº º { { 3.69 .49 tº º tº 4 º º ſº tº tº º e e tº º tº ſº ( e. 8.6 1.25 | . . . . . . © tº & © tº e º e tº £ tº $ $ .86 .46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº t e º 'º - ( (. 8.48 | . . . . . . . * * * * * * * s l e a e s e e i e < e s . . . Ibid. 11: 566 12.33 * - e º e º e e tº e g g g g g tº $ tº tº e º ve { { 12.36 tº o º º tº Q & tº º tº tº e tº º ºs e e tº ºn to tº º { { 14.98 |....... | SO3 °7 ...... & e e º e ſº 4 (. 11.64 tº e e º 'º º . . . . . . . . tº e e * tº { { 7.8 e e º 'º e & e º 'º e e tº e º C tº e º 'º Ibid. 11: 568 6.48 | . . . . . . . tº ºr º e º e º 'º tº e º e º º . . . . . . . Ibid. 11: 570 8.25 1.69 | . . . . . . . . ſº tº e º e I & tº º ſº º º $ $ 12.78 | . . . . . © e e º 'º gº e º 'º e tº C te e º e º 'º e º 'º § { 8 13 e º e º 'º tº & e º tº e º e tº tº e e © tº tº º { { 7.62 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º e º e º e e { % 5.9 .8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . N. J. clay rep’t, 1878 - p. 99 e tº e * t e e {º º tº tº º tº Q e & & © tº e FI. T. Vulté, anal. 5.57 .94 | . . . . . . . . o .29 | . . . . . . Ohio geol. sur. 5, 1884 7.30 1.11 e e º e º 'º e Q c .55 | . . . . . . | || 5. 13 . 112 | . . . . . . . * * * * * : * * * * * * { % 7.77 . F6 * @ º º 1.2 . . . . . . § { 0, 10.03 .88 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e $ (, 6.29 1.65 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. 7, 1898 6.74 2.05 | . . . . . . . © e º e º s e tº ſº º is $ $ 7.75 2.63 & 0 tº º g º e º e º e º 'º º tº B tº £ tº { { 7.59 2.48 | . . . . . tº gº tº tº e e tº e º 'º { % 9.68 e - e º e º 'º e c 254 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * c e s a a e s e 11.22 c -74 | . . . . . . . . . . . 1897, rep’t Pa. state college 10.1 tº * * * * * * * | * tº e º is a e e s e s e Crossley, Analyses of clays ... ..., | 1.85 | LOSS , 11 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . Miller Brothers 5.36 tº $ tº tº 6 & 8 e º 'º e e tº º º Texas geol. sur. 1890, p. 112. 8.9 | 15.66 & | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ohio geol. Sur. 7, 1898, CO2 4.36 1.46 & tº e º 'º gº e e it ſº º e e º ſº e º ſº { { CO2 4,75 2.9 & tº e º & © e º 'º tº e º 'º e tº tº e º tº Q & $ $ CO2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Slip clays 1# 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 SILICA. g Ferric State and county TOWI) Remarks Com- Alumina | “...ii j| Free Ohio (comtimwed.) gº Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . Sharonville. . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.04 || 30.2 11.08 5.07 Kaolinite slip. . . . . . . . 12. 48.4 10.42 5.86 Texas: * Grimes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Piedmont Springs Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º 58.5 18.39 8, 29 Adobe Nevada. Humboldt City PAO – .94 26.67 18.19 { #} * - tº & tº tº 4 ſº e º tº º e º tº - tº º tº º 2 5 * ** dº e e g tº e tº e º º e º g a .64 New Mexico’ - Bernalillo. . . . . . . . . . Fort Wingate . . . . . . P2O 5 .75. . . . . . . . . . . 26,67 .91 .64 TJ tab: - Summit. . . . . . . . . . . . Salt Lake City...., | P2O5 .28....... tº gº tº 19.24 3.26 1.09 Brick Alabama: - Tuscaloosa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pinkish clay. TuS- 68. 108 10,858 14.471 - caloosa Cretace- OUIS. NE. J4 of NW. 34 of S.24, T. 1, R. 14 W. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.65 27.04 4.75 Elmore... . . . . . . . . . . . Elmore Station . . . . River terrace clay 60.81 21.69 3.48 & 4 * * * * * * * * * ( & { { 61.15 24.81 2.48 Montgomery . . . . . . . Montgomery. . . . . . . { % 62.75 21.15 4. Morgan . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lacon . . . . . . . . . . . . • e i e s ∈ e º $ tº * ºn tº gº e tº ſe tº º º 75.52 12.945 a 2.605 Arkansas: Johnsonsridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . * & © tº $ tº e º 'º º is tº e º p 56.91 19.8 6.68 Little River. . . . . . . . Williamslake . . . . . . tº tº º a tº e º 'º s º e tº e º g tº gº tº º 58.24 18.22 9.25 Sebastian. . . . . . . . . . . Nigger hill, Fort mith . . . . . . . . . . tº tº º tº a tº tº º º tº $ tº ſº º e o tº e º is 58.48 22.5 8.86 ( \| tº e º tº Port Smith. . . . . . . * * | * c e e s ∈ e a e e º 'º g º º ſº tº gº tº º 74.79 12.86 4.9 Poinsett... . . . . . . . . . . Harrisburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.37 8.52 2.88 Craighead. . . . . . . . . . Jonesboro. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79.49 8.71 3.48 Greene. . . . . . . . . . . . . Gainesville. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.17 18.44 2.77 “ . . . . . . . . . . Paragould...... & 0 & 8 || 2 e e º e º e º e g e º 'º e g º º e g g e 79.07 8.79 2.54 Cross * 6 & ſº tº * † tº º ſº Wittsburg. . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º Q tº e º º tº º ºs e º ſº º e º ºs e e 69.55 15.2 8.1 Hempstead . . . . . . . . . Hope. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º gº tº t e º 'º e º & 72.42 14.94 5.54 Sevier ..... . . . . . . . . . Brownstown. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79,07 10.58 5.27 California: Placer. & e º 'o º ºs e º ºs e º $ Lincoln . . . . • . . . . . . . tº º ſº tº º º © tº tº tº º ſº tº * * * * tº 44.82 34,54 1.86 CLAYS OF NEW YORK , 883 (comeluded) WATER, Lime Magnesia Alkalis Miscellaneous Firm º *hority Com- F y c bined I’ee 2. 1 15.99 6.36 2.68 4.58 || 12. & tº e º e I tº * * * * * I e a e - e. e. Ohio geol. sur. 7, 1893 CO2 2 9.88 "4.28 .87 8.64 || 4.41 & . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ( * CO2 8 2.34 1.61 7.68 8.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tex. sº, sur. 4th ann. rep' soils 4 18,91 2.96 2.8 2.26 Cl .14 |MnO. 13 CO2 Bull. U. S. G. S., 64 8.55 5 36.4 .51 tr. 2.26 e5.1 SO3 .82 CO2 { { C] . 07 25.84 6 38.94 2.75 tr. 1.67 Cl .11 SO3 . 53 CO2 29 57 clays 7 | . . . . . . tº e º t e º e º 0 e º e º e º e 7,085 ! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ala. geol. Sur. rep’t On valley region, p. 180 8 tº e º 'º e º 'º e e - © ſº º e º e s e e i e º e º e º e tº a tº º e º 0. * 0 tº e º 'º e e e - e. s tº a º Ibid., J. M. Pickel, anal. 9 .17 .57 2. 15 7.26 8.6 tº º e º & e º & I e g º e SQ 3 ... 1 10 .3 .39 2.8 6.45 1.7 e tº e º ſº e º e • 2 tº e SQ.8 | Ala. ind. & Sci. Soc. .11 | V. 1895 11 .72 .82 2.28 6. 2.7 tº e º e º e º e I e e º e º a SO 18 j 12 .867 .986 • * * * * * * * * 5.5 tº º te & 6 º' tº e tº e o e I e º e a e e stºrick and 116 WOI’KS 18 4.76 .96 3.17 e C & © º º tº º t t e º 'º ſº tº s e º e i º a e º 'º e Loss \ 9. 57 14 4.55 4.19 3.22 . . . . . . . • e º e e º a e º a tº t e tº tº e º Ark l 1888 - TR. 96.O1. Sll T. LOSS } P. 2; } 15 .82 1. 14 3.21 | . . . . . . . a e e s e e s 6 g c & © tº e º e º 0 & © tº 6.07 16 .38 .9 8.22 | . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e - e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOSS | 2.91 J 17 .44 .5 2.4 tº e * @ e g º a e : * * * * * * * tº Mn.92 Loss 1.01 2.88 Ibid. 1889, 2; 85 18 2.1 • * * * * a te e º e s s tº e º & e o e a Mºnºz Loss - 2.44 3.83 || Ibid. p. 87 19 .25 .44 .9 & e e s s a e * c * tº º e º e º 'º e H & e º 'º e = Loss 6.03 Ibid. p. 107 20 .25 .28 1.89 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MnO o | LOSS 3.68" | 3.55 1bid. p. 112 21 .58 .97 1.02 B e. e. e. tº tº e º º e e s is tº e s e P2 95 loss 22 2.56 2 #. Ibid. p. 138 • * - o e º ºs e e º s tº e tº e º s e e º e º & tº e º ſº e º 'º º © tº e o 'º º LOSS 4.54 Ark, geol. Sur. 1888, p. 23 e tº e tº tº 0 .7 tº & 0 e º ſº e & tº e º e º 'º * tº a e º e tº e º 0 & 0 & 8 tº e o 'º - 0 Loss 296 4 43 24 1,55 .96 4.74 9 64 * * * * LOSS Cal. state min., 11th .44 rep’t 884. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Brick clays 3. ; : State and county TOWn Remarks Colorado: Pueblo... . . . . . . . . . Pueblo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº e º º t e º 'º District of Columbia, Washington. . . . . . . Shale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Florida.: Escambia. . . . . . . . . . . . Bluffsprings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº $ tº º tº $ a º º tº Georgia: Bartow . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cartersville. . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . tº ſº tº e g º e { { * - a tº e º 'º e s tº a s { % & * Slate & e º e s tº e § tº $ tº e s tº tº e McCamores cave... Plastic clay . . . . . . . . { { . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cartersville... . . . . . . Alluvial clay. . . . . . . Floyd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rome. . . . . . & e º e º ºs & . . . Surface clay. . . . . . . Richmond . . . . . . . . . . Augusta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . § to º 'º e º & Illinois: LaSalle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . La Salle. . . . . . . . . . . . . Red clay. . . . . . . . . . . Woodland. . . . . . . tº g tº tº º ſº º tº ſº g º tº $ ſº º tº º § tº º Livingston. . . . . . . . . . Cornell. . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº s e º 'º e º 'º e º e º s a e < * * & De . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allrora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e º e º e s e e is tº tº Peoria. . . . . tº tº a tº e º 'º º Peoria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * tº e º e g º ſº e º is LaSalle. . . . . . . Utica. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • { tº ſº tº e º a dº º º Ottawa. e tº e º e º 'º e º º Clay ... tº e º º ſº ºn tº e g º ºs e tº Mercer. . . . . . . © tº e º 'º 3. Griffin # tº e º & tº tº tº º is º º No. 2 clay. . . . . . . . . . “. . . . . . . . . . tº º tº “ . . . . . . . . ſº tº dº tº No. 1 clay. . . . . . . . . . LaSalle e tº e © tº LaSalle. • * g e º 'º a te e º is tº Red clay e e º 4 tº $ tº © & “ . . . . . . tº t e º 'º e & { { . . . . . . . . . . . .] Buff clay. . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . Streator . . . . . . . . . . .] Brick. . . . . . . . . tº E tº e C & Indiana: Marion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indianapolis........] Terra-cotta. . . . . . . . . 21 22 23 24 Floyd . . . . Crawford © tº ſº tº e G Monroe. . . . . . . . . . . . . (, , Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jennings. . . . . . . . . . . Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . * { & & © tº & e tº e e º e Dubois. . . . . . . . . . . . . Martin . . . . . . • Washington Madison .. Hamilton . . . . . . . . Lawrence . . . . . . . . . tº $ tº tº tº $ New Albany. . . . . . . . Wyandotte cave . . . Bloomington . . . . . . . DOver Hill. . . . . . . . . . Vernon. . . . . . . . . . tº e tº Covington. . . . . . . . . . $ \, Cannelton. . . . . tº e º 'º º RI'OW in Stown . . . . . . . Liberty. tº $ ſº tº º º ſº tº Jeffersonville . . . Terre Haute . . Wabash . . . . . . . . . e e Veedersburg . . . . . . . Washington. . . . . . . . Worthington . . . . . . . Jasper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Montezuma. . . . . . . . . Haysville. . . . . . . . . . . LOdi Anderson .......... Noblesville . Mitchell Clay . . . . Red clay tº £ tº $ tº e º e º G & Clay * * g º º ſº º 'º - e º tº $ tº e Clay. . . . . . . . . . . gº tº e e Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . * tº { %s tº º ºs e e s e e s s e e e ſº SILICA. Alumina Ferric Conn- Oxid bined | Free 61 35 .25 62. 14 25.55 tr. 52.05 18.87 2 49 58.63 20.47 8.58 71.6 11.5 5.59 69.33 19.01 2.02 69. 18 15.43 5.83 67.8 13.82 5.74 54.55 18.04 | a 3.87 62 18.1 9.1j. 51.36 12.8 9.68 6S.22 19.48 49.964 13.64 1.788 72. 1 16, 1 8.8 56.65 26.45 2. 1 45.79 22.44 a tr. 75.83 15.04 1.08 64.52 23.52 1.92 62 18.1 9. 1 68.3 18.3 | . . . . . & G & 61.76 18.32 7.04 59.08 31.3 .5 52.18 19, 27 8.18 48.5 19.5 12.8 66. 14 15.34 6.32 55.23 29.66 4.63 70.73 18.74 4.4 68.19 18.22 2.43 34.35 15.5 33. 12 66.44 22.09 2. 16 66.83 22.94 2.64 63.6 20.84 3.17 73.81 13.87 2.66 49.83 13.95 2. 1 71.833 12.64 4.4 62. 18 15.9 3.77 69.6 13.08 2.98 81 71 9.81 3.8 63.25 24.81 5.04 68.64 20.18 2.5 54.53 24.66 7.46 70.32 18.2 2.9 64.27 20. 16 2. 12 45.23 29.68 4.60 78.33 13.94 5.2.1 63.2 23. 11 8.8 74.33 12.94 5.2 68. 14 19.05 4.08 CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 885 (continued) WATER, Lime Magnesia, Alkalis C Miscellaneous Firm ºrity, OIn- o bined Free 2. 1 | . . . . . . . . e e g º ºs e º tº gº tº e e º º 3.75 tº tº tº º ſº . . . . . . . Stand. fire brick co. 2 | * .49 | . . . . . . . & 5.6 a tº e º e º 'º e º e º e º 'º º & & 8 tº is $ tº tº º . . . . . . . . . . . . Wellington brick and tile CO. 8 || CaCO3 | MECO 3 | Chlorid ....... . ....... . ........ ..... |P295 6.2 4.28 15.32 .79 J. W. Crary jr & Co. 4 tº tº º * 1 .71 1 .98 6 .83 tº tº º tº e e e º e º 'º º e e g º º Ga. geol. SUlr. 1898, p. 286 5 ! . . . . . . . . 1.3 4. 55 3.95 . . . . . c 1.1 Mng 2 .6 Ibid. p. 284 6 tr. .87 2.28 7.14 6 * * * * * * tº º a tº . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 286 7 tr 1.42 4 7.26 © tº º º g º O & tº ſº tº $ tº $ . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 286 8 . . . . . . . . . ,81 2.55 7.6 tº tº g º º e s c 1.67 | . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 287 9 .94 | . . . . . . . . 4.01 || 5.41 |....... c 4.89 |....., |* 2°5| J. F. Elson, anal. 2.07 10 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº ſº tº º e ſº e e g º ſº e º e º e º (º SO 3 1 | LOSS . . . . . . . . La Salle pressed brick 5.66 CO . 11 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . t is tº e s is tº º tº º | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Asst. State chemist, a Dal, 12 1.16 1.67 3.82 3.86 | | . . . . . . . . . . . . J. F. Snyder. 18 23.2 9.433 4.01 4.59 . . . . . . . . Ign. 2 . . . . . . . . F. W. Cook, anal. 14 .61 .77 2.9 3.86 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | Peoria brick co. J5 * g. .3 1.1 11.9 tº tº * is tº dº c 1.15 & © 16 6.35 9 3.99 .92 C9.2 | ...... Crossley, Analyse of 11.51 clays 17 .62 .36 1.55 5.2 tº tº g H. A. Weber, anal. Griffin brick, tile, 18 .07 .2 1.43 7.5 ! . . . . . . . . © º ºs . . . . . ) l and coal works 19 | . . . . . . . . tº º is a e s is tº gº tº t e º e º ſº tº s e º e º 'º e º º ºs e g c s # 8 º' is tº tº a tº tº e º e Q 5.66 || Lasalle pressed brick CO. $ $ 20 g g tº tº a tº * e - tº e e is tº e & © tº 9 e º te tº ſº tº º tº e º e º e º s tº º 'º º ſº SO3 . 14 6 31 | . . . . . . . . 1.45 3.49 . . . . . . . tº º º e & B e. g. 7.94 * * * * * * * * * * * * * Barr clay co. £2 .8 .6 & © e º e º ſº & tº t tº * † 7.72 tº º ſº tº tº e tº tº º tº º Jndianapolis terra- COtta, CO. 23 .09 7,29 5.31 5.66 €2.22 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . W. Finnegan brick mfg. Co. 24 1.79 , 52 1.12 , , , , ... | Po O- |MnO 1.05| Loss | SO Ind., geol. Sur. rep’t, 2 °5 ^3 || “...h6 .44 11.7 1. 11 25 1.227 .921 | . . . . . . . . 1(). 07 § º 3 tº tº e º e º e St I ouis works 26 .8 1 96 tº e s & e º e a 7.72 | . . . . . . . . tº º e º e º e º e º ſº a G. Powell’s yard 27 1, 17 1.29 | . . . . . . 8 6 . . . . . . . e I e < e • a g º ºs e . 2- 1.65 1.03 9.48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. Owens's works 29 1.83 2.41 12.85 tº e s ∈ e º e º is tº e º 'º e º e | * * * * * * * * | * e º e º & e g º 'º e q M. Carvite 30 2.04 1.18 6.09 • * * * * e º e s e e s a s a e º e º º ºs e e tº e º ſº e º e º 'º e º º * * 31 3.08 .858 7.43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e e º 'º & © e º e < 1 g º e º e a 32 2.2 .64 | . . . . . . . . 9.65 | . . . . . © e º & © e º e . . . . . . P. White 33 2.96 1.14 | . . . . . . . . 5.56 * * * * * * * * I e º e º e s ] , e. e º s 2 F. Snyder 34 2.313 9.828 . . . . . . . . 21.979 * * * * * * * e s is a s & e º e e e e J. C. Summers 35 1. 17 1.29 | . . . . . . . . S. 6 * … e º e º e I e º e º e e S. Gray 36 2.18 1.13 . . . . . . . . 14.84 * * * * * * * - I e e s e º e i e º e º 'º e T. Graves 37 1. .7 * * * * * * > * 17.64 tº e tº e º e º º tº ſº tº tº a tº e º e S. White 3-3 .48 26 . . . . . . . . 3.91 & © tº g g tº tº ºn 6 © tº P. Zike 39 .485 J.009 e tº & e º e º e 7.33 tº tº ſº tº tº º tº tº e º ſº º S. Davis 40 .7 .5 ! . . . . . . . . 7.48 * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * * * * * * * * P. West, 41 .37 1.28 . . . . . . . . 10.7 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * I e e s m a. s. S. Schumake 42 .7 .7 tº t e º e º e & 7.18 * e º t e º s e ] e º e º 'º e e s is e e J. Weber 43 .75 .6 | . . . . . . . . 13.1 * * * * * * * * g e º ſº . . . . . . . A. Parks 44 1.01 1 76 § tº º 17.72 | . . . . . . . . tº e º e . . . . . . W. A. McR1'ide 45 . 533 .984 | . . . . . . . . 598 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. Walters 46 5 .282 | . . . . . . . . 746 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J Klein 47 666 .861 | . . . . . . . 5.97 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. Teller 48 8 2.26 . . . . . . . . 5.22 © g º 0 & 8 tº e tº $ tº e º ſº e g º e . . J. W. Jones 886 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Brick clays SILICA State and county TOWn Remarks Com- Alumina Fº ODºl- • o jºd| Free Indiana (continued) | 1 Wells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bluffton. . . . . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.95 30.36 2.88 2 | Owen ...... ......] Gosport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º tº 75.33 11.94 3.2 8 Madison............ Frankton. . . . . . . . ... “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73.19 16.21 2.18 4 Orange • * * * * * * g. t e º º Paoli . . . . & Q & Q ſº • { { tº a e º 'º e º 'º e º 0 tº tº e g tº 69.33 17.84 4.033 5 | Washington .......| Salem . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75.88 11.22 5.04 6 Edwardsport.......] ‘ ‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº 8 56.02 24, 23 9.2 7 | Warren .......,..., | Williamsport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.22 25.98 13.6 8 || Fountain....... . . . . . Stone bluff. . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . tº e e º 'º º 78.1 12.64 3.16 9 | Martin ............. Shoals. . . . . . . . . . . . . * Q & e s tº e º 'º - tº e e º e s e e º e e - 25. 13 7.36 10 | Putnam .......... Greencastle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * g e º e º s 66.14 15. 34 6.82 11 Kosciusko..........] ............. e e º e º e º e i e º 'º º e º O e º e s e e º e s s e e e is 43.1 20.78 4.77 12 | Vigo ............... | Terre Haute........] Used for brick, but good for vitrified • Wal'ê. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66.11 13.78 5.35 13 S.E. 34, sec. 4, T. 20 N., B. 8 W. . . . . . . . . Was used for roof- ing tile. Cracked in burning. . . . . . . . 73.2 13.38 2.19 14 | Gibson ..........., | Princeton ..........| Yellow surface clay. Used for pressed brick . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.2 18.56 º 1.34 15 Knox. ............. Vincennes . . . . . . . . . . Burns yellow white. 65,315 28.473 3.12 16 | Parke........... ... Under-clay 8, S. I. - McCune, Mecca. . . . . . . . . . . * 6 t < t e º 'º a s is e e 54.46 25.71 §§ o. 17 | Vanderburg........ Evansville . . . . . . . . . . W. Schnute's yard. 77.93 12.16 4.48 18 | Vermilion "........ Cayuga ............ Dry press brick– mixture of shales 3 and 4. . . . . . . . . . . 65 78 14.79 8.03 19 { {. * * tº e º 'º e “ . . . . . . . . ..., | Bastard shale no. 5. Makes buff dry preSS brick. . . . . . . 55,09 20.76 b4.01 3 Iowa: - 20 | Cerro Gordo ....... | Mason City...... ... | Blue Shale. . . . . . tº e º º 54.8 14.91 | & # } * | Adair............... Bridgewater. ...... Alluvium. . . . . . . . . . . 77. 13 10.95 2.36 22 Gillett brickyard...] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº • * * * * * * e i e s c e a e º s 33 || Guthrie . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guthrie center..... Brick and tile loess clay. W. E. Barry yard. . . . . . . . . . . . 68.62 14.98 4.16 24 || Fayette . . . . . . . . . . . .] West Union . . . . . . . . a tº a tº e º 'º - e. e. e. e. e s e º s e e 35.6 14.08 25 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indianola . . . . . . . . . . . Loess clay, plastic. 63,31 16.57 4.06. 26 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . , ... Gray or yellow loess - Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.24 12.58 4.02 27 Lime creek ......., | Mason City shale... 54.64 14.62 5.69. 28 || Montgomery.......| Redoak . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cretaceous clay.... 69.75 18.68 1.94 29 || Clay................| Spencer . . . . . . . . . . . . . Altered loess. . . . . . . 52.42 13.04 6.24. OLAYS OF NEW YORK 887 (continued) O WATER Lime |Magnesia. Alkalis Miscellaneous Firm names, authority, Com- IT or analyst o bined Te0 2, 1 1.31 1.22 | . . . . . . . . 12.25 * * * * g º e º tº e º e º 0 tº º J. N. Goodyear 2 .633 .894 tº ſº tº tº e º e e 3.97 * tº e º 'º e tº tº º e º ºr tº e º 'º º º J. Smith 3 1.16 .6 & © e º 'º e s s 6.6 & & e e º 'º e a tº e º e º ºs * * * * * H. Pierce 4 1.633 .994 | . . . . . . . . 5.89 & © tº e º z c e i tº tº 6 e º a . . . . . . J. Peterson 5 .476 .349 | . . . . . . . . 6.76 • tº e º 'º e º e i e º 'º e º e i e º 'º e º 'º A. Shrunn 6 .47 1.459 ........ 8, 62 & e º ſº e o ſº e a tº e º & e * * * * * 7 .336 .21 º e º e e º e 15.2 e e s e s e e s ] e s - e e s ] ‘ a • * * * * S. Field 8 .9 .9 | . . . . . tº e. e. 9.3 9 @ 9 tº G & 0 & e º 'º e º e i t e º ºs e . . J. W. Shuster 9 .57 1.18 tº e & © tº e . . 10.7 | . . . . . * - 9 || > 0 tº º tº c & © tº H. A. Barton 10 1.22 .91 tº t t = * tº e 10.07 * * * * g e I e º e o e . . . . . . . O. M. Johnson 11 || b20.51 10.8 tº e º 'º º e - e º a s g g c e º 'º e dº º e I e º e º " • * g I e º e º 'º e i e º 'º e e Dr Hurty, anal. Ind. geol, sur. 1885–86, p. 43 12 1.67 1.78 3.26 6.38 9.25 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ind.' geol. Sur. 20:76 13 .97 1.01 tº º 0 tº º ſº tº º º • Q & © tº e º 'º º e tº e g º e º e > * * * * * * : * ~ e e o e Ibid. p. 59 14 .14 .52 1,58 6.3 tº e tº e tº e e & e º s º e º 'º, tº e º 'º e tº • * * * * * Ibid. D. 1.4 15 . 