B 357341
NEW EDITION OF MARY ANNE SCHIMMELPENNINCK'S LIFE.
Now ready, in post 8vo. with Portrait, price 10s. 6d.
LIFE
OF
MARY ANNE SCHIMMELPENNINCK.
Edited by her relation, CHRISTIANA C. HANKIN.
Second Edition, revised; complete in One Volume.
THIS int
takes us
which must alwa
melancholy attra
women. To clerį
preciating and af
a more interestin
Mrs. SchimmelPe
life, recorded in t
and vivid style of
after the events t
a good old age, w
THERE
ing in the
Port Royal and it
wonders of refo
Arnauld! It is.
world owes to the
of Racine were m
walls of Port R
works of Arnauld
grammars which
had a similar orig
requesting interm
tion I there receit
through His merc
eternity. When
prosperity had vai
the Court, the Jes
band with a ranco
ful and conscienti
--when the Mère.
five-and-twenty y
aspect of the Po
England how littl
Penninck did jus
cast among them!
place in that illus
"SOME of
with Mrs.
Port Royal. But
this biography ow
Mrs. SchimmelPe
itself to warrant ti
mended to us by :
incidents. Her 1
Nevertheless these
lishing: few reade
lay them down w
them. The history
Critical Opinions of this Biography.
ART
LIBRARY
VERITA
SCIENTIA
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
external events, for these were few and unimportant,
but the history of a mind, and that a mind of no common
order. Mrs. SchimmelPenninck was a person of consi-
derable natural ability: her genius was highly and vari-
ously cultivated; her taste was good ; her religious feeling
strong, genial, and widely diffused. She had, besides,
from earliest childhood, an acquaintance with many per-
sons of literary and scientific distinction. Her religious
experience also was something remarkable, for she was
born & Quaker, consorted intimately with Roman Catholics,
was baptised into a Wesleyan, and died a member of a
asian Congregation. It is evident that such a person
can telly great deal worth listening to about herself; and
we add that the first of these two volumes is an auto-
raphy, and the second largely composed of her letters
eration, the reader will have the secret of the in-
have felt in reading them.....The interest of this
however, confined to the history of Mrs.
back's own life. Some of the best passages
thy-wirid sketches, she draws of the remarkable
sha had seen at her father's house."
GUARDIAN.
e which does
ons to those who
rivings, its mani-
If not, how are
d and which not?
convey in order to
ns which though
ered, not by pro-
llible guides to
piling biography
these again, until
place Ossa upon
be recognised at
the part of those
aterials for such
of the press were
-Saxon mind, we
ointment of such
who have ez officio
ble matter. It is,
ind the life of Mrs.
e worthy of meri-
showing how in-
is to satisfy the
r the impressions
Doctors Darwin
that period, made
thout any guiding
cerely recommend
ECTIC REVIEW.
he record of
Born of wealthy
of affluence, re-
hat money could
ried into a highly-
the fall possession
was little of out-
tenour of Mrs
the interest of her
hot a little, is de-
uggles of a heart
culty to a know-
lied of the infinite
of Divine grace;
ded by every part
it indifference to
unsanctified in-
stresses through
Hindistinctness of
Me element in her
on which, in her
her faith--are to
like the foolish-
quacy of human
which she really
attained, the line of conduct she was enabled to adopt, and
the triumphant peace which marked the closing scenes of
her life, testify to the sovereignty of the Divine will in
calling His people when He will, and how He will. The
evils of her life were all human; the blessings of it all
Divine. Noae have acknowledged this with more hearti-
ness and loving gratitude to God than Mrs. Schimmel-
Penninck herself. Viewed from this point, and with a
careful discrimination of the scriptural from the unscrip-
tural, many most valuable lessons may be learned from
these volumes.....Having by God's especial mercy escaped
the shipwreck of her faith, the ag lady appears to have
ripened gradually for heaven, and to have fallen asleep in
Jesus in full hope of a glorious resurrection, and with an
Intense love for Christ. We repeat that there are two
great lessons written in prominent characters upon the
whole of the narrative contained in these volumes. The
atter insufficiency of the human intellect, and the urgent
danger of mere intellectualism, is the one; and the other is
the sovereignty and sufficiency of Divine grace, to enlighten
under any circumstances, and prevail against any ob-
stacles,"
RECORD
T
ク
​・W62
30542
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS
ON
MECHANICAL SUBJECTS.
BY
Sir JOSEPH WHITWORTH, F.R.S.
LONDON:
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, AND ROBERTS.
MANCHESTER: J. AND J. THOMSON.
1858.
PRINTED BY HARRISON AND SONS,
MARTIN'S LANE,
CONTENTS.
PREFACE..
A Paper on Plane Metallic Surfaces or True Planes ..
A Paper on an Uniform System of Screw Threads, read
at the Institution of Civil Engineers, in 1841
Address delivered to the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Glasgow, 1856
A Paper on Standard Decimal Measures of Length,
read at the Meeting of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Manchester, 1857
Rifled Fire-arms..
APPENDIX. New York Industrial Exhibition, 1853 :
Official Report
INDEX ..
PAGE
V
1
21
37
55
71
85
.. 179
PR E F A СЕ.
THESE miscellaneous papers were written at
various periods, some of them many years ago,
and a few of the statements must be considered
with reference to the objects for which they
were respectively written, and to their dates. The
paper upon plane metallic surfaces was read at
the British Association in Glasgow, in the year
1840, with the view of showing how a true
surface, or perfectly straight line, may be pro-
duced. At that time it was the custom to
prepare what were intended to be used as
original surfaces (presumed to be true) by
grinding them; and I was anxious to direct the
attention of those engaged in mechanical pur-
suits to the inherent defects of the grinding
process, and to prove the necessity of adopting
the system of correction, by which alone error is
eliminated, and surfaces practically true can be
produced.
vi
PREFACE.
At the same time I urged the necessity of
supporting all original surfaces or "true surface
plates" on three points, that being the only
means by which truth of surface can be main-
tained.
For some years prior to the date of the paper
(in order to conciliate then existing prejudices)
I used the grinding process to a limited extent,
merely to give surfaces, such as those of slide-
rests, the regular even appearance that was
generally considered to be the proper indication
of truth, to which I knew it in no
no way
contributed.
Now, however, the mottled appearance pro-
duced by the scraping instrument is recognized
as an indication of truth, and is sometimes
applied to surfaces which have not undergone
the process of correction, and are not true.
It is very satisfactory to me to find that the
advantages of the system are now universally
recognized.
The paper on the screw threads was read at
the Institution of Civil Engineers, in London,
in the year 1841; since that time the system
has been generally adopted in this country, and
is becoming extensively used in America, and
in other countries.
The report founded on the official visit of the
Royal Commission (of which I was a member)
PREFACE.
vii
to the New York Exhibition, in 1853, was
made in that year. It has been appended to
the other papers, as many parts continue to be
of interest, and inquiries are still made for it.
which years
The address to the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers was delivered in Glasgow in the year
1856, and the paper on "Standard Decimal
Measures of Length" was read at the meeting of
the Institution in Manchester in 1857, during
years I had the honour of being President.
The subject of rifled fire-arms, including
artillery, has, during the last three years, occu-
pied much of my time. It is so comprehensive
in its nature that I have, in the following paper,
purposely avoided going into details, and have
confined myself to an explanation of the prin-
ciples on which I have proceeded.
I could not help taking an interest in a
subject so intimately connected with those
branches of mechanics to which I have long paid
special attention; believing as I do that the
greater the precision with which fire-arms may
be used at long distances, and the more their
powers of destruction are increased, the more
reluctant will civilized nations become to use
them against each other, while, at the same
time, a greater superiority will be given to
wealth and civilization over mere numerical
strength.
viii
PREFACE.
With these explanations I have thought it
advisable to allow the earlier papers to remain
in the form in which they were originally read,
as in many respects the information they
respectively contain, and the opinions then
expressed, are applicable to the present time.
A PAPER
ON
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES
OR.
TRUE PLANES,
READ AT THE
MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION
IN GLASGOW, 1840.
ON
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES,
OR
TRUE PLANES.
*
THE method hitherto adopted in getting up
plane surfaces has been (after filing to the straight
edge) to grind them together, with emery. In
some cases it has been customary to try them
previously on a surface plate, and to go over
them with the scraping instrument; but they
have always been ground afterwards. The sur-
face plate itself has been invariably treated in
the same manner. The process of grinding is,
*That is, prior to the year 1840.
† Surface plates consist (as is well known to those familiar
with our workshops) of iron plates, strengthened by ribs on
their backs, and having their faces as smooth and as true as pos-
sible. They are used for the purpose of testing and correcting
any surfaces which are required to be made true. A straight
edge is also used for testing the truth of surfaces; it is
generally so called when its surface is very narrow as com-
pared with its length, being usually the side face of a long
flat bar. Surface plates are made of various sizes.
A simple and interesting experiment may be tried with a
B 2
4
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
in fact, regarded as indispensable wherever truth
is required, yet that of scraping is calculated to
produce a higher degree of truth than has ever
been attained by grinding. In reference to both
processes a great degree of misconception pre-
vails, the effect of which is materially to retard
the progress of improvement, and which it is of
great importance to remove. While grinding is
universally regarded as indispensable to a
finished surface, it is, in fact, positively detri-
pair of true surface plates. If one of them be allowed to slide on
the other so as to exclude the air, the two plates are caused to
adhere together with considerable force, by the pressure of the
atmosphere. The surfaces should be well rubbed previously,
with a dry cloth, till they are perfectly free from moisture,
that the experiment may afford a fair test of accuracy. If
any moisture be present it will act like glue, and cause
adhesion to take place, supposing the surfaces to be much
inferior. But if they be perfectly dry, adhesion proves a
high degree of truth, rarely attained.
The experiment may be varied, by letting one surface
descend slowly on the other, and thus allowing a stratum of
air to form between them. Before they come into contact,
the upper plate will become buoyant, and will float on the
air without support from the hand. This remarkable effect
would seem to depend on the close approximation of the two
surfaces at all points, without contact in any—a condition
which could not be obtained without extreme accuracy in
both. The escape of the remaining portion of air is retarded
by friction against the surfaces, the force of which nearly
balances the pressure of the upper plate. If one end of the
upper plate be slightly raised, and allowed to fall suddenly,
the intervening air will act like a ushion, causing a muffled
sound to be emitted, quite different from that usually pro-
duced by the concussion of metallic bodies.
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
5
mental. On the other hand, the operation of
scraping, hitherto so much neglected, constitutes
the only certain means we possess for the at-
tainment of accuracy. A few remarks will
clearly illustrate the truth of this statement.
It is required, in a plane surface for mechanical
purposes, that all the bearing points should be
in the same plane,—that they should be at equal
distances from one another, and that they
should be sufficiently numerous for the parti-
cular application intended. Where surfaces
remain fixed together, the bearing points may,
without disadvantages be fewer in number, and,
consequently, wider apart; but, in the case of
sliding surfaces, the points should be numerous
and close together.
A little consideration will make it evident
that these conditions cannot be obtained by the
process of grinding. And, first, with regard to
general outline, how is the original error to be
got rid of? Let it be supposed that one of the
surfaces is concave, and the other a true plane.
The tendency of grinding, no doubt, will be to
reduce the error of the former, but the oppo-
site error will, at the same time, be created in
the true surface. The only case in which an
original error could be extirpated, would be,
when it was met by a corresponding error, of
exactly the same amount, in the opposed sur-
6
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
face, and the one destroyed the other. But it is
evident, that where only two surfaces are con-
cerned, the variety of error in the general out-
line is not sufficient to afford any probability of
mutual compensation.
It will further appear, that if the original
error be inconsiderable, the surfaces must lose
instead of gaining truth. It results from the
nature of the process that certain parts are acted
upon for a longer time than others. They are
consequently more worn, and the surfaces are
made hollow. Nor is there any possibility of
obviating this source of error, except by sliding
one surface entirely on and off the other, at each
move, a method which, it need not be shown,
would be impracticable.
It may be mentioned, as an additional cause
of error, that the grinding powder collects in
greater quantity about the edges of the metal
than upon the interior parts, producing the well-
known effect of the bell-mouthed form. This is
particularly objectionable in the case of slides
from the access afforded to particles of dirt, and
the immediate injury thereby occasioned.
Another circumstance materially affecting
the durability of ground slides is, that a portion
of the emery employed becomes fixed in the
pores of the metal, and causes a rapid and irre-
gular wear of the surfaces.
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
7
If grinding be not adapted to form a true
general outline, neither is it to produce accuracy
in the minuter detail. There can be little
chance of a multitude of points being brought to
bear, and distributed equally, under a process
from which all particular management is ex-
cluded. To obtain any such result, it is neces-
sary to possess the means of operating inde-
pendently on each point, as occasion may
require, whereas grinding affects all simultane-
ously. It is subject neither to observation nor
control. There is no opportunity of regulating
the distribution of the powder, or of modifying
its application, with reference to the particular
condition of different parts of the surface. The
variation in the quantity of the powder and the
quality of the metal, will, of necessity, produce
inequalities, even supposing they did not previ-
ously exist. Hence, if a ground surface be
examined, the bearing points will be found lying
together in irregular masses, with extensive cavi-
ties intervening. An appearance, indeed, of
beautiful regularity is produced, and hence, no
doubt, the universal prejudice so long established
in favour of the process. But this appearance,
so far from being any evidence of truth, serves
only to conceal error. Under this disguise
surfaces pass without examination, which, if
unground, would be at once rejected.
8
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
Another evil of grinding is, that it takes from
the mechanic all sense of responsibility, and all
spirit of emulation, while it deludes him with the
idea that the surface will be ultimately ground
true. The natural consequence is, that he slurs
it over, trusting to the effect of grinding, and
well knowing that it will efface all evidence
either of care or neglect on his part.
It thus appears that the practice of grinding
has altogether impeded the progress of improve-
ment. A true surface, instead of being in com-
mon use, is almost unknown.* Few mechanics
have any distinct knowledge of the method to be
pursued for obtaining it, nor do practical men
sufficiently advert, either to the immense im-
portance, or to the comparative facility of the
acquisition.
Due latitude must be allowed to the expres-
sion "true surface." Absolute truth is confes-
sedly unattainable. Moreover, it would be
possible to aim at a degree of perfection beyond
the necessity of the particular case, the difficulty
of attaining which would more than counter-
balance its advantage. But it is certain that
the progress hitherto made falls far short of
this practical limit, and that considerations of
economy alone would carry improvement many
* This, it must be borne in mind, had reference to the
state of things existing in 1840.
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
9
degrees higher. The want of it in various
departments of the arts and manufactures is
already sensible. The valves of steam engines,
for example; the tables of printing presses,-
stereotype plates,-surface plates,--slides of all
kinds, require a degree of truth much superior
to that they generally possess. In these, and a
multitude of other instances, the want of truth
is attended with serious evils. In the case of
the slide valves of steam engines, there is occa-
sioned a great loss of steam power, and also an
immense increase of wear and tear.* In stereo-
type printing, inaccuracy of the plates renders
packing necessary to obtain a uniform impres-
sion. A vast amount of time and labour is thus
sacrificed, and the end is, after all, but imper-
fectly attained.
The extensive class of machinery, denomi-
* Mr. Dewrance, superintendent of the locomotive depart-
ment of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, in a letter to
Mr. Whitworth, dated the 23rd of December, 1840, says,-
"In answer to yours of the 20th inst. respecting the
difference of the slide valves got up with emery, and those
that are scraped or got up according to your plan, the
difference is as follows:-I have this day taken out a pair of
valves got up with emery that have been in constant wear
five months, and I find them grooved in the usual way.
The deepest grooves are one-eighth of an inch deep, and the
whole surface, which is eight inches broad, is one-sixteenth
hollow, or out of truth. Those that were scraped are per-
fectly true, and likely to work five months longer."
10
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
nated engine tools, affords an important appli-
cation of the subject. Here every consideration
combines to afford accuracy. It is implied in
the very name of the planing engine. The
express purpose of that machine is to produce
true surfaces, and it is itself constructed of slides,
according to the truth of which will be that of
the work performed. When it is considered that
the lathe and the planing engine are used in the
making of all other machines, and are continu-
ally re-producing surfaces similar to their own,
it will manifestly appear of the first importance,
that they should themselves be perfect models.*
There is, perhaps, no description of machinery
which would not afford an illustration of the
importance belonging to truth of surface, and at
the same time, of the present necessity for
material improvement; nor is there any subject
connected with machines, the bearings of which,
on public interests, whether manufacturing or
scientific, are more varied or more extensive.
The improvement so much to be desired, will
speedily follow upon the discontinuance of
grinding. Recourse must then be had to the
natural process.
The surface plate and the
* It is plain that, in machines intended to be used in
reproducing other machines, errors in surface are of the
utmost consequence, for the original defects are propagated
in an aggravated form.
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
11
scraping instrument will come into constant use,
affording the certain and speedy means of
attaining any degree of truth which may be
required. A higher standard of excellence will
be gradually established, the influence of which
will be felt throughout all mechanical operations,
while, to the mechanic himself, a new field will
be open, in which he will find ample scope for
the exercise of skill, both manual and mental.*
The subject will be best illustrated by a descrip-
tion of the process.
There are two cases for consideration, in
reference to the preparation of surfaces,-the
one, where a true surface plate is already pro-
vided, as a model for the work in hand, and the
other, where an original surface is to be
prepared.
The former case is that which will generally
occur in practice. The method to be pursued is
simple, and requires care rather than skill.
Colouring matter, such as red ochre and oil, is
spread over the surface plate, as equally as
possible; the work in hand, having been pre-
viously filed up to the straight edge, is then
applied thereto, and moved slightly to fix the
colour, which, adhering to the parts in contact,
afterwards shows the prominences to be removed
* It is satisfactory to be able to state that the results here
anticipated have been long ago realized
12
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
by the scraping instrument, and the operation is
frequently repeated. As the work advances, a
smaller quantity of colouring matter is used, till
at last, a few particles spread out by the finger
suffice for the purpose, forming a thin film over
the brightness of the plate. A true surface is
thus rendered a test of the greatest nicety,
whereby the smallest error may be detected.