170 2.741 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 95 16 .24 .83 3.01 8.5 tº e e s e e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c1 2 | Ibid. p. 183 17 .347 .571 º e º 'º º 4.501 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 119 18 .54 1.42 3.79 4,98 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ign. CO2.26 Ind. geol. Sur. 20: 129 19 1.51 1, 18 2.7 7.01 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . #, Cö. - 3.04 { { 20 5.9 3.76 6.82 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CO2 4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . Iowa geol. Sur. 21 2.08 .83 1.33 2.22 1.45 | . . . . . • * * I e º e e º e I e º e º ºr . . G. C. Patrick, anal. 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e - © tº e s * * * * * * I e º e º e º a tº e º e º O e I e g º e º e i e º 'º º is is Furnished by Ia. geol. SUll’. 23 1. 48 1.00 3.36 3.55 2.78 || MnO .64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. C. Patrick, anal. - Furnished by la. geol. Sur. |Poop:18 | 24 15.25 11,03 3.94 2.08 ~ CO2 • * * * tº tº $ tº e º tº L. A. Youtz, anal. - | 18.25 J 25 1.11 1.1 3.16 6.89 3.70 || MnO. 49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 1.4 .99 4.14 5.83 1.7 . . . . . . . . . & e º e e º º 27 5. 16 2.9 5.89 3.74 85 MnO .76 | . . . . . . . ...... } G. C. Patrick, anal. CO2 4.8 From Ia, geol. sur. 28 1.07 .95 2.96 3.85 1.83 | . . . . . • * * : * * ~ * g e I e e º e e e 29 7.98 2.24 8.08 4.06 2.67 CO2 7.57 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J 888 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Brick clays 1 º SILICA. e FerriC State and county TOWn Remarks Com- Alumina | “...i o - biºl|| Free 2. Kansas: | 1 || Greenwood . . . . . . . . Flintridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº e º e º g g 58.2 29.8 a5.4 Kentucky: 2 | Ballard . . . . . . tº tº Wickliffe. . . . . . . . . . . Yellow clay . . . . . . . . 44.84 22.83 20.35 3 || Graves. . . . . . . . . ... Lynnville. . . . . . . . . . . Clay tº $ tº $ tº e º 'º is tº 62.68 25.88 2.9 4 Marshall. . . . . . . . . . . Highland. . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60.98 18.48 7.5 5 | Campbell . . . . . . . . . Newport . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.66 20.50 6 “. .......... Mount Vernon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.56 12.223 7 | BOOne. . . . . . . . tº a tº tº € $ Burlington . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . tº ſº e º 'º º 48. 36 33.06 8 || Gray Son . . . . . . . . . . . Canolaway Creek . . . Ferrug, clay . . . . . 68.38 12.282 7.588 9 a Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.58 23.946 5.814 0 Ohio e e º 'º e º & © tº ſº g g g tº e Elm lick. . . . . . . . . . . . * & g g º & tº e & tº & © & ſº tº 70.86 19 24 3.12 11 { % e e º e e º 'º e e º º e e Ba'd knob church.. ( [. * tº 0 tº e º 'º º 62.76 26.42 1.58 Louisiana: 12 || Ouachita . . . . . . . . . . . Forksville (5 m. e.). Gray clay . . . . . . . . . . 58 43 22.45 3.23 13 | Catahoula . . . . . . . . . . Rosefield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.91 18.3S 2.14 14 Claiborne . . . . . . . . . . Homer . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . tº e º s is e º e 82.8: 6.48 1.42 15 | New Orleans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º e º 'º e º & . . . . . | Sandy clay. . . . . . . . . 16.36 || 48.27 14.07 4.06 16 | Maine ...... . . . . . . . . | Quinnipiac . . . . . . . . . $ $ • . . . . . . . 63.69 17.02 10.18 Massachusetts: 17 | Middlesex..........] West Cambridge. . . . Glacial clay . . . . . . 48.99 28.9 3.89 18 | Dukes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gayhead, SO. end , , | Red clay . . . . . . . . . . . 57.5 31.21 19 | Berkshire. . . . . . . . . . . Clayton . . . . . . . . . . . . Erick and terra- -Cotta Clay. . . . . . . . 50 44 a 1.07 Maryland: 20 East of Baltimore... Red sandy, 8 feet from top . . . . . . . . . 77.62 12.46 4. i 21 { { Gray, less sandy, 22 feet from top . . . . 72.02 16.66 1.38 22 { % Blue, no sand, 38 feet from top . . . . 71.66 16.92 1.82 Michigan: 23 Kent . . . . . . . . . ... . . . Grand Rapids . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58.7 25.95 ×4 || Marquette . . . . . . . . . . Marquette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e º 'º º te 54.62 12.82 2 .25 | Jackson. . . . . . . . . . . . Springport town- ship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. H. Wolcott's yard. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.26 22.95 8.15 Minnesota: 26 McLeod • * tº e º º q tº G & º FIutchinson tº € $ tº tº ſº tº º tº º º tº e & 48.25 36.60 27 | Hennepin . . . . . . . . . . . Minneapolis. . . . . . . . tº a tº ſº tº s e º 'º * * * 0 & 9 º' tº e º 'º 60.31 23.77 7.96 28 Lesueur . . . . . . . . . . . Ottawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.72 30 e is º º ºx tº 29 • * Coon Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60.31 23.77 7.96 30 | Blue Earth . . . . . . . . . Mankato . . . . . . . . . . . Clay Shale. . . . . . tº ſº tº º 70.1 16.99 tr. 31 ( M. { % © tº ºn tº g º º Washed brick clay. 87.7 7.24 tr. Mississippi: * 32 Clingscales. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90.877 2.214 . 126 Missouri: 33 || Marion . . . . . tº e g tº e s tº Hannibal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e e g º º 7() 15.94 1 4 34 CaSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Creignton . . . . . . tº tº tº $ tº tº e º e º 'º tº ſº tº º e tº 59.65 37.27 1.13 35 | Carroll. . . . . tº e º ſº e º ſº tº Norborne, Davy clay ballast co.... Gumbo clay, for ballast . . . . . - 54.9 18.03 6 ſ.3 36 Cole. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jefferson City . . . . . Makes red brick . . . 74.39 12,03 4.06 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 889 (continued) WATER, Lime |Magnesia| Alkalis C Miscellaneous Firm ºrity. - OIſl- * o biºd | Free 2. - amme i - - - -s a smºs- I --- - 1 6 | . . . . . . . * I e º 'º e º e º e .6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crossley. Analyses of clays 2 . 101 .188 | . . . . . . . . 11.741 & G e º e º e i e º s = e e i e º e º sº e Ry. geol. sur. chem. rep’t A, pt 3, no. 2568 3 tr. .319 2.075 6.146 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. analysis no. 2663 4 .78 1. 128 2.891 7.841 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibzd. In O 2762 5 b tr. MgCOs 1.243 4.2 Loss .373; P2 O5 . . . . . Ibid. pt. 1, no. 1319 .932 .192 6 b. 16 dMgCO3 - tr. .957 4.1 tº º ſº e s ∈ e º a e º 'º e e ... Ibid. analysis no. 1320 7 3.057 .367 6.37 8,786 * * * * * * * * * * * * tº t e. e. e. tº t tº Ibid no. 1697 8 b 1.38 1.643 6. 109 8.25 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. no. 78 ) 9 .201 . 850 .904 5.705 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibud. no. 1873 10 tr. 4.25 2.60ſ. 8.751 . . . . . . . . P2 O5 tr. ... . . . Ibnd. no. 2075 11 . 325 tr. 1.184 7.731 gº tº 8 º' o e º º i º e º e º e . . . . . . . Ibid. no. 2076 º 12 .84 .83 2 25 11.01 & e º is e º 'º e e º e º e e e s e º º 13 .68 .49 1.8 14. 18 e is s g g e e tº e º 'º º I e º e º e º 14 , 15 .08 . . . . . . . . 1.84 . . . . . e e s m e º 'º tº 15 . . . . . . . . 1.67 6.97 7.06 | . . . . . * * * * * I e > 0 tº e e H & e s e º e J. A. Blaffer & Son 16 .97 tº e º 'º e º e 4.02 . 4.15 tº g tº a g º O & 0 - - - I e º e º e & A. J. S. (3), D. 407 17 7.1 3.66 4.73 3.31 ë & ſº tº 8 & 1 & 0 & º 'º - . . . . . . J. Card, anal. 18 . 19 .2 .4 . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 º 'º º & e s a g º e g LOSS . ... 7th Rep’t U. S. G. S., 9.83 p. 359 19 .024 . . . . . . . . 1.24 . . . . . . . . e - © tº * * * * I s e s e e tº º e • tº e e s i s e e s e e White brick and terra COtta, CO. 20 , 52 .46 tº e º e º 0 & 8 4.58 e tº a tº e º 'º tº º º Q & Q • * g o 'º a s e s e s s l 21 . 12 .85 e tº e º s e º º 6.35 tº e º © tº tº ſº tº & © tº tº º 'º e e i e º e e º 'º |Furnished by Crom- well brothers Of | Baltimore 22 tº tº e º e º 'º e .93 tº a 6 tº e º 'º e 6. 14 * * * * * * | * e s e º e s a e tº 0 - I e º 'º e º a J 23 1 .74 5.54 8.07 to e º tº s e º a * tº e º I e g º e ... S. P. Sharpless, anal. 24 13.68 4.25 tº e º ſº * * * * * * * * * * | * * * * * ... CO2 & ...... Min, res. Mich., 1889, loSS p. 61 12.01 25 4.48 1.32 | . . . . . 0 ° tº 10.56 • * * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mariner & Hoskins, anal. 26 d1.49 b. 7 | . . . . . . . . 8.5 0 0 (0. tº e º & e º 'º 4.46 M. C. Madsden 27 2.5 1.75 2.43 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * e º a • * * * * . . . . . A. Humphreys 23 .82 .51 | . . . . . . . 10.34 . . . . & © tº tº º e º a • * * * * * | * e º e º e Ottawa, brick co. 29 2.5 1.75 §§ 1.79 * c e s tº e • * * I e º e º e . . J. Dunn 80 l . . . . . . . . © º e º 'º º is tº 10. 1.98 tº e e SO3 .23 e tº Minnesota geol. Sur., 31 .67 .07 3.66 tr. e tr. . . . . . . . . . . . . . final rep’t, 438 32 .14 tl’. e tº e º 0 tº º 0. 6.98 tº e s tº e º e e • 3 º e º 'º e Hººd, Geol. Miss. 189 33 .66 | . . . . . . . 7.04 * - tº e e º e g a tº e s tº . . . . . ] G. Ross, anal. 84 | . . . . . . . . tl" .17 1 8 1 * c & © e º º tº º º e º & , ..., | Creighton, brick and tile co, 35 2.88 1.1 3.4 6.9 6.75 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... MO. geol. . 11 : 563 36 1.5 1.52 3.01 3.17 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * e e s e e a #45; fºur 890 NEW YORIK STATE MUSIEUM Brick clays -*. SILICA --- e Ferric State and county TOWn Remarks Com Alumina "...i c | biºd, Free 2. Missouri (com.tim’d) 1 Cooper. . . . . . . . . . . Boonville. . . . . . . . Makes red brick.... 81. 11 11.62 3.9 2 : Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gilkerson Ford . . . . . Not worked . . . . . . . . 74.72 15.72 4.32 3 ‘‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hartwell. gº tº ſº e $ tº tº & © tº tº $ 8 60.93 21.51 6.72 4 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . Ransas City, Dia- ( Shala clay tº e a 54.8 23.73 S. 67 5 mond brick and 3 Average of 7 tile CO . . . . . . analyses. . . . . . . . 56,81 25.77 6.06 6 { % tº it tº ſº tº e º 'º º & tº Ransas City. . . . . . . . . For red brick . . . . . . 72 11.97 3.51 7 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . • tº tº e º ſº e º º “ . . . . . . 74.6 12.26 3.37 8 Marion . . . . . . . . . . . Hannibal. . . . . . . . . . . Not worked . . . . . . . . 73.8 13, 19 3.43 9 || Randolph. . . . . . . . . . Clifton, Davy clay ballast Co. . . . . . . . |For railroad balla.St. 62.8 17.22 5.2.1 10 * { & e º e e º º ſº º is Moberly, Moberly B. T. & E. co . . . . . For paving brick also . . . . . . . . . . tº ſº tº 8 65.01 19.3 4 91 11 | St Charles . . . . . . . . . St Peters . . . . . . . . . . . Not worked. . . . . . . . 61.19 15.48 5.49 12 | St Louis . . . . . . . . . . St. Louis h y d . pressed brick co.. Red brick . . . . . . . . . . 73 92 | 11.65 4.74 13 “ . . . . . . . . . . . | Prospect hill . . . . . . . Also for roofing tile 60.7 18.22 7 5S 14 “ . . . . . . . . . . . | St Louis. . . . . . . . . . . . . Alluvial MO. riv. Settlings . . . . . . © tº 8 51.68 23.65 6.63 Montana: 15 | Deerlodge . . . . . . . . . . Blossburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 17 2. Nebraska: 16 Unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * g º e º 'º e g º º 61.8 13.9 5.01 17 | Douglass county ... Omaha. . . . . # tº e º & e g º º Red Clay . . . . . . . . . . . 72.53 12.05 4. 28 18 { { & © “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Buff clay . . . . . . . . . . 79.5 11.61 2.57 New Jersey: 19 || Middlesex. . . . . . . . . . Sayreville . . . . . . . . . Front brick clay... 28.3 27.8 27.42 2.68 20 { % tº $ tº tº e º e º e e Chees equake Creek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.3 28.7 21.5 4.31 21 Burlington . . . . . . . . Kinkora. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.5 || 31.8 17.7 6.4 22 Cumberland . . . . . Millville, ... . . . . . . . . Phil. fire-proofing and brick. . . . . é º e 75.3 17.82 4.7S 23 || Morris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Whippany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº t t t tº ſº t e º e º e º 64.62 13.74 9.86 New York: 24 | Suffolk. . . . . . . . . . . . . SouthOld . . . . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . tº º ſº ſº g º O p * * 59.05 22.11 6.54 25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Farmingdale. . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . tº w e º e a 62. 39 23 6 3.30 26 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . Wyandance . . . . . . . . Black clay . . . . . . . . . 59.83 24.45 tr. 27 ‘‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fishers Island. . . . . . Brown clay . . . . . . . . 53.77 20.49 9,23 28 ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . West neck . . . . . . . ( , * @ 8 s tº º te tº 61.01 19, 23 5 43 29 | Queens. . . . . . . . . . . . . East Williston . . . . . Gray clay. . . . . e tº e º $ 69.73 16.42 2.58 30 | Orange. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roseton . . . . . . . . . . . { {. tº $ tº ſº e º e º a 55 34.54 31 | Ulster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rondout . . . . . . . . . . . * { tº º e º f : * * * * 57.8 22.6 32 iQºlumbia . . . . . . . . . . Barrytown. . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . tº G & º 59.81 22 33 | Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . Plattsburg . . . . . . . . . Red Clay. . . . . . . . . . 65. 14 13.38 7.65 34 | Cortland. . . . . . . . .., | Homer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.12 || 4.289 51.18 a2. 122. 35 | Tompkins..... . . . . . . Newfield . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.3 12.21 3.32 36 || Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . Roches er ... . . . . . . . . ‘‘ . . . . . . e e s a e s e 50.55 15.46 4.38 37 Ontario . . . . . . . . . . Canandaigua. . . . . . . “ . . . . . e e º tº e g is e º º 62.24 16.01 6.96 38 || Onondaga. . . . . . . . . . Warner. . . . . . . . . . . . . Blue Shale . . . . . . . . . 57.79 16 15 5.2 39 || St Lawrence. . . . . . . Ogdensburg. . . . . . . . Blue clay . . . . . . . . . . 49.2 j7.47 6 23 40 | Saratoga. . . . . . . . . . . Glens Falls. . . . . . . . . & C. ... . . . . . . . 48.35 11.33 4.02 41 |. C. ſ. * * * * * * * * * * ( { * {\ 0 & e º 'º º e Red Clay . . . . . . . tº º tº e 57.46 21.15 5.52 42 | Chemung . . . . . . . . . . . Breesport . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . • * * * * 0 tº tº e 52.48 16.78 6.79 43 | Erie. . . . . . . tº ſº tº 4 & 6 tº ſº a Buffalo. . . . . . . . . . . . . ] ‘ ‘ . . . . . . tº º ſº tº e e º e º e 57.36 16.2 4. 55 44 | Orange. . . . . . . . . . . . . Warwick. . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * | * 53 23 7.2 45 | Monroe. . . . . . . . . . . . . Rochester. . . . . . . . . . Niagara Shale. . . . . . 28.35 10.47 1.9 46 Otsego . . . . . . . . . . . . . Richfield Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.65 23.82 47 || Allegany. . . . . . . . . . . Alfred Center . . . . . Chemung shale .... 53.2 23.25 , 0.9 48 || Ontario. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Canandaigua. . . . . . . . For hydraulic dry press brick, Qua- ternary Clay. . . . . . | 45. 12 12.76 5.44 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 891. (continued) WATER, Lime Magnesia Alkalis Miscellaneous Firm names, authority, Com- Free or analyst o bined Z! 1 2.37 1.47 3.14 6.71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mo._geol. Sur. p. 563 2 .5 1.08 2.34 4.74 1.61 & tº e º 'º e tº tº tº tº ſº tº a tº . . . . . . Ibid. 11 : 564 3 , 52 .88 2.34 5.3 1.85 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e tº § { 4 .64 2.23 3.8 6. . . . . . . e e g º e º e º * e º ºs e e º e º 'º e G 5 1.02 1.58 . . . . . . . tº g º I tº t e º 'º º e to 9 tº a tº e º 'º e tº e º ºs & e º s e º # $ $ 6 1.8 1, 12 3.25 6.42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * & sº we (, t 7 1.69 1. 12 3.26 2.7 e tº a tº £ tº e º & E & e º e º e º • * e s tº º { % 8 .86 .68 2.94 5.26 * . W. & º º ſº * * * * | * tº e º e º e º ºs & e = Ibid. 11:566 9 .98 .78 3.63 7.82 2 06 | . . . . . * * * * * s I & tº ſº e º & Ibid. 11:56S j0 1.4 .4 2.6 5.5i 1.03 § tº ſº º & e e º ſº º tº tº a tº (, tº 11 1,95 1, 56 2, S2 9.02 3.11 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * { { 12 1.45 . 6 3.13 3.08 2.18 . . . . . . . . tº e º e º e º t e s = Ibid. 11:570 13 2.6S tl’. 3.67 7 77 * * * * | * * * g e º e º ſº tº e g º e i e º ºs e º & { % 14 1.4 .2 , 2.23 8.75 5.14 | . . . . . . . . tº e o 'º º q i < * * * * * 15 2 3. s e i e º a ſº e i e º e s tº tº g tº g º & e tº tº G = e º e s e º e º ºs e i e s e e s tº Mullan Brk, and T. Co. - Phys. geog. and geol. # *†, }: #! 3 sº 2.45 LOSS 77 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Of Neb. 1880, p. 255 18 # 6s 1.39 3. 5 . 85 ........ * * * * * * & } From Omaha hydraul. & tº a te e º a e • * t e e tº º ſº e tº e º e º º tº t e s dressed brick CO. 19 . . . . . . . . .18 2.71 6.6 29 | . . . . . . . . - º e s = e e Sayre & Fisher. . . . . . . . 20 | . . . . . . .82 1.9 8.04 1.7 SO3 1 CO2 3.8l . . . . . . Rep’t of clays, N. J. geol. sur. 1878, p. 317 21 . 16 .65 1.55 11.8 3.5 SO3 .48 | c.9 ...... Ibid. p. 317 22 tº ſº ºn tº º tº 0 & § tº t tº tº § 3 tº e º º º e º 'º tº º e º e 9 * * * * * * * * … tº tº e º G Furnished by FI. Bur- den, 2d. 23 .85 1.33 3.65 4.65 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . c. 1.85 | . . . . . . . From Whippany clay Imfg. Co. 24 2.19 2.64 6.22 | . . . tº tº tº tº tº º te e º 'º • * * * * * . . . . . . H. T. Vulté, anal. 25 .7 .1 5.89 tº g tº e º e º I e º e º e º e tº e º ſº º s e s e s a e º a * * * * { % 26 .23 .59 S. 75 ſº e º e & © & & tº e º e4.28 & © tº g tº g tº º º § { 27 2.04 4.22 9.6 tº $ tº e º º º tº e º ſº gº tº $ tº tº e s tº 6 & & e. { % 28 .96 1.88 4.6 • * * * * * * * * * tº e º 'º - e < * e º ºs e º e * a tº e º e ( (. --- 29 1.66 .69 6.27 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & © tº e º e e tº tº e º e I tº e tº e º e ( { 30 5.33 3.43 .48 .22 tº e º e º e º e i t e o ºs e e e e tº Jova, brick works 31 4.85 2.07 g tº tº e g º gº tº 12.68 | . . . . . . . tº 0 tº tº tº e tº e s tº e º e º e a H. T. Vulté, anal. 32 4.35 2.29 | . . . . . . . . • * tº g tº e e 8.26 | . . . . . . . . e s tº g tº tº e º 'º tº * * 33 2.18 2.36 S. 51 tº a tº e - e º e º 'º tº e º is tº 8 e º I e º ºs e < * I e º e s s e ( & 34 b2.063 d ,088 | . . . . . . . . * † 6.7 e1.277 | C1 .004 SO3 . 116 35 j 1.63 4.73 4.33 | . . . . . . tº tº tº º tº e1.50 tº e º ſº • * { % 36 j 0.95 3.35 6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * - tº e º 'º is a º e º ºs e tº e º ſº tº § {. 37 1.24 2. 21 5.08 tº e º e º 'º a e º ſº e º 'º e * c tº a º tº tº e º ºs e e e { { 38 2.73 4.67 5.33 e g º º e º & 4.5 tº gº tº & Q ſº CO2 . 3.42 | . . . R. Froehling, anal. 39 7, 86 4.87 9.82 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº g º g º ſº º te ł e º ſº e º º . . . . . . H. T. Vulté, anal. 40 15, 38 3, 17 6.05 tº e e º 'º * * * * * * * * * * * tº Q ſº º LOSS 1.18 tº e tº * $ (, 41 3.65 1.5 4.72 | . . . . . . . e e º 'º º º * * * * * * | * * * * * * tº º & M. 42 6.63 3.59 7. 16 tº e º e & tº * * * * * tº tº $ tº tº e > { { 43 5.34 3.9 6.98 | . . . . . . . * Q & © tº tº tº e º & º e º f is s = * * * | * g e e º q $ (, 44 .7 2.6 4.1 9.7 tº e º a tº p C .5 ! . . . . . N. J. geol. Surv. anal. 45 21.47. 8.24 5.78 | . . . . . . . t e º 'º º * * * * * * * * | * * * * * * : * g e º ſº a H. T. Vulté, anal. 46 6. 48 tr. e e s sº e s e e e e º s e º 'º e e s a Ign 16, 18 | . . . . . . . . . . . . , U. S. G. S , bull. no. 2 47 1,01 .62 2.7 6.8 | . . . . . tº ſº e º & & we e . . . . . . . . . . . . From C. T. Harris 48 a 23.32 5.42 tº e º 0 tº e º a tº e º 'º e º º e e º tº e s a e e g º e & tº º e tº º is e e | R. Chauvenet & brother, anal. 892 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Brick clays 1# 2 11 12 13 14 15 17 18 19 SILICA State and county TOWn Remarks C Alumina O m- - biºd Free I New York (cont'd) Ontario. . . . . . . . ... . . Canandaigua. . . . . . . . For hydraulic dry º press brick, Qua- ternary clay . . . . . 46.55 j2.66 Westchester.... ..., | Croton point....... Blue clay. . . . . . . . . . . 51.61 19.2 (, i. tº e º e º 'º o º { { . . . . . . Yellow clay. . . . . . . . 56.75 20.15 Ulster. . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. Kingston. . . . . . . . . Champlain clay. . . . 55.45 18.91 (, , tº t. • * * * * * * * ( * * * * * * 61.65 15.24 North Carolina: Wilkes ............ Wilkesboro. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * * * * * 54.808 30.924 Harnett....... ..... Spoutsprings....... Purple clay. . . . . tº e º º 56.63 26.22 Robeson............] Shoe heel depot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60.93 26.53 Lenoir. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # tº a tº & © tº e : * c e s a • * * * * * * * * * * * * e º s 72.25 11.28 Bladen... . . . . . . ,, ... | Prospect hall. . . . . . . | Upper brick clay... 56.13 17.8 “ . . . . . . . . tº e º tº { { . . . . . . . Middle brick clay: . 68.3 15.87 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . * { ... , , , , | LOWer brick clay... 55.65 20.86 Buncombe. . . . . . . . . . Emma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Upper clay, Penni- man's yard. . . . . . . 66.27 19.95 “ . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lower clay, Penni- man's yard. . . . . . . 70.66 17.21 “ . . . . . . . . . Fletcher. . . . . . . . . . . . Brick clay.... * * 75.08 13.73 Burke....... • * * * * * * * Morganton.... ...... | McDowell's yard... 67.03 16.88 Cleveland. . . . . . . . . . . Grover. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . POW. clay mfg. Co., clay for white face brick.... . . . 53.07 29.54 ( * to e º 'º G s a 6 tº 9 { % . . . . . . . . . . . . . Same Company, pit % mile east of º - Grover... . . . . . 64. 13 22.35 ( (. e e s tº e º 'º - e. e. tº { . . . . . . . . . . . . . Under clay for red brick, Cleveland t brick Co. . . . . . . . . . . 61.75 23.3 * { % s tº e º 'º - e. e. e. e. { {. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Upper clay, same - COmpany . . . . . . . . . 65.45 20.02 Cumberland........ | Fayetteville. . . . . . . . . E. A. Poe's brick Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.93 17.08 { { e e º 'º e º 'º { { . . . . . . . So-called “t ough clay,” same yard. 58. 17 20.1 Forsyth. . . . . . . . . . . . . Bethania... . . . 0 - tº e º e Carter & Shepard, - lower brick and tile clay . . . . . . 64.39 19.11 “ . . . . . . • e º 'º e t { { . . . . . . . . . . . | Upper clay, Carter - & Shepard . . . . . . . 55.81 20.06 Gaston. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mount Holly... . . . . . . Not worked . . . . . . . . 61.28 20.83 Guilford... . . . . . . . . . Greensboro. . . . . . . . Dean's brick clay.. 59.27 22.31 . . . . . . tº tº º { { © e º 'º o Greensboro brick and tile co. . . . . . . 56.81 20.62 ( (. © s we e º e º tº º º { % . . . . . . . . . Kirkpatrick's brick C1&V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69.7 12.87 Halifax. . . . . . . . . . . . Roanoke rapids. ... Upper Sandy brick Clay . . . . . . e tº 6 e 67.55 13.16 “ . . . . . . tº e º 'º º º { % Middle brick clay.. 65.58 17.14 Fel'Tic * Oxid 4.92 8, 19 8.82 7.39 5.61 O. .787 5.93 1.71 3.62 5.85 5.48 5.11 3. 16 ; § 1.95 20 21 22 23 21 25 27 23 29 30 3.34 4.18 5.57 7.43 5.39 11.79 5.6% 6.13 6.13 8.54 5.76 CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 89.3 (continued) WATER Lime Magnesia Alkalis C Miscellaneous Tirm ºrity, ODI)- *** o bined l'ree 2. ! 1 - 14.02 4.67 2.05 .9 g tº g tº º t e tº e º º tº C & tº º ſº tº tº s CO2 14.62 H. A. Wheeler, anal. 2 7.6 1.25 5.32 7.25 and CO2 tº º tº tº e º º tº e tº © tº ſº 3 3.14 1.2 4.5 5.52 and CO2 • * g e º e o e tº ſº § SO3 4 5.40 3.39 * * * * * * * * 7 8 5.5S $ tº ſº tº $ tº $ tº e º 'º e g a .74 | From Terry brothers 5 5.67 2.8 • * * * 6.85 2.026 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . b 1.18 $ tº 6 .872 1.011 .678 7.148 tº ſº º is tº ſº tº 9 & e º e º 'º c 3.772 || Mound city brick co. - 7 , 80 tº e º e º is e e ſ is º tº º ſº e º e 10.92 º ºg & tº º tº e i e g º 'º e º I & e º 'º e a 8 , 99 .35 & & & © tº tº 9.44 tº e º & ſº tº a … . ...... Geol. North Carolina. 1, p. 357 9 * * * * > * > 0 1.75 tº & © & & © tº e 11.1 & ſº tº e º e º ſº tº e º º tº tº © tº ſº 10 .1 .79 2.45 11.6 4.5 ! . . . . . . . . tº ſº tº e º 'º º º Bull 13, N. C. geol. sur. p. 102 11 .27 .21 2.4 8.25 2.8 | . . . . . tº e ... . . Sulful 1.78 Ibid. p. 103 12 .3 .64 2.13 9.94 4.26 tº º º tº tº & * tº Sulfur 1.18 (, , 13 .2 .32 1.85 6.17 1.15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fer- Ibid. p. 104 TOllS Oxid, - .67 14 .1 .07 2.45 .05 .8 tº e º 'º e º ºn tº * @ tº ºn tº to ſº ſº tº º ſº Ibid. D. 105. 15 .3 . 17 1.48 4.65 1.1 ë e º e º 'º tº e i º e º is e s : * * * * * * Ibid. p. 107. 16 1 1.16 .9 4.78 1.8 ſº tº a tº g ∈ G & tº t e º 'º tº e º ºs e e { { 17 .15 .14 2.15 9.93 1.29 & © tº tº £ tº º e - © tº g tº Fer- Ibid. D. 82 I'OllS Oxid, 18 .1 .22 2,8 5.98 .95 g is e e e º e º f e g º 'º in I e º e e s e Ibid. p. 83 19 .27 .25 1.31 7.75 1. 18 * * * * tº º 0 & tº º tº º ſº tº Fer- Ibid. p. 108 * I'OllS Oxid, 0.5 20 .25 , 29 1.51 6.58 .63 tº dº tº e º 'º e º tº º is $ $ tº e º e e º ºs Ibid. p. 109 21 .43 .59 3.85 6.58 2.48 | . . . . . * tº e tº ſº tº º & tº Ibid. p. 110 22 .6 .77 2.6 7.84 3.23 . . . . . tº gº tº tº º º . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 111 23 .8 .22 1.72 7.75 .9 * tº e s e • * * * * * e º 'º º Ibid. D. 112 24 .33 . 16 1.42 8.8 1.85 tº ſº tº º & § { * * * | * * g e º e - { % 25 .49 .14 .84 8.79 1.43 | . . . . . . . e * to º & º tº £ tº e º º Ibid. p. 113, 26 .25 .18 .9 9. 1.9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibád. p. 1 i 5, 27 .65 .58 4.47 8.6 1.64 • * * * * * * * * c e tº * e g º º Ibid. p 114 28 2.55 .57 2.79 4.08 1.5 tº t e º 'º e º e * * * tº e º I & e º e e Ibid. D. 1; 6, 29 .17 .28 2.65 5,08 1.68 tº e º s 6 & © e tº # * * * | * * * g º º Ibid. p. 117 30 .72 .28 2.3 5.58 2.45 e tº º ſº tº dº º º e º 'º º º tº e e e º 'º 6 (; 894. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Brick clays à } º9 20 21 22 23 33 34 SILICA Com- bined Free State and county TOWn Remarks N Carolina (comt'd) Halifax . . . . . . . . . . . . Roanoke rapids.... Under brick clay . . Harnett. . . . . . . . . . . . . Spout Springs. . . . . . Not worked. . . . . . . t (, { { { % & 4 . . ............ . . . . . . ......... Jackson, . . . . & e º tº º Sylva. . . . . . . . . . . . . , , || 34 mile south of sta- tion. Not Worked. Mecklenburg. . . . . . Charlotte. . . . . . . . . . . D. K. Cecil's yard.. ' ' ... . . . . . $ $ • * * * * * * * * * * F. W. Shuman’s yard... . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . tº { • e º e º 'º e º e : Sassamon's brick clay . . . . . . • * * * * * “ . . . . . . . . & C. tº g º e º e º 'º e Upper clay, AS- - bury's yard . . . . ROWan. . . . . . . . . . . . . Salisbury. . . . . . . . . . D. K. Cecil's yard. Richmond. . . . . . . . . . . 4 miles north of R. L. Steele's brick Rockingham . . . . . clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . Robeson........... Red Springs . . . . . . . Sandy brick clay... Union . . . . . . . . . . . Monroe. . . . . * * * * * * * * J. i. Shute's brick C18. W. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Raleigh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Penitentiary clay pits. . . . . . . . Wayne. .. tº tº 4 Goldsboro. . . . . . . . . . H. # Grant’s brick C1&l V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . tº º º e . ( (, tº º e º º e º 'º e tº Weil's clay pit. . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . { % . . . . . . . . . . . Grant's brickyard. . Wilkes... . . . . . . ... . . . Wilkesboro. . . . . . . . . . D. Smoak's upper Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . $ (, tº e º e º 'º - a 4 - ( (. . . . . . . . . D. Smoak's bottom - clay . . . . . . . . . w = • , . North Dakota: Grand Forks. . . . . . . . Grand Forks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • * * * > * * * * * * * * Burleigh . . . . . . . . . . . . Bismarck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . # tº q t t e º 'º - 0 & e g tº & Williams . . . . . . . . . . Williston . . . . . . . . . . . Clay with coal . . . . . Ward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minot (Cottons mine) . . . . . . . . . . . . Blue clay. . . . . . tº º O & Stark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dickinson . . . . . . . . . . . Buff Clay . . . . . . . . . { { Ohio: Stark . . . . . . . e e º & © e e ( * Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . Lawrence . . . . . . . . . Lake . . . . . • * * * * e 8 tº º 0. { { tº e G º Lorain . . . . . . . . . . * * * * * \ e e º e º e o & ... • * * * * . ...arºv.º.º.d Lehigh mine . . . . . . . Canton . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waynesburg . . . . . . . Columbus . . . . . . . . . . Coal groVe . . . . . . . 0 tº Wickliffe . . . . . . . . . . . { { tº e º ſº a tº e tº e º 'º º White clay . . . . . . . . Shale 0 & 0 ° 0 & © º e º 'º e º 'º º Clay................ Brick and tile clay. Shale . . . . . tº e º e “ ............... { { Semi-plastic blue- * - - - - 59.68 €4.16 50.68 53.65 66.7 68.35 50.15 65.95 60.33 69.89 59.59 78.16 76 16 70.03 66.05 §§5 53.75 52.25 51.27 58.78 57.8 56.86 56.03 55.77 57.1 49.3 14.5 56.8 56.9 58.26 59.24 60.38 60.55 Alumina - 16.09 21.76 32.51 28.66 19.75 13. 13 18.36 14.67 j8.57 15.31 22,07 S 26 9.98 15. 64 # 13.51 24.91 20.66 9.33 14.98 9.47 25.03 24.23 12.15 21.29 24 12.63 28 24.64 24.73 18.39 18.29 FerriC Oxid 4 2 7 º 1 4 4 7 85 36 Trumbull . . . . . . . . . . { { “ ........ Doughton . . . . . . . . . { % \ { gray clay Yellow clay. . . . . . . . Plastic, whitish © º º 0 6 º' tº 63.69 62.86 66.28 23.91 23.91 21.49 3.57 9.21 3.21 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 895 / à (continued) .* WATER, Lime |Magnesia. Alkalis - Miscellaneous Firm º *ority, ^, Com- Fr * r analys bined I’ee 1 1.35 .14 3.24 6.33 2.05 * * * c e s a tº s e e º º s ... . . . Bull. 13, N. C. geol. sur. p 118 2 .23 .15 .77 8.3 1.42 * * * * * * * * tº $ tº Fer - Ibid. Q . 119 I O Ul S Oxid 1.08 3 .3 .02 .58 11.08 1.35 | . . . . . tº tº º $ tº a I & e g g g e Ibid. p. 120 4 .1 1.35 .29 10.79 1.05 * * c e º ºs I e º is º e e . . . . . . Ibid. p. 121 5 .45 . 16 2. 12 6.65 .45 | . . . . . . tº o tº º º º tº ſº º tº º tº { { 6 2.1 .32 2.82 5.3 1.35 | . . . . . . . tº e º º º e º e = < Ibid. p. 123 7 .2 .34 1.72 7.47 7.1 ! . . . . . tº ſº e I & tº $ tº o . . . . . . . Ibnd. p. 134 8 2.57 .25 2.55 5,52 1.27 é & L * * g º º tº e º 'º º tº e º ſº tº a ( (. 9 .2 . 14 .55 7.83 .63 ſº to tº s e º 'º e ] e e º e • * ... Ibid. p. 125 10 .55 . 16 .7 6.37 1.91 $ tº º ſº * & tº e º e * tº º e ſº Ibid. D. 127 11 .65 , 49 2.7 7.53 1.98 tº tº tº e º is a tº º Ibid. p. 126 12 .4 .22 2.91 4.14 1.09 ſº º 'º & tº £ tº * G - tº º sº e º e º º { % 18 .3 .27 2.25 4.3 1.65 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 129 14 .8 .57 j 47 6.37 1.6 & © tº tº tº & tº . . . . . Ibid. p. 130 15 ... 3 .25 1.04 6.32 1.58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 132 16 .4 .45 1.85 6.03 1.85 tº Q tº e I e º e º 'º tº . . . . . [ Ibid. p. 134 17 .35 . 36 2,82 11.58 1.12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { % 18 , 7 1.12 2.94 7.6 1.03 tº tº s to tº dº e e º e º & © e º sº a e e { { 19 .6 1.08 4.62 7.45 2.1 ! . . . . . . . . e e e i is º ºs e º 'º Ibid. p. 135 20 11.15 2.31 2.58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e is . . . . . . . . . . . . . ) 21 2.1 .74 1. 148 16.672 | . . . . . . . . tº º tº e º 'º º 22 7.91 2.84 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | . . . . . tº º ſº tº s tº e s e o 9 º' Rég. labor bureau 23 .71 .76 .66 10.014 * * * * * * * tº e º e e s e I e º e º & 1891–92. 24 . . . . . . . . .31 .808 9.3% tº e º is I & a tº e º º tº @ ſº 25 5.92 1.9 1.248 18,742 e tº a g º e º g º º e s tº tº º tº ; º # !º ; 4 }: & Q & 0 & 0 tº º e tº e º is © . . . . . Ohio geol. sur. 1884 38 | 1.65 ........ i...... # 3 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $ (, 29 tº e s tº e º e tº e s e º e s a & © tº $ tº 18.6 | . . . . . . . tº º is e º e º e & e e e g g : * * * * * * Fº fººle brick all Cl tile WOTRS 30 .72 1.246 1. 14 e 6.704 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº g º $ tº From Buckeye brick.co. 31 .6 1.714 2.13 5, 16 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº tº e tº tº e º e * * * * * { % 32 .94 1 9. 12 66 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº º | * tº * g º º From Lorain brick co, | CO2 l - 1.49 g 83 .2 .81 3.38 tº º q & | tº º tº 6 tº * & . . . . . SO2 * * * * > { | | | 1.18 34 .44 tr. e - e g º e s ∈ I g º tº º e º e 8.36 e tº e º e s a ſe tº ſº º º ſº $ & e º e º e 35 .34 .48 tº g º O & © tº t t < * * § 6.26 . . . . . . . tº e ſº tº ſº 36 tr. 5.75 * g g g g º s e º 4 tº * * 5.85 / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " " " " " - 896 NEw York STATE MUSEUM Brick clays SILICA State and coun'y TOW m Remarks - Alumina Fjº Com- e *4 o Üß | Free 2. Pennsylvania : | - * 1 | . . . . . . . . . . - Kittaning . . . . . . . . . . Soft brown shale... 53 31 24.54 8.75 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • { . . . . . . . . . Blue gray Shale. ... 55.17 19.92 12.0] * | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . Fissile shale . . . . . . 59.8 19.72 5.92 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { % . . . . . . . . . Fire clay used for brick... . . . . . . . . . 60.4 26.23 1.34 (1.23 * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Charleroi. . . . . . . . . . Red Clay. . . . . . . . . 56.32 21.44 (). Q2 * | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. ay shale. . . . . . 51. 12 24.6 10.49 7 || Allegheny ........ Pittsburg. . . . . . . . . . . Shale for terra cotta É lumber. . . . . . . . . . 57, 537 20. 127 | (15.797 * | Montgomerv....... Norristown . . . . . . . . . Red Shale . . . . . . . . . . 64.4 18.54 6,06 9 Cumberland...... Pinegrove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e s tº e 74.97 13.86 a 2.7 10 | Clinton ........ . . . . [..Ockhaven . . . . . . . . Red Shale . . . . . . . . . 56.55 21.46 9.72 11 | Erie .... ...,.. Corry . . . . . . & © tº * * * * * * {. & G & ºr it tº s & 4 46.491 33. 119 2.84 º !? | Venango ........... Franklin . . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . 61.06 21.76 7.04 13 | Indiana .... .... Bells Mills . . . . . . . . . Plastic clay . . . . . . . . 68.49 18.46 a 1.566. 14 | Somerset ...... Hooversville . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45.73 20.693 || 0 (3.857: 15 || Huntingdon ..... Lewiston . . . . . . . . . Upper clay. . . . . . . . . 73.9 13.07 a 6.1 10 | Warren ...... . . . . . Little brokenstraw • Valley . . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . tº e dº e º º 65. 12 15.939 | a 5.464. 17 | Lehigh . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schneiders mine . . . . * * . . . . . & a tº e º 'º e º 'º & e 53.17 23.431 | c. 5.4 18 Chapman station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , e º e e s e 60.53 17 4 9. 29. 19 || Monroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stroudsburg . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.7 28.39 1.28 20 | Beaver . . . . . . . New Brighton. . . . . . Terrace clay . . . . . 67.7S 16.29 4, 57 21 Crawford . . . . . . ... | Titusville . . . . . . . . . . * * * * e º e º º is e tº 4 p & gº tº ſº º 51,01 20.03 6. S3? neSSee: - 22 tt. . . . . . . . . . . . . Robbins . . . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.57 15. 19 7.97 T. N. . s : 23 || Harrison . . . . . . . . . . . Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * * * > * * * * c e < 71 20.2 2.2 24 Pſarris . . . . . . . . , ... | THarrisburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... • * * * * * * * * tº t e º e 78 6.3 6.3 25 || Grimes . . . . . . . . . Courtney . . . . . . . . . Clay . . . . . * @ e & & e º º a 40.69 12.68 3.9 26 McCulloch . . . . . . . . Milburn . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57.6 19.34 6. 14. 27 Waldrip Bed, Cisco division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº dº tº s & tº º gº & 55.57 22.04 7.35. 28 Cass . . . . . tº $ $ tº tº $ tº Queen City. . . . . . . . Clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 6 10.25 2 25 29 “ . . . . . . . . . . . Gideon Story H'd’t. “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66.7 11. 43 3.77° 30 “ . . . . . . . . A. Duncan H'd’t. . . . " " . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.3 , 12.2 31 Marion • * * * * * * . Richardlso H'd’t] ‘ ‘ . . . . . . . ., - - - - - - - 62.4 20.66 8.54 32 Smith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Garden Valley. . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º tº s 69.05 22.6 1.4 33 Rusk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Henderson . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64.4 24, 17 3.23 34 Smith... . . . . . . . . . . Tyler . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . 3 e º s 85.4 10 (.2 2.18 35 | Panola. . . . . . . . . . . . . Carthage . . . . . . . { { e e º e º e º e º s S2.8 9.83 2.77 36 ' ' . . . . . . . . . . . Tatum tation Gray clay. . . . . . . . . . 57. S 18 94 7.55 37 | Orange. . . . . . . Mill ville . . . . . . . Loamy clay. . . . . . . . 62 12. 12 8.08 38 ' ' . . . . . West of Henderson| Dark clay . . . . . . . . 71.25 18.58 1.62. 39 || Washington: & Pierce . . . . . Tacoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . White clay. . . . . . . . . 62.43 18.79 4.2 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 897 (continued) WATER. Lime |Magnesia, Alkalis Miscellaneous Firm names, flºority. Com- Fre Ol' analys o bined € 2. 1 tº e g g tº tº $ tº tº gº e º e g o tº e º 'º g tº tº tº 8.55 © tº º tº { } {} tº £ tº s º tº º ſº tº º º tº o tº Q & \ 2 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º g g s 6.81 | . . . . . . & Q & e ºs tº ſº e º e tº tº e IKittaning clay mfg. 3 tº ſº tº & G $ e ‘s ſº dº ſº º e tº e º e e s e 8.59 * * tº a º tº tº tº g º e tº tº tº a CO . 1897 Rep’t Pa.. state. 4 . 14 .54 2.94 | 8.71 ...... . ........ . ....., | ...... || college, P. lº 5 6.73 * * * * * & © e º 'º e e tº º º º tº e º \ 6 | . . . . . . . . tº e º e º e º I tº º is tº 5 tº 8 & 6.59 e º e e s : * * * * * * * * tº § º ºs º e tº e Ibid. p. 131 7 by diff. 9.022 7.517 | . . . * * * * * * * : * * * * tº e e º e º a s Pittsburg ter. cott. lumber Co. 8 .41 .46 tº e º a c e & e ‘º e º 'º Ign. 3.82 | . . . . . e e g a Perkiomen brick co. 9 . 12 1.03 | . . . . . . . . 2.05 tº e s e º is tº C e º a tº tº Fuller brick and Slate: CO . 10 c .474 d 1.68 5.37 4.48 . . . . . . . . tº & tº tº º º tº º º Mill hall brick works 11 | CaCO3 MgCO3 3.602 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SO, & 0 & 6 e º e º e º e e J. F. Elson, anal. 8.93 2.581 2.847 12 .58 .23 4.55 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ign 4.8 . . . . . . * Q ºn H. Froehling, anal. 13 .23 1.551 2.775 6.31 . . . . . . . . . c 2.15 . . Pºgeol. Sur. MMI, p. 94 14 .44 1.005 3.415 12.86 tº a $ 9 s tº e s ] e º e s tº t | c. e. e. Ibid. HHHI, p. 123 15 .06 .526 909 5.435 tº ſº tº º ſº e º is e º e o e º ... . . . Ibid. HHH CO2 16 1.55 1848 3.58 3.16 tº tº º e º e s a . . . . . . . Ibid. 3 2.81 17 . 13 3,376 8.388 4.86 . . . . . . . . . c 1.25 | . . . . . . { { 18 .08 1.92 5.27 5.51 ſº tº e e g º e a * * * * * | * * * Pa.. geol. Sur. D. p. 53. 19 .32 .2 .23 tº tº e g e º º ſº tº tº tº e º & g Ign.4.88 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monroe brick and tile. CO . 20 .6 .727 2.001 6.34 T O2 .78 . . . . . . . . . . ... 1897, Rep’t Pa. state College c 1,09 | 21 || 3.01 2.511 || 4.372 | 8.84 ....... [.......{ | *2 . . . | Pa, geol. Sur. no. 3, p. l * 103 5.78 |J 22 78 .32 2.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clay worker, Dec. 1893. 23 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 * * * * * * * tº e º e º is tº e tº tº e º 'º e - ſº e º 2d Rep’t on jron ore dist., E. Texas. 1890, 24 tr. 7.41 e e º e s s = c e s a s = e e Ign.2 . . . . . . . & tº º º º Texas geol. sur. 25 18, 12 .92 1. 14 H2O and CO2 * * * * g e ſº tº º e º tº º e º e º a 4th Rep’t Texas geol. 22. 55 Sll l’. 26 1.22 | . . . . . 4.75 1.7 LOSS 7 | . . . . . . . . . ..., | Rep't on Col. coal - field, Tex. geol. sur. 27 .35 tº e g g g g tº e 4.5, 1.7 LOSS 7.07] . . . . . . tº g tº e & 28 tr. * ſº tº tº ſº a tº 4.46 tº t e º ſº tº e g o e g º is e º e I e º º e º & .. * * * * * * : * g g is e e 1890 Rep’t Tex. geol. 29 1.3 .08 4 . . . . . . & ſº tº º º | Oss 13 | . . . . . . . . . . . . Sur. p. 91 30 tl’. tr. 6.42 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LOSS 13.6 | . . . . . § tº $ tº tº tº J 31 .4 tr. 8.89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº tº e º . . . . . . Ibid. p. 111 32 tr. tr, 3.02 4 12 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ibiut. p. 219 38 tl’. tl”. 3.5 7.25 SO3 tl e s tº e e º V e º e º 'º * * 84 .1 {} tº tº º º tº ſº tr. 1.95 tº gº tº e º 'º º & e is tº tº e º º Ibid. p. 229 35 tr. tr. 5.46 º * * * * * g º º tº $ tº 9 tº gº à è tº º ſº tº dº © tº e º $ tº (, 36 tl’. tr. 6.67 9.01 tº € $ & © tº $ tº & a tº t tº º & { { 87 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . w e º ſº e º e e tº e º O & e I & e e e º G & e e tº dº e º e . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 257 38 tr. .6 4 5.5 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * t § { % 89 2.12 1.53 s & B & © e e g º & e g º ºs tº e º e º º e º is Ign.10.93 © tº º tº t . tº e e º in e L. J. Clark 898 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Brick clays SILICA. State and county Town Remarks C Alumina *...* OIT). * d biºd | Free 2. & West Virginia: 1 | Marshali . . . . . . . . . . . Moundsville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & a tº e º ºs e e * tº a tº 71.78 16.01 2.86 2 Monongalia. . . . . . . . . Morgantown . . . . . . . Clay pear river . 73. SS 12.73 5.78 8 . . . . . . . . . . Morgantºn brick Co. $ tº * 75.12 11.2 5.22 * | Marshall........... Moundsville. . . . . . . . is e e g º a tº e º e º e s a tº * - 74.62 16.01 2.86 Wisconsin: ° | Milwaukee...... . . . . Milwaukee . . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.22 9.75 |}a}; "| Dane............... Madison ... . . . . . . . . g is ſº tº e º ſº ºf a tº dº tº e º e º 'º e º e a 75.8 11.07 º 7 Whitneys rapids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º ºn tº $ 70.25 17.68 2.32 8 || Milwaukee. . . . . . . . . Granville station...] Clay. . . . . . . e e º e º e e s e 52.18 19.27 3.13 9 • { & e º ſº tº e º te I & tº g tº e º e º 'º e & tº e º e º is tº ... | From the Chase brick Co. . . . . . . . . . 38.07 9.46 2.7 Sha, Indiana: 10 | Fountain . . . . . . . . . . . Stone bluff. . . . . . . . . J. W. Shuster . . . . 68.46 16.08 *::: 11 ! { & e { % . . . . . . . . . F. Landers . . . . . . . . 67.82 13.6 gº . .04 12 | Gibson... . . . . . . . . . . . . Princeton . . . . . . . . . . Near Air line shops 62.04 18.49 *:::: . O% 13 Knox . . . . . . . . . . Vincennes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e g º º e tº º e º e s e 64.05 16. as: 14 || Greene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Linton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Island coal Co., g shale no. 8, shaft. 1 55.31 22.46 Cl, º: - 7.1 15 Parke... . . . . . . . . . ...] Mecca. . . . . . . * - tº ſº e º tº S. L. McCune, Shale no. 5 . . . . . . . 58.83 22.34 *:::: .1 16 “. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { { . . . . . . . . . . S. L. McCune, shale no. 9 . . . . . . 59.02 20.93 a jº .45 17 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . { { tº tº & tº tº 6 ºf 6 tº S. L. McCune, shale no. 2.. 59.77 20.6 Ol, % 18 Perry . . . . . . . . . . . . Cannelton. . . . . . . . . . American cannel tº coal co., sh’le no. 7 53.26 25.77 Cl, § 19 || Spencer, . . . . . . . . . . . . Railroad cut near - & Lincoln . . . . . ..... | Mixture of shales.. 56.68 20.33 CL ; : 20 | Vermilion. . . . . . . . . . . West Montezuma. . . J. Burns, shale no. & 6. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.07 24, 22 a .34 9.65 21 { { g tº º e { { J. Burns, Shale no. - 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e 56.32 24.34 a .24 5, 6 22 | Vigo... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Terre Haute. . . . . . . H. T. Thorp . . . . . . . 61.05 21.46 | a .71 5.57 23 º e º e º e e ſº tº e tº tº & ſº tº Rocky run . . . . . . . . . tº # * * > 0 tº tº e g º e º is º e º e s tº a 55.2 14.4 9.4 Missouri: 24 | Bates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foster. . . . . . . . . . . . . Not worked. . . . . . . . 55.96 20.62 8. 12 25 | Christian . . . . . . . . . . . Billings . . . . . . . . . . . . . Used for terra- Cotta... . . . . tº 0 tº e g o tº e 63.11 23.11 1.79 26 Cooper....... . . . . . . . . Boonville. . . . . . . . . . . Not Worked. . . . . . . . 53.24 23.62 9.02 27 | Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clintou. . . . . . . . . . . . . { { tº e 9 52.7 26.86 4.49 28 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Town Creek, Cl't'rm. { % tº º e º ſº 54.69 25.96 4, 97 29 \ { tº 6 & tº º tº o . . . . . . Gilkerson Ford . . . . { { tº dº tº $ tº 55.02 24.38 5.79 30 § { tº º is g g tº IFields Creek. . . . . . § { * * * * * * * * 55. 44 22.88 5.86 31 { { . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vickey Lands . . . . . { { tº gº e º 'º e º e 59.06 23.05 7.31 32 || Jackson, ... . . . . . . . . . North bluff, Kansas it V . . . . . . . . Used for press brick 55.75 21.16 5.69 83 || Jasper. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Brigg S S h aft ; Joplin. . . . . . . . Not worked. . . . . . . . 55.84 22.78 5.24 34 Johnson. . . . . . . . . . . . Clear Fork. . . . . . . . . t (, tº e º e g c & 60,89 28.98 4,37 CLAYS OF NEW YORIK 899 (concluded) • WATER, Lime |Magnesia | Alkalis Miscellaneous Firm †ºrity Com- Fr y o bineCl l"eG Z –-mº- 1 .32 .43 1.98 5,45 © e • • $ s & s | • • • • • • } e e e e s s Mound City brick co. 2 l .. .. , ... .1 1.67 4.64 1.12 | . ... .. .. | ...... , .... | A. R. Whitehall, anal . 3 | . .. .. .. . . 18 1.67 5, 1 1.3 @ @ @ @ @ s s a l e • • • • • | • • • - - a t t, 4 .32 .43 1,98 # $ $ $ $ $ 6.62 © º • 3 $ $ $ º | s ， e v s e | e s s s e s From Mound City brick cO . 13.24 5 bº# }di5.s3 2.81 2.80 º © © © © º $ | e e e s s s | e e e e e e | Geol. Wisconsin, 2: g 236 6 . b 2.45 .17 3.14 3.7 } @ @ @ 4 $ $ $ | e E ， e e # 7 .33 1.49 2.08 5.61 l ... · · · · · | ...... | ...... Ibid., p. 469 8 . 09 | 7.29 2.87 .. .. ... | 12.64 2.22 | ...... | ...... B. Schmidt & Co. 9 15,84 8.5 2.76 | . .... , . 2.49 CO2 20.46 # @ @ @ tº g @ @ @ # # @ # s s s @ @ $ e @ é fi ， @ @ @ @ les 10 .99 , 05 3.71 7.04 l ....... l ........ t, e e e e s c 1,49 | Ind. geol. sur. 20:130 11 , 57 .44 2.86 9,72 | ....... | ...... $ $ | $ e $ e é s c 1.1 t (. 12 , 16 .91 2.97 6.5 l ....... | ...... @ @ | s e e e $ e c 1.3 $ t 13 , 42 2. 3.78 3.79 | . ...... | ...... .. | ...... c 1. ( 4 14 .66 .93 4.11 7.48 # @ @ @ @ @ | @ s @ @ @ @ c 1.15 ( t 15 .49 1.56 4.81 5.22 | ....... @ @ e 6 $ | e a E s é e c .'7 | Ind. geol. sur. 20:129 16 , 51 1.66 3.33 7.59 | . .. .. .. | ........ | ... .. . c 1.1 t 4 17 .64 1.98 3.95 4.53 4 © © e e s e e © © © $ $ û c . 8 ( t 18 .32 1,9 2,98 7 . e © © © © © © .... | ...... | c 1.05 | Ind. geol. sur. 20:130 19 , 57 2.09 3.78 6.54 $ $ $ • © e ， @ @ $ | $ $ $ $ $ e c .9 4 (. 20 , 19 1.31 3.42 9.76 e @ e e © © s | s e e s e s © © . ..... | c 1.19 6 • 21 .31 ,54 5.19 6,33 @ @ @ @ @ 4 6 @ @ @ @ 4 # @ # $ i C 1 07 4 (. 22 .25 .7 2.64 6.94 @ @ @ @ u s e # # | e s e e e e c 1.2 | Ind. geol. sur. 20:129 23 6.12 .9 . 52 8.6 l ..... @ @ @ | • $ $ $ $ $ Mºp Ind. geol. sur. 20:57 24 1.91 1.96 3.34 7 32 | . ... ... © $ @ $ $ $ $ $ | e @ @ @ # $ | $ $ $ $ e e Mo. geol sur. 11:563 25 . 42 .7 3.71 7.05 @ @ @ | @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ | e iº ， @ @ t 4 % 26 1. 17 1.41 4,88 6.94 | .. .... 4 ) ， 4 © º e @ # 4 | e a é e e e # e s i e e e 4 (. 27 .57 .68 2.47 8.66 1.48 l ...... .. | ... ... | ... ... Ibid. 11:564 28 . 18 . 15 3.58 8.9 1.41 | .... ... . $ e e s e e | * e e • s • {. 6 29 . 58 1.5 3.32 8.88 1.08 © © 5 e @ # $ ê | e $ $ ， $ $ | e $ $ $ s $ ( t 80 .38 .69 3.02 11.95 e # 5 @ | @ @ @ @ @ @ $ ê | e • ê 5 4 $ | $ $ © e s s t (. 81 , 46 .86 2.8 6.03 | ... .. g e | 9 ， 5 e s s e e s ; t， é © e • & 4 32 3.25 2.84 3.02 8.45 6 0 $ $ $ $ $ $ $ e | e p e $ @ @ # # $ é e © © 4 t 38 .73 1.26 4, 1 9.84 @ @ # | $ é e $ s @ @ s $ $ $ @ @ | @ @ Ibid. 11:566 84 .46 , 45 3 , 16 6.6 @ @ @ $ 4 $ $ $ $ $ $ $ t e s @ @ $ $ $ $ 6 {. 900 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM Shales SILICA State and county Town Remarks C Alumina º ODO- * o bj| Free Z. | Missouri (cont'd) w | 1 Lafayette. . . . . . . . . . . Lexington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54.08 22.5 7.9 3 || Marion. .... . . . . . . . . . Hannibal. . . . . . . . . . . Not worked. . . . . . . . 75.7 9.61 1.79 8 Pike • * * * * * * * * * * * * Minor's Land, Bowl- ing Green . . . . . . . . { % e e e º is 4 tº 66.57 15.32 3.82 4 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Louisiana . . . . . . . . . ( & 0 & 0 & 0 tº e 57.01 24.43 5.77 b | Polk. ..............] Aldrich ......... ( (. • * * * * * * 46.26 10.76 2.65 6 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Humansville. ... ! { e tº c e s tº e 56.82 24.48 8.82 7 | Randolph.......... Hammet's farm, EIuntsville. ...... { { tº ºn tº & ºn e º 'º' 66.03 21.74 2.13 8 { % . . . . . . . . . . . Stuarts mine . . . . . . (, i. tº dº ſº e º 'º tº 56.86 17.97 9.35 9 { % . . . . . . . . . , | 1% mil-S northwest ^* of Huntsville .... { % e tº e 58.44 25.36 6.61 10 | Ste. Genevieve .... | Sexaner farm ...... “ . . . . . . . . 50.97 21.15 5.2 11 | St Louis ...........] Laclede Imine ...... Tſsed for sewer pipe 54.57 23.61 7.88. 12 “ ..........] Barretts............] Not worked........ 49 69 17.4 4.01 18 Vernon ... . . . . . . . . . Deerfield ........... “ . . . . . . . . 58.9 21.38 7,09 14 “ . . . . . * - © e e Prewitt’s bank & © tº e c q e º 'º e º 'º t e º 'º e s e º 'º 9 tº º 54.54 23.26 7.84 Paving brick Arkansas: 15 | Sebastian . . . . . . . . . . Fort Smith. . . . . . . . . . Shale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57.1 23.74 8.18 California: r - 16 | San Mateo. . . . . . . . .] San Francisco. . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56.51 21.33 .29 Colorado : 17 | Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . Golden... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & © tº 0 e º º e º e 52.41 32.21 a .66 18 ' ' . . . . . . . . . . Morrison... . . . . . . . . . tº º tº e º e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º e º e tº e 71.8 15 3.29. 19 Florida. * e º e º e º 'º e º a s a Bartow. . . . . . . . . . . . . e e s e s a s e e s e º a 6 º e e e Q e 69.03 b 18.21 8.53 Illinois: - 20 | Sangamon . . . . . . . . . . Springfield. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.78 23.25 2.83 21 | Scott. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Winchester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.15 17.08 tº e º e º e º ºs 22 | McLean. . . . . . . . . . . . . Bloomington. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67.8 11. 55 6.5 Indiana: • 23 Vermilion . . . . . . . . . . Clinton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shale. . . . . . . . . . • e s e e 43.128 40.875 a 3.437 24 | Clay. . . . . . . . . . . ..., | Brazil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . © tº e º e < e <> tº º e º e s a tº s tº 68.83 23.11 1.84 25 (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixture of Shales - and surface clay for paving blocks 59.55 16.21 a 7.13 2.18. 26 Wanderburg. . . . . . . Evansville.......... Mixture of Shales and Surface clay 65.87 14.66 *:::: 27 | Vermilion. . . . . . . . . . . Clinton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mixture of shales e and Surface clay 61.46 16.54 C., 3.71 - 3.77. Iowa. 28 Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Burlington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q & Q - e º e º e º e º e º & 77.4 11.74 12.31 29 || Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . Clinton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . e tº to g tº 6 e 73 82 15.88 .16 Ransas: 30 | Leavenworth . . . . . . Leavenworth . . . . . . . Carb shale . . . . . . . . . 58.45 21.96 8.43 Maryland: 31 | Allegheny . . . . . . . . . | Mount Savage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.9 30.08 .88. Missouri: 32 | St Louis..... . . . . . . . . Cheltenham. . . . . . . . . Clay, . . . . . . . . . . . tº g c tº 61.22 25.64 3.47 33 ‘‘ . . . . . & e º e tº { * e e º e e s e $ (, tº e º 'º e º e º e s c q & G s s 88.1 31.53 4.31 84 || Montgomery. . . . . . . . Montgomery . . . . . . . . ‘‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43.93 40.09 1.7 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 901 (concluded) WATER Lime Magnesia, Alkalis C Miscellaneous Firm ºhority OIO- - d bined Free 2. Q- 1 .85 2.7 4. 12 7.54 tº e º O O. tº º e º te tº tº e º e º I º e º e º e Mo. geol. sur. 11:566 2 2.54 2.11 2.65 6, 16 tº e º e i o e º e º e º e e e s is e i e º 'o e s e § { 3 3.2 1.03 2.94 6.42 1.42 . . . . . . . . e tº tº e . . . . . . Ibid. 11: 568 4 1.4 .49 3.81 7.2 .43 | . . . . tº c e º 'º e tº e º e { % 5 11.08 7.84 3.17 8.02 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º 'º e º 'º e º 'º º & © { { 6 .83 1.81 3 8 8.16 e e º 'º e - e i e º 'º e s e º tº e º e º 'º tº e e e { { 7 .5 1.01 1.64 6 1.84 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e I e - e. e. e. v (, 8 1.67 1.12 2.61 6.96 2.45 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MO. geol. Sur. 11: 568 9 tr. tr. 2.97 5. 74 1.41 tº e º s ſº q * * * * * > . * * * * * $ tº 10 1.55 1.1 3.88 5.71 1.25 e 6 e º e º e i s e e g º e * * g g º e t tº 11 .52 1.48 3.55 6.67 e tº s e - I e g º s & 8 tº e g º e SO3 .44| Ibid. 11: 570 12 8.07 4.16 2.73 13.87 1.16 e tº e º º * * * * * * I e º e º O & 4 & 13 .57 1.66 1.52 8.69 e is e e º 'º e tº e º e º º e º & e s e º 'º & tº e { % 14 1.44 1.82 4. 12 7.71 ſº tº ſº tº © tº e º 'º º 0 | * * * * * * 0 0 e º º º { { clays 15 .53 1.04 2.4 tº e º O & | * * * * g º e 0 0 e º e º 'º e e tº e º tº e Ign. 7.81 16 | . . . . . . . . 3.53 tr. 6.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Byrnes on Roadways 17 .2 .6 .61 14.05 tº t e º 'º º G tº e e e º a & * * * * tº e { { 18 8 8 | . . . . . . . . tº º 0 tº e º e a 8.3 & e is tº º e e i e º e º e a tº e º ſº e { { 19 tr. . . . . . tº ſº tº e º 'º e < * * tº e º e e 4.2 * * * * @ e ] e º e º s e . . . . . . . Min. re Sources, 1893 20 1.72 2.12 tr. 1 . . . . . tº e e º s e º e Ign. 6.69 . . . . . . . . . . . . J. S. Cary, anal. 21 | . . . . . . . . .28 1.1 © - - - - tº e º e º 'º SO2 6.3 | 1.2 P2 O5 .9 | Byrnes on Roadways 22 8.9 5.32 2.42 .2 © tº 8 tº e e º e tr. © º tº 23 CaCO3 .97 .99 9.482 tº e º º e º º a e º e º e = . . . . . . J. F. Elson, anal. 2.000 24 .382 .551 & © tº e º e s a . . . . . . . 17.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . S. B. Hart 25 .75 1.58 3.09 5.62 * G - e o 'o e e & e o 'º e e CO2 3.15 c 1. Ind. geol. Sur. 20: 129 26 .39 1.54 3.97 4.59 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . c 1.1 * { 27 .66 1.81 4.37 5.09 * * * * * 0 tº º CO2 1.45 c 1.2 { { 28 1.6 1.91 4.23 & a tº º e º e s tº tº e º 0 tº a & G & g e º & J. * tº $ tº º c e tº e e e 29 tr. tr. 4.5 .5 * * * * * * * * | * tº e e º e ] e o e o e a 30 1.05 1.57 4 6.51 • * > * ... . . . . . . . . Clay worker, Dec. 1893 P2O5 º 81 e is tº e o º c. * * g e º ſº 2.8 13.9 1.15 e e e g º º & tº e º 'º º SO3 83 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.81 9.68 04 | . . . . . . . . . . Byrnes on Roadways 38 . . . . . . . tr. .4 13.8 & e º 'º e º 'º a c1.5 | . . . . . . * * 34 & 0 & 0 & 0 & e © tº e º & © tº e .2 14.6 & º tº 0 tr. tº tº e º 'º º { % 902 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Paving brick : ; 10 11 12 13 39 40 41 # SILICA State and county Town Remarks Alumina *...* Com- Fr OX1 bined I’ee 49 Missouri (com.t"d) ºmº Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . Kansas City. . . . . . . . Carb. shale . . . . . © tº 64.37 19.73 9. 07 Henry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Deepwater, Mis- Souri clay co..... * * * * * tº t e s tº £ tº g tº e º ºs e º it tº 68.54 18.49 3.38 Jackson . . . . . . . . . . . Kansas City. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ſº tº ſº tº º tº 56.8 25.7 6 Johnson . . . . . . . . . . . Boyd’s pit Knob- noster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº gº tº e º & tº e e º 0. 69.65 20.41 2, 11 Michigan: Sagina W . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gray Shale . . . . . . . tº a 63. 21.8 8.8 { { * * * * * e s tº g : * * * . . . . . . . . . Black Shale. . . . . . . . . 54.5 30.75 3.5 Nebraska: & Otoe . . . . . tº º e º e º 'º tº a Nebraska City . . . . . tº tº e e g º ºſ e e º 'º e tº e tº e º s a s e 61.63 21.41 7.03 New Jersey: Middlesex. . . . . . . . . Woodbridge . . . . . . . . . . tº is e e g º & © © tº G & º ſº º tº º e e 42.23 39.53 .5 Warren . . . . . . . . . . . . Phillipsburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ſº tº e º 'º e s 56.78 17.38 .5 New York: Onondaga. . . . . ..., | Warner . . . . . § tº ſº º Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº º 44. 74 18.7 4.25 “ . . . . . . . . . .., | Shale . . . . . . . . . . tº g º is e 52.3 18.85 6.55 Steuben. . . . . . . . . . . . PIOrnellsville . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . tº tº tº tº ſº e º º 67.29 15.85 6.16 Greene. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cairo . . . . . . tº ſº tº e º º e © tº t t e tº © tº º & ſº e o ſº tº tº Jº. & 68. 15 12 Ohio: Athens. . . . . . . . . . . . . Glouster. . . . . . . . . . . . . Shale clay. . . . . . . . . . 57.15 20.26 7,54 Richland. . . . . . . . . . . . Darl ngton. . . . . . . . . { % & ſº Q & g º e º º 57.45 21.06 7.54 Franklin. . . . . . . . . . . . Columbus. . . . . . . . . . { % & ſº e º e º 'º e 58.38 20.89 5.78 Stark. . . . . . . . . . . . . ..., | Canton. . . . . . . . . . . ' ' . . . . . . . . . . 53.38 19.36 14 86 “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . North Industry. . . . { % tº ſº tº e º e º tº ſº 56,61 21.63 7.08 Columbiana... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fireclay.. . . . . . . . . . . 54.53 27.88 2.41 Jefferson. ... * I : * * * * * * * * * * * * * * tº e º º (, i. s e e g º is e º e e 51.7% 30.1 1.94 ( * * * * * * * g we e g Island siding. . . . . . . $ (, tº tº º ſº e º ſº º tº 51.82 28.69 2.77 Columbiana......., | East Palestine. . . . . . { % e tº º º ſº g º ºs e tº 57.8 25.54 2.51 Jefferson. . . . . . . . . . | Toronto. . . . . . . . . . . . { % tº tº e º 'º tº 70 19.35 2.22 W. “ . . . . . . . . . . . Elliottsville . . . . . . . . { { & ſº tº G & e º 'º e & 77.65 12.78 3.32 ‘‘ . . . . . . . . { { ſº tº e © & © tº 59.2 26.1 2.7 Croxton run........ (, tº tº it tº e s tº e º 'º 58.1 29.6 1.2 Hocking.. . . . . . . . . ... | Haydensville.......] Shale. . . . . tº º º ºs e º e º te tº 69.92 23.46 .2 Montgomery. . . . . . . Brookville . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.05 27.71 .6 Pennsylvania : Beaver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Monaca. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shale clay. . . . . . . . . . 63. 37 19.08 6.42 “ . . . . . . . © tº e º º tº e Rochester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . & e g º e º 'º e 66 23.1 .65 Mercer. . . . . . . . . . . . Sharon. . . . . . . . . . . . . Red Shale . . . . . . . . . 62.86 20.65 9.21 { % * 6 tº g º º 'º e º e º & “ . . . . . . . . # tº it Blue Shale. . . . . tº e º 'º tº 63.69 23.9 3.57 Beaver. . . . . . . . . Woodlawn..... . . . . . . Clay . . . . . . . tº e º is tº e º e tº 42.15 81.43 2.82 * @ tº e º & e º ſº tº e New Brighton. . . . . . . ‘‘ . . . © tº ſº tº dº tº 67.36 22.05 5.61 Corry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº tº e * G - & tº º .44 26.84 8.1 Tennessee : * Powdes station. . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . * * * * * * * * 68.35 12.96 6.44 Hamilton . . . . . . . . . . . Chattanooga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68.96 20.42 1.84 Scott... . . . . . . . . . . . . Robbins ... . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70.57 15, 19 7.97 Texas : . Henderson. . . . . . . . . . Morrisons. . . . . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.3 19.33 2.47 West Virginia : Cumberland. . . . . . . . “ . . . . . . . tº gº º is tº e º ſº i 69.02 22. 07 4. 53 Marion. . . . . . . . . . . ..] Nuzums mills .....] ‘‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.25 32.36 1. CILAYS 903 OF NEW YORK clays (concluded) à ; 10 11 12 13 39 4() 41 WATER Lime |Magnesia, Alkalis C ODºl- biºd | Free | *-* .82 2.32 3.78 | . . . . . . . . tº e g º te e º 'º 1.03 .88 2.37 4.62 1.52 1 1.5 * * * * * * * * I e º 'º e < * e * * * * * * 1.21 tr. 8.52 5.34 | . . . . . 1.7 2 2.65 # tº tº e º 'º e e º 'º º e º & 1.05 1.69 3 5.51 | . . . . . . . 2.13 .94 .98 4.96 | . . . . . . . .01 . . . . . . . . .49 13.59 1.21 4.14 3.15 3.42 7 .6 11.25 1.29 1.2 9.25 3.36 4.49 6 | . . . . . . . 5.3 .95 . 19 8.71 tº tº e e º º ſº e s 3 is tº is tº º is tº tº g º gº ë is tº * * * * 5 tº tº º .9 1.62 3.63 5.5 2.7 .29 1.22 3.66 5.9 1.9 .44 1.57 5.02 7.53 | . . . . . . . 1.48 1.06 & a sº e tº e º e {} {} 1. 11 1. 41 3.90 * * * * 1 g º & 6 s º & .42 , 68 3.43 8.87 .76 .62 . 53 2.74 9.95 1.05 .77 1.41 2.82 9.67 1.72 .25 .61 2.69 S. 35 2.25 . 15 .34 2.9 5.39 . . . . . . . . 55 .45 1. 3 4.1 * * * * 1.05 .75 1.53 8.55 | . . . . . . t .4 .54 1.75 8.7 | . . . . . . . .48 .4 1.43 3.84 | . . . . . . . .15 .2 2.4 6.67 .06 .33 3.24 7.5 .41 1.18 2.19 5.38 .48 .34 & ſº º e º e s tº a tº e e º e º e º 'º tº ſº º º is .44 tr. tº a tº e º e tº º t e g tº * * * * * © tº tº . 32 2.01 tº º is s e º º tº 10.6 .86 , 36 5.4 & tº ſº w tº t e s is tº $ tº e e Q b12.84 d5.85 3.55 e tº e º 'º $ tº º º te a tº tº º ſº tº .23 1 2.14 º e º e º e o e is tº a e . 16 33 2, 18 6.5 | . . . . . . .78 , 32 2.3 e tº º ºs e º 'º e º e º e * 6 tº tr. .5 4.44 e e º e º 'º e º e º º º e º e a 1.7 .38 2.68 tº e º 'º e º e º s e º º 7. 16 tº e º e s is tº e º 0 & 0 & 6 6,3 Miscellaneous fesió Ign.6.26 * @ & & e º º tº tº tº & © tº º ſº • * * * tº e * * * * * * * * g º O e MnO.9 - MnO tr. tº e º e & * * * e º ſº & tº e º $ tº * * * * * * * tº tº € e g tº tº º is tº e a Firm names, authority Or analyst Clay worker, Dec. 1893 Ind. geol. sur. 20:564 From Diamond brick and tile co. Ind. geol. sur. 20:566 From Saginaw clay manufacturing co. tº º N. J. clay rep’t, 1878 { % R. Froehling, anal. From Catskill shale and paving brick co. Ohio geol. sur. 1893, 7: 134 -| Ibid., p. 137 tº $ ‘. . { % { \, $ (, { { Ibid. v. 1884, p. 139 Monong, fireclay co. Park fireclay co. Eclipse, paving brick and clay mſg. co. From F. Stanford, Corry, Pa. J. W. S'ocum, anal. Tennessee paving brick CO. Clay worker, Dec. 1803 Tex. tºol. sur. 1890, p. 19 Clay worker. Dec. 1893 Byrnes on Roadways $}()4. INEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Terra, cotta, : 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 à SILICA. S a e and county TOWn Remarks Alumina Fº 99.m. | Free bined California: Monterey . . . . . . . . . . . Jolon. . . . . . * e º s tº º Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85.07 7.85 1.16 Butte & © tº ſº e tº ſº tº © º º Chico e e ë tº e º ſº ( (. tº c > 0 tº e º 'º e º f tº tº º ſº 88.7 4.5 .5 Colorado: Jefferson . . . . . . . . . . . Golden . . . . . * * * * * * * * e º 'º e º ºs e s e is a º º tº $ tº tº e º tº 68.4 18.88 1.56 New York: Allegany. . . . . . . . . . Alfred Center . . . . . Chemung shale. . . . 53.2 23.25 10.9 Saratoga. . . . . . . . . . . . Glens Falls (see Brick clays) e e º 'º tº tº sº tº tº & * - e º tº tº gº º tº tº º tº e º e º 'º º ſº tº º ſº tº tº e º ſº ë ſº e º e º ſº Pennsylvania: - Beaver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Brighton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº e º e º 'º º ſº tº e g º O e 61.97 22.94 a 1.818 Virginia: Augusta . . . . . . . . . . . . Staunton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . '5.86 13.4 2.66 South Dakota: Pennington . . . . . . . . . Rapid City. . . . . . . . . . Shale clay. . . . . . . . . . 70.78 16.73 2.78 Pipe Georgia: Bald W n s e e g tº • e º 'º e s a Stephens Pottery.. e e º e e º 'º º e º e º º 0 & 0 tº e º e & 52.78 32.3 .05 Indiana: Perry . . . . . . . . . . . ... Cannelton, William Clarke . . . . . . . . . . Under-clay. . . . . . . . . (35.83 22.94 2.64 Green 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Worthington. . . . . . . . S. Davis's . . . . . . . . . . 63.25 24.81 3.04 Kentucky: - Calloway . . . . . . . . . . | New Providence ...| White clay. . . . . . . . . 61.68 28.5 1.68 Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . Pughs place . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62.92 29.88 MissOuri: Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dickey sewer pipe co., Deepw ter...] Used for sewer pipe 60.12 21.35 7.06 Laclede mine, St Louis. . . . . . . . . tº e º & { % 59.96 15.76 7.72 Minnesota; Goodhue. . . . . . . . . . . . Red Wing. . . . . . . . . . { % 69.84 23.07 .48 New Jersey: Middles X . . . . . . . . . . Woodbridge . . . . . . . * { 67.7 | . . . . . 