At this stage of the process, the two surfaces
must be well rubbed together, that a full im-
pression may be made by the colour. The
higher points on the rising surface become
clouded over, while the other parts are left more
or less in shade. The dappled appearance thus
produced, shows to the eye of the mechanic, the
precise condition of the new surface in every
part, and enables him to proceed with confidence
in bringing it to correspondence with the
original. Before this can be accomplished,
however, the scraping instrument must be em-
ployed, the file not having the precision or
nicety requisite to finish the operation. Experi-
ence will be a sufficient guide when to exchange
the one for the other. It will be found, that
when the parts to be operated upon have become
to any considerable extent subdivided, scraping
is much the more expeditious method. The
instruments should be made of the best steel,
and carefully sharpened to a fine edge on a
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
13
Turkey-stone, the use of which must be fre-
quently repeated. They may be conveniently
made of worn-out files. It will be matter of
discretion, as before remarked, how far to pro-
ceed in working up the minute detail, but it is
essential that the bearing points, whether more
or less numerous, should be equally distributed,
and a uniform character preserved throughout.
This rule should be carefully observed during
the progress of the work, as well as at its con-
clusion.
In order to secure the equal advance of all
the parts together, particular attention must be
paid to the colouring matter, both with reference
to the quantity employed, and its equal distri-
bution. If too small a quantity be used in the
first instance, it will afford no evidence of the
general condition of the surface. It will merely
indicate the particular points which happen to be
most prominent, and to reduce these in detail
would be only a waste of time, so long as they
are considerably above the general level.
When the surface is finished, if it be rubbed
on the plate without colour, the bearing points
will become bright, and the observer will be able
to judge of the degree of accuracy to which it
has been brought. If it be as nearly true as it
can be made by the hand, bright points will be
seen diffused throughout its whole extent, inter-
14
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
spersed with others less luminous, indicating
thereby the degree of force with which they
respectively bear.
In getting up a surface of considerable extent,
it is necessary to take into account the strain
which the metal suffers from its own weight, and
the length of time required to produce the full
effect on the external form. It will be found,
for example, that after a piece of metal has
remained for some days in one position undis-
turbed, it assumes a form different from that
which it had while undergoing preparation.
Hence, it is desirable to provide for the work
while in hand, similar. support to what it will
have when applied to its intended use.
Another disturbing cause is the unequal
contraction of the metal in cooling, when origi-
nally cast. The mass assumes the curved form,
and is pervaded by elastic forces counteracting
each other. These continue in permanent
activity, and any portion of metal, taken from
any part, tends to disturb the balance previously
established.
It remains to consider the second case
proposed, viz., how to prepare an original surface.
A brief description of the proper method will
still further illustrate the case already considered,
and will also show how surface plates are to be
corrected.
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
15
Take three plates of cast iron, of equal size and
proportionate strength. The metal should be of
a hard quality. The plates should be well ribbed
on the back to prevent them from springing, and
each of them should have three projecting points
on which to rest, placed triangularly in the most
favourable positions for bearing. The object of
this provision is to insure constant support at the
same points. The plate would otherwise be
subject to perpetual variation of form, owing to
the irregular strain, occasioned by change of
bearing.* A provision of this kind is equally
necessary while the plate is undergoing the
operation of correction, and when it is afterwards
used as a model.
In fixing the plates on the table of the
planing machine, care should be taken to let
them bear on the points before mentioned, and
to chuck them with as little violence as possible
to the natural form, otherwise they will spring
on being released, and the labour of filing will
be increased in proportion. It is proper also
to relax the chucks before taking the last cut.
With these precautions, if the machine itself be
accurate, and the tool in proper condition, the
* The importance of always providing a proper support
for standard surfaces is still very often overlooked. The
tripod system is, as I have before stated, absolutely essential.
16
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
operation of planing will greatly facilitate the
subsequent process.
The plates are next to be tried by the
straight edge, by a skilful use of which a very
small degree of inaccuracy may be detected.
Let one of the three plates be now selected
as the model, and the others be surfaced to it
with the aid of colouring matter. For distinct-
ness they may be called Nos. 1, 2, and 3. When
Nos. 2 and 3 have been brought up to No. 1,
compare them together. It is evident that if
No. 1 be in any degree out of truth, Nos. 2 and
3 will be alike, and the nature of their error will
become sensible on comparing them together
by the intervention of colour. To bring them
to a true plane, equal quantities must be taken
in both from corresponding places. When this
has been done with all the skill the mechanic may
possess, and Nos. 2 and 3 are found to agree,
the next step is to get up No. 1 to both, apply-
ing it to them in immediate succession, so as to
compare the impressions. The art here lies in
getting No. 1 between the two, which is the pro-
bable direction of the true plane. It is to be
presumed that No. 1 is now nearer truth than
* The plates, after having been planed, should be allowed
to rest for two or three weeks on their three bearing points.
This will afford them time to settle in the form which they
will naturally assume.
PLANE METALLIC SURFAces.
17
either of the others, and it is therefore to be
again taken as the model, and the operation
repeated.
It will be observed that the process now
described includes three parts, and consists in
getting up the surfaces to one another in the
following order :-
1st. Nos. 2 and 3 to No. 1.
2nd. Nos. 2 and 3 to each other.
3rd. No. 1 to Nos. 2 and 3.
These parts compose an entire series, by repeat-
ing which a gradual approach is made to absolute
truth, till further progress is prevented by inhe-
rent imperfection.
In the earlier stages, the operation may be
greatly expedited by judicious management. It
has been already remarked, but it cannot be too
often repeated, that the general outline of the
surface should be solely regarded in the first
instance, and the filling up deferred till after
general truth has been secured. By this method,
the first course of the series will be short, and
the progress made will be both more speedy and
more sure, the minuter detail being gradually
entered upon, without the risk, otherwise, in-
curred, of losing previous labour. As, however,
the surfaces approach perfection, the utmost
caution and vigilance will be necessary to prevent
them from degenerating. This will inevitably
C
18
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
happen, unless the comparison be constantly
made between them all.
In the use of the surface plate, care should be
taken to prevent unnecessary injury, whether
superficial or from straining. It should also be
occasionally submitted to careful correction, and
should invariably be supported on three points.
In no other way can a high standard be
maintained.
It will be found convenient to set apart one
plate for the purpose of comparing others, al-
lowing it to remain entirely undisturbed. It
would otherwise be necessary, at every revision,
to repeat the process for obtaining an original
surface, and a considerable loss of time would
thus be occasioned.
A mistaken idea prevails that scraping is a
dilatory process,* and this prejudice may tend to
discourage its introduction. It will be found,
however, to involve the sacrifice of less time than
is now wasted on grinding. Were the fact other-
wise, it would be no argument against the pre-
ference due to the former. But it is worthy of
observation that, in this instance, as in many
* When grinding was first discontinued in the estab-
lishment of Messrs. Whitworth and Co., no mechanic could
be induced to take the work on the same terms as before,
owing to the supposed extra labour of scraping. But ex-
perience has entirely removed this prejudice, and the work is
now done with greater despatch.
PLANE METALLIC SURFACES.
19
others, improvement is combined with economy.
There is not only an incalculable saving effected
by the improved surface, in its various applica-
tions, but there is also a positive gain of time
in the preparatory process.
c 2
A PAPER
ON AN
UNIFORM SYSTEM OF SCREW THREADS,
READ AT THE
INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS,
IN 1841.
23
A PAPER
ON AN
UNIFORM SYSTEM OF SCREW THREADS.
[READ AT THE INSTITUTION OF CIVIL ENGINEERS IN 1841.]
-
THE Screw threads which form the subject of
this paper are those of bolts and screws, used in
fitting up steam engines and other machinery.
Great inconvenience is found to arise from the
variety of threads adopted by different manufac-
turers. The general provision for repairs is
rendered at once expensive and imperfect. The
difficulty of ascertaining the exact pitch of a
particular thread, especially when it is not a
multiple or submultiple of the common inch
measure, occasions extreme embarrassment.
This evil would be completely obviated by
uniformity of system, the thread becoming con-
stant for a given diameter. The same principle
would supersede the costly variety of screwing
apparatus, required in many establishments, and
remove the confusion and delay occasioned
thereby. It would also prevent the waste of
bolts and nuts which is now unavoidable. The
impulse and direction given to machinery during
24
UNIFORM SYSTEM
late years have tended to increase these evils,
and must, ultimately, lead to a change of
system.* Take, for example, the refitting
shop of a railway or steam packet company.
Here the variety of apparatus rendered necessary
by the want of uniformity will correspond with
the number of different manufacturers by whom
the engines are supplied, whereas, if the same
system of screw threads were common to the
different engines, a single set of screwing tackle
would suffice. The economy and manifold
advantages resulting from uniformity in this
instance, would be sufficiently obvious.
Supposing the same principle extended
throughout engineering and other establish-
ments until its application became general, the
advantage would be proportionally greater, and
would assume a character of public importance.
Public convenience would be promoted in various
ways easy to trace, though leading to results
perhaps little to be expected, and the economy
of screwing apparatus, however considerable,
would become insignificant when compared with
the contingent benefit to other interests.
Were an uniform system adopted for marine
or locomotive engines there can be no doubt
that it would be extended to engines and machi-
* Since 1841, when this was written, the system of screws
here recommended has been universally adopted.
OF SCREW THREADS.
25
Peculiar
nery of almost every description.
threads will, of course, be always required for
particular purposes, but in screws for general
use in fitting up machinery, the advantage of
uniformity would be paramount to every other
consideration.
It does not appear that any combined effort
has been hitherto made to attain this object. As
yet there is no recognized standard. This will
not be matter of surprise, when it is considered
that any standard must be, to a great extent,
arbitrary. It is impossible to deduce a precise
rule for the threads of screws from mechanical
principles, or from any number of experiments.
On the other hand, the nature of the case is such
that mere approximation would be unimportant,
absolute identity of thread for a given diameter
being indispensable.
To how great an extent the choice of thread
is arbitrary will appear from a cursory consider-
ation of the principles affecting it. Without
attempting to discuss these in detail, which
would be foreign to the present purpose, it may
be interesting to notice the general outline and
bearings of the subject.
The use of the screw bolt is to unite certain
parts of machinery in close and firm contact. It
is peculiarly adapted for this purpose by the
compact form in which it possesses the necessary
26
UNIFORM SYSTEM
strength and mechanical power. The extreme
familiarity of the object tends to prevent the
observation of its peculiar fitness. Yet, among
all the applications of mechanics, there is, perhaps,
no instance of adaptation more remarkable. The
ease with which distinct parts of machinery can
be united, the firmness with which they are held
together, and the facility with which they may
be separated, are conditions of the utmost im-
portance, which by no other contrivance could be
combined in an equal degree.
While, however, the utility of the screw in
this application is abundantly obvious, it is by
no means evident what may be the precise
formation most advantageous under all circum-
stances. No exact data of any kind can be
obtained for calculation, and the problem will be
found to be capable only of approximate
solution.
The principal conditions required in the
screw bolt are power, strength, and durability--
the latter having reference to the wear occa-
sioned by frequent fixing and unfixing. But
none of these conditions can be reduced to a
definite quantity. We cannot, for example,
determine the exact amount of power necessary
to draw the parts of a machine into due contact,
or the precise degree of strength which may
suffice for resisting the strains to which they
OF SCREW THREADS.
27
may be afterwards exposed. Hence, we cannot
lay down any rule for choosing the diameter of
the screw bolt required for a given purpose.
Practical men can judge of the proper size with
considerable nicety, but they have no means of
ascertaining it with absolute precision.
If the diameter be given, and it be required
to find the proper thread, the nature of the
question is not essentially altered. The amount
neither of power, nor of strength (nor any other
condition), is thereby determined. A certain
limit is assigned, but within that limit the pro-
portions of strength and power, &c., may vary
indefinitely, according to the actual formation of
the thread.
There are three essential characters belong-
ing to the screw thread, viz., pitch, depth, and
form. Each of these may be indefinitely modi-
fied independently of the others, and any change
will more or less affect the several conditions of
power, strength, and durability.-The mechanical
power of the screw depends on the pitch, which
for a given diameter determines the angle of the
inclined plane, and on the form of thread which
regulates the direction in which the force applied
will act. The strength of the screw in the thread
varies with each of the three characters; in the
centre part, being as the area, it is little affected,
except by change of depth.-The durability of
28
UNIFORM SYSTEM
the thread also depends chiefly on its depth, and
the proper depth is determined principally with
reference to this condition. In the selection of
the thread considerable latitude of choice will be
found to prevail with reference to all the charac-
ters. No definite rule can be given for deter-
mining any one of them. It may be manifest
that particular threads are too coarse or too fine,
too deep or too shallow; but there are inter-
mediate degrees within which the choice of
thread like that of the diameter is arbitrary,
and must be guided rather by discretion than by
calculation.
The mutual dependence of the several condi-
tions required in the thread may be noticed as
having a tendency to perplex the choice. Thus
increase of power is necessarily attended with
diminution of strength. The
The square thread
which has the advantage in respect of power is
proportionally weaker than the angular thread.
A fine thread loses in strength, while it gains
mechanically as compared with a coarser. Deep
threads also, while they are more durable than
shallow, materially detract from the strength of
the bolt.
The selection of the thread is also affected by
the mutual relation subsisting between the three
constituent characters of pitch, depth, and form.
Each of these, as before observed, may be sepa-
OF SCREW THREADS.
29
rately modified; but practically no one character
can be determined irrespective of the others.
The pitch of the square thread is generally twice
that of the angular for the same diameter, to
retain similar proportions of power and strength.
Coarse threads should be deep as compared with
fine, to provide against the wear from friction.
A coarse angular thread will also require addi-
tional depth to preserve the due proportion of
power, and to prevent the longitudinal strain
from being thrown too much sideways on the
nut. Hence, each character acts as a limit to
the variation of the others, and in some instances
(that is, in the case of certain diameters), it will
be found that the leading consideration in fixing
one character is the resulting effect on another.
Thus, in some of the smaller sizes, the pitch is
determined principally by reference to the
depth--a coarser thread being objectionable,
because the extra depth would too much weaken
the centre part of the bolt-while the necessary
shallowness of a finer thread would render it too
liable to wear with friction.
The proportional strength of the thread and
centre part of the screw is regulated mainly by
the depth of the nut, which is generally of the
same measure as the diameter of the bolt.
Assuming that dimension as fixed, the proportion
of strength between the two parts will vary with
30
UNIFORM SYSTEM
the different characters of thread, and more
particularly with the depth. The centre part
not being liable to wear while the thread is sub-
ject to friction and accidental injury, the original
proportion of strength ought to be considerably
in favour of the thread.
Such being the variety and vagueness of the
principles avowed in the subject, a corresponding
latitude might naturally be expected in their
practical application, and accordingly we find,
instead of that uniformity which is so desirable,
a diversity so great as almost to discourage any
hope of its removal. The only mode in which
this could be attempted with any probability of
success would be by a sort of compromise, all
parties consenting to adopt a medium for the
sake of common advantage. The average pitch
and depth of the various threads used by the
leading engineers would thus become the com-
mon standard, which would not only have the
advantage of conciliating general concurrence,
but would, in all probability, be nearer the true
standard for practical purposes than any other.
Messrs. Whitworth and Company were led,
some years ago, to alter the threads of their
screws on this principle, in consequence of
various objections urged against those they
had previously adopted, and the result of the
experiment has been abundantly satisfactory.
OF SCREW THREADS.
31
An extensive collection was made of screw bolts
from the principal workshops throughout England,
and the average thread was carefully observed
for different diameters. The 1, 1, 1, and 1
inches were particularly selected and taken as
the fixed points of a scale by which the interme-
diate sizes were regulated. The only deviation
made from the average was such as might be
necessary to avoid the great inconvenience of
small fractional parts in the number of threads
to the inch. The scale was afterwards extended
to 6 inches.
The pitches thus obtained for angular threads
are shown in the following table :-
Diameter in Inches
Threads to the Inch
Diameter in Inches
Threads to the Inch
Diameter in Inches
Threads to the Inch
41016
7
2
1 1/1/1 11/2
20 18 16 14 12 11 10 9 8 7 7
•
•
13 12 13 13 17 2 2
2
2 3 3
4
4
31 31 31
665 5 4 4
31 32 44 42 42 5 5 5 5 6
33 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
It will be observed that above 1-inch diameter
the same pitch is used for two sizes. This could
not have been avoided without introducing small
fractional parts. The economy of screwing
apparatus was also promoted by repetition of
the thread.
It is important to remark that the proportion
32
UNIFORM SYSTEM
between the pitch and the diameter varies
throughout the entire scale. Thus the pitch of
the inch is one-fifth of the diameter-that of
the-inch, one-sixth-of the 1-inch, one-eighth
- of the 4-inch, one-twelfth of the 6-inch,
one-fifteenth. It is obvious that more power is
required as the diameter increases. But this
consideration alone will not account for the actual
deviation, which is much less than it would be if
the scale were calculated with reference to the
power required. The amount of power neces-
sary must be determined in relation to the
muscular force of the human arm, aided by the
leverage of the screw key. Now, in the case of
smaller screws, there is a considerable excess
of force. Again, in the larger, there will be
found a deficiency of power, for with all the
leverage which can generally be applied, it
requires the force of several men to fix a bolt
of six inches diameter. Hence it is evident
that at the two extremes of the scale the
amount of power required is not the leading
consideration in fixing the pitch of the thread.
In the smaller sizes the necessary depth of a
coarser thread-as before observed-would too
much weaken the centre part of the screw. It
may also be mentioned that coarse threads would
render small screws apt to work loose for want
of sufficient hold to prevent the effect of jarring.
OF SCREW THREADS.
33
On the other hand, finer threads on large bolts
besides being weaker and less durable, would
render it difficult to unfix them when occasion
required.
It will be remembered that the threads, of
which the preceding table shows the average, are
used in cast iron as well as wrought; and this
circumstance has had its effect in rendering them
coarser than they would have been, if restricted
to wrought iron.
The variation in depth among the different
specimens was found to be greater proportionally
than in pitch. The angle made by the sides of
the thread will afford a convenient expression
for the depth. The mean of the variations of
this angle in 1-inch screws was found to be
about 55°, and this was also pretty nearly the
mean of the angle in screws of different diame-
ters. As it is for various reasons desirable that
the angle should be constant, more especially
with reference to general uniformity of system,
the angle of 55° has been adopted throughout
the entire scale. A constant proportion is thus
established between the depth and the pitch of
the thread. In calculating the former, a deduc-
tion is to be made for the quantity rounded off,
amounting to one-third of the whole depth—
that is, one-sixth from the top, and one-sixth
from the bottom of the thread. Making this
D
34
UNIFORM SYSTEM
deduction it will be found that the angle of 55°
gives for the actual depth rather more than three-
fifths, and less than two-thirds of the pitch. The
precaution of rounding off is adopted to prevent
the injury which the thread of the screw, and
that of the taps and dies, might sustain from
accident.