19.91 1.69 { % tº a ( (. 33 29.1 23.8 1.6 New York: Erie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Angola. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65.15 15.29 6, 16 North Dakota: Cavalier . . . . . . . . . . . Langdon . . . . . . . . . . . . Clay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.45 17.57 2.8 Ohio: Jefferson . . . . . . ... | Freeman. (see also analyses of Ohio paving-brick clays) . . . . . . . . tº tº gº tº tº gº e º 'º e º s e º 'º s . . . . . . . . . 39.03 | 15.5 27.88 2.41 Columbiana. . . . . . . . . Walker's Station. . . Under-clay. . . . . . . . . 54.53 27.88 2.41 Pennsylvania: - Wayne. . . . . . . . ... . . . Texas township. . . . . Catskill red shale.. 59.26 19.877 10.071 CLAYS OF NEW YORK clays - WATER Lime |Magnesia, Alkalis Com- Miscellaneous Firm ºrity. o bined Free 2. 1 0.25 .35 .93 4.35 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9th rep’t Cal, state 2 .93 .36 .63 4.46 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tº E tº Imin. p. 302 3 .55 .45 1.71 8 2 tº & G & - tº e º e º e e º 'º e & 4 1.01 .62 2.7 6.39 ....... [MnO .52 | c.91 SO3 .41| Celadon terra-cotta co. 5 tº g g g tº tº e tº e tº tº e s is tº tº e s a tº e s ] tº º e º e º 'º tº tº e tº e º º * * tº º ſº tº $ tº tº ſº tº $ tº $ tº º is tº $ tº 6 .44 .522 1.75 8.85 . . . . . . . . c 1.975 . . . . . . Pa, geol. Sur. MM, p. 262. 7 .28 ,822 1 .737 5.206 | tº e º 'º tº tº SO3 til tº º G & © tº e e º te e t Terra, Cotta tile works - 8 .21 .9 g is tº 4 tº º ſº tº 6.71 & ſº dº tº tº dº tº e & e º e º e e º e º º Rapid C ty steam brick Works clays 9 | . . . . . . . . .42 .55 13.54 .86 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. C. White, anal. 10 .308 .858 . . . . . . . . . 7.434 . . . . . . . * * * * * * | * tº e º f * e º is e º º Ind. géol. sur. 20:125 11 .48 1.01 tº g g g º e e 7.33 . . . . . . . & © e º 'º º tº a e º e º a tº e º ºs e º e Ind. geol. sur. 20:90 12 . 101 , 136 1.98 5.923 tº e o e º 'º º e i s e º e º sº e s ∈ s e Ky. geol. Sur. chem. rep’t A. pt. 3, no. 2640, 13 tr. .209 1.786 5.255 . . . . . . * I e o is e º º tº º ſº Ibid. Ino. 2763 14 .52 1.08 3.43 6.82 1.05 | . . . . . tº º e tº * * * * | * e º 'º e ºv Mo. geol. sur. 11:564 15 ,6 .93 3.66 7.7 | . . . . . . . SO3 .78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mo. geol. sur. 11:570 16 .11 .14 tr. 6.85 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . From J. H. Rich, sewer pipe works - tº: Ti(Q º 17 | . . . . . . . . .72 2.56 5.5 1 tº º º 3 . . . . . . N. § clay rep’t, 187, * Ti O p. 82 18 tr. .57 2.77 6.7 1 & tº 2 - 1.7 . . . . . . . Ibid. p. 113 19 3.5 1.57 5.71 a tº e g º tº is ſº tº e º O e * * * * * * * * | * , , , , , | * * * * * * EI. T. Vulté, anal. 20 .25 1.79 .93 22.55 LOSS3.66 | . . . . . . . . . . . . . Riº labor bureau, TiO 2 21 .42 .68 3 43 8 87 .76 tº e º º 1.26 | . . . . . . Ohio geol. Sur. 5 1884 22 .42 .68 3.43 8.87 | . . . . . . . .... | TiO2 | ...... Ind. geol. sur. 20 p. 133 1.26 . SO2 23 .25 1.917 4.855 3.60 | . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * I e s s , s , 012 || Pa.. geol. Sur. no. 3, . 158 906 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Pipe clays. 3 # t SILICA. State and county TOWn Remarks Com. Fr bined "Tee Pennsylvania (com.) , . I Beaver . . . . . . . e tº e º 'º e Cannelton. . . . . . . . & I is a gº tº e º ſº e e & ſº e º ſº tº e º ºs e e & 67.67 Butler... . . . . . . ... . . . Butler. . . . . . tº º º e º ſº tº * : * g e º e º 'º s e g g g g g g g c s e º a 59.01 South Dakota: Pennington ... . . . . . . Rapid City. . . . . . . . . . Soft shale. . . . . . . . . . 74.22 ( [. tº tº º $ (, . . . . . . . . . Fort Benton shale. 63.59 Tennessee: Knox. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Powell Station..... Clay. . . . . * Q & g º º tº tº e º e 68.35 { { tº tº tº º { % tº º Shale... tº º e º e º tº gº tº g 62.3 Alumina 18.28 21.77 Ferric Oxid 1.03 10.73 16.38 20.309 12.96 19.17 1.95 a 2.952 6.44 6.88 CLAYS OF NEW YORK 907 (concluded) WATER, Lime |Magnesia, Alkalis C Miscellaneous Firm ºrity* . ODO- o bined Free 2. 1 | . . . . . . . . . tr. 3.08 7.66 ....... tº e º ſº . . . . . . a 2.28 | From J. W. Suthoriu C CO . 2 .79 1.69 6.01 . . . . . . . . . tº º is e tº & © tº tº ſº º tº tº º & © tº a e g Butler brick and tile CO. 8 .4 tr. 2.58 ........ 4.47 | . . . . . . . . tº º e e Rapid City steam brick works 4 .52 .612 1.402 8.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . & º º e g º e º e c 6 63 | Furnished by F. C. Smith 5 ,23 1 2.14 7.8 e s tº º c e s \ e a s e º is a e - tº e is MnO .9 6 tr. .4 3.36 || 7.45 ...?.... . ...... º º º a tº 908 NIEW YORK STATIC MIUSEUM BIBLIOGRAPIHY OF CILAY LITERATURE No attempt has been made to give a complete list of works relating to clays and the ceramic arts. While such a list is of value in its proper place, it is considered that the purpose of this report will be far better served, if only titles of value to the prac- tical clay worker, or the general student of clays are given. For an exhaustive list of works on this subject the reader is referred to the bulletin by Branner mentioned below. Not a few of the many valuable works in the German or French language, while reasonable in price, are at tihes hard to obtain; therefore only the titles of the more important ones are given here. Articles which are mainly locality reports are marked a ; those that are largely technologic in their nature, b; while a third class, which includes both of the others, are indicated by c. Barber, E. A. Pottery and porcelain of the United States. N. Y. 1SQ3. w Historic. y Bischof, C. Die Feuerfesten Thone. Leipzig 1895 (b). Blue, A. Vitrified bricks for pavements. 3d ann. rep’t On- tario bureau of mines. p. 103. Toronto 1893 (b). Blatchley, W. S. Clays of coal-bearing counties of Indiana. 20th ann. rep’t Ind. geol. Sur., p. 24. 1896 (c). The clays of northwestern Indiana. 22d ann. rep’t Ind. geol. Sur. Bock, O. Die Ziegel Industrie. Leipzig. Bain, H. F. Report on geology of Polk co. 7th ann. rep’t Ia. geol. Sur. p. 267. Report on geology of Plymouth co. 8th rep’t Ia. geol. Sur. p. 318. . . Manufacture of clay-ballasts. Mineral industry. 6 1897. The manufacture of paving brick in the middle west Mineral industry. v. 7. Binns, C. F. Ceramic technology. London 1897 (b). CLAYS OF NEW YORIK 909 Branner, J. C. Bibliography of clays and the ceramic arts, Bull. U. S. geol. Sur. no. 143. 1896. Chamberlin, T. C. Geol. of Wisconsin. 1877. 2: 235; 1883. 1: 668 (a). - Describes Milwaukee brick and clay. * Cook, G. H. Clays of New Jersey, N. J. geol. Sur. 1878 (a). Cook, R. A. Manufacture of firebrick at Mt Savage, Md. Trans. Amer. inst. mim. eng. 1886. 14: 698 (b). * Coac, E. T. Porcelain, tile and potter’s clays. Ind. geol. Sur. 1878. p. 154 (a). Crary, J. W., Sr. Brickmaking and brickburning. Indian- apolis. Crawford, J. Notes on California clays, 13th ann. rep’t Cal. state mineralogist. Davis, C. T. Bricks, tiles and terra cotta. Phil. 1889 (b). Dümmler, K. Die Ziegel und Thonwaaren Industrie der Ver- einigten Staaten. Halle 1894. Handbuch der Ziegel Fabrikation. Halle 1897 (b). Griffen, H. H. Clay glazes and enamels. Indianapolis 1895 (b). Hecht, H. Articles on clay in Dammer's chemical technology. Hill, R. T. Clays of the United States. Mineral resources. U. S. geol. Sur. 1891. p. 474 (a). Hofman & Demond. Tests on the refractoriness of fireclays, Trans. Amer. inst min. eng. 1895. 24:42 (b). - Further experiments to determine the fusibility of fireclays. Ibid. 25: 3. Hofman, H. O. A modification of Bischof's method for deter- mining the refractory character of fireclays. Ibid. 26. Does the size of grain affect the refractory character of fireclays? Ibid. 26. Holmes, J. A. The kaolin and clay deposits of North Carolina, Trans. Amer, inst min. eng. 1896. 25: 929 (a). Hopkins, T. C. The clays of western Pennsylvania. Ann. rep’t Pa. state college. 1897 (a). 910 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Irelan, L. Pottery. 9th ann. rep’t Cal. state mineralogist. 1890. p. 287 (b). Jervis, W. P. An encyclopedia of ceramics. Crockery and glassware journal. 1898-1899. Jones, C. C. The economic geology of the Hudson river valley clay deposits, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. Feb. 1899. Kerr, W. C. Geology of North Carolina. 1875. 1:296-97. Ladd, G. Clays of St Louis co, Mo. Bull. Mo, geol. sur., Ino. 3. 1890. - Notes on the cretaceous and associated clays of middle Georgia. Amer. geol. Ap. 1899. Preliminary report on the clays of Georgia, Bull. 6A, Ga. geol. Sur. Langenbeck, K. Chemistry of pottery. Easton 1896 (b). Lesley, J. P. ICaolin deposits of Delaware and Chester coun- ties, Pa. Ann. rep’t Pa.. geol. Sur. 1885. p. 571 (a). Loughridge, R. H. Clays of Jackson purchase region, Ky. Ry, geol. Sur. 1888. p. 77 (a). McCalley, H. Report on the valley region, Ala. geol. Sur. 1896. pt 1 p. 68. Meade, D. W. Manufacture of paving brick, Trans. Amer. soc. civ. eng. 1893. 24: 552 (b). - Montgomery, H. G. Manufacture of glazed brick. London. Orton, E., jr. Clays and clay working industries of Ohio. v. 15, pt 1, p. 69 (b) Pennock, J. D. On the expansion and conducivity of fire bricks. Trans. Amer. inst. min. eng. 1896. Periodicals - Brick (monthly). Chicago, Ill. Brickbuilder (monthly). Boston, Mass. Brickmaker (bi-weekly). Chicago, Ill. Clay (quarterly). Willoughy, O. Crockery and glassware journal (weekly). N. Y. city Clayworker (monthly). Indianapolis, Ind. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 911 Periodicals (continued) Paving and municipal engineering (monthly). Indianapo- lis, Ind. Thonindustrie Zeitung. Berlin, Ger. Topfer und Ziegler Zeitung. Berlin, Ger. Philips, W. B. Eng. & min. jour. 42: 326; and Journal iron and steel inst. 1887. no. 1, p. 389 (c). Platt, F. Test of firebrick. 2d. Pa.. geol. Sur. rep’t M. M. 1879. p. 270 (b). Ries, H. Clays of United States. Mineral industry. 2 (c) Clays of Hudson river valley. 10th ann. rep’t N. Y. state geol. 1890. f Clay industries of New York. Bull. N. Y. state mu- seum. 1895. v. 3. no. 12 (c). Technology of the clay working industry, 16th ann. rep’t U. S. geol. Sur. pt. 4, p. 523 (b). Pottery industry of the United States. 17th ann. rep’t. Ibid. pt. 3, p. 842 (b). Clays of Florida. Ibid. p. 871. Clays of Alabama. Bull. Ala. geol. Sur. (a). The clay working industry in 1896. 18th ann. rep’t U. S. geol. Sur. 1897. pt. 5, p. 1105 (c). The ultimate and rational analysis of clay and their relative advantages. Trans. Amer. inst min. eng. 28. The kaolins and fireclays of Europe. 19th ann. rep’t U. S. Geol. Sur. pt. 5. * The clays and clay industries of North Carolina. N. C. geol. Sur. Bull. 13. Origin and nature of shale. Michigan miner. v. 1, no. 11; v. 2, no. 2-3. Societies. Transactions of the American ceramic society. Columbus. Smith, E. A. Clays of Alabama. Ala, indus, and sci. SOC., 2, 1892 (a). 912 - NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Smock, J. C. Mining clays in New Jersey. Trans. Amer. inst min. eng. 1874. 3: 211 (b). . Clays of New Jersey. Ibid. 1879. 6: 177b (a). - Spencer, J. W. Clays of Georgia. Ga. geol. Sur. 1893. p. 276 (a). - Struthers, J. Le Chatelier thermoelectric pyrometer. School of mines quarterly. 12: 143 and 13: 221 (b). Wogt, G. La porcelaine. 1893. Wheeler, H. A. Fusibility of clays, Eng. and min. jour. 1894. 17: 224 (b). Vitrified paving brick. Indianapolis 1895. Clays of Missouri. Mo. geol. Sur. 11: 1896. Young, J. J. The ceramic arts. New York 1878 (b). Zwick, O. Die Ziegel Industrie. Leipzig 1894. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 913 DIRECTORY OF CLAY WORKERS IN NEW YORK STATE H. B.: Hollow brick R. T.: Roofing tile T.; Floor tile or glazed tile F. B. : Fire-brick O. B.: Ornamental brick S. P. : Sewer pipe C. : China B. : Common brick P. B. : Pressed brick D. T. : Drain tile F. P. : Flower pots Pa. B. : Paving brick T. C. : Terra cotta E. W. : Earthenware LOCATION Town Albany Alfred Amenia Amsterdam Angola OF WORES County Albany Steuben Dutchess Montgomery Erie Celadon terra cotta co. R. T. NAME George Dunn. B. A. Hunter & Son. B. J. H. Leonard. B. Moore & Babcock. B. Newton & Co. F. B. Jackson Bros. B., P. B., O. B., D. T. A. Poutre. B. E. J. Smith. B. D. H. Stanwix. B. Stanwix & McCarty. B. T. C. Alfred clay co. P. B., R. T. Wilson & Eaton. B. |H. C. Grieme. B. Pſart Bros. B. J. Lyth & Sons. S. P., EI. B. 914 INEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Town Arlington Athens Attica Auburn LOCATION Baldwinsville Berkshire Binghamton Blackrock Border City Brighton Brooklyn OF WORKS County Dutchess Greene Erie Cayuga Onondaga Fulton Broome Erie Seneca Monroe Queens NAME Flagler & Allen. B., P. B. W. W. Rider. B. Attica brick & tile works. B. F. W. Harvey. B. N. Saunders. B. Riverside brick co. P. B. Mrs F. A. Mawhiney. B. A. Stoutner. B. Ogden brick co. B. Duffalo sewer pipe co. S. P. Geneva brick works. B. Itochester brick & tile co. B., H. B. German brick & tile co. B., H. B. A. Benkert. * E. W. Brooklyn fire brick works. F. B. T}rooklyn stove lining Co. F. B. H. Bieg. E. W. Grahanu chemical stone- ware works. S. W. Green Point fire brick works. F. B. J. Cooper. E. W. W. T. Dufek. E. W. Bmpire china works. C. Charles IKurth: point Green porcelain works. C. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 915 Town, Brooklyn Buffalo Canandaigua Canton Carthage Catskill Chittenango Coeymans Cohoes. IOCATION OF WORECS County Queens Erie Ontario St Lawrence ~ Jefferson Greene Madison Albany Albany NAME New York vitrified tile co. T. |Union porcelain works. C. Henry Bender. B. Charles Berrick’s Sons. B. Eſ. Betz & Bro. F. P. Brush Bros. B. |H. Dietschler & Son. B. F. W. Haake & Son. B. Eſall & Sons. B. G. W. Schmidt. B. E. A. Schusler. B. A. M. Hollis & Co. B., D. T. N. Y. hydraulic pressed brick co. P. B. L. O’Brien. B. C. Houghton. B., D. T. Wrape & Peck. B. IEastern paving brick co. P. B. Ferrier & Golden. B. J. Walsh. B. G. W. Washburn & Co. B. Central N. Y. drain tile & brick co. D. T. Chittenango pottery co. S. W. Corwin & Cullough. B. Eſ. Footit. B. Sutton & Suderly. B. J. Murray. B. 916 NEW YORK STATE MUSIEUM LOCATION Town Coldspring Corning OF WORIKS County Suffolk Steuben Cornwall on the Hudson Corona Coxsackie Coxsackie Station Crescent Croghan Croton on Hudson Crugers DelCalb Dewitt Dolgeville Dunkirk Dutchess Junction IEast Bethany East Kingston Queens Greene Greene Saratoga Lewis Westchester Jefferson Onondaga Herkimer Chautauqua Dutchess Genesee Ulster INAME JDr O. Jones. B. Brick, terra cotta & supply co. P. B., Pa. B., T. C., O. B. C. A. & A. P. Hedges. B. Corona pottery co. E. W. J. Fitzgerald & Sons. B. Walsh Bros. & Co. B. J. Borden. B. A. J. Wickler. B. Croton brick co. B. W. A. Underhill brick co. B., P. B. Kitchawan brick co. B. John Morton. B. Mrs A. Fisher. B. B. J. Maguire. B. J. H. Manning. B. Nathan T. Frank. B. E. A. Tillspaugh. B. C. & L. Merrick. B. Gow & Guile. B. J. Hilton. B. Aldridge Bros. & Co. B. G. H. Bontecou. B. W. D. Budd. B. F. Timoney. B. R. Peck. D. T., B. Brigham Bros. B. EIerrick & Miller. B. D. S. Manchester. B. D. C. Overbaugh. B. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 91 T LOCATION OF WORKS Town County East Kingston Ulster East WillistOn Queens Edwards St Lawrence Elmira . Chemung Falconer Chautauqua Farmingdale Queens IFishers Island Suffolk Fishkill on the Hudson Dutchess - Flatbush Ulster Fort Edward Saratoga Florida Orange NAME A. S. Staples. B. Streeter & Hendricks. B. U. F. & J. T. Washburn. B. W. & J. Post. B. W. Payne. B. Elmira sewer pipe & fire brick co. S. P., F. W. E. W. Farrington. B. J. P. Weyer & Co. B. M. J. Mecusker & Son. B. Garden City brick co. P. B. Queens county brick miſg. co. B. Eishers Island brick mfg. co. B. C. C. Bourne. B. Brockway brick co. B. Dennings point brick co. B. William Lahey. B. J. Paye. B. Aldridge & Page. B. Thomas Dinan. B. O’Brien, McConnell & Vaughey. B. A. Rose & Co. B. Hilfinger Bros. E. W. A. Smith. B. M. H. Vernon. B. Fly Mountain. B. 918 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Town. Ely Mountain Fort Salonga Geneva Glasco Glens Falls Glenville Goshen Gouverneur Grassy Point Greenfield Greenport Greenridge Eſaverstraw OF WORKS County Ulster Suffolk Seneca Ulster Saratoga Schenectady Orange St Lawrence Rockland Saratoga Suffolk Tichmond Rockland INAME *- M. E. Turner. B. G. S. Longbotham. B. W. F. Delamater. B. W. G. Dove. B. H. Corse. B. Catherine Lent. B. W. Maginnis & Son. B. W. Porter. B. T. Porter. B. F. M. Vandusen & Co. B. Washburn Bros. & Co. B. Glens Falls brick co. B., P. B. Glens Falls brick & terra cotta co. P. B., T. C. S. A. Case. B. I. Van Lenven. B. Smith & Anthony. B. P. Brophy. B. E. T. Carroll. B. ICelly & Byrnes. B. David Davidson. B. Long Island brick co. B. JKieran & Monahan. B. B. J. Allison & Co. B. Allison & Wood. B. Estate of M. A. Archer. B. S. W. Babcock. B. Barnes & Farley. B. William Bennett. B. CLAY'S OF NEW YORK 919 I.OCATION Town, Haverstraw Homer FIoosick Falls OF WORKS County Tockland Cortland Rensselaer NAME Byrnes & Palmer. B. A. Donnelly & Son. B. IExcelsior brick co. B. Denton, Fowler & Son. B. D. Fowler jr & Co. B. P. Goldrick. B. M. Gormley & Co. B. F. Grimes. B. Haverstraw clay & brick co. B. Heitlinger & Co. B. Lynch Bros. B. McGowan & McGovern. B. Maguire & Lynch. B. Terance Maguire. B. T. O’Malley. B. C. A. Marks & Bro. B. Morrissey & Co. B. Nicholson & Reilly. B. T. G. Peck & Co. B. T. G. & G. H. Peck. B. E. N. Renn & Co. B. Biley & Farley. B. Rowan & Scott. B. T. Shankey & Son. B. Snedeker Bros. B. U. F. Washburn & Co. B. Washburn & Fowler. B. G. S. Wood & Allison. B. Worrall & Byrnes. B. Horace Hall. B. John Dolin. B. 920 NEW YORIK STATE MUSIEUM Town. Hornellsville Horseheads Eudson Ilion Ithaca Jamestown J ewettville Johnstown Kingston Kreischerville Lancaster Lansingburg LaSalle Lestershire Little Valley Lockport Long Island City OF WORIES County Steuben Chemung Columbia |Herkimer Tompkins Chautauqua Erie Fulton Ulster Tichmond Erie Rensselaer Niagara Broome Suffolk Niagara Queens NAME IHornellsville brick, tile & terra cotta co. B. Fºreston brick co. Pa. B., B. - Horseheads brick co. B. Arkison Bros. B. Bartlett brick works. B. S. E. Coe. B. C. D. Johnson. B. Jamestown shale paving brick co. Pa. B. Mahoney & Son. B. Prush & Schmidt. P. B. Cayadutta brick co. B. R. Kilmer. B. The Hutton Co. B. P. Main & Co. B. Charles A. Schultz. B. Schultz Bros. B. D. R. reischer & Sons Co. B. Buffalo star brick co. B. Lancaster brick co. B., D. T. * T. F. Morrissey. B. II. A. Tompkins. B. Wells & Brigham. B. J. R. Heber. B. A. Mossell. B. Joseph Newbrand pottery. E. W. N. Y. architectural terra cotta co. T. C., P. B. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 921 T.OCATION Town, Low Point Lyons Madrid Malden Maplewood IMechanicville Middlefalls Middle Granville Middletown Montrose Newburgh Newfield New Paltz New York New Windsor OF WORKS County Dutchess Wayne St Lawrence Ulster Monroe Saratoga Washington Washington Orange Westchester Orange Tompkins Ulster New York Orange NAME G. A. Dow. B. Meade Bros. B. F. Borck. B. Lyons pottery. S. W. R. B. Watson. B. Cooney & Farrell. B. Estate of Hiram Sibley. B. Mechanicsville brick co. B. Best brick co. B. Champlain brick co. B. M. W. Hart & Co. B. Pullman & Co. B. J. H. Pepper. B. Smith & Co. B. Smith & Wood. B. Orrin Frost. B. Montrose, point brick co. I3. - E. H. & W. J. Peck. B. Henry Young. B. Mrs E. L. Chrystie. B. William Lahey. B. Newfield brick works. Pa. B., B. - A. M. Lowe, B. Charles A. Bloomfield. F. I3. Anton Boss. B. D. Robizek & Sons. C. David Carson. B. II. Davidson’s Sons. B. Iº.state of E. Lang. B. 922 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Town Niskayuna Northport Oakfield Ogdensburg Olean Oneida Oneonta Oswego Falls Owasco Oyster Bay Oneida Valley Pamelia Peekskill Plattsburg Port Ewon Port Jefferson Raymondville Rensselaer Riceville Rochester OF WORKS County Schenectady Suffolk Genesee St Lawrence Cattaraugus Madison Otsego Oswego Cayuga Queens Madison Jefferson Westchester Clinton Ulster Suffolk - St Lawrence Rensselaer St Lawrence Monroe NAME Mohawk brick works. B. Rinaldo Sammis. B. G. L. Drake. D. T. R. Montgomery. B. A. A. Paige. B. McMurray Bros. B. F. L. Hall. B. Clapsaddle, Moore & Get- man. B. Oneonta brick co. B. W. D. Edgarton. B. A. B. Fletcher. B. A. Lester. B. Dunn, Dolan & Co. B. Clinton Stephens. B. Watertown pressed brick co. B., P. B. S. D. Horton. F. B. J. Ouimet. B. Gilliland & Day. B. C. W. Vaughn. B. J. Kline. B. Johanna Lillis. B. William Coats. B. J. J. Rigney. B. B. Thompson & Son. B. Rochester sewer pipe works. S. P. Flower city pottery. E. W. Standard sewer pipe co. E. W. CLAYS OF NEW YORK 923 LOCATION OF WORKS Town County Rome Oneida Romulus Seneca Rondout Ulster Roundlake Saratoga Roseton Orange Sag Harbor Suffolk Salina Onondaga Sangerfield Oneida Saratoga Springs Saratoga Saugerties Ulster Seneca Castle Ontario Seneca Falls Seneca Smiths Dock Ulster Southampton Suffolk South Bay Madison South hill - Tompkins Southold Suffolk South Trenton Oneida Spencer Tioga South Plattsburg Clinton Stanley Ontario Stonypoint Rockland Stormking Dutchess Stuyvesant Columbia NAME W. W. Parry. B. J. M. Yerkes jr. B. T. Frederick. B. Manchester & Streeter. B. Terry Bros. B. G. Washburn. B. J. Davey. B. Jova brick works. B. Rose & Co. B. Sag Harbor brick co. B. G. W. Pack & Son. B. Preston Bros. B. P. B. Haven & Son. B. B. F. Bloomfield. B. A. S. Childs. B. F. Siegfried. B. T. Brousseau. B. Southampton brick & tile co. B. Clinton Stephens. B. S. Wilcox. B. C. L. Sanford. B. H. L. Garrett. B. Spencer brick co. B. J. McCarty. B. William Preston. B. T. F. Clarke. B. Reilly & Clarke. B. Reilly & Rose. B. Mosher Bros. B. Edouard Brousseau. B. 924. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM LOCATION OF WORKS Town Syracuse , Tarrytown Thiells Throopsville Tonawanda Troy Troy Union Springs Utica Verplanck County Onondaga Westchester Rockland Cayuga Erie Rensselaer Rensselaer Cayuga Oneida Westchester NAME J. Brophy. B. F. H. Kennedy. B. N. Y. brick & paving co. Pa. B., B. Onondaga pottery co. C. Pass & Seymour. Insula- tors Syracuse pottery co. E. W. Syracuse pressed brick co. EP. B. Tarrytown porcelain tile works. T. J. M. Felter. B. Fred Webber. B. J. M. Riesterer. B. A. Ferguson. B. ICelley & Morey. B. McLeod & Henry Co. B. Ostrander fire brick co. F. B. y C. R. Painton. B. Roberts brick works. B. Clark & Sons. D. T. Callahan & Doyle. B. Central N. Y. pottery. E. W. Utica brick mfg. co. B. George F. Weaver's Sons. B. Bonner brick co. B. Ring & Lynch. B. CLAYS OF NEW YORK - 9.25 LOCATION OF WORKS NAME Town, County Verplanck Westchester W. H. Macky. B. O’Brien & McConnell. B. Victor Ontario W. E. Peck. B. |F. Lock.-Insulators F. Lock. Warner Onondaga Onondaga vitrified brick co. IPa. B., B. Waterloo Seneca E. W. Foster. B. M. Whiteside. B. Watertown Jefferson J. H. Gotham. B. Watervliet Albany Tupper & Retallick. B. West Bloomfield Ontario G. N. Webb. B. West Fayette Seneca Willower & Pontius. B. Whitehall - Washington Jeremiah Adams. B. ERRATA Page 530, line 30, “grain * should be “gram ”. “ 532, lines 19, 20 and 21, “grain * should be “gram ”. “ 842, line 3, put “O’’ after Kg. - “ 878, line 39, 3d column, “Clinion ” should read “Clinton ’’. Page 891, line 18, last column, “dressed” should be “pressed". “ 905, line 17, “TiO,” should be “TiO,”. INDEX The Superior figures tell the exact place on the page in ninths: e. g. 543* means page 543, beginning in the third ninth of the page, i. e. about one third of the way down. Abbey, B. G., drain tile works, 771*. Abbott, M., tests of Haverstraw brick, 648*. Abrasion tests of paving brick, 747"— 487, 752"–55°. Abrasive materials, 852°–53*. Absorption, of building brick, 854*; of clays, 515", 528–29", 546°; of com- mon brick, 643", 644; of floor tile, 77.5°; of shales, 825". Absorption test of paving brick, 746"— 47°, 748°–49*. Acids, resistance to, 857*. Adobe soils, analysis, 882–83°. Adsit, M., clay bank, 726°. Adulterants, food, 852°. Alabama, clays, 523°, 525°, 611'-12°. Albany, terrace, 591*; brick yards, 7064–74; clay deposits, 7064–74; sewer pipe manufacture, 770"; drain tile works, 771". Albany county, brick yards and clay deposits, 704"–7°, 708; underlying material, illus. facing p. 578; drain tile works, 771°. Albany slip, 806°–9*. Albion, brick yard, 722*. Aldridge & Sherman, brick yard, 697°. Aldridge Bros., brick yard, 696%–97%; clay bank, illus. facing p. 577. Aleksiejew, W., on plasticity, 541*. Alfred Center, brick yard, 726°; roofing tile manufacture, 765°–66"; illus. facing p. 765; shale, 831, 837–38°. Alfred clay co., 726°, 766*, 839'. Alfred Station, Chemung shale, 838°– 391. Alkaline compounds, 513°–15°. Alkalis in clay, 512°–15", 569", 861”. See also Analyses. Allegany county, Chemung shale, 837’— 38°. - Allen’s creek, Cashaqua shale, 834°. Allenshill, drain tile works, 771*. 680°, Allophane, '505". &cº Altitudes, table, 589'. . . . . . Alumina, 51.1°, 568°, 569", 640°, 861”. See also Analyses. . . . . Amber, 509°. Amenia, clay deposits, 572°. American magnesite, 785°. Ammonia, 512°, 513*. Amsterdam, brick yard, 714"; clay de- posits, 714*. Analyses, feldspar, 498', 499°, 842'; fire brick, 786"; fullers’ earth, 851; kao- lin, 610°, 862–65; porcelain, 794°, 796; clays: table, 860–90; methods of analysis, 530°–38'; mechanical analy- sis, 561°–63", rational, 533°–38'; abode soils, 882–83; brick clays, 638°–39°, 882–99; buff clay, 692°; fire clays, 536–37°, 7899–90", 866–77; flint clays, 617; determining fusibility, 559"; paving brick clays, 900°–3”; pipe clays, 904–7°; clays and shales used in manufacture of Portland cement, 847; pottery clays, 878–81*; residual clays, 860–61; slip clays, 8074, 880°– 83°; stoneware clays, 792”, 818, 819°– 20°, 820"; terra cotta clays, 760°, 904–54; at Barrytown, 702°; Breesport, 7277; Brockway brick co., Fishkill, 688°; Buffalo, 723"; Canandaigua, 719"; Catskill, 7027; Coeymans Land- ing, 705°; Dillsboro (N. C.), 540”; Drowned lands, 732°–33%; East Wil- liston, 733"; Edgar (Fla.), 540°; Far- mingdale, 739°; Fishers island, 738”; Hornellsville, 726"; Newfield, 728°; Ogdensburg, 7.12%; Plattsburg, 710"; Rathenow, 570°; Rochester, 720°; Rondout, 699°; Southold, 737*; Ver- planck, 692°; Warner, 7167; Water- town, 711*; West Deerpark, 742'; West Neck, 7351; shale: 716°, 76.9°, 847, 899–901*; Chemung, 838, 839°, 840”; Hamilton, 833'; Medina, 8277; Niagara, 8287; Portage, 835°; Salina, 830°. Anchor brick co., 68.9%–90°. Angola, sewer pipe works, 769"; illus. facing p. 767–69, 774; shale, 831*; Portage shale, 835°–36°. Annandale, well record, 608". 927 928 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Arch brick, 645°, 677". Archaean rocks, 587°. . Arches, arrangement, 674"; number of bricks in, 674°; number of courses, 674°; labor required to tend, 677*. Arkansas, clay deposits, 612°. Arkison Bros., brick yard, 703". Arlington, brick yard, 701–2°; deposits, 7011–2°. Armstrong, W., brick yard, 714*. Arrochar, clay deposits, 607". Arthur's Kill, 609. Athens, terraces, 590%, 591*; brick yards, 704*; clay deposits, 704*. Auburn, brick yard, 718°. Auger machine, 663, 745°; illus. fac- ing p. 773. Aurora, depth of clay, 574°. clay Babcock, J., brick yard, 706". Baeby, J., brick yard, 708". Baker, I. O., crushing tests, 751–52°. Baldwin, Mrs, brick yard, 718". Baldwinsville, brick yards, 717°–18°; clay deposits, 717–18°. Ball clay, 6147, 793°. Ball mills, 657%–58%. Ballou, M., brick yard, 715". Baltimore, clays near, 51.1°. Barium, 683°. - Barnard college, illus. facing p. 763. Barrytown, clay deposits, 702°. Bartlett, W. E., brick yard, 703°. Basin-shaped deposits, 573*, 584". Bat, 8057. Bath brick, 8529–531. Beauport, terraces, 594". Bedford, feldspar, 842°; quarries, 843°. Belgian white earthenware, composi- tion, 796*. Belgium, glass-pot clays, 787°. Belleek ware, 798". Benches, working in, 631°–32°. Bender, M. H., brick yard, 706". Benkert, A., stoneware works, 823°. Bennett, C., brick yard, 718". Bennett, Rowan & Scott, brick yards, 694°. - Berrick, Charles & Sons, brick yard, 7235. Berthier, P., experiments, 517°–18°. Beryllium oxid in clays, 51.1°. Bibliography of clay literature, 908– 19 Bigflats, brick yard, 726–27. Binghamton, brick yards, 731°. Bischof, C., experiments on action of silica, 526°; on testing plasticity, : 543°: formula for relative fusibility of clays, 5527; method of determin- ing temperature, 558°. Biscuit burn, 814". Biscuit ware, 796", 816"; illus. facing D. * Bishop, I. P., test of Hamilton shale, 833%–34%. Blasting, 632°. Blistering of ferruginous clays, 517°. Blue clay, characteristics, 577°. Bohemia, glass-pot clays, 787°. Bolton, William, brick yard, 724". Bone China, 794°. Bonner & Cole, brick yard, 693%. Bonner brick co., 693°. Borck, F., brick yard, 718°. Bostwick, W. H., brick yard, 728°. Boulders, 577", 582°, 584%, 584*, 586°, 588%, 5924, 59.5°. Boyd dry clay presses, 665°; illus. fac- ing p. 665. Brazilian clays, 51.1°. Breesport, brick yards, 727°–28°; clay deposits, 576°, 727°–28°. Brennan, J., brick yard, 694°. Brick, time of burning, 676°; time of cooling, 676"; cost of production, 685%–86°; cracks in, 651*, 676°; crush- ing strength, 643", 647°–50', 695°; drying, 668°–72°; efflorescence on, 679°–85°; ground, used to prevent shrinkage, 548*; methods of manu- facturing, 653–56; repressing, 668", 745; sorting, 67.9°: weight, 528°. See also Building brick; Common brick; Cost; Enameled brick; Fire brick; Glazed brick; Hollow brick: Orna- mental brick; Paving brick; Pressed brick; Testing; Vitrified brick. Brick clays, alkalis in, 515", 569; alumina in, 569"; analyses, 638°–39°, 882–99; burning, 6399–42°, 672–79%; illus. facing p. 674–79: characteris- tics, 636–39°; color, 639°–427; fer- ric oxid in, 5.20%, 520°, 569"; lime in, 5237, 569, 636, 640°, 641*; magnesia in, 524°, 569, 640°; silica in, 525°; tensile strength, 545°: in Alabama, 61.1%–12%; Arkansas, 612"; Colorado, 613*; Delaware, 614"; Florida, 614", 615; Georgia, 615°; Kentucky, 617'; Douisiana, 618"; Michigan, 620; Mississippi, 620°; Missouri, 622°; Nebraska, 6237; North Carolina, 624%; Ohio, 625°; Pennsylvania, 62.5°; South Dakota, 626°; Texas, 626°; Virginia, 627°; Wyoming. 627". Brick yards, three kinds, 669°–70”; ownership, 685°; detailed account, 6869–743*. Brickbuilder, extracts from, 680'. Brickmaking industry, 643–757*. Brigham Bros., brick yard. 699°, 700*. Brighton, clay deposits, 575°. INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 929 Briquet method of testing plasticity, 542", 544°. Brockway brick co., 688", 697"; illus. facing p. 697. Brookfield brick co., 731°. Brooklyn, pottery works, 823°; illus. facing p. 793–94, 799, 800–1, 808, 816, 824. - Broome county, brick yards, 731°. Brophy, J., brick yard, 715". Brousseau, Theodore, brick yard, 700°. Brush & Schmidt, brick works, 650", 724°; illus. facing p. 662, 664, 665, 672, 724. Brush Bros., brick yard, 723°. Buckley & Carroll, brick yards, 694°. Buff brick, manufacture, in Massachu- setts, 620°. Buff clay deposits, analysis, 692°. Buffalo, clays, 523%, 574°, 7234–24”; brick yards, 723–24°. Buffalo star brick co., 722°–23*. Buhrstone mill, illus. facing p. 793. Building brick, clays for, 636°; tests, 648°–50°; side-cut, 664°; manufac- tured in New York state, 650°–537; properties, 854–57*. Building stone, resistance to fire, 759°; illus. facing p. 759. Burlington, clay deposits, 595°. Burned clay, 549%–50%. Burning, brick clays, 666*, 639°–42°, 672–79"; illus. facing p. 674–79; china, 811–14"; cost, 676°; drain tile, 770°: fire brick, 785°; illus. fac- ing p. 784, 786; modern methods, 495°; paving brick, 745"; illus. facing p. 745; sewer pipe, 768°; stoneware, 809°; sulfates arising during, 681*; terra cotta, 762°: time of, 676°; white earthenware, 811°–14°. C. C. ware, 793°. Cable haulage, 633", 686". Cairo, shale, 831°, 832°–34°, 841°. Calcareous clays, 731*; for common brick, 636°; burning, 642*. See also Iime in clay. Calciferous sandrock, 582°, 584*. Calcite, 506°–7*. See also Lime. Callanans Corners, terrace, 59.1°. Campbell, F. C., brick yard, 728–29°. Campbell brick co., Newfield, 650". Canandaigua, brick clays, 636°; brick yards, 650°, 719–20°; use of hy- draulic dry press machine at, 665°; clay deposits, 719–20°. Canastota, brick yard, .715". Capital pottery, Brooklyn, 823°. Carpenter Bros., stoneware clay bed, 8187–198. - Cars, haulage with, 633”. Cartersville, Salina shale, 829°. Carthage, brick yards, 710°–11*; clay deposits, 710°–11*. Carts, haulage with, 632°–33°. Cashaqua creek, clay deposits, 575°; shale, S34". Casting of pottery clay, 806°. Catskill, brick yards, 702°–3°; illus. facing p. 659; paving brick manu- facture, 756°; illus. facing p. 679; terrace, 578°, 591*; clays: 577°, 702°–3°; characteris- tics, 578°; stratification, 578*. Catskill creek delta, 577°. Catskill mountains, terrace, 590°. Catskill shale paving brick co., 832°. Cattaraugus county, brick yards, 725°. Cayuga county, brick yards, 718°; drain tile works, 772°. Cedar Pond brook, delta deposits, 583%, 588”. Celadon terra cotta co., 765°–66*, 838°, 838"; illus. facing p. 765. Cement, clays used in manufacture of, 699°, 7167; manufacture in Michi- gan, 620". See also Portland ce- ment. Center Island, brick yards, 734"; clay deposits, 597°, 602, 606*. Central New York drain tile and brick co, 771". Central New York pottery, 824°. Ceramics, see Pottery. Cerium oxid, 51.1°. Chamotte, used to prevent shrinkage, 5490–50°. Champlain valley, clays, 594"–95°; ter- races, 594"; illus. facing p. 592; stratification, 59.5°. Chaser mill, 803°. Chautauqua county clay deposits, 576"; brick yards, 724–25°; Chemung shale, 837*. Chemical pottery works, 823°. Chemical properties of clay, 5107–38". See also Analyses. Chemung county, brick yards, 726°– 289. Chemung shale, 725, 765°, 826", 831°, 836°–41*; analyses, 838, 839°, 840”; physical tests, 831°. Chicago, clays, 523°. China, value of output, 494"; iron- stone, 793°; burning, 8.11%–14"; dec- oration, 815°–17*; manufacturers, 913°–25*. See also Porcelain. China clays, in Alabama, 612"; in Mis- souri, 62.1°. Chittenango, drain tile works, 771°. Chittenango pottery co., 824°. Chlorite in clay, 524°. . 930 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Chromium, 51.1°, 56.7°. Chromium oxid, 777". e Chromolithographic decoration, 816°- 174. Cimolite, 505". Cistern brick, 645°. Clamp, 674*. Clarkson, brick yard, 722*. Classification of clays, 564–71". Clay, absorption, 515", 528–29", 546"; methods of analyzing, 530°–38'; burned, 549%–50%; chemical effects of heating, 561"–63”; chemical proper- ties, 5107–38"; classification, 564– 71"; clay substance, 49.7°, 510"; color, 515%, 515", 517", 510°, 52.17, 527–28°, 5659–71, 57.4%, 5777, 610°; crumpling, 593*, 597°, 6037, 606"; definition, 496°, 4974; formation, 500"; fusibility, 512, 550°–61°, 562°; impurities, 508°, 51.1°–28*; adaptable to different molding methods, 667°–68"; miner- alogy, 503–9°; origin and nature, 496–502°; physical properties, 510", 538–61*; plasticity, 496°, 504", 528°, 530, 539–44", 637°, 845°; porosity, 522°, 672°; preparation of, 655–607; properties, 510–63"; pure, 500*, 505°, 510, 51.1°, 511"; purification, 633°– 35°; refractoriness, 511", 526°, 5637; shrinkage, 522°, 529°, 530°, 545–50°, 636°–37, 637°, 639, 672s; method of counteracting shrinkage, 547°–50'; tensile strength, 54.1°, 544°–45", 637°; uses, 564°–65°, 636’—42°, 845–53°. See also Analyses; Brick clays; China. clays; Fire clays; Flint clays; Glass- pot clays; Kaolin; Paving brick clays; Pottery clays; Residual clays; Sedimentary clays; Slip clays; Stone- ware clays. Clay banks, ownership, 685°–86°. Clay conveyor, illus. facing p. 660, 761. Clay deposits, geologic distribution, 572?–6277; unstratified material found with, 592"; illus, facing p. 592; structure, 628–29°; sections of, table, 858–59. Clay dogs, 507*. Clay industry, statistics, 493*—94"; growth, 494'; adoption of modern methods of molding and burning, 495°; conduct of business, 685°–86°. Clay wares, testing, 854–57. Clay workers, directory, 913–25°. Clay working, 628–35°. Cleansing clay, 633°–35°. Clifton, clay deposits, 607°. Clinton county, brick yards, 709–10°. Clinton shale, 828°. Coal, used in burning calcareous clays, 6429. Coal dust in brick, 67.5%, 676°. Coats, William, brick yard, 712°. Cobalt oxid, 56.7°, 777". Cobbles, 582", 583*, 583°, 5929. Coe, S. E., brick yard, 714". Coeymans Landing, terrace, 591*; brick yards, 704"–6°; clay deposits, 588', 7049–6°. --- Cohoes, brick yards, 708"; posits, 708*. Coke, used to prevent shrinkage, 548", 550°. Coke oven brick, 785°. Coldspring, delta deposits, 588°; brick yard, 695°. Coldspring Harbor, stratification, 597°– 586*, 587°, clay de- 98°; clay deposits, 734"; illus. facing p. 735. g Collins, J. H., on kaolinization of feldspars, 498°. Collyrite in clay, 505°. Color, of clay, 515°, 515", 517", 519°, 521, 527–28°, 565–717, 57.4%, 577', 610%; of brick clay, 639°–427; of decorative tile, 777"; of fire clay, 782'; of paving brick, 7447; of pressed brick, 646*. Colorado, clay deposits, 572°, 612–14*. Columbia county, brick yards, 703°–4°; shale, 826°. Common brick, absorption, 643", 644; burning, 672", 673, 673"; crushing strength, 643"; different grades, 645°–47°; table of dirnensions, 643"; requisites, 643°; standard size, 643"; tests, 648"; value of output, 493°, 494°; manufacture: 645", 650°; clay used, 521°, 636"; in Colorado, 6137; con- tinuous kilns used, 679*; manufac- turers in New York state, 913%–25%; shale used, 495", 686°. See also Brick clays. Concretions, sand, 585°; 94%, 602, 604". Cones, Seger, 553°–58°. Conewango, clay deposits, 576*. Connecticut, clay deposits, 572°, 614*. Continuous kilns, 495", 678"–79°, 814"; illus. facing p. 679. Cook, G. H., on quartz in clay, 525"; on plasticity of clays, 539°. Cooney & Farrell, brick yard, 700°. Copenhagen biscuit ware, composition, 7969. * Copper oxid, 777". Cornell university, New York state veterinary college, illus. facing p. 719. . . l clay, 5939– INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 931 Corning, shales, 831, 839°–40°. Corning brick and terra cotta co., 650, 755%–56°, 763°, 764"; illus. fac- ing p. 764, 839. Cornwall (Eng.), kaolin mines, 498', 499°, 500*. Cornwall (N. Y.), terraces, 582°–83°, 590°; delta deposits, 588°, 589*. Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, clay deposits, 577*; brick yards, 696°. Cortland county, brick yards, 731*. Corwin & Cullough, brick yard, 7059– 68. Cost, of burning, 676"; double-coal bricks, 675°; dredging clay, 6907; enameled bricks, 651*; flue driers, 671"; ornamental brick, 646"; produc- tion of brick, 685%–86°; working clay, 631°. Covered yards, 669°, 670*. Coxsackie, terrace, 591*; clay concre- tions, 593–94; brick yard, 704°; clay deposits, 704*. Coykendall, S. D., brick yard, 699. Cracks in bricks, 651*, 676°. Cramer, E., cones, 554*; mixture in glass-pot clay, 787°. Crandall & Marble, brick yard, 731". Crazes, 797°; cause of, 651"; tendency to, 653". Cremiatschenski, P. A., on plasticity, 541*. Crescent, brick yard, 708"; clay de- posits, 708°. Cretaceous clay deposits, 572°, 596°, 602°, 605", 606", 608°, 609", 610°, 7884; illus. facing p. 608, 781, 819–20. Cretaceous plant impressions, illus. facing p. 611. Cripple creek mines, kaolinite, 500*. Cross-breaking tests of paving brick, 749°–50°. - Crossman Bros., brick yard, 735°. Croton, clay deposits, 577*; delta de- posits, 585", 589"; illus. facing p. 589. Croton brick co., 6.90%–91*. Croton landing, clay deposits, 585°, 689°; terrace, 591*; use of steam shovel, 632°; brick yards, 689*. Croton point, clay deposits, 585", 691*; clay concretions, 594"; dredging, 632°; brick yards, 69.1°. - Croton river, delta deposits, 588°; ter- races, 591*. Crucibles, 613°. Crugers, clay deposits, yards, 691–92°. Crumpled layers, 593", 597", 603', 606". Crushers, 656°; illus. facing p. 653, 656, 759, 765. . production of 585°; brick Crushing rolls, illus. facing p. 660. Crushing strength, of brick, 643", 647?– 50', 69.5%; of paving brick, 750°, 751– 52*; of clay wares, 855*. Cupola brick, manufacture, 788”. Cuylerville, depth of clay, 574°. Dana, J. D., on origin of Long Island sound, 607*. Daub, use of, 674°. Daubrée, A., on kaolin, 499°. Davenport, W., brick yard, 713°. Davidson, D., brick yard, 709°. Decoration, of tile, 777–80°; of pottery, 8147–174; illus. facing p. 805, 808. Deerfield, brick yard, 715°; clay de- posits, 715°. Delaney & Lavender, brick yard, 705°- 6°. Delaware, clay deposits, 614*. Delft ware, 797°. Delta deposits, 57.6°, 577, 581", 582", 583%, 588%–89%, 592. Demond, C.D., use of Bishof's method, 5584. Dennings Point, clay deposits, 586°. JDenton, J., & Son, brick yard, 731". Deposits, see Clay deposits; Delta deposits. Derbyshire brick co., 703". Devonian shale, 825". Diamond brick co., 694°. Diatoms, 594", 595°, 597°, 5977, 598°, 603°, 609"; illus. facing p. 600–1. Dietschler, H., & Son, brick yard, 723°. Dillsboro (N.C.), clay analysis, 539"— 407. Dinan & Butler, brick yard, 697". Dinas brick, 784*. Diorite, 584*. Directory of clay workers, 913–25°. Disintegrators, 656–57*. Dolan, John, clay bank, 709°. Dolgeville, brick yard, 713". Dolomite, 5087, 520', 524*. Donnelly & Son, brick yard, 693". Double-coal brick, 675*. Dove, W. G., brick yard, 718". Down-draft kiln, 673°, 674", 677°–78°, 745°, 814"; illus. facing p. 677–78, 745, 768, 784. Drain tile, value of output, 4937, 494"; characteristics of clay for, 770°; four kinds, 770°–71*; size, 771"; manufacture: 770°–72°; illus. facing p. 768; in Missouri, 622*; manufac- turers in New York state, 771°–72", 913%–25°; in Texas, 626°. Drainage, of clay bank, 630”; of brick yards, 669". Dredging clay, 632", 690". 932 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Drowned lands, clay deposits, 732", Encaustic tile, 774°; manufacture, 514°, 733°. Dry clay process, 664"–66"; illus. fac- ing p. 664–66; cost, 686°. Dry pan crushers, illus. facing p. 653, 656, 759, 765. Dry press machines, 495", 664"; illus. facing p. 666, 816. Dry pressed brick, see Pressed brick. Drying, bricks, 655°, 668–72°; drain tile, 770*; pottery clay, 806". Dufek, W. T., stoneware works, 823°. Dummler, C., on weight of sand, 549°; table of analyses, 566°. Dunkirk, brick yard, 724–25°; deposits, 574°, 724–25°. Dunn, Dolan & Co., brick yard, 734°. Dutchess county, brick yards, 696, 696%–98%, 7011–2%. Dutchess Junction, clay deposits, 577", 586*, 6969–97%; illus. facing p. 577; terrace, 586*; illus. facing p. 592; delta deposits, 5887; brick yards, 6969–972. clay Earthenware, description, 791*, clay used in manufacture, 521*; manu- facturers, 823°–24°, 913°–25°; value of output, 494". See also White earthenware. East Bethany, clay deposits, 771°–72°; drain tile works, 771°–72°. East Kingston, brick yards, 699°–700", illus. facing p. 700; clay deposits, 6998–700°. East Williston, brick yards, 733%–34%; clay deposits, 605°, 733%–34%. Eastern hydraulic pressed brick co., 650°. Eastern paving brick co., 756*; illus. facing p. 679. Eddyville, stratification, 57.9%–80°. Edgar (Fla.), clay analysis, 539°–40°. Edgarton, W. D., brick yard, 718°. Efflorescence on bricks, 67.9°–85*. Eggshell ware, 798. Eighteen Mile creek, Cashaqua shale, 834°. Electric supplies, 798°; manufacturers, 824', 824"; illus. facing p. 809,814–17. Elko mining and milling co., 848*. Elm Point, clay deposits, 596°; terra cotta clays, 761*; stoneware clays, 817–18°, 820°. Elmira, brick yard, 727*; clay depos- its, 57.6°. Emmons, Ebenezer, on boulders, 595°. Empire-brick-works, Horseheads, illus. facing p. 840. Empire china works, 823". Empire state brick co., 727°, 728°. Enameled brick, manufacture, 650–52". 