The system of threads selected in the manner
above described has already obtained greater
extension than any other. It has been adopted
exclusively on many of the railways, and in some
of the most extensive engineering establishments
in England and Scotland. During the present
year it has been introduced into the Royal Dock-
yard at Woolwich, and it is now being applied to
the engines constructing for the Royal Mail
Steam Packet Company. There is therefore
reason to hope this system may be instrumental
in promoting the proposed object of uniformity,
of which it already exemplifies the practicability
and advantage.
But the difficulty of obtaining a concurrence
of opinion in favour of a particular system is
not the only one to be encountered. The incon-
venience to existing establishments which any
change would involve is calculated to retard the
prevalence of an approved system, nor could
general co-operation be reasonably expected
unless there were a certain prospect of success.
OF SCREW THREADS.
35
This, however, is an obvious reason why the
attention of engineers should, without loss of
time, be directed to the subject.
It will probably occur to practical men that
there are other obstacles to be surmounted be-
fore the principle of uniformity can be carried
into full operation. The great want of accuracy
in screwing and tapping by the ordinary process
may be particularly mentioned. To whatever
extent this may prove an obstruction, it may be
also regarded as an additional motive for urging
the subject on general attention. The necessity
for greater correctness will thus be placed in a
new and stronger light, and the effect no doubt
will be a material improvement in this essential
respect. It is mainly for want of accuracy that
screw bolts so frequently fail. Unless the threads
of the screw and nut exactly correspond in every
part, and coalesce throughout their whole length
and depth, their mutual action is completely
deranged, power and strength are both sacri-
ficed, and friction is proportionally increased.
The immense consumption of bolts and nuts in
fitting up and working machinery may give some
idea of the extent to which greater accuracy
might be productive of economy.
To maintain uniformity, provision must be
made for multiplying standards of the diameters
and threads. This may be easily done, and will
D 2
36
UNIFORM SYSTEM OF SCREW THREADS.
prevent the screwing tackle from degenerating
by use and propagation.
This part of the case is connected with a
subject of great extent which, under every
aspect, lays claim to the attention of practical
engineers. We allude to the general use of
standard gauges, graduated to a fixed scale, as
constant measures of size. It is quite prac-
ticable by such means to work to a common
measure with a degree of accuracy sufficient for
all ordinary purposes. Corresponding parts,
instead of being got up one to another, might
be prepared separately. The indefinite multi-
plication of sizes would thus be prevented, and
the economy of the workshop simplified to an
extent beyond calculation.
ADDRESS
DELIVERED TO THE
INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS
GLASGOW, 1856.
ADDRESS TO THE INSTITUTION OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
DELIVERED AT GLASGOW, 1856.
GENTLEMEN,-This being the first time I have
taken the chair since you did me the honour to
elect me your President for the present year, I
propose to address you shortly on a few topics
more or less connected with our profession of
mechanical engineering. But first, let me express
my gratification, and I am sure that of my fellow-
countrymen, in thus meeting our northern friends
in this important city.
Glasgow is peculiarly interested in the me-
chanical arts, for the minerals for making
iron are found in great abundance in this
locality; indeed, it is to this neighbourhood,
more than to any other, that the world is indebted
for the cheapest and most abundant supply of
iron. Here, too, that metal is converted into a
great variety of machinery. There are large
manufactories of the steam-engine- fixed,
40
ADDRESS TO THE INSTITUTION
marine, and locomotive. Cotton, manufacturing,
and various other kinds of machinery are also
made here in considerable quantities. With such
links of connection amongst us, I trust that this,
our first meeting in this city, may be the fore-
runner of many others, and that we shall add
many members to our Institution.
Great attention is now being paid to improve-
ments in the manufacture of malleable iron and
steel. I need not tell you of what vast import-
ance it must be to those who are more imme-
diately connected with those branches of
mechanics requiring nicety of workmanship, to
have iron and steel of a better quality. I may
mention that in making rifle-barrels for the
experiments which I have undertaken for the
Government, one of the greatest difficulties I
encounter, in attaining the degree of accuracy
that I require, arises from the defects in the
metal. What we want is iron of great strength,
free from seams, flaws, and hard places. Inferior
iron (with the use of other defective and improper
materials) is perhaps the main cause of one of
the greatest errors committed in the construction
of whatever in mechanism has to be kept in
motion. I mean the increase of size of the parts
of a machine or carriage, in order to get strength,
thereby adding weight until they are considered
to be strong enough. In our vehicles of draught
OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
41
and carriages this is
strikingly the case. Now
this ought not to be. Lightness is the thing to
aim at, and safety should be sought in the elas-
ticity, form, and good quality of the material.
Should a carriage be found to twist and get out
of form, that would be a proof of its being too
light. But to prevent a carriage breaking down
by increasing the size of its parts, and thereby
adding weight, instead of improving quality, is
mechanically wrong. Indeed, it is quite distress-
ing to see the enormous weight of our carriages,
particularly those drawn by animal power. It
should be an axiom in mechanics that whatever
has motion should be as light as circumstances
will admit; this applies equally, whatever the
source of power may be, whether the motion is
produced by human, horse, or steam power.
I would next call your special attention to the
vast importance of attending to the two great
elements in constructive mechanics - — namely,
a true plane and the power of measurement. The
latter cannot be attained without the former,
which is therefore of primary importance; and its
accomplishment is so easy and so simple as to
leave without excuse any establishment neglecting
to secure it. It is necessary to make three planes
in order to obtain a perfect one, and cast iron is
the best material generally to use. Whatever
the size of the plane required, the tripod form is
42
ADDRESS TO THE INSTITUTION
absolutely essential for its support; and the
strengthening ribs must be placed with reference
to the supports. I cannot impress too strongly
on the members of the Institution, and upon all
in any way connected with mechanism, the vast
importance of possessing a true plane, as a
standard for reference. All excellence in work-
manship depends upon it. I may mention that
it was at the meeting of the British Association
held in Glasgow in 1840 that I read a paper on
the mode of producing a true plane, to which I
would refer those desiring information on the
subject.*
Next in importance to a true plane is the
power of measurement. I have brought with
me, for your inspection at the close of the meet-
ing, a small machine, by which a difference in
length of the one-millionth part of an inch is at
once detected. The principle is that of employ-
ing the sense of touch, instead of sight. If any
object be placed between two parallel true planes,
adjusted so that the hand can just feel them in
contact, you will find, on moving the planes only
the 50-thousandth of an inch nearer together,
that the object is distinctly tighter, requiring
greater force to move it between them. In the
machine before you, the object to be measured
is the standard inch, in the form of a small
* See ante pages 3—19.
OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
43
square bar, both ends being true planes; and in
this case, in order to measure with the utmost
accuracy, a thin flat piece or bar is introduced,
having its two sides made also perfect planes.
This is placed between the inch bar to be mea-
sured and one of the end surfaces of the machine.
This thin bar, which I name the gravity piece, is
brought into contact with the two planes, so as
just to allow it, on being raised, to fall by its
gravity; and you will find that, by bringing the
planes into closer contact by even the one-mil-
lionth of an inch, the gravity piece will be sus-
pended, friction overcoming its gravity. This
machine and a larger one, are used for making
standards of length. When the standard yard,
which is a square bar of steel, is placed in the
larger machine, and the gravity piece adjusted
so as just to fall by its weight, the heat imparted
from the slightest touch of the finger instantly
prevents its fall, thus showing the lengthening
of the bar by so small an amount of heat as that
I have indicated. We have therefore in this
mode of measurement all the accuracy we can
desire; and we find in practice in the workshop
that it is easier to work to the ten-thousandth of
an inch from standards of end measure, than to
the one-hundredth of an inch from the lines on
a two-foot rule. In all cases of fitting, end mea-
sures of length should be used, instead of lines.
44
ADDRESS TO THE INSTITUTION
The question of correct measurement is in im-
mediate connexion with another, which will repay
all the attention that can be given to it, and I
think there is no subject that can be more profit-
ably discussed amongst us;-I mean that of
proper gradations of size in all the various
branches of the mechanical arts. I think no
estimate can be formed of our national loss from
the over-multiplication of sizes. Take for in-
stance the various sizes of steam-engines-
stationary, marine, and locomotive. In the case
of marine engines, the number of sizes up to
100 horse-power will probably not be short of
thirty, where ten perhaps would be ample. If
so, look at the sums expended in patterns, de-
signs, and in the number of tools for their
manufacture. Nor is this all; for if there were
only ten sizes instead of thirty, there would be
three times the number made of each pattern;
and, as you know, the very soul of manufacture
is repetition. By attention to this, the ship-
owner would be benefited by getting a better
engine at a less price. In the case of locomo-
tives and carriages, I would urge the subject
on the attention of our members, the engineers
of the great lines of railway-the London and
North-Western, the Midland, the Great Northern,
for instance. I hope they will permit me to
suggest that they should consider and determine
OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
45
not only the fewest possible number of sizes of
engines and carriages that will suffice, but also
how every single piece may have strictly defined
dimensions. This question is also well worthy
the attention of our architects and builders.
Suppose, for instance, that the principal windows
and doors of our houses were made only of three
or four different sizes. Then we should have a
manufactory start up for making doors, without
reference to any particular house or builder.
They would be kept in stock, and made with the
best machinery and contrivances for that parti-
cular branch; consequently, we should have
better doors and windows at the least possible
cost. Our friends across the Atlantic manage
matters in connexion with their buildings much
better than at present we do.
I hope the members of this Institution will
join me in doing what we can with reference to
those two important subjects-correct measure-
ment, and its corollary, proper gradations of
size. The want of more correct measurement
seems to prevade everything. Take, for instance,
the case of the common brick, which ought to
be three inches thick. Who is there that has
made an addition to a building who has not felt
inconvenience from the irregularity of size?—
the new brick being, perhaps, too thick, and so
46
ADDRESS TO THE INSTITUTION
not allowing sufficient mortar to be used; or too
thin, and requiring too much mortar.
Perhaps one of the most effectual means that
could be adopted, in the first instance, to remedy
this unsatisfactory state of things, would be for
the Government to supply corporate bodies with
proper standards of length-such as the inch,
the foot, and the yard. The corporate bodies
themselves might then have their own standards
of size, founded on these, and made to suit the
particular wants of the different trades in the
locality. The only standard of length at pre-
sent supplied by the Government and kept by
the corporate bodies is the standard yard; but
there is so little attention paid to accuracy, that
to the engineer and machinist it is not of the
slightest use, and is only employed to adjust
yard sticks for measuring woven goods.
There
There is also another subject which bears upon
this question, and which has lately been before
the Legislature that of decimalising weights
and measures. There can be no doubt of the
beneficial results that would follow the passing
of such a measure. There may be a difference
of opinion as to what the unit or integer of
lineal measure should be; but I think that it
should be the inch, for, from the accuracy with
which we can now measure that length, there
would be no difficulty in determining and fixing
OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
47
the length of its multiples. The most impor-
tant divisions of length in mechanism are those
of parts of an inch, and if the length of the
inch were altered it would cause much confusion.
Small accurate standards of length, of the de-
cimal parts of an inch, would be of much service
to some trades. There is now no standard of
appeal; and the different wire and other gauges
differ so considerably, that the manufacturer, in
the case of small wire and sheets of metal, has
to send a sample of what he wants, there being
no means of correctly expressing its size.
Although I have said so much to you with
reference to the desirableness of further improve-
ment and greater perfection in the mechanical
arts, I congratulate you on the success which in
our time they have attained, and the high con-
sideration in which they are held. Inventors are
not now persecuted, as formerly, by those who
fancy that their inventions and discoveries are
prejudicial to the general interests, and calcu-
lated to deprive labour of its fair reward. Some
of us are old enough to remember the hostility
manifested to the working of the power-loom,
the self-acting mule, the machinery for shearing
woollen cloth, the thrashing machine, and many
others. Now, the introduction of the reaping
and mowing machine, and other improved agri-
48
ADDRESS TO THE INSTITUTION
-
cultural machinery, is not opposed. Indeed, it
must be obvious to reflecting minds that the in-
creased luxuries and comforts which all, more or
less, enjoy are derived from the numerous recent
mechanical appliances and the production of our
manufactories. That of our cotton has increased
during the last few years in a wonderful degree.
In 1824, a gentleman with whom I am acquainted
sold on one occasion one hundred thousand pieces
of 74 reed printing cloth at 30s. 6d. per piece of
29 yards long; the same description of cloth he
sold last week at 3s. 9d. One of the most strik-
ing instances I know of the vast superiority of
machinery over simple instruments used by the
hand is in the manufacture of lace, where one man
with a machine does the work of 8,000 lacemakers
on the cushion. In spinning fine numbers of
yarn, a workman on a self-acting mule will do
the work of 3,000 hand-spinners with the distaff
and spindle; and there are other striking facts
of a similar kind mentioned in my Report on the
New York Industrial Exhibition.*
Comparatively few persons, perhaps, are aware
of the increase of production during our life-
time. Thirty years ago, the cost of labour for
making a surface of cast iron true, by chipping and
filing by the hand, was 12s. per square foot; the
same work is now done by the planing machine
* See post, page 87, et seq.
OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
49
at a cost for labour of less than 1d. per square
foot, and this, as you know, is one of the most im-
portant operations in mechanics. It is therefore
well adapted to illustrate what our progress has
been. At the same time that this increased pro-
duction is taking place, the fixed capital of the
country is, as a necessary consequence, aug-
mented; for, in the case I have mentioned of
chipping and filing by the hand, when the cost
of labour was 12s. per foot, the capital required
for tools for one workman was only a few shil-
lings; but now the labour being lowered to 1d.
per foot, a capital in planing machines for the
workmen is required, which often amounts to
£500, and in some cases more. This large out-
lay of capital, invested in machinery to increase
production, makes it very difficult to curtail the
hours of working machinery, as much as could
be desired. In some cases two sets of work-
people have been employed in relays, each work-
ing eight hours a day; and this system perhaps
may in time be extended, although it is attended
with certain inconveniences. If, however, the
relay system could be so improved and organ-
ised as to allow more time for the better educa-
tion of young operatives, none would more
cordially rejoice than myself. I believe that the
science of mechanics, though a mere material
power in itself, may, if rightly used, become a
E
50
ADDRESS TO THE INSTITUTION
moral lever, by which, like Archimedes of old,
we may seek to raise the world.
There is at the present time a very gratifying
circumstance in connection with the extension
of machinery; namely, the large remuneration
which operatives who work machines actually
receive compared with those who perform hand
labour without the help of machinery. I would
here mention, with reference to the amount of
wages paid to the operative, that it does not
depend solely on the master manufacturers of
this country, but is governed in some measure
by what is paid by the manufacturers of
other countries who are in competition with
our own. When I was in America in 1853, I
found that the American operatives received
somewhat more wages than are paid in this
country; but they worked much longer hours,
although the climate, during some parts of the
year, is so unfavourable. These longer hours
enable the American manufacturer to turn over
his capital more frequently.
This question of increased production, with
which we, as mechanical engineers, are so iden-
tified, is so entirely dependent upon the power of
the people to consume, that I hope I shall be
excused in adverting to it. Our yearly exports
now amount to about a hundred millions sterling,
having doubled in a short time, while our home
OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
51
productions have been greatly increased from the
same cause, namely, the increased ability of our
people to consume. As a general principle it
would seem to be far better to levy a small
impost on the entire wealth of an individual
rather than to fasten a tax on particular objects,
which if produced would constitute wealth, but
which are not made because of the threatened
impost. The remaining duty on carriages seems
to me to be one of this description. Were there no
tax, almost every one who keeps one carriage
would keep more, while large numbers would
have one who now have none. By their use
locomotion would be increased threefold, and
hence much valuable time would be saved.
Besides, a large number of the best description of
artisans would be called into existence for their
manufacture—a class, too, who are well able to
turn their hand, in cases of necessity, to other
employment. If, therefore, it is desirable for a
nation to possess wealth in carriages, it is a mis-
take for legislation to prevent it.
Formerly, when the wealth of a nation was
produced, as it were, by hand labour, a different
state of things existed to that of the present day.
As I have shown, our means of production are
now increased in some cases more than a hundred
and in others more than a thousand fold; and
this will go on, just in proportion as the masses of
E 2
52
ADDRESS TO THE INSTITUTION
our people are able to consume larger quantities
of everything that they require. When the farm
labourer pays less for his sugar and tea, more
meat will be consumed (which again goes to
improve the land); also more wool for our manu-
factures.
In this wonderful power of producing wealth
which now exists, none can be more interested
and benefited than the proprietors of the land.
A striking proof of this is given by its increased
value in the manufacturing counties, and for
miles adjoining our manufacturing towns. The
competition, too, of our manufacturers and mer-
chants to become possessors of land is shown by
the small rate of interest with which they are
satisfied, for the outlay of their capital on the
soil. The proprietors of land may rest assured
that, in the future development of mechanical
improvements, none will be more benefited than
themselves. I do not hesitate to say that all
harvest operations on land, properly laid down,
will very shortly be performed in one-fourth the
time required with the hand labour now expended,
by the farther application of machines worked by
horse-power. This is my conviction, based upon
the experience I have had in the successful work-
ing of the machine I constructed for sweeping
the streets, and at the same time filling the cart,
by horse-power. By the combined aid of
OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS.
53
mechanical improvements and the science of
chemistry, together with the greater skill of our
modern agriculturists, the culture of the land
throughout Great Britain must more and more
approximate to that of a garden.
We have seen the effect of the repeal of the
duties on glass and bricks, in the improved
appearance and reduced cost of residences, and a
still further benefit may be expected to result
from the removal of the remaining duty on tim-
ber. While, therefore, we congratulate ourselves
on the great results which the mechanical arts
have achieved, we have every reason to be thank-
ful that our legislators have removed so many
impediments to our progress. The glorious fruits
of the legislative labours of that great and good
man, Sir R. Peel, may give us hope that the time
is not far distant when all remaining obstacles
of this kind will be swept away. When that
period has arrived, and when the industry of this
country has been systematised upon sound prin-
ciples of economical science, and in each depart-
ment carried nearer to those standards which, in
the case of mechanics, I have endeavoured to
indicate, we shall have less reason than at present
to doubt the stability of our manufacturing pre-
eminence.
A PAPER
ON
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES OF LENGTH,
READ AT THE
MEETING OF THE INSTITUTION OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERS, MANCHESTER, 1857.
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES
OF LENGTH.
MANCHESTER, 1857.
IN the address which I had the honour of
delivering before the Members of this Institution
at the Glasgow Meeting last year, I briefly
alluded to the beneficial results which would
follow the application of the decimal system to
our weights and measures, referring more par-
ticularly to the latter. In compliance with the
wish expressed by several members of the Coun-
cil, I propose in the present paper to bring this
important subject more prominently under the
notice of the members, confining myself, how-
ever, to its practical bearing on mechanical
operations, without discussing different systems
of notation, which I leave to other and abler
hands.
I have long been convinced that great and
rapid progress would be made in many branches
of the mechanical arts if the decimal system of
58
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
measures could be generally introduced. To
state the case broadly, instead of our engineers
and machinists thinking in eighths, sixteenths
and thirty-seconds of an inch, it is desirable that
they should think and speak in tenths, hun-
dredths, and thousandths. I can assure those
who have been accustomed to the fractional sys-
tem that the change to the more perfect decimal
one is easy of attainment, and, when once made,
it will from its usefulness and convenience amply
repay any trouble which may have attended its
acquirement. In the manufacture of my stan-
dard gauges of size, the workmen measure to
the 1-20,000th of an inch, and these measures are
as familiar and appreciable as those of any larger
dimensions. It will therefore be at once con-
ceded that the only scale of measurement which
can be used for such small sizes and propor-
tionally small differences must be a decimal one,
as any other would be productive of insurmount-
able difficulty, if not of utter confusion.
When the sizes of the fitting parts of machines
are determined by sight from the lines on a scale
or a two-foot rule, such nicety of measurement
is out of the question; and as long as they are
made on that system, the progress of improve-
ment will be retarded. My experience has
satisfied me that no system of measurement
depending on the power of sight is suitable for
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
59
obtaining the size of the working parts of ma-
chines. Where exact size or good fitting is
required, the sense of touch is far more to be
depended upon. I make standards of size by a
system of measurement depending for its ac-
curacy upon the sense of touch; and use an
instrument provided with a mechanical multi-
plier, by which a space is presented to the eye
many thousand times greater in extent than is
the case where the distance is directly measured
by sight only.
With truth of surface, that never-failing ele-
ment of success, as the basis of operation, we
are enabled to measure with exactitude; and there
is no difficulty in making parts of machines to
fit one another with any degree of nicety: but,
when we wish to express correctly by the com-
mon fractional system very minute measure-
ments, our ideas are cramped and hampered by
an inconvenient and often confused system of
notation. What exact notion can any man have
of such a size as "a bare sixteenth" or "a full
thirty-second;" and what inconvenient results
may ensue from the different notions of different
workmen as to the value of these terms. A scale
of notation that may have suited the old system
of manufacture has been left behind, I am happy
to say, as the present age has improved on the
past; and our improvement has created a want
60
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
which necessity urges us to supply without de-
lay. In the production of duplicate parts of
machinery, correct measurement is indispensable
to ensure good work: and if, as is the case, we
are able to measure with all the accuracy and
nicety that can be required, we surely ought at
once to adopt a system of notation which will
properly represent our measurements.
As an illustration of the importance of very
small differences of size, I have brought an in-
ternal gauge having a cylindrical aperture 5770
inch diameter, and two external gauges or solid
cylinders, one being 5769 inch, and the other
•5770 inch diameter. The latter is 1-10,000th
of an inch larger than the former, and fits tightly
in the internal gauge when both are clean and
dry; while the smaller 5769 inch gauge is so
loose in it as to appear not to fit at all. These
gauges are finished with great care, and are
made true after being casehardened. They are
so hard that nothing but the diamond will cut
them, except the grinding process to which they
have been subjected. The effect of applying a
drop of fine oil to the surfaces of these gauges
is very remarkable.
It will be observed that
the fit of the larger cylinder becomes more easy,
while that of the smaller becomes more tight.
These results show the necessity of
proper lubri-
cation. In the case of the external gauge ·5770
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
61
inch diameter, the external and internal gauges
are so near in size that the one does not go
through the other when dry, and if pressed in,
there would be danger of the surface particles of
the one becoming imbedded in or among those
of the other, which I have seen happen, and then
no amount of force will separate them: but with
a small quantity of oil on their surfaces, they
move easily and smoothly. In the case of the
external gauge 5769 inch diameter, which is
1-10,000th of an inch smaller in diameter than
the internal gauge, a space of half that quantity
is left between the surfaces; this becomes filled
with the oil, and hence the tighter fitting which
is experienced.
It is therefore obvious both to the eye and the
touch, that the difference between these two
cylinders of 1-10,000th of an inch is an appreci-
able and important quantity; and what is now
required is a method which shall express system-
atically and without confusion a scale applicable
to such minute differences and measurements:
it should be based on a uniform principle which
will accustom the workman to speak of his mea-
sures as aggregates of very small differences;
and when a good workman becomes familiar
with such sizes as 1-1000th and 1-10,000th of an
inch, he will not rest satisfied until he can work
with corresponding accuracy. He will also be
62
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
able to judge of their effect under different cir-
cumstances, and know how much to allow in the
fitting parts of a machine, according to their
relative importance and the treatment they are
likely to receive at the hands of the attendant.
For instance, the cylinder of the moving head-
stock of a lathe requires as good a fit as possible;
but in practice it is found that the cylinder
must be 0005 inch or 1-2000th of an inch too
small, because it frequently happens that ma-
chinery is not kept in a proper state of cleanli-
ness, or from motives of false economy is lubri-
cated with bad oil. These are two evils which
are productive of great mischief. The abrasion
caused by accumulated dust and grit produces
increased wear and tear, and soon injures the
surfaces in contact; while bad oil becomes
sticky and rancid, and spoils the working of a
good fit.
And here let me state what I think is the
proper definition of a good fit. A tight fit is
not necessarily a good one; but when the sur-
faces are true, and a proper allowance is made
in the size of the parts working together, then
a good fit is obtained. What constitutes a
proper allowance or difference in size depends
on the nature of the case, and the treatment
which the machinery will meet with. In ma-
chinery supplied to establishments using rape oil
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
63
there must be greater allowance and looseness
in the fits than would be requisite if better oil,
as sperm oil, were used. I need scarcely say
how much more advisable it is to have the more
accurate fit and use the best oil, than to have a
loose fit and use the inferior oil, which causing
more friction consumes greater power.
Again, a good workman acquires by experience
an intuitive knowledge of the allowances in size
which are requisite in various cases; and if a
suitable decimal system of notation be adopted,
there will be no difficulty, with the power of mea-
surement we now possess, in registering minute
differences; and so the knowledge gained by the
experienced workman may be imparted to others
in precise terms, which to the young beginner
will be of invaluable service. Much important
information may by these means be stored up,
and at any time reference can be made to the
experience of the past, which will then run no
risk of being lost through disuse, inattention, or
other causes.
pro-
The deterioration of templates or patterns of
size, from their becoming worn or altered in
cess of time, is productive of great inconvenience,
as many of us perhaps have experienced. For
when an original standard was thus altered, it
was irretrievably lost, because there were no
means of ascertaining and recording the exact
64
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
measure. It is of great importance to the manu-
facturer who makes parts of machines in large
quantities to have the means of referring to an
accurate fixed measure: it will enable him to
reproduce at any time a facsimile of what he has
once made, and so preserve a system of sizes of
the fitting parts unaltered. The greatest care
should be taken to make standards of size cor-
rectly at first, and to preserve them unaltered.
Errors in the standards are not only propagated
in the copies, but are superadded to the errors
in the workmanship, which will occur in the
course of manufacture; and this is especially
likely to occur in cases where one manufacturer
supplies parts of machines for the use of
another.
My argument is shortly this:-If we had a
better system of notation for our measures, in
which small differences in size were expressed in
terms conveying their value to the mind, the
importance of minute and accurate measure-
ments would become more familiar, more appre-
ciated, and more generally applied. Many
operations would by that means be more easily
and effectually performed, and in some cases
greater safety will be the result. Take for
instance the present method of proving guns,
which are proved by firing them with a consider-
able charge of powder and shot. If the barrel
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
65
stands the proof without manifest injury, it is
passed as a good one, while it may in the very
process of proof have received such permanent
injury as to render it highly dangerous for use.
How much better it would be after proving the
barrel to measure it, and ascertain accurately if
any, and what, permanent alteration had taken
place, and retain or reject it accordingly. This
would be substituting an exact and satisfactory
system for an uncertain and dubious trial; but,
inasmuch as the degrees of alteration will be
various, and the differences in their measurement
very minute, a better system of notation with
the improved mode of measuring is required, to
enable this and other similarly useful applications
to be made.
After careful thought and a comparison of
different scales, I have come to the conclusion
that the scale for standards of size given in the
accompanying Table is the one I would recom-
mend to be adopted. I have endeavoured to
arrange one which would be easily intelligible to
the ordinary workman, and that would in every
possible case coincide with the old system, so as
not to cause more expense in altering the present
sizes than may be absolutely necessary.
I am
perfectly aware that other scales may be devised
more complete and more advantageous in many
respects, if we were now prepared not merely to
F
66
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
revolutionise, but to abandon what has been
manufactured and is now in use. But would
not that be going too far? As long as the
machines already made are in existence, the
sizes of their parts cannot be abandoned; and
these considerations have induced me to propose
a scale which shall combine the greatest possible
advantages with the least possible change.
It would be desirable that those establishments
which may decide upon adopting the decimal
scale should introduce rules having the inch
divided into tenths and their subdivisions, which
would soon become as familiar to the workman
as the eighth scale he now uses.
The scale proposed for the wire-gauge com-
mences with the smallest size and increases by
thousandths of an inch up to half an inch.
Contrary to the custom usually adopted in
marking the wire-gauge, I have called the
smallest size No. 1, being 1-1000th of an inch,
No. 2 being 2-1000ths of an inch, and so on;
increasing up to No. 20 by 1-1000th of an inch
between each number; from No. 20 to 40 by
2-1000ths; from No. 40 to No. 100 by 5-1000ths
of an inch. I propose therefore to suppress the use
of the numbers of designation which have been
hitherto employed for the various wire-gauges,
and simply call the sizes by their expressive
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
67
numbers in thousandths of an inch, as shown in
the accompanying table of wire-gauges; a
change which will, I think, render the new scale
easily intelligible and convenient for use.
F 2
68
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
MR. WHITWORTH'S PROPOSED DECIMAL SCALE.
No. of
Screw
Threads
per
Inch,
STANDARDS OF SIZE.
Proposed
Standards of Size
for Taps and Dies.
New
WIRE-GAUGE.
Standard
Wire-Gauge.
Old
Old
Old
Birmingham
Lancashire Metal or
Wire-Gauge. Wire-Gauge. Plate. Gauge.
Old
Needle
Wire-Gauge.
Old
Music
Wire-Gauge.
Old
Standards
of Size.
Value of
each No.
New Nos.
of Gauge.
Sizes.
in
Decimals
Decimals
of an
Thousandths
of an Inch.
Old Nos.
of
Gauge
corresp ding
Old Nos.
of
Old Nos.
of
Gauge
of an Inch.
Inch.
to
New Nos.
corresponding
to
New Nos.
Gauge
corresponding
to
New Nos.
Old Nos.
of
Gauge
corresponding
to
New Nos.
of
Gauge
corresponding
to
New Nos.
Old Nos.
48
40
•100
•001
1/30
•125
•002
32
•150
⚫003
24
•175
⚫004
1234
36
24
•200
*005
35
2
12
19
18
24
•225
⚫006
6
20
•250
*007
34
17
*
20
•275
*008
33
3
16
18
*300
⚫009
9
32
15
18
*325
⚫010
10
31
4
14
18
*350
•011
11
16
.375
⚫012
12
30
16
*4.00
⚫013
13
29
14
•4.25
•014
14
14
*450
⚫015
15
14
*475
⚫016
16
27
12
Ha
•500
•017
17
12
•525
•018
18
12
*550
•019
19
12
•575
⚫020
20
25
12
•600
⚫022
22
24
11
ooker
•625
⚫024
24
11
⚫650
⚫026
26
11
11
.675
*028
28
22
.700
⚫030
30
222 :::*** :2:
26
INNN: JL: FILE::
6
10 CO
5
13
12
77
78
11
10
76
9
9
7
74
72
70
:9 := :
10
826
8
7
10
12
13
11
cr
14
15
STANDARD DECIMAL MEASURES.
69
10
03/0
•750
⚫032
32
10
⚫800
⚫034
34
9
700
.875
*036
36
2:27
21
66
4
15
64
12
20
62
13
:23
17
3
18
9
⚫900
*038
38
61
19
8
1
1.000
⚫040
40
19*
59
14
2*
20*
7
7
6
6
5
5
4
4
4
PAAAAAA &
4/12 1/7/2
4/2
42
4 21/0
3
3/1/2
3/12/
34
3/1
3
3
21/
21/2
22
23/1
20/
20/0
2/2
2/2
~100 HK mbo Hlev zako colt =-100
-100 - 200 Hlca volo colai NOO
HÄÄN∞ÀÀÊÊÊ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ mo
Ha Ha Her
HA HA HA |-* H*
∞
1O 1O 1O LO CO
að ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞~~~~ 2 2
700 71002/4 22)+ vsako wako HN HA
11/1/00
1.125
*045
4.5
56
15*
1
14
1.250
*050
50
18
55
16
1/3/20
1.375
*055
55
54
17*
1/1/20
1.500
⚫060
60
17*
52
18
11
1.625
⚫065
65
16
51
19
1.750
•070
70
15*
49
21*
1.875
*075
75
47
22
2
2.000
·080
80
45
24*
2.125
2/1/
*085
85
14*
43
24 2.250
*090
90
42
23/30
2.375
⚫095
95
13
41
25
22 2.500
•100
100
38
26**
2.625
•110
110
12
34
27**
2
2.750
•120
120
11
31*
28
23/1
2.875
•135
135
10
29
31*
3
3.000
•150
150
9*
23
34*
341
سراح راح تتاجر
3.250
•165
165
19
36*
3.500
•180
180
7
13
3.750
•200
200
6**
5
4
44
4.000
•220
220
5
2
4.250
•240
240
4*
42
4.500
*260
260
4
4.750
•280
280
5.000
⚫300
300
321
G
2**
K
N*
5.250
*325
325
P*
5/
5.500
*350
350
S*
532080
5.750
.375
375
00**
V*
6.000
•4.00
400
X**
•425
4.25
000
*450
4,50
0000**
•475
475
*500
500
NOTE. These Nos. correspond exactly or within 001 inch with the
new proposed Nos., except those marked *, which are within 002 inch,
and those marked **, which are beyond ⚫002 inch.
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
FIRE-ARMS are rifled to give rotation to
the projectile round its axis of progression, in
order to insure a regular and steady flight, the
first thing therefore to be considered is what
are the best mechanical means of effecting this
object.
It would be foreign to
to our purpose to
consider any of the various plans which have
been proposed for furnishing the projectile itself
with vanes, wings, grooves, or other configura-
tions intended to give it rotation during its
passage through the air. The only practical
method hitherto adopted has been to make the
barrel of a fire-arm of such a shape in its interior,
that the projectile while being propelled from
74
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
the breech to the muzzle may receive a rotatory
combined with a forward motion.
The system of rifling by grooves is the
one that has been generally employed, and
many experiments with different numbers of
grooves, some of varying depths being deeper at
the breech, and with different turns, some in-
creasing towards the muzzle, have been tried
and thought advantageous at various times.
The Enfield rifle has three grooves, with
a pitch of 6 feet 6 inches, so that the bullet
receives half a turn round its axis while moving
through the barrel, the length of which is 3 feet
3 inches. The bullet, as is well known, is
cylindro-conoidal, it is wrapped in paper and
made of such a diameter as to pass easily
down the barrel. It requires very pure lead
to allow of its being properly expanded or
'upset," by the explosion, and is driven partly
against the original portions of the bore, called
the lands, and partly in the form of raised ribs
is forced into the grooves, whose spiral shape
gives the required rotation. See figure A.
"6
In the system of rifling which I have
adopted the interior of the barrel is hexagonal,
and, instead of consisting partly of non-effective
lands and partly of grooves, consists of
effective rifling surfaces. The angular corners
of the hexagon are always rounded, as shewn

Enfield
Fig. A.
Fig a.
Fig. B.
Hexagonal
of the weight used
Fig. b
Fig. C.
Bullet
Bullet
in the service
Section of Cylindrical Bullet in hexagonal Barrel.
Day & Son Lith" to the Queen
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
75
in section by figure C. Either cylindrical or
hexagonal bullets may be used.
See figures
B, b. Supposing a bullet of a cylindrical shape
to be fired, when it begins to expand it is
driven into the recesses of the hexagon, as
shown in figure C. It thus adapts itself to the
curves of the spiral, and the inclined sides of
the hexagon offering no direct resistance, expan-
sion is easily effected.
It is most important to observe, that
with all expanding bullets proper powder must
be employed. In many cases this kind of bullet
has failed, owing to the use of a slowly-igniting
powder, which is desirable for a hard metal pro-
jectile, as it causes less strain upon the piece,
but is unsuitable with a soft metal expanding
projectile, for which a quickly-igniting powder
is absolutely requisite to insure a complete
expansion, which will fill the bore. Unless
this is done the gases rush past the bullet,
between it and the barrel, the latter becomes
foul, the bullet is distorted, and the shooting
must be bad. With regard to fouling, it may be
prevented by using a proper quantity of lubri-
cating substance, of the right kind and adapted
to the temperature of the weather, and a proper
charge of powder of the right quality.
If the projectile used be made of the same
hexagonal shape externally as the bore of the
76
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
barrel internally, that is, with a mechanical fit,
metals of all degrees of hardness, from lead, or
lead and tin, up to hardened steel, may be
employed, and slowly-igniting powder, like that
of the service, may be used.
Having noticed the form of interior which
provides the best rifling surfaces, the next thing
to be considered is the turn, that is, the proper
curve which the rifled barrels ought to possess in
order to give the projectile the necessary degree
of rotation; this, in all cases must be sufficient
to keep the projectile with its point foremost.
The Enfield rifle, with one turn in 6 feet
6 inches, causes the bullet, on issuing from
the muzzle, to rotate once on its axis in
six and a-half feet. This moderate degree of
rotation only admits of short projectiles being
used, as long ones turn over on issuing from the
barrel, and at long ranges, the short ones
become unsteady.