775–76%; painting, 778°. Endaly kilns, 674". England, glass-pot clays, 787°; kaolins, 7938. - English ball clays, plasticity, 542*. Epsom salts, See Magnesium sulfate. Erie county, brick yards, 722°–24"; shale, 829°. Eskars, 575°. See also Kames. Estuary deposits, 57.6°, 592°. Eureka pressed brick co., 714". European clays, per cent of quartz in, 525"; glass pot clays, 787°. Evans, brick yard, 724". Excelsior brick co., 6937, 694*. Expansion tests of fire brick, 785°. Experiments on glazes, 653*. Exploring for clay, 629°–30°. Eye brick, 677". Fairport, Salina shale, 829°. Farmingdale, brick works, 738–42%; il- lus. facing p. 665, 678, 740; clay de- posits, 604", 738–42%; illus. facing p. 604. Feldspar, 497°, 5067, 514, 578°, 652°, 705’, 841°–44*; analyses, 498', 499°, 8427; effect on color of clays, 515°, 565°, 635°; aid to fusion, 512°, 563"; kaolinization, 498%–501*; lime in, 520'; mineralogic characters, 841*— 42°; occurrence, 793", 842°–43*; prep- aration, 843°; illus. facing p. 793; price, 843°–44*; properties, 534°; source of potash and soda, 513”; source of alkaline compounds, 514*; uses, 547", 843*; varieties, 497°. Felter & Mather, brick yard, 695°. Ferguson, Alexander, brick yard, 707". Ferric carbonate, see Siderite. Ferric oxid, see Iron oxid. Ferrier & Golden, brick yard, 703”; ring pit; illus. facing p. 659. Ferruginous sandstone, 605°. Ferruginous shale, 646°. Fickes, E. S., tests of common brick, 648°. Filling paper, 852'. Finnegan T., brick yard, 7059–6°. Finnimore, D. W., brick yard, 711”. Fire brick, 783–84*; analyses, 786; use as chamotte, 550°; expansion tests, 785"; specific gravity, 786"; value of output, 493, 494; manufacture: 784–86"; illus. facing p. 783–86; in Colorado, 613”; in Kan- sas, 617°; in Tennessee, 626°; manu- facturers in New York, 913°–25*. Fire clays, 568°, 781–90"; illus. facing p. 781; alkalis in, 515°; analyses, 536–37°, 7899–90", 866–77; ferric INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 933 oxid in, 520°; fluxes, 512'; lime in, 523'; magnesia im, 52.4%; Silica in, 525°; used for paving brick, 743"; in Alabama, 612*; Colorado, 613°; Delaware, 614*; Indiana, 615°; Kan- sas, 617°; Kentucky, 617*; Maryland, 619°; Missouri, 621*; New Jersey, 623°; New York, 788–90°; North Carolina, 623°, 624°; Ohio, 5364–37°, 625"; Pennsylvania, 625"; South Da- kota, 626"; Texas, 627*. Fire gases, effect on color, 6.41%, 641"– 42*. Fire sand in New Jersey, 623°. Fireproofing, bricks used for, 773°; forms, illus. facing p. 773; value of output, 493*, 494°. Fires, time of crossing, 675". Fishers island, clay deposits, 597°, 603°, 606°, 7377–38"; crumpled layers, 606; brick yards, 7377–38°. Fishers Island brick manufacturing co., 7377–38°. Fishkill, clay deposits, 577", 697–98°; illus. facing p. 697; terrace, 586°, 590"; illus. facing p. 586; brick yard, 688°, 6979–98°. IFishkill creek, delta deposits, 588°. Fitzgerald, J., sons, brick yard, 703". Flagler & Allen, brick yard, 701". Flange tile, 770°. Flashed brick, 646"; illus. facing p. 464. Elint, 506°; used to prevent shrinkage, 549*. Flint clay, 781"; in Kentucky, 617°; Maryland, 6.19%; Missouri, 62.1%;" Ohio, 624°. Floor driers, 671"–72°; illus. facing p. 672. Floor tile, 913%–25%. Florida, clay deposits, 61.4%–15%, 7.32%; brick yard, 732%; ball clays, 793°. Flower city pottery, 824°. Flower pots, manufacture, in Missouri, 622*; New York manufacturers, 9138–25*. Fluxes in clays, 51.1°–12°; purification, 635°. Fonda, brick yard, 713°. Food adulterants, 852". Fort Edward, pottery works, 824°. Fossils, 587°, 59.5°, 600–1, 602°, 602", 603°, 604", 605", 6093, 610". France, glass-pot clays, 787°. Free silica, 525°. Freshpond, clay deposits, 597°, 603°, 606°, 735–36°; crumpled layers, 6067; brick yards, 735°–36°; stratification, 7359. Frit, S10°. 774–76°; manufacturers, '605"; crumpled layers, 6067. Front brick, 639"; repressed, 668"; clays for, 639"; manufacture, 771°. Fuel, cost, 676°, 686". Fullers' earth, 848–51; analysis, 851; properties and uses, 848°–49°; in Florida, 614", 615°; New York, 849%–50°; South Dakota, 626°. Fulton county, brick yards, 714*. Fusibility of clay, 5124, 550°–61°, 562°; fire clays, 783; slip clay, 808“; feld- spar, 841*. - Fusion, temperature of, 506", 552°, 562°. Ganister, 784*. Gardeau shales, 834°–35°. Garden City brick co., 740°–41*; illus. facing p. 604, 665, 678, 740. Gardiner's island, clay deposits, 603°, Gardonas, N., brick yard, 708°. Garnet, 516°, 5207, 578°, 7057; source of alkaline compounds, 514*. Garrett, H. L., brick yard, 713°. Gas retorts, manufacture, 788°. Gay, Robert, brick yard, 722. Geddes, paving brick manufacture, 7563—570. . Genesee county, drain tile works, 771°– 72°; shale, 829°. Genesee river, clay deposits, 57.3%; Me- dina shale, 826°–27"; Cashaqua shale, 834°; Chemung shale, 836°–37*. Geneva, brick yards, 718°. Geologic distribution of clays, 572– 627. º clay deposits, 615°; kaolins, 938. Gerlach, O., on efflorescence, 680–81, 682°–S3*. German brick and tile co., 720°. Germany, glass-pot clays, 787°. Gilette, Mrs C. S., brick yard, 718. Gilliland & Day, brick yard, 710°. Glacial action, at Long Island, 606"; at Staten Island, 607*. Glacial deposits, 575", 576°, 5847, 591", 604", 609", 6204. Glacial scratches, 577", 579°, 5824, 58.4% 5SS”. Glaciated boulder, illus. facing p. 582. Glasco, terrace, 579*; brick yards, 700"—17; clay deposits, 700°–17. Glass-pot clay, 618°, 786–879. Glass pots, manufacture, 5445. Glazed brick, 650°, 652*. Glazed tile, 777°, 7798. Glazes, calcareous clays used in manu- facture, 521°; use of Hudson valley clays for, 689°; pottery, 7069–977. Glazing, brick, 652*; terra cotta, 7624; sewer pipe, 767"; stoneware, S06%–9%; 934 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM white earthenware and porcelain, Hammond, William, brick yard, 735"; 809–11°, 813°–14*. Glencove, clay deposits, 596°, 605°; crumpled layers, 606"; stoneware clays, 817", 818–20°, 820". Glens Falls, tests of brick, 647". Glens Falls brick and terra cotta Co., 650°, 760°–61°, 763°, 764". Glost kiln, 814"; illus. facing p. 807. Gloversville, brick yard, 714*. Gneiss, 582°, 583, 584, 584*, 585*, 586', 586*. Gold work, 816*. Goldrick, Philip, brick yard, 694°. Goodwin & Delamater, brick yard, 7187. Goshen, brick yard, 731°. - Gouverneur, brick yards, 710°; clay deposits, 710°; stratification, 710". Graham chemical stoneware works, 823"; illus, facing p. 800–1, 824. Granite, 5834, 584*, 584*, 585*, 586*. Graniteware, 793°. Graphite, used to prevent shrinkage, 548, 550°. Grassy Point, clay deposits, 583°. Gravity planes, 633°. Greatneck, clay deposits, 596°, 605°; stoneware clays, 817°. Grecian magnesite, 785*. Green Point porcelain works, 823°. Greenbush, See Rensselaer. Greene county, brick yards, 702°–3°, 704°; shale, 832°–34°. Greenport, clay deposits, 604, 736°; brick yard, 7.36°. Greenridge, clay deposits, 607", 609°, 609"; brick yard, 742". Griggs, C. G. & Co., brick yard, 698°. Grimes, H. C., brick yard, 714*. Grogs, used to prevent shrinkage, 548"; purification, 635°. Gumbo clay, in Missouri, 6227. Gypsum in clay, 507", 520', 522°–23°. Haake, F., brick yard, 723°. Hacking, 6697. - Half Moon, brick yard, 708°. Hall, Horace, brick yard, 731°. Hall, James, on Chemung shale, 836°– 37*; on clay deposits in N. Y., 574"; on Gardeau shales, 834°–35°; on di- visions of Hamilton shale, 832*; on impressions in clay, 594"; on Niag- ara shale, 828°; 8294–30°. Halle, Germany, kaolin, 499°. Halloysite, 505", 505°. Hamilton shale, 831°–34°: tests, 831*; analysis, 833". physical on Salina shale, illus. faging p. 735. Hand-picking, 634", 635°. Hand-power dry-press machine, illus. facing p. 665. Harris & Gimley, brick yard, 697°. Harvey, John, brick yard, 718°. Haulage, machines used, 654"; cable, 6337, 6867; with cars, 633°; with carts, 632°–33°; with gravity planes, 633°; with locomotive, 633°; Steam, 6867. Haverstraw, tests of brick, 648*, 695*; brick yards, 693–94"; clay concre- tions, 5937; clay deposits, 577°, 584°; illus. facing p. 693; delta deposits, 588', 589"; dredging, 632°; terraces, 583%, 590". Hayne, P., brick yard, 731°. Hecht, H., on cones, 554*; on glazes, 653, 7.96%–977; investigations on com- position of porcelains and white earthenware, 795–977. Hedges, C. A. & A. P., brick yard, 696°. Hematite, 516". Hempstead harbor, clay deposits, 596*. Herkimer county, brick yards, 713", 7 147. Hilfinger Bros. pottery works, 824°. Hill, R. T., on uses of clays, 5647–65°. Hilton, William, brick yard, 724–25°. Hofman, H.O., use of Bischof's method, 558*; experiments on refractoriness of clay, 5637; experiments on fusibil- ity of clay, 782°. Hog neck, clay deposits, 603°. Hollick, Arthur, fossils found by, 602”; identification of fossils, 602*; on glacial origin of Long Island hills, 606"; on origin of Long Island sound, 607*; on plant remains, 609", 6107. Hollow brick, 773"; manufacture, 76.9°; illus. facing p. 767, 769, 773–74; manufacturers, 913%–25°. Homer, brick yard, 7314. Hoosick Falls, brick yard, 709"; clay deposits, 709". Hornblende, in clay, 509°, 516°, 520', 524°; source of alkaline compounds, 514°. - - Hornellsville, brick yards, 7257–26"; paving brick manufacture, 756"; il- lus, facing p. 756; shale, 831°, 839*. Hornellsville brick and tile co., 7257. Horseheads, Chemung shale, 840°–41*. Horseheads brick co., 727*; illus. fac- ing p. 653, 679, 727. Horseheads, Empire brick works, il- lus. facing p. 840. Horseshoe tile, 770°, 771°. INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 935 Hudson, clay deposits, 588', 703"; brick Kames, 584', 591". See also Eskars. yards, 703°. Hudson river brick co., 692". JHudson river shale, 578°, 826°. Hudson valley, terraces, 578°–91", 629°; illus, facing p. 592; depth of pre- glacial channel, 581*; probable ge- ologic history, 584", 591"; delta de- posits, 588°; brick yards, 689°–709°; clays: 523", 57.6°; stratification, 577°; illus. facing p. 577; underlying material, 577°–78°; illus. facing p. 578; recent borings, 588°; physical character, 6877; uses, 689*. Hunter, Alfred, brick yard, 707*. Hussey mountain, terrace, 590°. Hutton, W., brick yard, 699°, 700°. Hyatt, C., brick yard, 692–93. Hydraulic dry press machine, 665°. Ilion, brick yard, 7147; clay deposits, 71.47. Impurities of clay, 508°, 51.1°–28°; test- ing for, S56°. - Indian bay, brick yard, 710°. Indian creek, delta deposits, 588°. Indiana, clay deposits, 615–16°. Indiandite, 50.5°. Iron, in clay, 5124, 56.6°, 5697; in brick clay, 636", 640°; separation from clay, 634°–35°; sulfates of, 680°. Iron carbonate, S66 Siderite. Iron oxid, in clay, 50.8%, 508°, 51.1°, 512", 515%–20%, 565", 569, 639", S61*; in feldspar, 635°; in decorative tile, 777". See also Analyses. Ironstone china, 793°. Ithaca, clay deposits, 576". Ivory creek valley, 584". Jamestown, brick yards, 725°; strati- fication, 725*: shale, 831*, S37°. Jamestown shale paving brick 756", 837°; illus. facing p. 663, 757, 837. Japanese porcelain, composition, 7.06%. Jefferson county, brick yards, 710°– 114, 711. Jewettville, brick yards, 650°, 724°: il- lus. facing p. 662, 664, 665, 672, 724; Hamilton shale, 833°. Jigging, 805°–6*. Jollying, 805'-6". Jones, C. C., on Hudson river clays, 5SS3. Jones, Gomer, method for testing the resistance of paving brick to abra- sion, 7.52%–547. Jones, O., brick yard, 7347. Jonespoint, clay deposits, 583°; ter- race, 589*. Jova, J. J., brick yard, 698°. CO., 677, ISansas, clay deposits, 617*. Kaolin, alkalis in, 515°; analyses, 610°, 862–65; composition, 5.10%, 512", 534°; structure of deposits, 628°; ferric oxid in, 5.19%, 520°, 793"; impurities, 5107; lime in, 523°; magnesia in, 524"; mica in, 503°, 535°; origin of name, 497"; pure, 497°, 510°; silica in, 525"; tensile strength, 545°; use of term, 4974; washing, 504', 800°–3°; Water in, 530°; in Arkansas, 612°; Delaware, 614*; Tlorida, 614"; Georgia, 615°; Indiana, 615°; Long Island, 596°; Maryland, 619°: Massachusetts, 620°; Missouri, 621*; North Carolina, 623°, 624"; Pennsylvania, 6257; Staten Island, 6077, 609°; Virginia, 627°. Kaolinite, 4977–501", 503°–4°, 510°, 525°; formation, 4977; properties, 534°; use of term, 49.7°; in Missouri, 621*; New Jersey, 623°. Kennedy, F. H., brick yard, 715". Kentucky, clay deposits, 617°–18°; flint clays, 7817; ball clays, 793°. Feramics, see Pottery. Rilns, building, 674°; continuous, 495", 678–79', S14": cooling, 6767; down- draft, 673", 674, 6779–78%, 745°, 8.14%; for enameled brick, 652°; for paving brick, 7457; scove kiln, 674°, 6744– 77°, 680"; for stoneware, 809"; types, 49.5%. 655%, 673", 6774–794, S14%; for white earthenware and china, 814*. King & Lynch, brick yard, 692°. Kinkel, P. H., & Son, feldspar quarry, S429. Kirkover, L., brick yard, 723°. Kline, J., brick yard, 699°. Kneading machines, 804°. Kreischer, B. Sons, brick industry, 650"; illus. facing p. 782–86; terra cotta factory, 763°, 764"; illus. fac- ing p. 763–64; fire brick factory, 788°, 788°: illus, facing p. 784–86. I reischerville, clay deposits, 6077–9°; illus, facing p. 608, 781: brick yard, 650", 7.43°: terra cotta, manufacture, 763°, 764'; stoneware clays, 817°, S200. Kyser, A. C., brick yard, 713". t Tahey Bros., brick yard, 697". Lancaster, brick yards, 722°–23°: clay donosits, 722°–23°; stratification, 7233. Tancaster brick co., 722°, 723°. Iansingburg, brick yard, 708“; clay de- posits, 708°. La Salle, clay deposits, 574'; brick yard, 722°. 936 |NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Leaves, in clay beds, 576°, 594", 605°, 610"; illus. facing p. 611, 820; in sandstone, 596°, 605°. Le Chatelier's thermoelectric pyrom- eter, 560–61”. Lefever Falls, stratification, 580°. Lemberg, J., on kaolinization of feld- spars, 498°. Leroy, shale, 831*. Lester, A., brick yard, 718°, 772°. Levant, clay deposits, 576*. Lewis county, shale, 826°. Lewiston, clay deposits, beds, 827–28*. Lignite, in clay, 596', 609°. Lignitic shales, in Louisiana, 619°. Lime, in clay, 5069–7, 51.1°, 512%, 520°– 23°, 547°, 565°, 568, 5697, 652°, 861*; in brick clay, 5237, 569, 636', 640°, 641*; separation from clay, 634°, 728°; sulfates of, 680°. See also Analyses. Limestone, 520', 582, 584, 587%; peb- bles, 573", 585°, 722°, 723°. Limonite, 516, 585*, 603°. Iron oxid. Linden, clay deposits, 574°. Lithia, 512°. Lithium, 51.1°. Littlefield, C. H., brick yard, 701*. Little neck, stoneware clay, 602°, 817°, 820"; illus. facing p. 819–20; clay de- posits, 605". Lloyd’s neck, sponge spicules, 599°. Loams in Alabama, 61.1°. Locke, F., manufacturer of electric supplies, 824°. Lockport, shale, 828". Lockport brick co., 722*. Lockville, shale, 829". Locomotive, haulage with, 633°. Locomotive blocks, 613°. Locy Bros., brick yard, 727°, 728%. Loess, per cent of quartz in, 525"; in Colorado, 61.3%; in Kansas, 617*; in Vissouri, 622°. Long Island, glacial origin, 606"; cost of producing brick, 6857; brick yards, 733%–42%. Long Island brick co., 7.36°. Long Island City, pottery works, 823°. Long Island clays, 495", 572°, 57.3°, 595%–607", 629°, 823"; probable geol- ogic history, 605"; stoneware clays, 817°–22"; terra cotta clays, 76.1°. Long Island sound, preglacial origin, 6071. * º Longbottom, G., brick yard, 735°. Jouisiana, clay deposits, 618"–19°. Low point, terrace, 586°; delta depos- its, 5887; brick yard, 697". 575°; shale See also Lowe, J. R., clay bank, 726°–27*. Lyons, brick yard, 718°. Lyons pottery co., 824°. Lyth, John, & Sons, sewer pipe works, 769°, 835°; illus, facing p. 767–69, 774. McCabe Bros., brick yard, 742°. McCarthy, T., brick yard, 706°. |McConnellsville, fullers’ earth, 849°– 503. McDuffie, H., brick yard, 714*. Machines, 495°; used in manufacture of brick, 654"–55", 689°; used in manufacture of pottery, 804". McLean, Alexander, brick yard, 7028–31. Madison county, brick yards, 715°, 731°; drain tile works, 77.1°. Madrid, brick yard, 712"; clay depos- its, 575°, 712°. g Magnesia in clay, 51.1°, 523°–24°, 565°, 861°; in brick clays, 524°, 569, 640°. See also Analyses. Magnesite, 508", 512°. Magnesite bricks, 784, 785". Magnesium, 512°. Magnesium sulfate, 524", 680°. Magnetite, 509*. Magnets, use of, 635°. Maine, R., & Co., brick yard, 699°, 700°. Maine, clay deposits, 619". Majolica, 7984, 815°. Malden, clay deposits, brick yard, 700°. 578°, 700°; |Malkey, R., brick yard, 694°. Manchester, D. S., brick yard, 699°. Manganese, 512°, 639". Manganese brick, 646°. Manganese oxid, 51.1°, 512°, 567°, 777". Maplewood, brick yard, 722*. Marcellus shale, 830°–31*. Markets, for bricks, 687°. Marl, 507", 5087, 640°. Maryland, clay deposits, 619". Massachusetts, clay deposits, 620°. Mastodon bones, 583*. Mather, W. W., on leaves in clay beds, 594°. Meade, J. V., brick yard, 697°; clay bank, illus. facing p. 592. Mechanical analysis of clays, 561°–63°. Mechanicville brick co., 708°. Mecusker, M. J., & Son, brick yard, 7.253. Medina shales, 825°, 826°–28*. Merrick, C. H., brick yard, 715". Merrill, F. J. H., on clay near Far- mingdale, 605"; on clay at Gar- diner's island, 603*; on delta depos- its of Hudson river tributaries, 588–89"; on geologic history of Hud- INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 937 son valley, 591–93°; geology of Long | Muhlheim clay, 544*. Island, 596*; glacial origin of Long | Murder creek, terrace, 591°. Island hills, 606"; on origin of Long Island sound, 607*; on plant remains in clay, 597*; on terraces, 579°; on occurrence of white fire clay, 597". Merrill, G. P., definition of clay, 496*. Meyers, M., brick yard, 738–40°. Mica, 503*, 5077–8°, 512°, 5134, 514", 516°, 52.4%, 549°; source of alkaline compounds, 514°; a clay substance, 534°–35°. Michigan, clay deposits, 620°. Micro-organisms from clays, 598–601; illus. facing p. 600–1. Middle Granville, brick yards, 709"; clay deposits, 7097. Milwaukee brick, 636°. Mineral paint, 848°. Mineralogy of clays, 503–9°. Mining clay, methods, 631°–33°, 654*. Minisceongo creek, delta 588°; clay deposits, 693°; yards, 694°. Mississippi, clay deposits, 620'. Missouri, clay deposits, 621–227; brick clays, 638°; flint clays, 781"; glass- pot clays, 787°; ball clays, 793°. Mohawk valley, clay deposits, 576". Molding, 661°–68"; illus. facing p. 661– 66; modern methods, 495°; machines used, 655", 665"; electrical supplies, illus. facing p. 816; fire brick, 784'; hollow brick, illus. facing p. 773; pottery clays, 799°, 804°–6°; roofing tile, illus. facing p. 765; Stoneware, illus. facing p. 800–1; terra cotta, illus. facing p. 762–64. Molding sand, 670°. Moriroe county, brick yards, 720°–22°; shale, 828°. Montauk point, clay deposits, 606*. Montgomery county, brick yards, 713°, 714; shale, 826°. Montmorillonite, 505°. Montrose, clay deposits, 585"; brick yards, 691–92°. Moodna river, delta deposits, 581", 582°, 696°. Moore, J. C., brick yard, 706". Morley, C. A., brick yard, 725°. Morrisania, pottery works, 823°. Morrisey, T. F., brick yard, 708". Morton, J., brick yard, 692–93. Mosher Bros., brick yard, 696. Mosquito inlet, clay deposits, 596°. Mottled brick, 646°, 650°. Mt Marion, clay deposits, 578°. Mt Morris, depth of clay, 574°. Muffle kiln, 814*. Muffles, 613°. brick deposits, - Murray, J. E., brick yard, 708". Muscovite, 513*, 514". Nebraska, clay deposits, 623°. New Hamburg, terrace, 581*; deposits, 588°. New Jersey clays, 572°, 622"–23", 823"; titanium in, 526°; plasticity, 542°; continued on Staten Island, 608"; fire clays, 788°; ball clays, 793°. New Paltz, clay deposits, 732*. New Paltz brick co., 732°. New Windsor, clay deposits, 577, 5817, 696°; illus. facing p. 582; delta de- posits, 588', 589*; brick yards, 696°. New York Anderson pressed brick co., 743°. New York architectural terra cotta, co., 650°, 760°, 76.1°, 763°, 764; illus. facing p. 759, 761–63. New York city, depression of land, 591*; pottery manufacturers, 823°. New York fullers’ earth co., 8497. Ney, York hydraulic brick co., 719"— 20*. New York paving brick co., 756°–57°; illus. facing p. 757. New York state, occurrence of clay, 572°–611*; sedimentary origin of clay, 629°. New York state drain tile works, 771*. New York state veterinary college, il- lus, facing p. 719. Newbrand, Joseph, 8233. Newburgh, clay deposits, 5817; delta deposits, 588”. Newell, J. L., use of Bischof's method, 55S7. Newfield, clay deposits, 576°, 7284–31*; tests of brick, 648*; brick works, 650, 728–31°; illus. facing p. 656, 668; paving brick manufacture, 756°. Newton Bros., brick yard, 708". Newtonite, 505°. Niagara county, clay deposits, 575"; brick yards, 722°. Niagara Falls, clay deposits, 5747. Niagara shale, 828–29, 829°. Nickel oxid, 777". Noble, F. W., brick yard, 7042. Nolan, T., brick yard, 715". Norite, 583°. Norman tile, 646"; illus. facing p. 463. North Carolina, kaolin, 500°, 793; clays: 623–24"; per cent of quartz in, 525°; tests, 5417; brick clay, 638°. North Dakota, clay deposits, 6247. Northport, diatoms, 603*; stoneware clay, 820–22°. - delta. pottery works, 938 NIEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Northport bay, stoneware clay, 602*; illus. facing p. 819–20. Northport clay and fire sand co., 820°– 22°; illus. facing p. 820. Northrup, E. B., clay pit, 724°. Northrup, J. I., on rhizomorphs, 593°. Oakland valley, brick yards, 732°; clay deposits, 732°. Ocher, 598*, 848°. Ogden brick co., 731°. Ogdensburg, clay deposits, 575°, 711"– 12"; brick yards, 711"–12”. Ohio, clay deposits, 624°-25"; fire clay, 536–37°; flint clays, 781"; glass-pot clays, 787°. Oldfield Bros., brick yard, 693°. Olschewsky, W., on plasticity, 540°- 41*; on per cent of water in clays, 543°. Oneida county, brick yards, 713°, 714– 15°; shale, 826°. Oneonta, brick yards, 731". Onondaga county, brick yards, 715"— 1S*. Onondaga pottery co., 823"; illus. fac- ing p. 792, 795–97, 802, 804–7. Onondaga vitrified pressed brick co., 715°–17°, S30”; illus. facing p. 663, 671, 67S, 715, 744, 773, 830. Ontario county, brick