With the hexagonal barrel, I use much
quicker turns, and can fire projectiles of any
required length, as with the quickest that may
be desirable they do not "strip." I made a
short barrel with one turn in the inch (simply
to try the effect of an extreme velocity of rota-
tion) and found that I could fire from it
mechanically-fitting projectiles made of an alloy
of lead and tin, and with a charge of 35 grains
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
77
of powder they penetrated through 7 inches of
elm planks.
At first I was desirous of using, if pos-
sible, the turn adopted for the Enfield Rifle,
for firing long projectiles, and I tried various
shapes and combinations of metal, so as to place
the centre of gravity in different positions more
or less forward; but when they were fired, the
marks left by their passage through a paper
screen, placed about 6 feet from the muzzle of
the rifle, showed that they all turned over
within that distance, because the rotation given
by that comparatively slow turn invariably
proved insufficient to keep them point foremost.
For an ordinary military barrel, 39 inches long,
I proposed a 45-inch bore, with one turn in
20 inches, which is, in my opinion, the best for
this length. The rotation is sufficient, with a
bullet of the requisite specific gravity, for a
range of 2,000 yards. The gun responds to
every increase of charge, by giving better eleva-
tion, from the service charge of 70 grains up to
120 grains; this latter charge is the largest
that can be effectively consumed, and the recoil
then becomes more than the shoulder can con-
veniently bear with the weight of the service
musket.
The advocates of the slow turn of one in
6 feet 6 inches consider that a quick turn causes
78
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
so much friction as to impede the progress of
the ball to an injurious, and sometimes dangerous
degree, and to produce loss of elevation and
range; but my experiments show the contrary to
be the case. The effect of too quick a turn,
as to friction, is felt in the greatest degree
when the projectile has attained its highest
velocity in the barrel, that is at the muzzle,
and is felt in its least degree when the pro-
jectile is beginning to move, at the breech.
The great strain put upon a gun at the instant
of explosion is due, not to the resistance of
friction, but to the vis inertia of the projectile
which has to be overcome. In a long barrel,
with an extremely quick turn, the resistance
offered to the progress of the projectile as it
is urged forward becomes very great at the
muzzle, and although moderate charges give
good results, the rifle will not respond to
increased charges by giving better elevation. If
the barrel be cut shorter an increase of charge
then improves the elevation.
The use of an increasing or varying turn is
obviously injurious, for besides altering the
shape of the bullet it causes increased resistance
at the muzzle,-the very place where relief is
wanted.
Finding that all difficulty arising from
length of projectiles is overcome by giving
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
79
sufficient rotation, and that any weight that
may be necessary can be obtained by adding to
the length, I adopted for the bullet of the service
weight (530 grains) an increased length, and a
reduced diameter, and obtained a comparatively
low trajectory.* This affords very great advan-
tages; less elevation is required and the path
of the projectile lies more nearly in a straight line,
making it more likely to hit any object of mode-
rate height within range, and rendering mistakes
in judging of distances of less moment. The
great difficulty experienced in the use of the
rifle for long distances arises from the utter
incapability of any marksman to judge correctly
the distances of objects far away; it can only
be met by making the projectile move in a
trajectory or path as low and level as possible,
this is done by using the reduced diameter which
offers to the resistance of the air a proportionally
less area, so that a high velocity is attained,
shortening thereby the time of flight, and the
projectile is very much less deflected by the
action of the wind.
While the ordinary grooved rifle depends
upon the expansion of the soft metal projectile,
*The trajectory of a projectile being the curve it
describes in its passage; its height is represented by a per-
pendicular from its highest part let fall on a horizontal plane
passing though the rifle.
80
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
in the hexagonal system, rifling may be effected
independently of expansion, by making the
projectile of the same shape as the interior of
the barrel; in other words, by having a mecha-
nical fit between them. The projectile may be
used naked, and be made of metal of any degree
of hardness. The expansion principle may also
be combined with an easy mechanical fit, so that
a projectile of metal harder than lead, as an alloy
of lead and tin, may be used, which, while it loads
easily, will expand sufficiently to fill up the
bore, and give more than double the penetration
of lead.
This system thus admits of the employ-
ment of projectiles of different densities and
varied shapes, suitable for special purposes. If for
example it be required to fire through plates of
iron, a flat-fronted projectile of steel of the form
shown in figure E, will be employed. When
the flat-fronted projectiles were fired in com-
parison with those having rounded fronts, like
figure B, from the same barrel, and under
precisely similar conditions as to range (500
yards), charge, and weight, the pointed projec-
tiles were not found to possess any great practical
advantages over the flat ones, for the elevation
of the former was only a minute and a-half
better than that of the latter.
It was satisfactory to find that so slight a

Fig. D.
Tubular hexagonal
Projectile
Section of tubular
Fig. d
Fig. E
hexagonal projectile
Flat Conted
Hexagonal projectile
Fig.e
Day & Son Lith to the Queen.
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
81
difference existed between the two shapes, for
in other respects the flat-fronted projectile has
many advantages. Besides being the form best
adapted, as has been said, for firing against iron
plates, it may be used for penetrating through
water; in this respect I have succeeded in
obtaining results which, while they are most
important, were, I believe, previously considered
unattainable. For firing through elastic
materials, tubular projectiles, as shown in
fig. D are used. They are fired with a wooden
wad, and take out a core from the object per-
forated, leaving a corresponding hole which
does not close up. The tubular projectiles
also penetrate deeper into masonry than those
of any other shape I am acquainted with.
The system of rifling which has been
described with reference more particularly to
small arms, is equally applicable to ordnance
of all sizes. The principle of construction is
simple and the extent of bearing afforded by
the rifling surfaces provides amply for the wear
of the interior of the gun; any requisite allow-
ance for windage may be made at the same time
that the projectile is kept concentric with the
bore. When it enters the gun it bears upon
a certain portion of each side of the hexagon,
and when it comes out it bears on the opposite
portion,-by easing off, therefore, that half of
Ꮐ
82
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
each side on which the projectile bears as it
enters, proper windage is allowed, the other
halves of the sides are left to preserve a full
extent of bearing surface as it comes out, and
at the same time maintain its concentricity with
the bore. This plan of providing for windage
obviates the great evils which arise from eccen-
tricity in the case of spherical shot.
The effect of a proper rifling turn, which varies
according to the bore and length of the piece, pro-
duces, as has been before shewn,* no loss of eleva-
tion while the rotation given to the shot adds
greatly to its destructive power.t The practice
obtained from an ordinary 9-pounder brass field
gun, rifled by me, proves that, with a charge of
powder one-third less than the service charge,
the range was one-half greater than that of the
same gun with spherical shot.
In comparing the strain upon a rifled can-
non with that upon a smooth bore, the work
done by the respective pieces must be taken into
consideration. If the full powers of the former
are to be exerted, and, if the extreme ranges
* See Ante p. 78. Out of a 24-pounder howitzer, having
a turn of one in forty inches, I fired, with low charges, shells
10 diameters in length.
† When a rifle cannon shot enters into a ship, and strikes
at an angle, it is deflected from object to object and sweeps
round inside the ship, going through or tearing everything it
encounters.
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
83
which it is capable of giving are required, a
proportionally greater strain will be put upon
the piece on account of the elongated form of
the shot, and more strength is therefore required.
The mode of making large iron guns, by
casting them in solid masses (as at present), is
highly objectionable, and is certainly not suitable
for bearing the full strain of a rifled
gun. It is
well known that if iron be cast in large masses,
great irregularities will be produced in the metal
during the process of cooling; and, beyond a
certain limit, little or no increase of strength
is gained by increasing its thickness.
Improved modes of construction can, how-
ever, be adopted, which will admit of the gun
being loaded at the breech when required, and
will give all the strength necessary for as large
a charge of powder as can be consumed with
the projectile intended for the piece. It is clear
that every gun should have that amount of
strength as a minimum standard.
In the construction of rifle cannon many
things have to be considered in relation, and
often in antagonism to each other, as the weight
and length of the piece,-the diameter and
weight of the projectile, the charge, the amount
of rifling turn, and it sometimes happens that
an advantage in one respect can only be gained
by submitting to disadvantage in another.
G 2
84
RIFLED FIRE-ARMS.
The amount of turn to be given must be con-
sidered with relation to the charges intended
to be used and the length of the gun, but should
be as quick as possible, since the extent of true
steady flight, in the case of a long projectile,
depends on the rotation given to it
For a
great range, length of gun is requisite, as it
provides for the consumption of large charges
of powder, but the quick turn, which is so de-
sirable, limits the length that can be used.
The best combinations and proportions can only
be arrived at after careful experiment.
I would observe, before concluding this paper,
that it has been drawn up rather with the view
of offering some reply to many inquiries, than
with the intention of giving a detailed account of
what has been done, or of presenting a complete
treatise on the subject.
NOTE.-It is right to state that, from the time I first under-
took, at the solicitation of the Government, to render
what assistance I could in the improvement of rifled
arms; I have always devoted my time and attention
to them, without any remuneration whatever, even for
personal expenses. The sums required have been
advanced by myself; periodical accounts are sent in
to the Government, and the advances have been repaid
at its convenience.
APPENDIX.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION,
1853.
OFFICIAL REPORT.
87
TABLE OF CONTENTS OF APPENDIX.
CHAPTER I.
STEAM ENGINES AND MACHINERY.
New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Buffalo,
Boston, Lowell, Lawrence, Holyoke, Worcester, Hartford,
and Springfield.
Paragraph.
1. Number of establishments visited.
2. Marine engine works.
3. Locality of Works-Beam engines.
4. River steamers for shallow waters.
5. Lake steamers-Propellers.
6. Caloric engine.
CHAPTER II,
PROCESS OF CASTING, COOLING, &C., RAILWAY WHEELS,
-
AND ANNEALING RAILROAD SPIKE MAKING NAIL
AND RIVET MAKING-CAST STEEL WORKS-ENGINE
TOOLS.
Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, Lawrence, Worcester.
7. Iron castings.
8. Pickling castings.
9. Annealing railway wheels.
10. Railroad spikes.
11. Nails and rivets.
12. Cast steel.
13. Engine tools.
88
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER III.
BUTTONS—DAGUERREOTYPE
FRAMES-PINS-HOOKS - AND -
EYES-CUTLERY, ETC,
Waterbury.
14. New manufacturing towns.
15. Waterbury.
16. Button machinery.
17. Daguerreotype frames.
18. Pin and hook-and-eye manufactory.
19. Hook-and-eye making.
20. Cutlery.
CHAPTER IV.
LOCKS-PORCELAIN-HANDLES-CLOCKS-PISTOLS AND GUNS.
Pittsburgh, Newhaven, Worcester, Hartford.
21. Lockmaking.
22. Clocks.
23. Guns and pistols,
CHAPTER V.
WOOD WORKING.
Lowell, Buffalo, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Worcester,
Newhaven.
24. Labour-saving machines.
25. Saw mills, Lowell.
26. Saw mills, Buffalo.
27. Planing machines.
28. Daniels' planing machine.
29. Box making.
30. Spill, or match-making machine.
31. Last and boot-tree manufactory.
32. Furniture making.
33. Agricultural implements-Ploughs.
34. Ploughs (continued).
35. Mowing machines.
36. Churn making, &c.
37. Carriage making.
OF APPENDIX.
89
CHAPTER VI.
STONE DRESSING WORKS—BRICKMAKING FROM DRY CLAY.
Staten Island, New York, Washington.
38. Stone planing machines.
39. Stone polishing machine.
40. Brickmaking from dry clay.
41. Brickmaking from dry clay (continued).
CHAPTER VII.
INDIARUBBER MANUFACTORY-FISHING-NET MAKING
MACHINE-FLOUR MILLS-ELEVATORS.
Newhaven, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Buffalo.
42. Indiarubber manufactures.
43. Indiarubber over-shoes.
44. Fishing-net machines.
45. Corn and flour mills.
46. Elevators.
CHAPTER VIII.
COTTON MILLS CARPET MANUFACTORY WOOLLEN AND
FELT CLOTH MAKING SEWING MACHINERY-COTTON
GIN.
Lowell, Lawrence, Holyoke, Waterbury, Newhaven,
47. Textile fabrics.
New York.
48. (Lowell, Lawrence, and Holyoke, in Massachusetts.
49. The capital stock of the companies.
50. Waterpower used for driving the machinery in all
the mills.
51. The first mills commenced operation in Lowell
in 1823.
52. (Lawrence.
53. Water power.
54. Cotton mills.
55. New cotton mill.
56. Woollen factory.
57. Felt making.
58. Machine shop.
90
TABLE OF CONTENTS OF APPENDIX.
59. Holyoke cotton mills.
60. Cotton mills.
61. Hosiery.
62. Shirtmaking by machinery, Newhaven.
63. New cotton gin.
CHAPTER IX.
RAILWAYS - RAILWAY CARRIAGES LARGE FOUR-MASTED
SHIP-FIRE COMPANIES.
64. Railways.
65. Railway crossings.
66. Railway inclines.
67. Street railroads.
68. Railroad cars.
69. A four-masted clipper ship.
70. Fire companies.
CHAPTER X.
GOVERNMENT WORKS.
New York, Boston, Washington, Springfield.
71. Navy Yard, New York.
72. Navy Yard, Washington.
73. Boston Navy Yard.
74. Springfield Armoury.
75. Coast Survey Office, Washington.
CONCLUSIONS.
91
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION
IN 1853.
SPECIAL REPORT OF MR. JOSEPH WHITWORTH.
HAVING been unavoidably prevented, as ex-
plained in the General Report of the Commis-
sion,* from making a report upon the Machinery
exhibited in the New York Industrial Exhibition,
I have drawn up in a concise form the results of
observations made while visiting the principal
seats of those manufactures which came within
my department.
The statement thus prepared embraces a
variety of subjects, somewhat miscellaneous in
their character, and which do not conveniently
admit of a regular classification. I have
endeavoured, however, as far as possible, to
overcome this difficulty, and to adopt an arrange-
ment by which the substance of the information
* This arose from the incomplete state of this depart-
ment of the New York Exhibition up to the time when I
left the United States.
92
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
which I collected may be distinctly and fully
appreciated. This Report does not affect to
embrace the whole scope of American manu-
factures, nor even to exhaust the interest of
those particular departments upon which it
touches; it is merely intended to direct attention
to such facts connected with the machinery of
the United States as came within my obser-
vation, and which it appeared desirable should
be known to those engaged in mechanical and
industrial pursuits in this country.
To the general reader many of the descrip-
tions of manufacturing processes will, I am
aware, be uninteresting; and in some cases,
perhaps, unintelligible; for, looking to the
persons for whose information I have more
immediately written, I have thought it proper to
adhere to those technical terms which are in use
among men who are more or less acquainted
with the application of mechanical science.
For instance, when in describing a cotton mill
in America, I have said, "One man can attend
to a mule containing 1,088 spindles, each
spinning 3 hanks, or 3,264 hanks on the average
per day," I am aware that I am using technical
language incomprehensible to the ordinary
reader, but these few words convey all the
requisite information to those practically ac-
quainted with the subject. I have not, therefore,
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
93
attempted to impart a popular tone to the
Report; and the very few general reflections
which I have ventured to offer, are given at its
close.
Some works have been noticed for their
novelty and interest, others for their practical
utility as affecting our native industry, and in
some instances the information which I have
collected has been directed to convey a general
idea of the extent to which particular branches
of manufactures are developed, of the conditions,
as to management, under which they are carried
on, and of the causes to which their flourishing
condition is chiefly due.
The accidental absence of principals at the
period of my visits, the limited time at my
disposal, and my anxiety to embrace as wide a
field of observation as possible, have severally
constituted impediments where more minute
information might have seemed desirable; but
whatever may be the defects of this necessarily
imperfect Report, I desire to record my sincere
acknowledgments for the great courtesy and the
kind attention which I received on all hands
during my visit to the United States; I am the
more bound to do so as the plan which I have
pursued has precluded me from mentioning the
names of many gentlemen who so greatly facili-
tated the objects of my visit, by showing me
94 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION,
over their own establishments, accompanying
me to those of others, and affording me all the
information in their power.
CHAPTER I.
STEAM ENGINES AND MACHINERY.
NEW YORK,
PHILADELPHIA, BALTIMORE, PITTSBURGH,
BUFFALO, BOSTON, LOWELL, LAWRENCE, HOLYOKE,
WORCESTER, HARTFORD, AND SPRINGFIELD.
The
1. Number of Establishments visited.
vast resources of the United States are being
developed with a success that promises results
whose importance it is impossible to estimate.
This development, instead of being, as in
former cases, gradual and protracted through
ages, is, by the universal application of machinery,
effected with a rapidity that is altogether unpre-
cedented.
Upwards of thirty establishments visited in
different parts of the States, and employing in
the aggregate from 6,000 to 7,000 men, afforded
direct evidence that the greatest energy and
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 95
attention are brought to bear upon the manu-
facture of machinery.
2. Marine Engine Works. The principal
marine steam engine works are in New York,
but there are large establishments of a mixed
character in almost every town of importance;
to particularise these and to give a full descrip-
tion of each is unnecessary. They are similar in
character, and it frequently happens that it is
only in some of the details that there is anything
to remark upon. The practice which prevails of
combining various branches of manufacture in
the same establishment, would also render sepa-
rate descriptions of each somewhat complicated.
For instance, in some cases the manufacture of
locomotives is combined with that of mill gearing,
engine tools, spinning and other machinery. In
others, marine engines, hydraulic presses, forge
hammers, and large cannon were all being made
in the same establishments. The policy of thus
mixing together the various branches is objec-
tionable; but the practice doubtless arises, in
addition to other causes, from the fact that the
demand is not always sufficient to occupy large
works in a single manufacture.
Wherever facilities of carriage or other
causes render it practicable to confine estab-
lishments to a special branch the most advan-
96 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
tageous results ensue. This was very evident in
numerous and striking instances, which will be
hereafter noticed.
It is to the introduction of railroads that the
advantageous subdivision of manufactures is to
be chiefly ascribed. The operations of large
establishments are no longer confined to par-
ticular localities; the facilities of transport being
so great, they are enabled to supply their special
products, not only to a district or a kingdom,
but to the world at large.
It is evident that isolated notices of details
made in various places must have a disconnected
character, and it is, therefore, convenient to
mention in separate paragraphs what appeared
worthy of remark.
3. Locality of Works. Beam Engines. -
Nearly all the marine engine works in New York
are conveniently situated on the water side, and
have slips attached to their yards, where vessels
may be moored. The rise and fall of the tide is
generally so small as to obviate the necessity of
docks. Steam engines having their beams above
the deck, are commonly used for the river and
ferry boats, and they have generally a very long
stroke. The following are some of the dimen-
sions of a beam engine of one of the New York
river steamers :-
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
97
Length of stroke, 12 feet; length of beam,
24 feet; depth of beam in the middle, 10 feet.
The form of the beam is that of an elongated
parallelogram, the outer frame or skeleton is
made in one piece of wrought iron, inside of
which is fitted another frame of cast iron, carrying
the axis.
.
4. River Steamers for Shallow Waters.-A
steamboat running on the Ohio, from Pittsburgh
to Cincinnati, had a pair of direct acting engines
with 32-inch cylinders and 8 feet stroke. There
was no main crank shaft connecting the two
paddle wheels, but each engine worked its own
wheel independently of the other. This arrange-
ment enables the boat to be steered with greater
facility round the sharp turns encountered in the
tortuous course of the river. The framework
and outer bearings of the paddle wheels are sup-
ported by suspension rods, which are, as it were,
slung over beams, and framework strongly con-
structed, and fixed in the centre of the vessel.
The main deck is 280 feet long, and 58 feet wide.
The paddles are 38 feet in diameter, having
twenty-four floats, 12 feet wide by 28 inches in
depth. For shallow rivers, flat-bottomed steamers,
propelled by a paddle-wheel at the stern, are
commonly used. Two were being built of iron
in New York, drawing only 2 feet of water,
H
98 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
which were intended for the passage across the
isthmus of Panama by the Nicaragua route.
5. Lake Steamers.-Propellers.-A marine
engine establishment at Buffalo was principally
occupied in making engines for screw steamers
intended for lake and river navigation. The
propellers of those intended to run in shallow
waters are made with four, and sometimes six
blades, each, and revolve with rather less than
half their diameter immersed in the water. The
blades are made of wrought iron, and bolted on
to a cast-iron boss, fitted on the propeller shaft,
so that a blade broken or damaged by coming
in contact with "snags," or other obstructions,
may be easily replaced. Some of the dimensions
of machinery in a lake boat, used for carrying
cargo, are as follows: -The propeller is 16 feet
in diameter, with a pitch of 17 feet 3 inches,
making 60 revolutions per minute; the cylinders
are 36 inches in diameter, with a 10 feet stroke,
and the speed attained averages about eleven
miles per hour. The vessel has an upper deck
for the accommodation of about 60 passengers.
Small high-pressure steam engines for flour mills,
agricultural implements, and other machinery,
are made in the same establishment.
6. Caloric Engines.-Ericsson's caloric en-
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
99
gines were undergoing repair and alteration in
New York, with the view of making the heated
air act alternately upon each side of the piston,
similarly to steam in an ordinary engine. The
bottom of the cylinder is made of wrought iron,
and arched. The upper part, in which the piston
works, is of cast iron, and is connected to the
lower part by bolts; it was the lower portion
which proved defective in strength.
CHAPTER II.
PROCESS OF CASTING, COOLING, ETC., RAILWAY
WHEELS, AND ANNEALING-RAILROAD SPIKE
MAKING-NAIL AND RIVET MAKING-CAST
STEEL WORKS-ENGINE TOOLS.
PITTSBURGH, PHILADELPHIA, LAWRENCE, WORCESTER.
7. Iron Castings.-The iron castings in some
of the establishments were very good, and cylin-
ders from 8 to 14 feet in diameter were well
bored, with a finishing feed of cut of about three-
eighths of an inch per revolution, which is a
H 2
100 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
width of cut at least three times as great as that
ordinarily given in English works.
At Pittsburgh a large casting for a hydraulic
press was cooled by the following method:-
Water is introduced into the interior of the core
by a pipe, which extends to the bottom, and fills
it previous to casting. Provision is made for the
escape of the air by making the core fluted.
When the metal is poured into the mould it
immediately heats the water, which is then
drawn off by an escape pipe at the top of the
core, and a supply of cold water is continually
running in at the bottom.
Heat is thus gradually taken from the mass,
and the whole cools uniformly. The casting was
10 inches thick, and weighed 7 tons. It took
from three to four days cooling.
The best charcoal pig iron was selling in
Pittsburgh at $45 per ton, having risen within a
short period from $30 per ton.
Major Wade, of Pittsburgh, has made many
experiments on the tensile strength of this iron.
He found that it required a force of 45,000
pounds to tear asunder a bar an inch square.
Some of the results of his experiments have been
published by the United States Government in
the "Ordnance Manual.”
8. Pickling Castings.-The process of "pick-
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 101
ling castings," as it is called, is performed in
the following manner:—
The castings are placed on two wooden
stages, covered with lead, each being 20 feet by
12 feet wide, and supported by two rollers,
about 18 inches from the floor.
The trough containing the pickle (which
consists of 2 parts of water to 1 of acid) is of
the same length as the stages, which are inclined
towards it, to enable it to receive the drainings.
The diluted acid is poured over the castings by
hand from a long ladle, and when they are dry,
the operation is repeated as often as necessary.
The stages are then inclined in the opposite
direction, and cleansed from the coating of acid
and sand by a powerful stream of water directed
upon them from a hose pipe.
In England when the process of pickling is
adopted for light castings, it is usual to immerse
them in the liquid. The American method was
probably adopted in consequence of the high
price commanded by manual labour.
9. Annealing Railway Wheels.-The leading
and trailing wheels of locomotives, and railway
carriage wheels, are commonly hollow cast-iron
disc wheels.
The process of annealing adopted in a large
manufactory in Philadelphia is as follows:-
102 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
The wheels are taken from the moulds, as
soon after they are cast as they can bear moving
without changing their form, and before they
have become strained while cooling. In this
state they are put into a circular furnace or
chamber, which has been previously heated to a
temperature about as high as that of the wheels
when taken from the mould; as soon as they
are deposited in this furnace or chamber, the
opening through which they are passed is
covered, and the temperature of the furnace and
its contents is gradually raised to a point a little
below that at which fusion commences. All the
avenues to and from the interior of the furnace
are then closed, and the whole mass is left to
cool gradually as the heat permeates through
the exterior wall, which is composed of fire-brick
4 inches thick, inclosed in a circular case of
sheet iron inch thick.
By this process the wheel is raised to one
temperature throughout before it begins to cool
in the furnace, and, as the heat can only pass
off through the medium of the wall, all parts of
each wheel cool and contract simultaneously.
The time required to cool a furnace full of
wheels in this manner is about four days.
By this process wheels of any form, and of
almost any proportions, can be made with a solid
nave.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 103
The manufacture of these wheels was com-
menced in 1847, and in 1850, 15 tons weight
were cast per day. The foundry and works as
now completed are calculated to turn out 40
tons per day.
In another establishment the wheels while
hot are lifted from the mould, and the centre
part is placed in a hole communicating by means
of a flue with a high chimney, and the edge is
packed round with sand. A draft is thus created
which cools the mass of iron near the centre of
the wheel, and in some measure prevents it from
contracting unequally during the operation.
At a foundry in Worcester, Connecticut, the
wheels when cast were taken hot from the
moulds, and immersed in a pit of white sand,
where they are left to cool gradually.
In order to obtain the best chill, it is consi-
dered necessary to use cold blast iron made with
charcoal.
10. Railroad Spikes. There is a large
demand for railroad spikes in the United States.
On nearly all the railroads the rails are laid
on transverse wooden sleepers, and are simply
fastened down by large iron spikes with project-
ing heads, except at the junction of two rails,
where the ordinary chair is employed.
In a manufactory at Pittsburgh, a machine
104 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
was at work which made these spikes, each
weighing lb., at the rate of 50 per minute.
They are packed in kegs, each containing 300.
Seven men only are employed on the works, and
they manufacture 5 tons of spikes per day.
11. Nails and Rivets.-In another establish-
ment at Pittsburgh, 250 men are employed in
manufacturing bar iron, rods, sheets, and nails.
The iron is manufactured both with anthracite
coal and charcoal.
They have fifty-one machines for making cut
nails; many of them are self-acting in the
feeding for the smaller sizes; the strip of iron is
inserted in a tube, which is made to revolve
alternately half round each way.
They make 2,000 kegs of such nails per week,
each weighing 100 lbs., and containing sizes
from fourpenny up to tenpenny nails.
A rivet-making machine was at work, which
made rivets weighing seven to the pound, at
the rate of eighty per minute. Its main shaft
carried two cams, one a side cam which gave the
motion for cutting off and holding the iron
between the dies, the other a direct cam for
forming the head of the rivet.
The cams for the nail machines are made of
chilled cast iron, and that part of the lever which
acts against the cam is faced with a plate of
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 105
bell-metal. Several large grinding-stones were
used, having mouldings on their peripheries for
restoring the dies when worn.
It is usual in England to soften the dies by
annealing, previous to restoring their shape, and
again hardening them subsequently. The shape
may be thus more perfectly restored but at
a greater cost, and the operation of softening
and re-hardening deteriorates the quality of the
steel.
12. Cast Steel.-The manufacture of cast
steel is not carried on to any great extent.
Some works have been started in Pittsburgh,
which have hitherto met with great difficulties,
but they are now more successful.
Workmen were obtained from Sheffield, but
they were intractable, and failed to give satisfac-
tion to their employers.
There were two converting and nine melting
furnaces, producing upwards of 2,000 lbs. per
day.
The steel sells at 17 cents per lb. (8 d.).
13. Engine Tools.-The engine tools em-
ployed in the different works are generally
similar to those which were used in England
some years ago, being much lighter, and less
accurate in their construction, than those now
106 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
in use, and turning out less work in conse-
quence.
The proportion of slide to hand lathes is
greater than in the generality of English work-
shops.
Planing and drilling machines are commonly
used; but there are comparatively very few
horizontal or vertical shaping machines, and
a considerable amount of hand labour is, there-
fore, expended on work which could be performed
by machines much more economically.
The foundries are, for the most part, large
and well arranged, and are furnished with good
powerful cranes.
Great anxiety is now manifested by many
manufacturers to have engine tools of a better
description than those in use; and before long
there will, no doubt, be great improvement in
this respect.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 107
CHAPTER III.
BUTTONS-DAGUERREOTYPE FRAMES-PINS-
HOOKS-AND-EYES-CUTLERY, ETC.
WATERBURY.
14. New Manufacturing Towns.-The ener-
getic character of the American people is nowhere
more strikingly displayed than in the young
manufacturing settlements that are so rapidly
springing up in the Northern States.
A retired valley and its stream of water
become in a few months the seat of manufac-
tures; and the dam and water-wheel are the
means of giving employment to busy thousands,
where before nothing more than a solitary farm-
house was to be found. Such, in a few words, is
the history of Waterbury and all the Naugatuck
settlements of Holyoke, Chicopee, Lowell, and
Lawrence. Many others might be mentioned,
but allusion is now only made to those visited.
15. Waterbury.—Waterbury is situated in the
Naugatuck valley, about 24 miles north of New-
haven. It contains many manufacturing estab-
108 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
lishments, carried on principally by joint stock
companies. Besides other firms, there are
twenty-eight companies, of which the greater
number are employed in the manufacture of
rolled and sheet-brass, copper, wire buttons,
German silver, pins, cutlery, hooks-and-eyes.
The others are employed in manufacturing
hosiery, felt, cloth, webbing, covered buttons,
umbrella trimmings, leather, &c.
The official statements of these companies
show that their respective capitals vary in
amount to a very great extent, and that they are
in some cases remarkably small :—
There are 2 with a capital of $6,000 (about £1,200).
And the rest
13
5 between $10,000 (£2,000), and $20,000 (£4,000).
$20,000
$100,000
$100,000 (£20,000).
$253,000 (£50,000).
Great facilities are afforded in many of the
States for the formation of manufacturing com-
panies. The liabilities of partners not actively
engaged in the management are limited to the
proportion of the capital subscribed by each, and
its amount is published in the official statements
of the Company. In the case of the introduction
of a new invention, or a new manufacture, the
principle of limited liability produces most bene-
ficial results. Persons who from their connec-
tions or occupations are likely to be interested
in, or profited by, the new invention or manu-
facture, readily associate together and subscribe
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 109
capital to give the new proposal a fair trial, when
they are assured that their risk will not extend
beyond the amount of which they may choose to
contribute.
The cost of obtaining an act of incorporation
is very trifling; in one case where the capital of
the company amounted to $600,000 (120,0007.),
the total cost of obtaining the act of incorpo-
ration was 50 cents (2s. 1d.).
16. Button Machinery, Buttons, &c.—Upwards
of 200 men are employed by one of the com-
panies in the manufacture of buttons, hinges,
daguerreotype plates and frames, &c.
The round-shaped button is formed by two
punches, one working inside the other, each
being driven by a separate eccentric, and the
inside punch having the longer stroke. By this
arrangement the disc is forced through the
die, and drops into a box, thus saving the labour
of picking out, which is necessary where a single
punch and solid die are used.
The spindle of the polishing lathe in which
the button is fixed whilst being burnished, makes
10,000 revolutions per minute.
17. Daguerreotype Frames.-The lathe in
which the oval frames used as settings, for
daguerreotypes, are turned, has an oval chuck,
110 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
and a stationary cutting tool fixed to the slide
rest, for "trueing out" the previously punched
oval. Two milling tools are used, one for
forming the bevilled edge, the other for orna-
menting the face of the oval frame.
The milling tool, as it revolves, is allowed to
swivel so as to accommodate itself to the oval.
When the bevilled edge has been formed, the
first milling tool is removed and another sub-
stituted while the work revolves.
One workman is able to turn, and ornament
by milling, two gross of frames per day.
18. Pin and Hook-and-eye Manufactory.-No
description of the machines used in pin making
can be given, as the process of "papering" is all
that is permitted to be seen.
The pins are all papered by machinery; they
are placed in a shallow feeding dish in an
inclined position, so as to allow them to descend
gradually as they are shaken by a quick vibra-
tory motion. They fall from the spout of the
feeding dish upon the centre of an inclined
shallow trough, about 18 inches long, through
which runs lengthwise a slit sufficiently wide to
admit the shank of a pin, and yet suspend it by
its head. It being a matter of chance, when
a pin falls from the spout, whether it will drop
into the slit or slide down the trough, a sufficient
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 111
number are allowed to descend to insure the
filling of the slit by those which happen to fall
favourably.
The superfluous pins slide down into a box,
from which they are again lifted from time to time
to the upper feeding dish. The descending line of
suspended pins is conducted by the slit (which is
curved at its lower end) to a sliding frame which
is worked by the woman who attends the
machine.
The frame carries a dozen grooves, and in
each of these a pin is deposited as it passes
under the slit; the pins are thus arranged in a
row, with their points all turned the same way.
The sheet of paper for receiving them is placed
by the attendant on a grooved table, and deep
folds are pressed into it at equal distances, and
into the cross ridges thus formed a row of pins
is pushed by the carrying frame at every thrust
forward.
Under no circumstances whatever are
strangers allowed to enter the rooms in which
the pin-making machines are at work. The
workmen employed are obliged to enter into a
bond, and find two sureties that they will not
disclose anything relative to the machinery.
The company preferred keeping their mode of
operation secret in this way to taking out a
patent.
112
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
19. Hook-and-eye Making.-Three different
descriptions of machines are employed in making
hooks-and-eyes, the wire being let in on one
side of the machine, and a completed hook or
eye dropped out on the other.
The machines appeared to make them at the
rate of about 100 per minute.
About eighty hands are employed, who are
said to make 1,200 packs of pins, each con-
taining 3,360 pins, and 2,500 gross of hooks
and-eyes, per day.
20. Cutlery.-The cutlery and file works were
conducted on a limited scale. Many beautifully
finished knives were exhibited, and were said to
command a higher price than those of a similar
class imported from England.
The artizans are employed principally on
piece-work.
In the cutlery department a workman was
pointed out who earned $70 (about 147.) per
month, while the earnings of others occupied on
precisely the same kind of work only amounted
to $30 (67.) per month.
Thus it will be seen that each workman does
the best he can for himself, irrespective of
others, and reaps the reward due to his superior
skill and industry.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 113
CHAPTER IV.
LOCKS-PORCELAIN HANDLES-CLOCKS-PISTOLS
AND GUNS.
PITTSBURGH. NEWHAVEN, WORCESTER, HARTFOrd.
21. Lockmaking.-The manufacture of locks
appears to be rapidly extending. In an estab-
lishment at Pittsburgh, employing 350 men in
making locks, coffee mills, copying presses, &c.,
good work was being turned out.
Another at Newhaven, Connecticut, em-
ploys about 200 men in making locks and lock-
handles. The latter are made of coloured clays,
so mixed as to present a grained appearance.
They are first moulded by hand, then turned in
a self-acting lathe with great rapidity, and are
afterwards baked in a furnace.
Padlocks are made here of a superior quality
to those of the same class ordinarily imported
from England, and are not more expensive.
22. Clockmaking. The celebrity attained
by New England in the manufacture of clocks
I
114
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
gives a peculiar interest to a visit to one of the
oldest manufactories of Connecticut; 250 men
are employed, and the clocks are made at the
rate of 600 per day, and at a price varying from
$1 to $10, the average price being $3.
The frames of the clocks are stamped out of
sheet brass, and all the holes are punched simul-
taneously by a series of punches fixed at the
required distances.
The wheels also are stamped out of sheet
brass, and a round beading is raised by a press
round their rims for the purpose of giving them
lateral strength. They are cut by a machine
having three horizontal axes, carrying each a
cutter placed about 4 inches apart. The first
cutter is simply a saw, and the second rounds off
the teeth. In cutting an escapement wheel, the
first cutter is made to cut each tooth entirely
round, and then either the second or third axis
with its cutter is used for finishing. The pullies
on the three axes are driven by one driving
pulley with three straps working over and in
contact with each other.
The plates forming the clock faces, and other
discs, are cut out by circular shears. The beaded
rims intended to go round the clock faces, vary-
ing in size from 15 inches downwards, are
stamped in concentric rings out of a disc, and
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 115
then made of the required form by means of dies
and a stamping press.
The ogee form given to the wooden framing
of the common clock is formed by a revolving
cutter of the required shape, making 7,000 revo-
lutions per minute, over which the piece of wood
is passed by hand,--the requisite pressure down-
wards being given at the same time.