yards, 719"—20°; drain tile works, 771°; shale, 829°. Open yards, 669*. Orange county, brick yards, 6964, 698°, 7319–32°, 7329–33°. Ore-balls, 782". Organic matter in clay, 509', 51.1°, 527"— 28", 860°. See also Analyses. Orleans county, brick yards, 722*. Ornamental brick, 646"; value of out- put, 4937, 494"; manufacturers, 913°– 254. Orton, Edward, jr., cones for sale by, 554"; rattling tests on paving brick, 7.51°. Oswego Falls, brick yard, 718°; clay deposits, 718°. Oswego valley, clay deposits, 575°. Otis & Gorsline, sewer pipe works, 769°. Otsego county, brick yards, 731". Ouimet, J., brick yard, 709"; illus. fac- ing p. 661, 674. Overbaugh, D. C., brick yard, 701*. Owasco, brick yard, 718°; drain tile || Works, 772°. Ownership, of brick yards, 685"; clay banks, 685°–86°. Oyster bay, clay deposits, 597°, 734°; brick yard, 734°. Paige Bros., brick yard, 711°–12°. Paint, 848%. - Of Painting, see Decoration. Pale bricks, 676°, 677*. |Paleozoic fossils, See Fossils. Pallet driers, 670°; illus. facing p. 669. Pallet-squarer, 670°. Pallet yards, 669°; illus. facing p. 670. Pan crushers, 656"; illus. facing p. 653, 656, 759, 765. Paper clay, 852*. IParian ware, 7987. - Parker M., brick yard, 722°. Parry, W. W., brick yard, 647°, 715. Pass & Seymour, pottery works, 824%; illus. facing p. 791, 809, 814–15, 817. Paving brick, 673", 743°–77°; cities us- ing, 743"; end-cut, 664°; total num- ber produced in 1897, 743°; re- pressed, 668"; tests, 729–30°, 7.45%–50%, 854*; value of output, 493, 494; wearing power, 750°–55°; manufacture: 745°; illus. facing p. 744–45; shales used, 502°; auger ma- chine used, 664°; continuous kilns used, 67.9°; in Arkansas, 612'; Colorado, 613°; Ransas, 617°; Louisiana, 619"; Mary- land, 619°; Michigan, 6207; Missouri, 622'; New York industry, 755–57°, 913°–25*. Paving brick clay, fluxes in, 512"; composition, 743°–45°; analysis, 900°–39. Pebbles, 57.3", 578, 582°, 585*, 587%, 592", 596°, 705, 722°, 723°, 728°; separa- tion from clay, 634°. Peck, B. F., drain tile and brick manu- facture, 771°–72°. Pecomic bay, clay deposits, 603°. Reekskill (stream), delta deposits, 588°; illus. facing p. 588. Peekskill (town), terrace, 585°–86°, 590"; brick yard, 693%. Pegmatite, 584*. Penfield, M.A., fullers’ earth mine, 850°. Penn Yan, Cashaqua shale, 834". Pennock, J. D., experiments on refrac- tory brick, 785–86°. Pennsylvania clays, 62.5°; titanium in, 526"; flint clays, 781"; glass-pot clays, 787°. - Pepper, J. H., brick yard, 7097. Permeability of clay wares, 854*–55°. Phosphoric acid, 51.1°, 860”. See also Analyses. Physical properties of clay, 510", 538– 61°. * Piffard, depth of clay, 574°. Ripe clay, in New Jersey, 623”; analy- sis, 904°–7*. Pipe tile, 770°. Plant impressions, illus. facing p. 611. INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 939 Plasticity, of clays, 496°, 504", 528°, 530, 539–44", 637°, 845°; of paving brick, 744*; of glass-pot clays, 786°; of stoneware clays, 791°–92); of shales, 825°. Platting, 674". Plattsburg, clay deposits, 595°, 709°– 10*; brick yards, 709°–10*; illus, fac- ing p. 661, 674. Plows, use of, 631°. Plunger machine, 663°; illus. facing p. 664–65. & Pocantico river, delta deposits, 588°. Polishing and abrasive materials, 852"– 53*. Pompeian brick, 646°. Porcelain, 794–98°; analysis, 794, 796"; and white earthenware, comparative composition, 796; decoration, 814– 17*; illus. facing p. 805, 80S ; glaz- ing, 809–11*; manufacture, 514"; il- lus. facing p. 791–92, 794–99, 802, 804; manufacturers, 823"; value of output, 494; vitrification, 796°. Porcelain clays, 568°; rational analy- sis, 538°. Porosity, of clay, 522°, 672°; of clay wares, 854°–55°. Port Ewen, clay deposits, 57.7°, 579°, 699"; terraces, 590°; brick yards, 699*. Port Rent, terraces, 594". Port Washington, sands and gravels, 607"; illus. facing p. 596. Portage shale, 769°, 826'; physical tests, 831*; distribution, 834"–36°; analysis, 835°. Porter, I. R., brick yard, Athens, 704°. Porter, J., brick yard, Glasco, 701*. Portland cement, 845"—47°; clays and shales used in manufacture of, 689°, 847. - Post, W. & J., brick yards, 733"-34°. Potash, 51.1°, 512°, 5127, 512", 513", 515°. Potsdam, brick yards, 711*; clay de- posits, 711°. Potters’ clay, in Kentucky, 618°; in New Jersey, 623°; in South Dakota, 626". . Pottery, 791–824"; decoration, 814– 174; different grades, 791°–98°; glazes, 689", 810–11*; manufacture, 620°, 798"–814"; illus. facing p. 791– 808; manufacturers, 823–24°; value of output, 493", 494°. Pottery clays, 799–806"; alkalis in, 515°; analysis, 878"–81*; lime in, 5237; magnesia in, 524°; silica in, 525°; tensile strength, 545°; in Colorado, 613"; Kentucky, 617°; Maryland, 619°; Mississippi, 620°; North Carolina, 624°. Poutre, M., brick yard, 707*. Preparation of clay, 655–607; machines used, 654'; pottery clays, 799, 799%– S03*. Prepleistocene clays, 606°. Pressed brick, 645–46%; burning, 666"; repressed, 668"; illus. facing p. 463– 64, 668; sorting, 679"; manufacture: clays used, 52.1°, 639*; use of shale, 827*; in Colorado, 613°; Indiana, 616"; Louisiana, 6.19%; value of output in New York, 493%, 494*; New York manufacturers, 650°, 913%–25%. Preston brick co., 756"; illus. facing p. 756. Preston Bros., brick yard, 7157. Printed ware, S158–164. Prospecting for clay, 629°–30°. Puddle, 853*. Pug mills, 660°, 804°; illus. facing p. 660, 663, 761, 782. Purification of clay, 633°–35°. Putnam county, brick yards, 695°. Pyramids, see Seger cones. Pyrite, 508, 516°, 604", 646, 680"; sep- aration from clay, 634°. Pyrometer, 5.53%, 560–61°. Pyrophyllite, 505°. Pyroxene, source of alkaline pounds, 514°. COOOl- Quartz, 506°, 525, 526°, 565°, 5781, 596°, 652°, 705°, 793*, 841%–44%; aid to fu- sion, 563"; mineralogic characters, 841°–42°; preparation, 843°; illus. facing p. 793; price, 843°–44°; prop- erties, 534°; uses, 547°, 5487, 843°. See also Silica. Quartzite, 584*. Quassaic creek, delta deposits, 5817, 5SS9. Quaternary clay deposits, 572%, 573°. Queens county, brick yards, 733%–34%. Railroads, use of clay in construc- tion, 853°. Randolph, clay deposits, 576"; brick yard, 725"; shale, 848*. Tathenow, analysis of clay from, 570°. Rational analysis, 533°–387. Rattlers, 746°, 752°. Rattling tests on paving brick, 751*. Ravena, quaternary plain, illus. facing p. 591. * Ravenswood, New York architectural terra cotta, co., 763°, 764*. Raymondville, brick yard, 712"; clay deposits, 712' 940 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Rectorite, 505*. Refractoriness of clay, 51.1°, 52.6°, 563"; of fire clays, 563, 781°, 782–83°; of glass-pot clays, 786°; of stoneware clays, 792”. Refractoriness of shale, 841*. Refractory clay products, 639°, 783– 84*. Remole, clays, 517°. Rensselaer, brick yard, 707*; clay de- posits, 707*. Rensselaer county, brick yards, 707*, 708°, 709". Repressed power brick, illus. facing p. 464. Repressing bricks, 668°, 745"; illus. fac- ing p. 668, 784. Residual clays, 501*, 501"; occurrence, 572–73°; structure, 628; analysis, 860°–618. Rhinebeck, stratification, 587*. Rhizomorphs, 593°. - Ries, Heinrich, on terrace altitudes, 590°. Reisterer, Martin, brick yard, 7227. Rigney, Mrs T., brick yard, 707". Riley & Clark, brick yards, 694°. Riley & Rose, brick yard, 694°. Bing pits, 659–60"; illus. facing p. 659. , on color of hard-burned Road materials, clay or shale used for, 8532. Roberts, J. B., brick yard, 707°. Robitzels's Sons pottery works, 823°. Rochester, brick yards, 720°–21"; clay deposits, 720°–21"; pottery works, 824°; sewer pipe manufacture, 769°; shale, S28°; stratification, 720°. Rochester brick and tile co., 720°–21°; illus. facing p. 652, 660, 669, 679, 720, 773. Rock face brick, 647"; illus. facing p. 463. Rockingham ware, 793, 814°. Rockland county, brick yards, 6934– 95°; illus. facing p. 693. Rockwell, G. A., use of Bischof's method, 558". Roman tile, 646"; illus. facing p. 463. Rome, clay deposits, 5767, 714–15°; brick yards, 714–15°. Rondout, clay deposits, 699°; terrace, 5791. Rondout creek delta, 577°. Rönne, Denmark, kaolins, 498°. Roofing tile, manufacture, 765–66", 8377; illus. facing p. 765; properties, 854°–55°; manufacturers, 913°–25°. Roots, separation from clay, 634°. Rose & Co., brick yard, 688°, 698°; illus. facing p. 658, 698. Rose, A., & Co., brick yard, 701*. Rose, H. R., brick yard, 702'. Rosendale, stratification, 580°. Rosendale plains, stratification, 580°. Roseton, clay deposits, 581*, 698°; delta deposits, 589°; brick yards, 688°, 698°; illus. facing p. 658, 698. Roseville, terra cotta clays, 759°-60°. Rough hard bricks, 678°. Russia, glass-pot clays, 787°. Rutile, 509°. Ryan, T., terra cotta clays, 759°-60°. Ryder, William, brick yard, 704". Sag Harbor, clay deposits, 603°. Saggers, 652*, 8.11%–12%. St Johnsville, brick yard, 713; clay deposits, 713"; stratification, 713°. St Lawrence county, clay deposits, 575"; brick yards, 710°, 711°, 711"– 129. St Louis fire clays, per cent of quartz in, 525*. Salina shale, 8257, 829°–30°; illus. fac- ing p. 830. Salmon brick, 645°, 677°. Salt group, 829–30°. Saltpeter, 680'. Salts, 5124; in brick clay, 639°, 640°, 680°; determination of, 856°. Sammis, R., brick yard, 736*. Sand, 525", 592"; used to prevent shrinkage, 548*, 548–49"; in estuar- ies, 592%; importance to clay in- dustry, 629"; in brick clay, 637°. Sandford, C. L., brick yard, 736'. Sandrock, 582°, 584*. Sandstone, 582°, 584, 584*, 587, 596", 5974, 6058. Saratoga, brick yards, 7094; clay de- posits, 709. Saratoga county, brick yards, 708". Sawdust, used to prevent shrinkage, 5509. Sawmill river, delta deposits, 588”. Schenectady, clay deposits, 576"; terrace, 591"; depression of land, 5918. Schenectady county, shale, 826°. Schist, 5834, 584*, 585%, 586*. Schmidt, G. W., brick yard, 723°. Schodack terraces, 590°. Schrötterite, 505°. Schultz, C. A., brick yard, 699°, 700°. Schusler & Co., brick yard, 723°. Scorifiers, 613°. Scotland, glass-pot clays, 787°. Scove-kiln, 674°, 674–77°, 689"; illus. facing p. 674. Screens, 660–61°, 80.1°–2°. INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YORK 941 Sedimentary clays, 501", 501"–2°; oc- Smith, E., brick yard, 706". currence in N. Y. state, 573°–93”; structure, 628–29*. Seger, H., classification of clay, 564°, 5677; on color of clay, 519°, 565°, 566*, 566"; on effect of iron in clay, 640”; on ferrous condition of iron, 517°; on marly clays, 522°; on effect of heating plastic clay, 562*; on plasticity, 543°; method of rational analysis, 5357; experiment on effect of titanium on clay, 527°. Seger cones, 553°–58°; composition and fusing points, 555*. Seger's porcelain, 7954, 796". Semi-dry process, 667*. Seneca county, brick shale, 829°. Seneca Falls, brick yard, 718". Seneca river brick co., 717°–18°. Sewer brick, 645°. Sewer pipe, clays, 7674; permeability, 854", 855°; manufacture: 768–70"; illus. facing p. 767–69, 774; in Colorado, 613°; Missouri, 622; New York manufac- turers, 76.9°–70", 913°–25°; value of output in New York, 493*, 494"; in Tennessee, 626°. Shale, 825–44*; illus. facing p. 830, 837, 839–40; analyses, 716°, 769°, 899%–901*; distribution and proper- ties, 502°, 57.2%, 578, 587°, 826°–41*; formation, 502*, 826*; in Indiana, 615°; in Michigan, 6207; in Missouri, 622°; uses: 494–95%, 765°, 769°, 840°, 845%– 53”; for common brick, 686°, 727%; for mottled brick, 646"; for paving brick, 502°, 7257, 743°, 745°. Shankey, J. D., brick yard, 694°. Sharon Station, clay deposits, 572°. Shells in clay, 575°. Shrinkage, of clay, 522°, 545–50°, 636–37, 637°, of porcelain, 795". Siderite, 508°, 516°. Siegfried. F., brick yard, 718". Sienna, 848°. Sieves, use of, 634°. Signor, W. H., brick yard, 726°. Silica, 51.1°, 5117, 525–26", 860”; and bases, action of heat on mixture of, 518'. See also Analyses; Quartz. Silica brick, 784°, 785%. Simpson dry press brick machine, illus. facing p. 664. Slags, 512°. Slim clays, 620°, 806%–9"; analyses, 880°– 83°. Slumming, 56.1°. Smith, C. H. L., porcelain works, 823". yards, 718"; porosity or 529°, 6397, 530°, 6728; Smith, J. S., brick yard, 713°. Smith’s dock, terrace, 578"; clay de- posits, 700"; brick yard, 700". Soak pits, 658"–59°; illus. facing p. 658. Soda, 51.1°, 512°, 512", 513°. Sodus Point, shale, 828°. Soft brick, 645°. Soft mud brick, illus. facing p. 464. Soft mud process, 645, 661°–64°, 745°; cost, 686°; machines, 784"; illus. facing p. 661. Sole tile, 770°, 771*. Sorting of bricks, 67.9°. South Bay, brick yard, 715°; clay de- posits, 715°. - South Bethlehem, terrace, 591*; illus. facing p. 591. South Dakota, clay deposits, 626*. South Trenton, brick yard, 713°; clay deposits, 713°. Southold, brick yards, 736–37°; clay deposits, 604, 7367–37°. Spar, see Feldspar. Spar china, 794*. Spatting, 669". Specific gravity of fire brick, 786°. Speckled bricks, 646°. Spencer, brick yard, 728°; old lake bot- tom, illus. facing p. 573. Sponge spicules, 594", 599°, 609"; illus. facing p. 600–1. Springbrook, clay deposits, 724°. Staatsburg, terrace, 581*. Stanwix, D. H., brick yard, 7067. Staples, A. S., brick yard, 699°, 700°. Staten Island, brick yards, 742°–43%; terra cotta manufacture, 763°, 7644; clays: 573°, 6079–11”, 622°, 628°, 742°–43*: plant impressions, illus. fac- ing p. 611; terra cotta clays, 759°– 60°; fire clays, 788%–90"; stoneware clays, 817*. Statistics, clay industry, 493–94'. Steam drying, 671*. | |Steam power, use of, 662°, 6867. Steam shovel, 632°. Stedman, disintegrator, 6567. Stephens, C., brick yard, 715°. Steuben county, brick yard, 725–26°; Chemung shale, 839*. Stewart, brick yard, 740°. Stiff mud process, 645"; machines, 495", 662°–64°, 784"; illus, facing p. 662– 63. 765: cost, 686°. Stock brick, 645°. Stockport, clay deposits, 588”. Stoneware, 791°–92°; burning, 809”; decoration, 814–15; glazing, 806"— 9°; manufacture: Michigan, 6207; in Colorado, 613”; manufacturers in 94.2 MUSEUM INEW YORK STATE New York, 823°–24"; value of output | Talbot, Prof., method of testing pav- in New York, 494"; illus. p. 800–1. - Stoneware clays, 568°, 602°, 817°–22°; illus, facing p. 820; analyses, 792”, 818, 8198–20°, 820°; in Alabama, 612*; Missouri, 622*; facing New Jersey, 623"; Pennsylvania, 625°. Stonypoint, clay deposits, 577, 583°; terraces, 590°; brick yards, 694"–95°. Stormking, terraces, 590"; brick yards, 696; clay deposits, 696*. Stoutner, W. A., brick yard, 714*. Stove linings, 617°. Stratification, see Tables. Streeter & Hendricks, brick yard, 699°. Stripping, 630°. Stuyvesant, clay deposits, 588', 703°– 4”; brick yard, 703°–4*. Suffolk county, brick yards, 734"–52°. Sulfur, 642°, 792°. Sulfur-balls, 508". Sulfuric acid, 51.1°, Analyses. Sullivan county, brick yards, 732°. Sutton & Suderly, brick yard, 705*. Syracuse, clay deposits, 575°, 715"; brick yards, 715°; paving brick manufacture, 756°–57"; illus. facing p. 757; pottery works, 823–24%; illus. facing p. 791, 792, 795–97, 802, 804–7, 809, 814–15, 817; Salina. shale, 829*. Syracuse pottery co., 824*. 861°. See also Tables, crushing strength of brick, 647", 695°; dimensions of common brick, 643"; composition of paving brick, 744; brick testing, 730; depth of clay in Genesee valley, 574; sections of clay deposits, 858– 59; value of clay output, 4.93%; tests of North Carolina clays, 5417; com- position of Copenhagen biscuit ware and Seger's porcelain, 796"; com- position and fusibility of feldspar species, 842; Seger cones, 555–57°; number of terraces, 590°; terrace altitudes, 5897; stratification: at Coldspring Har- bor, 598; Eddyville, 57.9%–80°; Far- mingdale, 604'; Freshpond, 735"; Gouverneur, 7.10%; Jamestown, 725"; Jova's brick yard, 698°; Kreischer- ville, 608°; Lancaster, 723°; Lefever Falls, 580°; Levant, 576”; Madrid, 575°; Rhinebeck, 5874; Rochester, 720°; Rosendale , 580°; Rosendale plains, 580°; St Johnsville, 713°; West Deerpark, 604°, 741°. Analyses. See also ing bricks, 754". Tarrytown, delta deposits, 588°. Tarrytown porcelain tile co., 777". Tempering, definition, 658°; machines used, 654"; methods, 655"; of pot- tery clays, 799°, 803°–4°. Tennessee, clay deposits, 626". Tensile strength, of clay, 54.1°, 544°– 45", 637°; of clay wares, 855%–56°; of glass-pot clays, 787°; of stone- ware clays, 792*. Terra cotta, general properties, 758"— 59°; resistance to fire, 759°; illus. facing p. 759; use of term, 7584; manufacture: 761°–64"; in Massa- chusetts, 620°; Missouri, 622*; manu- facturers in New York, 763°–64°, 913%–25%; value of output in New York, 493°, 494"; illus. facing p. 759– 64: in Pennsylvania, 625°; Texas, 6269. . . - Terra cotta clays, 759°–61*; analysis, 9041–54. Terra cotta lumber, 769°, 773°. Terra cotta vase, frontispiece; facing p. 764. Terraces, table of altitudes, 5897; Cham- plain valley, 594"; forming at pres- ent, 591*; Hudson valley, 5789–91", 629°; number of, table, 590"; quality of soil, 59.1°. Terry Bros., brick yard, 699°, 700"; il- lus, facing p. 700. Tertiary clay deposits, 572°, 605", 606”. Testing, brick, 647%–50°, 729–30°, 7.45%– 50”; clay, 541’, 631*; clay wares, S54–57. - Texas, clay deposits, 626°–27°. Thermoelectric pyrometer, 560°–61%. , Thickness of beds, varying, 6297. - Thiells, brick yard, 695"; clay deposits, 584", 695°. Thompson, G. R., brick yard, 710°. illus. | Three River point, 575°. Tibbitt's brook, delta deposits, 588°. Tile manufacture, in Kentucky, 617°; Missouri, 622*; New York manu- facturers, 913–25°; value of output in New York, 493*, 494"; illus. fac- 'ing p. 745. See also Decoration of tile; Drain tile; Encaustic tile; Floor tile; Glazed tile; Roman tile; Roofing tile. Timoney, F., clay bank, 697°. Tioga county, brick yards, 728°. Titanic acid, 51.1°. Titanic oxid, 860°. Titanite, 509°. Titanium, 526°–27°. Tompkins, T., & Son, clay bank, 694°. See also Analyses. t INDEX TO CLAYS OF NEW YOREC 943 Tompkins & Smith, brick yard, 722°. Tompkins county, brick yards, 728°– 3.18. * * Tonawanda, clay deposits, 574'; brick yard, 7227. Tonawanda. 834°. Topography, indications of clay de- posits from, 629°. Torrey park land co., 718". Townsend, P. M. C., brick yard, 727", 7282. Troy, brick yards, 707"; clay deposits, 707"; sewer pipe manufacture, 770*. Tunnel driers, 670–71"; illus. facing p. 671. Turner, J., brick yard, 725°. Turning, pottery clay, 804°–5°. creek, Cashaqua shale, Tlster county, brick yards, 699, 699°- 7017, 732°. TJltramarine manufacture, 852". TJnderhill, W. A., brick yards, 691*. Dndermining, 632°. Union porcelain works, 823"; illus. fac- ing p. 793–94, 799, 808, 816. United States, occurrence of clay, 6] 18–27°. Up-draft kiln, 673", 677', Upham, Warren, on eskars, 575°. TJranium oxid, 777". Uses of clay, 564–65", 636–42°, 845– 53°. Utica, pottery works, 824°. |Utica shale, 579*. Vanadiates, 509°. Vanadium, 51.1°. Van Cortland, delta deposits, 588°. Van Dusen, F. M., brick yard, 701*. Vaughn, Charles, brick yard, 710*. Vernon, W. H., brick yard, 732. Verplanck, clay deposits, 585"; brick yards, 691–92°. Verplanck point brick yard, 692°. Vicat's needle for testing plasticity, 5428. Victor, pottery works, 824°. Virginia, clay deposits, 627°. Viscosity, 55.17, 563°. Vitrification, 55.1°, 563°. Vitrified brick, 494, 652*; manufacture: in Alabama, 61.1°; in Kentucky, 617°, 617°–18. Vogt, G., on plasticity of clays, 504°. Von Buch, Leopold, on kaolin, 4997. Vulté, H. T., methods of analyzing clay, 530°–387. Walling up kilns, 674°. Wallkill valley, terrace, 590°. 551*; glazing, Walsh Bros., brick yards, 703°–4°. Wappinger creek, delta deposits, 581°, 588°. . . " Ward, D. B., on diatoms, 599, 609°. Warners, brick yards, 715°–17°; illus. facing p. 671, 678, 715, 744, 773, 830; Salina shale, 829°. . - Warsaw, depth of clay, 574°. Warwick, clay deposits, 732°–33°." Washburn, U. F. & Co., brick yard, 6937. , * . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washburn Bros., brick yard, 700°–1°. Washed brick, 645", 669°. Washing clay, 799-800°. Washington county, brick yard, 7097. Water in clay, 5284–30°, 543°, 544, 860°. See also Absorption; Analy- SeS. Water-smoke, 67.5°. Water-smoking, 529, 680', 681°. Watertown, clay deposits, 575°, 711*; brick yard, 711”. - Watertown pressed brick co., 711*. Watson, Robert, brick yard, 712°. Wayne county, brick yards, 718°; shale, 828", 829*. Weathering, 655°, 856°–57*. Weaver, G. F., sons, brick yard, 715°. Websters Corners, Hamilton shale, 8330–342. Weedsport, brick yard, 718°. Wegeli porcelain, composition, 796. Weight, of brick, 528°; of sand, 549*. Wells & Brigham, brick yard, 731°. West Deerpark, clay deposits, 604°, 74.1°. West neck, clay deposits, 597", 602, 606°, 734"–35°; crumpled layers, 606°; brick yards, 734°–35"; illus. facing p. 735. Westchester county, brick yards, 689"— 933. Wet pam crushers, 8037–4'. Weyer, P. J., brick yard, 727*. Wheeler, H. A., on plasticity, 541*; on quartz in clay, 525°; formula for relative fusibility of clays, 552°. White earthenware, burning, 811–14"; decoration, 815–16°; glazing, 809– 11*; manufacture, 514°; New York manufacturers, 823"; illus. facing p. 791–92; and porcelain, compara- tive composition, 7964. White granite, 793°. Whitehall, terraces, 594". White wash, 681*. Whitfield, R. P., on crumpling of clay, 5934. Williams, C. L., brick yard, 709. Williams H., tests made by, 647°. Willis, H. M., clay bank, 733°. 944 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUMI Windom, Hamilton shale, 833°, 834*. Wire-cut machines, 662”; illus. facing p. 662–63. - Wire rope, haulage with, 633", 686". Wolcott furnace, shale, 828°. Wood & Keeman, brick yard, 743*. Working clay, methods of, 631°–35°. Wrape & Peck, brick yard, 710°–11*. Wyandance, clay deposits, 741*; illus. facing p. 741. Wyoming, clay deposits, 574°, 627°. ^. Yards, see Brick yards. Yates, Center, clay deposits, 574*. Yellow clay, characteristics, 5777. Yellow gravel, 607", 607°, 610°. Yellow ware, 793*, 814–15*. Yonkers, delta deposits, 588°. 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