A circular cutter fixed on a horizontal axis is
also used for roughly planing the back parts of
the wooden clock. Its diameter is about 18
inches, and it has four lateral projections, carrying
4 cutters, 2 gouges, and 2 chisels. These revolve
round a fixed circular centre plate, of about a
foot in diameter, against which the work is
pressed as it is passed along. Each clock passes
through about sixty different hands: more than
half of the clocks manufactured are exported to
England, and of these a large portion are re-
exported to other markets.
And it is worthy of remark, that the supe-
riority obtained in this particular manufacture is
not owing to any local advantages; on the con-
trary, labour and material are more expensive
than in the countries to which the exportations
are made; it is to be ascribed solely to the enter-
prise and energy of the manufacturer, and his
judicious employment of machinery.
I 2
116
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
23. Guns and Pistols.-In a large manufac-
tory at Hartford, from 400 to 500 men were
employed in making revolving pistols at the rate
of from 1,200 to 1,500 per week.
Self-acting machinery and revolving cutters
are used for making all the separate parts, and
the tools are made and repaired in a machine
shop, which is attached to the works.
In another establishment at Worcester, Con-
necticut, 175 men were at work, manufacturing
guns, rifles, and pistols. Revolvers were made in
large numbers with barrels on the old principle,
and were all proved by hydraulic pressure.
Further particulars will be given respecting
this manufacture when the Government establish-
ments are noticed.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 117
CHAPTER V.
WOOD WORKING.
LOWELL, BUFFALO, PHILADELPHIA, BALTIMORE, WORCESTER,
NEWHAVEN.
24. Labour-saving Machines.—In no branch
of manufacture does the application of labour-
saving machinery produce by simple means
more important results than in the working of
wood.
Wood being obtained in America in any
quantity, it is there applied to every possible
purpose, and its manufacture has received that
attention which its importance deserves.
It would be difficult to point in any country
to a more successful application of machinery to
the working of wood than was made in England
long ago in the manufacture of ship blocks, by
the late Sir Isambard Brunel, aided by the late
Mr. Maudslay; other instances of mechanism
most ingeniously adapted to similar purposes
might also be cited. It cannot, therefore, be
said that in England nothing has been done in
118 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
this branch of manufacture; but it must be
confessed that the improvements which have been
made have not been extended, as they might
have been, to ordinary purposes, though, in this
respect, a desire for progress is now evidently
manifested.
A house in Liverpool is importing the best
machines of the kind in use in America, and is
making great efforts to introduce them generally
in England.
25. Saw Mills, Lowell.--The trees sawn up
in the Lowell saw mills are floated down from the
interior of the country by river; they are docked
in a basin in the timber yard, and are dragged
up an inclined plane into the interior of the mill
as they are wanted.
In an upper story are placed two large saw
frames, and between them travels an endless
chain running along the shop floor under pullies,
and extending down the inclined plane nearly to
the edge of the basin. To any part of this end-
less chain may be hooked another chain, which,
being passed round one or more trees as they lie
in the basin, drags them up into the mill and
deposits them alongside the saw frames.
Shingles, used for covering the roofs and sides
of houses, are made in vast quantities.
A circular saw cuts them 16 inches long, from
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 119
8
3 to 9 inches wide, and of a thickness tapering
from to inch, at the rate of from 7,000 to
10,000 per day, according to the nature of the
wood.
Timber is also cut up into laths 4 feet long,
at the rate of from 60 to 100 per minute, by a
circular saw attended by two men.
26. Saw Mills, Buffalo.-In these mills
boards were sawn into "sidings," that is, long
wedged-shaped boards for the sides or roofs of
houses, by a circular saw, at the rate of 17 feet
per minute. The board is introduced at the
back of the saw, and moves in the direction in
which it revolves. It thus cuts with the grain,
and the strength of the cut assists the forward
feeding motion of the board.
Subdivision of manufacture is advantageously
adopted as a system.
Many works in various towns are occupied
exclusively in making doors, window frames, or
staircases by means of self-acting machinery,
such as planing, tenoning, morticing and jointing
machines. They are able to supply builders with
the various parts of the woodwork required in
buildings at a much cheaper rate than they can
produce them in their own workshops without the
aid of such machinery.
In one of these manufactories, twenty men
120
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
were making panelled doors at the rate of 100
per day.
Portable sawing machines, driven by horse-
power, are commonly used for sawing up logs of
wood for fuel, particularly at the various stations
on the railroads, where the wood intended for
the consumption of the locomotives is stored in
piles.
The "horse-power machine" consists of a
stout frame supporting a railway about 7 feet
long, on which run the rollers of an endless tra-
velling platform. The axles of the rollers are
of iron, ğ in. diameter, stretching across the
rails, and are connected together by a series of
links, each about 12 inches long, so as to form an
endless chain, which passes over a fixed segment
at one end and the chain wheels at the other.
The travelling platform is made by planks of
wood about 12 inches broad, 14 inches thick,
fastened transversely to the endless chain. It is
inclined at an angle of about 7° to the hori-
zontal line, and the horse being placed on the
platform, pushes it backward from under him,
which causes the chain wheels at the end of the
frame to revolve, and the motion thus obtained
is conveyed to the circular saw or other machine
required to be driven. Some horse-power ma-
chines are made to admit two horses abreast.
They are found very useful to farmers; when
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
121
requisite, they are mounted on wheels, and may
be easily taken from place to place to saw up
trees which could not conveniently be moved
entire.
27. Planing Machines.-A numerous variety
of planing machines are in common use. For
flooring boards, Woodworth's machine is found
to answer very satisfactorily. In planing mills
at Philadelphia, four of them were working in
one room side by side; they have three cutters
on each horizontal axis, having a radius of 6
inches, and making 4,000 revolutions
per minute.
The cutters are said to be capable of planing
from 2,000 to 3,000 feet of work without being
sharpened with the oil-stone, and from 20,000 to
30,000 feet without being ground.
They plane boards 18 feet long, varying in
width from 3 to 9 inches, at the rate of 50 feet
per
minute. At the same time that the face of
the board is planed, it is tongued and grooved
by cutters revolving with a radius of about
3 inches, on vertical axes on each side of the
board.
The chips made by the four planing machines
are driven through large pipes, and fall into a
trough about 20 inches wide, running across the
room immediately under the cutters. In this
trough works an endless chain, on which are fixed
122 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION,
wooden scrapers that carry along the chips as
they fall, to a recess at the side of the room.
Here they are carried off by the scrapers of
another endless chain, running up an inclined
plane. The pullies on which this side chain
works are larger in dimensions than those of the
transverse chain which works inside.
The transversing chain thus deposits its chips
in the trough of the inclined plane, and they are
carried up to a hole in the ceiling of the fuel
room, adjoining the boiler house; through this
hole they fall into the fuel room, and fill it up,
of necessary, to the top.
28. Daniel's Planing Machine.-Where an
accurately smooth surface is required, Daniel's
planing machine is employed.
It consists of an upright frame, in which a
vertical shaft revolves, having horizontal arms,
at the ends of which are fixed the cutters.
The work is carried along on a travelling
bed under the cutters, which are driven at a very
high speed.
29. Box Making.-In a box manufactory at
Worcester, Connecticut, a machine, made on
Woodworth's principle, planed boards 10 inches
wide simultaneously on both sides.
Boxes are made in great numbers, from
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
123
boards which are tongued and grooved by what
is called a "matching machine," and then put
together as that operation is finished.
The tonguing and grooving cutters are fixed
on horizontal axes, and the workman passes the
boards alternately over one or the other, as the
sides require to be tongued or grooved.
Other varieties of planing machines are also
in use, known by the names of their different
inventors; some of them have fixed, vertical, or
horizontal cutters, others vertical or horizontal
revolving cutters, and various other combina-
tions, according to the purposes for which they
are intended.
30. Spill or Match-making Machine.-This
machine makes 900 round spills, 15 inches long,
inch diameter, per minute; so that if each
spill were cut into five matches, each 3 inches
long, 4,500 would be produced every minute.
The spills are cut from pieces of straight-
grained timber, made of such a length as to pass
between two grooved feeding rollers, which hold
the timber, so that its under surface is level with
the lowest parts of a row of tubular cutting tools,
or long sharp-edged punches.
The cutting tools are thus arranged:-Five
pieces of steel are fixed side by side in a hori-
zontal bar. Each piece of steel is perforated
124 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
with three long holes, lying close together, and
having their ends sharpened like the cutting
edges of a hollow punch. A line of fifteen
tubular cutters is thus formed, and motion is
given to the horizontal bar, in which they are
fixed by a crank, which impels them against the
timber. This is depressed at each stroke suffi-
ciently to allow each cutter to cut out its spill,
which passes through and falls out behind.
The cost of this machine would not exceed
201., and when the number of matches, all nicely
rounded, which it is capable of producing, is
contrasted with the number which could be pro-
duced by a hand instrument in the same time, it
will serve as a simple and striking illustration of
the advantageous employment of machinery to
do the work of inan.
A
31. Last and Boot-tree Manufactory.
machine, constructed on Blanchard's principle, is
used for making lasts.
A pattern last, and the block of wood from
which another last is to be cut, are fixed upon,
and revolve round, a common axis, being con-
nected with the centres of a headstock fixed on
a frame made to oscillate from below. As the
pattern revolves it is kept continually pressed
against a knob of iron by a spring, and as the
block of wood revolves it is shaped by a circular
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
125
cutter, revolving on a fixed axis, with its cutting
edges in a line with the face of the knob. The
pattern and the copy revolving simultaneously
on a common axis, as the surface of the pattern
is pressed against the projecting knob, the
oscillating frame is made to move, so that the
revolving cutters shape from the block a surface
exactly corresponding to the surface of the
pattern, and the copy occupies relatively to the
cutters the same position which the pattern does
relatively to the knob of iron.
About 18 men are employed, who make 100
pair of lasts per day, exclusive of boot-trees.
32. Furniture Making.-Labour-saving ma-
chines of all kinds, sawing, planing, boring,
shaping, and jointing machines, are very advan-
tageously employed in the manufacture of furni-
ture. An apparatus of a very simple character
is used for shaping the arms and legs of chairs.
Two vertical cutters are made to revolve in
opposite directions, at the rate of about 1,700
revolutions per minute, on axes projecting above
a bench.
The cutters are about 4 inches in diameter,
and between them and the bench are loose
washers or rollers, against which the pattern to
which the work is fastened is pressed so as to
guide the cut.
126
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
The cutters revolve in opposite directions,
and the work may be pressed against either one
or the other, so as to suit the cut to the direction
of the grain of the wood, without the workman
having the trouble of reversing its position.
33. Agricultural Implements - Ploughs.
Labour-saving machines are most successfully
employed in the manufacture of agricultural
implements.
In a plough manufactory at Baltimore
eight machines are employed on the various
parts of the woodwork.
With these machines seven men are able to
make the wooden parts of thirty ploughs per
day.
The handle pieces are shaped by a circular
cutter, having four blades, similar to those of.
smoothing planes, fixed on a horizontal axis,
with about two inches radius, and making nearly
4,000 revolutions per minute. The work to be
shaped is fastened to a pattern, which is pressed
against a loose roller on the axis of the cutter
as the workman passes it along, and it is thus
cut of exactly the same shape as the pattern.
.
All the ploughs of a given size are made to
the same model, and their parts, undergoing
similar operations, are made all alike. Some of
the sharp edges of the wood are taken off or
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
127
chamfered by a cutter revolving between two
cones; these guide and support the work as it is
pressed down edgewise on the cutters, and passed
along by the workman.
34. Ploughs--(continued).—The other ma-
chines in use consisted of a circular and vertical
saw, and machines for jointing, tenoning, drilling,
and for making round stave rods, and giving
them conical ends, the whole being of a simple
and inexpensive character.
The curved handle pieces of the ploughs,
which require to be steamed and bent, are
obtained already shaped from the forests where
they are cut, and are advantageously supplied
to the large manufacturers. The prices of
the ploughs vary from $2 to $7. The price
of-
Pig-iron in Baltimore was $40 per ton.
Pine timber
Ash
Oak
1
$20 per 1,000 feet.
$24
""
$25
""
35. Mowing Machines.—In a manufactory at
Buffalo, mowing machines were being made in
large numbers, 1,500 having been supplied this
summer.* Two were in operation in a field a
The summer of 1853.
128
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
short distance from the town; each was drawn
by two horses, and could mow on an average
6 acres of grass per day.
The machine is similar in its construction to
the common reaping machine, but it has only
one wheel, furnished with projections to prevent
it from slipping. This wheel gives motion to
the cutters, and supports one side, the other
rests on a runner like that of a sledge. It has a
pole to which two horses are attached in the
ordinary way, and the driver sits on a seat fixed
behind the cutters.
36. Churn Making, &c.-In an establishment
at Worcester, Connecticut, 250 hands are em-
ployed principally in making ploughs, hay-
cutters, churns, &c.
Templates and labour-saving tools are used.
in the manufacture of these implements, which
are sold in very large numbers.
The churns consist of a double case, the inner
one being of zinc, which receives the milk or
cream, and in which the arms revolve, the outer
one being of wood. It is found by experience
that butter is formed most rapidly when the
milk or cream is churned at a certain temperature,
and in order to obtain this temperature,
which is indicated by a thermometer inserted in
the churn, warm or cold water is introduced
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 129
between the inner zinc and outer wooden casing
as may be required.
37. Carriage Making.-Many of the carriages,
especially those technically called "waggons,"
are made of an exceedingly light construction,
and are intended generally to carry two and
sometimes four persons.
Their wheels are frequently made with only
two felloes, which are bent round by the opera-
tion of steaming, and are strengthened at the
joining with iron clamps. The wheel of a
carriage constructed to carry four persons had
felloes only 14 inches square. They are generally
made of white oak, and the spokes are obtained
ready shaped from shops where their manufacture
forms a special trade.
It would seem as if the elasticity of these
carriages peculiarly fitted them for the very bad
roads on which they in general have to run, and
it is evidently a principle with the Americans to
use up their light carriages and save their
horses.
Every man in America who is able to keep
his waggon is free to do so, unfettered and
unquestioned, consequently their use is
is so
general that it may be said to be almost
universal. Their manufacture is one of great
importance, and supports a vast number of
K
130 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
wheelwrights and artizans of that class, who from
the nature of their employment attain great
skill and aptitude, enabling them to turn their
hands to almost any variety of work, and render-
ing them a most useful and important class.
CHAPTER VI.
STONE-PLANING WORKS-BRICKMAKING FROM
DRY CLAY.
STATEN ISLAND, NEW YORK, WASHINGTON.
38. Stone-planing Machines.—In an establish-
ment at Washington, which has but recently
commenced operations, there were two planing
machines, and a grinding or polishing machine.
Considerable difficulties have hitherto attended
the employment of machinery for planing stone
such as granite, and stone of similar formation.
These difficulties have, however, been sur-
mounted most successfully by the construction
of planing machines such as are used in stone
works in New York and Washington, in the
former of which upwards of 400 men and ten
machines are employed.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
131
The planing machine consists of an upright
frame, in which revolves a vertical shaft, carrying
three horizontal arms. At the extremities of
these arms are fixed circular cutters, inclined
outwards about 45° from the perpendicular, or
about the angle at which the workman would
hold his chisel. They are about 10 inches in
diameter, and 2 inch thick, made of steel, and
bevilled on both sides, leaving a sharp edge.
They are fitted upon axes, and are at liberty to
revolve loosely in their bearings as their edges
strike the stone.
The cutters are carried round by the shaft at
the rate of about eighty revolutions per minute
when planing freestone, and sixty when planing
granite.
The stone is moved forward on a bed to
which it is keyed; the cutters strike its surface
obliquely as they are carried round on the
revolving arms, turning at the same time on
their own axes, and chipping and breaking off
the projecting portions of the stone at every cut.
The machine planed the face of a stone slab
4 feet long and 2 feet wide, in seven minutes.
Another modification of this machine, which
is not so economical, is employed when it is
necessary that the face of the stone be left in
lines as it came from the tool.
The stone is keyed on a travelling bed, and
K 2
132 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
passed under a frame, in which works a sliding
carriage driven by a crank; in this carriage is
fixed the circular cutter at the required angle,
and as the stone is carried along, the cutter is
driven backwards and forwards across its face at
right angles to the direction in which it moves,
and chips off parallel breadths of stone at every
cut.
The cutters can be used for planing from
300 to 400 square feet of freestone surfaces, and
about 150 square feet of granite, without being
ground.
39. Stone Polishing Machine.—The stone is
polished by a flat circular disc of soft iron, which
is made to revolve horizontally. The axis of a
disc is fixed at the end of a heavy frame, which
moves round a strong centre shaft in a radius of
about 12 feet.
The polishing disc revolves at the rate of
180 revolutions per minute. It is driven by a
strap, to which motion is given by a driving
pulley, fixed on the centre shaft. The disc is
guided, and its pressure regulated by hand. It
will polish about 400 square feet of surface in a
day of ten hours.
40. Brickmaking with Dry Clay.-A machine
for making bricks from dry clay was in operation
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
133
;
on Staten Island, about nine miles from New
York. The works are carried on under extensive
sheds, near to the water side, and are connected
with a wharf by a railway, which also extends to
the bed from which the clay is dug. A large
movable shed is erected on the bed of clay at
the terminus of the railway,
In dry weather the clay is collected by
slicing it from the surface with a kind of shovel
having a sharp edge, which is drawn by two
horses, and will hold about two barrowsful.
In wet weather the surface of the clay is
harrowed to the depth of 2 or 3 inches by a
triangular wooden frame, carrying nine teeth, a
process which, in the powerful rays of an
American sun, soon causes the moisture to
evaporate. It is then taken off by the scoop or
shovel above described, and conveyed to the
shed, whence it is carried by rail to the machine
shed. It is deposited close to a cylindrical
screen, revolving on a fixed axis, which has pro-
jecting loose bars. The screen is about 8 feet
long and 3 feet in diameter, and consists of bars
8
1
inch square, rivetted on two cast-iron wheels,
which form the ends; the bars are about inch
apart, and the clay is riddled through them.
The screen is inclined and the clay is fed in
between the arms of the wheels, and as it
revolves the small pulverized particles fall
134 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
through the bars, while the large stones pass
out at the lowest end.
The clay is next raised by elevators, which
are fixed to an endless leather belt about a foot
wide, to the height of about 12 feet, and con-
veyed to rollers. It is ground and shovelled
into hoppers which feed the moulds; these are
8 inches long, 4 inches wide, and 4 inches deep.
The clay is dropped into the moulds, which
are placed six in a row, to the depth of 3 to 31
inches, according to the quantity of moisture it
contains, and is afterwards compressed to the
thickness of 2 inches in the following way :-
Six presses or rams, fixed in a heavy frame,
are raised by a cam, and being allowed to fall,
exert very great pressure by their impact on the
clay. The blow is repeated, and then the bricks
are powerfully compressed above and below by
revolving cams; thirty-six bricks are made per
minute. They are at once conveyed to the
kiln, which is under the shed at a short distance
from the machine.
After being burnt, they are separated into
three shades of colour, of light and deeper reds.
The best burnt bricks are equal in quality to the
best English stocks, and were selling at $12 per
1,000.
41. Brickmaking from Dry Clay- (con-
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 135
}
tinued).—In a brickyard at Washington, Saw-
yer's machine, which had been in use for
sixteen years, makes about 1,800 bricks per hour
from dry clay by compression only.
The clay is obtained from a pit close by.
As it is dug out it is carted up an inclined plane
to the floor, over the room where the machinery
is at work.
A roller weighing 1,600 lbs., and making
sixty revolutions per minute, grinds it upon a
grating through which the pulverized particles
fall into the room below.
There it is shovelled into a hopper which
supplies the brick moulds by feed-pipes. Three
bricks are made at one time, being compressed
by top and bottom pistons or pressers, which are
connected together by long iron rods, and from
the top part are suspended levers, with toggle
joints worked by cranks. The bricks were sold
at the rate of $63 dollars per 1,000, and were of
a medium quality between English seconds and
stock bricks.
136
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
CHAPTER VII.
INDIARUBBER MANUFACTORY-FISHING-NET-
MAKING MACHINE-FLOUR MILLS-ELEVATORS.
42. Indiarubber Manufactures.-Indiarubber
is applied to a great variety of purposes, and its
manufacture here is attended with very great
success.
By the process of hardening, the substance
becomes of the consistency of horn. It is
manufactured into combs, walking sticks, and
other articles.
43.
Indiarubber Overshoes. -The india-
rubber in its rough state is first cut up by shears
into small pieces. It is then put through a
machine similar to that used for tearing and
cleaning rags intended to be made into paper.
The water used in the operation is drawn off
from time to time through a wire grating.
The material, thus chopped up and cleaned,
is passed through rollers, where it is sufficiently
ground. It is then put through other rollers,
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
137
where it is kneaded and worked up with the
necessary composition.
The indiarubber, so mixed, is passed in the
form of an endless web through four rollers
placed vertically one above the other, and comes
out a broad web fit for use.
The "gumming process" is performed by
three rollers, Nos. 1, 2, 3. Nos. 1 and 2, the
two lower ones, revolving side by side, and No. 3
revolving above and in contact with No. 2. The
indiarubber is fed between Nos. 1 and 2, and
the cloth to be gummed or covered is passed
between Nos. 2 and 3, taking up from No. 2 a
thin and equally spread coating of rubber.
The indiarubber cloth is cut out from the
sheet by workmen, in the shape required to form
shoes. The parts so shaped are put together by
women, who form them on lasts, closing the
joints by cohesion after touching them with cam-
phine. Each woman finishes an entire shoe, and
about 1,400 pairs are made daily.
The shoes are then covered with a coat of
varnish, and taken to the stove drying room,
where they are subjected to a heat from 250° to
280°, and allowed to remain a night.
To provide for an equal distribution of heat
in the drying room two large heating stoves are
placed underneath, each in a separate compart-
ment. These are fed with fuel from the outside,
138
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
and the heat is admitted into the drawing room
above, through several apertures pierced in the
floor.
Thermometers are placed at the side of the
room, and can be inspected through glass from
the outside.
44. Fishing-net
Machines - Baltimore. -
·
These machines combine the general features of
the powerloom and the lace machine.
They are made from 6 to 7 feet wide, ac-
cording to the size of the mesh. One machine
nets a 2-inch mesh, and can be used for netting
meshes of 1 and 21 inches. It works at the
speed of twelve picks per minute, and a complete
course of 100 knots is made in the width of this
machine at each pick of the shuttle.
One woman with the machine can do the
work of upwards of 100 hand net makers. The
meshes are made rectangular, in the direction of
the length of the net, and not diagonally, as
in hand-made nets. The cost of the machine is
$800 (about 1607.).
The manufacture of sailcloth is carried on
in the mill where these machines are at work.
The throstles for spinning yarn for the sail-
cloth spin six hanks to the pound. The carding
engine sliver is carried by the railroad system
along a trough to the drawing frame. The main
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
139
cylinder of the carding engine is 36 inches in
diameter, and the doffing cylinder 13 inches, the
former making 135 revolutions, and the latter
seven revolutions per minute. In the fly-frame
the front roller makes 200 revolutions per minute,
and the flyer from 1,900 to 2,000.
By some shipowners sailcloth made of cotton
is preferred to that made from hemp.
Fishing nets made by hand are here also
manufactured of cotton.
45. Corn and Flour Mills-Pittsburgh.-
These mills employ forty persons, including clerks
and all others engaged in the various depart-
ments, and are capable of producing 500 barrels
of flour per day, each containing 196 lbs.
The grain is brought in bulk in boats along-
side the building, and is raised by an elevator,
consisting of an endless band, to which are fixed a
series of metal cans revolving in a long wooden
trough, which is lowered through the respective
hatchways into the boat, and is connected at its
upper end with the building where its belt is
driven.
The lower end of the trough is open, and as
the endless band revolves, six or eight men shovel
the grain into the ascending cans, which raise it
so rapidly that 4,000 bushels can be lifted and
deposited in the mill in an hour.
140 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
The grain is next allowed to descend by a
shoot or trough (the descent being regulated by
traps) into a large hopper, resting on the plat-
form of a weighing machine; its weight is then
registered, and afterwards, by drawing a trap in
the bottom of the hopper, the grain is allowed to
descend by another shoot to a lower story.
It is next raised by an elevator to the highest
story of the mill, where it is cleaned by passing
through three different machines. The greatest
care and attention is bestowed on this process,
in order to insure the perfect cleansing of the
grain preparatory to its being ground.
The grain is then conducted to the stock-
hoppers, which feed eight pairs of grinding-
stones.
A short length of the feeding-pipe of each
pair is made of glass, through which the grain,
as it descends, can be seen. The stones are
4 feet in diameter, and make 232 revolutions
per minute.
The meal, when ground, is conveyed by means
of a spiral conveyor to the cooling chamber,
where a rake, revolving horizontally, is substi-
tuted for the old "hopper-boys." The meal is
raked from the circumference to the centre, where
it falls through a hole, and is taken to the bolt-
ing machine; it is there sifted, and separated
into different qualities of flour. It is then con-
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
141
veyed to hoppers, from which it descends by
spouts into the barrels in which it is packed.
46. Elevators.-The business of unloading
vessels is followed as a special trade.
On the wharves in Buffalo may be seen, in
many places, large signs announcing that ele-
vators are kept for hire.
They are used for raising grain from vessels,
storing it in warehouses, and transferring cargoes
of wheat from one vessel to another, the grain in
the last case being raised by the cans of the ele-
vator, and then allowed to descend by a trough or
shoot which guides it in any required direction.
142
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
CHAPTER VIII.
MANUFACTURING COMPANIES-CIVIL ENGINEER-
ING-COTTON MILLS-CARPET MANUFACTORY
WOOLLEN AND FELT CLOTH MAKING
SEWING MACHINERY-COTTON GIN.
LOWELL, LAWRENCE, HOLYOKE, NEWHAVEN, WATERBURY.
47. Textile Fabrics.-The manufacture of
textile fabrics is extending, particularly in the
New England States.
Many new towns, founded for the purpose of
carrying on this branch of manufacture, have in
a short time attained considerable importance.
48. Lowell, Lawrence, and Holyoke, in Mas-
sachusetts, may be cited as instances well worthy
of notice.
Lowell is situated on the banks of the Mer-
rimack, about 25 miles north of Boston. It
contains twelve large manufacturing establish-
ments, belonging to different companies; of these,
eight manufacture cotton goods, possessing in
the aggregate about 350,000 spindles and 10,000
looms, and employing about 7,000 women and
2,000 men.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
143
Two of them manufacture woollen goods,
carpets, rugs, and broadcloths (one also com-
bines the manufacture of cotton goods to some
extent), possessing about 20,000 spindles and
600 looms, and employing about 1,500 women
and 1,000 men.
men.
One is a bleaching concern, employing 250
One a machine shop, employing 700 men.
49. The capital stock of the companies
varies in amount from $300,000 (60,0007.), to
$2,500,000 (500,000l.); the total for the whole
being $14,000,000 (2,800,0007.).
The interiors of the mills are kept in a state
of great cleanliness. The rooms are lofty and
properly ventilated: their white ceilings and walls
combined with the blue hangers and columns,
have a pleasing appearance.
The courtyards of many of the mills are laid
out with flower-beds, interspersed with shrub-
beries, or shaded by lofty trees, and great care
seems to be taken to keep them in good order.
50. Water power is used for driving the
machinery in all the mills. It is obtained by
means of a large and deep canal which is cut
from the river at some distance above the
town.
144
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
At the head of the canal where it joins the
river, are floodgates, worked by large screws, all
of which are driven by a small turbine. The
masonry of the canal is constructed of blocks
of granite, some of which are of very large
dimensions.
The water thus conducted by canal is
employed by the various companies in driving
powerful turbine water-wheels. The mill gearing,
conveying the power from the turbine to the
different parts of the mill, is exceedingly well
constructed.
The civil and mechanical engineering works
employed in adapting water power to driving
the machinery of the Lowell mills, have been
most ably executed.
51. The first mills commenced operation in
Lowell in 1823. Eight of the companies have
been founded since 1830.
In 1828 the town contained 3,532 inhabi-
tants: in 1850 its population was 33,385!
It has four banks and two institutions for
savings, and a hospital established by the several
companies for their sick operatives.
52. Lawrence.-Lawrence is situated about
26 miles north of Boston, on the Merrimack
river, 9 miles below Lowell.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
145
The first dwelling house was erected in
September 1845, and in 1850 the town con-
tained 8,500 inhabitants, and upwards of 1,000
dwellings. There were 15 schools, attended by
1,000 scholars, and conducted by 16 teachers.
The town now contains upwards of 13,000
inhabitants.
53. Water Power.-The water power was
obtained by building a dam which has a 25 feet
fall of water, 900 feet broad.
The dam is constructed in the form of a
curve of solid masonry, imbedded in and bolted
to the rock. It is 35 feet thick at the base,
and averages 32 feet in height. Its cost was
$250,000 (about 50,0007.).
The water is taken from the river above the
dam by a canal just a mile in length, 100 feet
broad at its upper end, and 60 feet broad at the
lower, 12 feet deep in the middle, and 4 feet
at the sides. Its total cost, including locks and
other structures connected with it, was $200,000
(about 40,000l.).
54. Cotton Mills.-Seven large incorporated
manufacturing companies have already com-
menced operations, and others are about to be
established.
The largest cotton mills employ about 1,200
hands.
L
146 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
The machinery is driven by three turbine
water-wheels, 8 feet in diameter.
55. New Cotton Mill. Another establish-
ment, lately erected, was being fitted with
machinery for the purpose of manufacturing
light cotton or cotton and woollen fabrics.
It is six stories high, each averaging 13 feet,
750 feet long, and 72 feet wide. There is also
another building in the course of erection which
will be 1,200 feet long, two stories high, with
two wings, each 200 feet long, and three stories
high, and is intended to be used for printing,
dyeing &c. These mills are built of good bricks,
measuring each 8 inches by 4 inches, and 2
inches thick.
The contract price for laying 100 bricks,
including cost of material, is 17. 16s. The entire
erection was found to cost 50 cents (or 2s. 1d.),
per square foot of flooring laid down.
The wool-combing machinery will be obtained
from England. One woman working one of
these machines will be able to comb 1,000 lbs.
of wool per day, while a skilled hand wool-comber
would only be able to comb from 8 to 10 lbs. in
the same time.
The machinery of these mills will be driven
by turbine water-wheels, of between 500 and
600 horse-power in the aggregate.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
147
56. Woollen Factory.-The mills of this
establishment are built in the form of a paral-
lelogram, round three sides of which run buildings
from three to five stories high. The front is
formed by three detached mills, each 200 feet
by 48 feet, and nine stories high, including attic
and basement.
2,300 hands are employed in the manufacture
of cassimeres, shawls, felt cloth, and other
woollen goods.
57. Felt Making.-The whole waste from the
mills mentioned in the preceding paragraph, is
worked up in the manufacture of felted cloth.
The felt-making machines occupy but a
small
space.
A sliver of wool is taken from the carding
engine and passed between two endless cloths;
these carry it over a narrow steam-box, where it
is steamed, and it is then passed under a vibra-
ting pressing-plate, which operations cause the
fibres to curl and interlace with each other, and
so form a cloth.
The machinery of these mills is driven by
seven breast wheels, each 26 feet in diameter.
58. Machine Shop.-There is a large machine
shop, employing 500 hands in the manufacture
of spinning and other machinery.
L 2
148
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
It is 400 feet long, 64 feet broad, and
contains four stories of from 16 to 13 feet high.
The forge shop is 230 feet long, 53 feet wide,
and 17 feet high, and contains 32 forges. The
foundry is 150 feet long, 90 feet wide, and
22 feet high.
59. Holyoke-Cotton Mills.-Holyoke is a
manufacturing town situated on the banks of
the Connecticut river.
A short notice of its history will serve to
explain the way in which manufacturing com-
panies are established in the United States.
In 1847, a company was formed for the
purpose of turning to account the water power
supplied by the river Connecticut, buying up the
water privileges, and purchasing land to form
the site of a manufacturing town.
The company subscribed
a capital of
$4,000,000, and was incorporated by the State
of Massachusetts in 1847.
It succeeded in obtaining the water privi-
leges, and upwards of 11,000 acres of land,
besides other tracts in the vicinity. A dam,
more than 1,000 feet long, was constructed
across the river, in the summer of 1849.
The site of a town has been laid out with
streets from 60 to 80 feet wide, calculated for a
population of 200,000 inhabitants. It contains
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
149
already upwards of 5,000 inhabitants, and it is
officially stated that the average sum appropriated
for the education of each child was in 1852, $3 72c.
There is a 60 feet fall of water, which can be
used by two sets of mills on different levels,
affording power sufficient to drive the machinery
of 100 large mills.
60. Cotton Mills.-Two cotton mills employ-
ing 1,100 hands, a machine shop employing 365
hands, and a paper mill, are already at work;
others are in the course of erection.
One of the mills was spinning yarns Nos. 70
and 90, and making it into cloth of excellent
quality.
Self-acting mules were used, and twelve
piecers were minding 13,056 spindles; three
hanks per spindle were spun in a day of 11/1/
hours.
One girl is able to weave of this yarn, on
four looms, 100 yards of cloth per day. Upwards
of seventy girls were brought from Scotland a
short time ago.
"
The machinery is driven by turbine wheels.
In some mills, gearing is employed for
driving the heavy shafting, but generally belts.
are much preferred; of these, some had a breadth
of 20 inches, and were driven at the speed of
nearly 1,800 yards per minute.
150
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
In some cases, in order to obtain sufficient
adhesion, without having recourse to too tight a
belt, the pulley is covered with leather, which is
put on with white lead, and fastened with copper
rivets.
61. Hosiery.-A large establishment at Water-
bury is occupied exclusively in the manufacture
of under-vests and drawers. The cloth waist-
bands of the latter are stitched by sewing ma-
chines, working at the rate of 430 stitches
per
minute. These machines have been worked with
entire success for the last eighteen months.
No
The manufactured goods and the sewing ma-
chines are all that are shown to visitors.
stranger is ever permitted to see the hosiery
looms; workmen, directors, and president, all
enter into a bond not to disclose anything con-
nected with the machinery of the company.
62. Shirt Making by Machinery, Newhaven.—
In a shirt manufactory at Newhaven, entire
shirts, excepting only the gussets, are sewn by
sewing machines.
By the aid of these machines one woman can
do as much work as from twelve to twenty hand
The workwomen work by the piece, and
are frequently able to finish their estimated day's
work by 2 o'clock, and, when busy, work overtime.
sewers.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 151
63. New Cotton Gin.-This gin has, instead of
saws, a card cylinder 8 or 9 inches in diameter,
covered with coarse wire teeth, with consider-
ably more bend or hook than the ordinary card
tooth. The cylinder revolves against a spirally-
fluted cast-iron roller, the tooth being about
o inch, and the space between the teeth inch
broad.
0
10
To save the expense of turning and fluting
the roller, it is cast in lengths of about 6 inches,
which are bored and turned at the ends, and then
put together, the tooth and space being left as
they are cast.
In contact with the card cylinder, a cylin-
drical brush, 28 inches diameter, is made to
revolve. The card cylinder makes 200 revolu-
tions, the fluted stripper 400 in a contrary
direction, and the cylindrical brush 800 revo-
lutions per minute.
When the raw cotton is introduced with its
seeds between the card cylinder and the stripper
(which are placed just so far apart as to stop
the seeds from passing), the hooked teeth of the
card take hold of the fibres and pull them from
the seed, which is held up against the roller as
long as any fibres cling to it for the card teeth
to hold by the seeds are then released, and fall
to the ground. The spirally-fluted roller causes
152 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
the position of the seed and cotton to be con-
tinually changing.
The cotton fibres, as they are taken round by
the teeth of the card cylinder, are brushed off by
the rapid revolution of the cylindrical brush, and
carried to the bin.
The machine is about 60 inches wide, and
can gin 1,500 lbs. of cotton per day. Its cost is
$350 (70%.).
CHAPTER IX.
RAILWAYS-RAILWAY CARRIAGES-LARGE FOUR-
MASTED
ENGINES.
SHIP-FIRE
COMPANIES FIRE
64. Railways. In the construction of rail-
ways, economy and speedy completion are the
points which have been specially considered. It
is the general opinion that it is better to extend
the system of railways as far as possible at once,
and be satisfied, in the first instance, with that
quality of construction which present circum-
stances admit of, rather than to postpone the
execution of work so immediately beneficial to
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 153
the country; to the future is left further progress
and improvements.
A single line of rails nailed down to trans-
verse logs, and a train at rare intervals, are
deemed to be sufficient as a commencement, and
as traffic increases, additional improvements can
be made.
65. Railway Crossings.-Bridges are seldom
thought necessary to carry the common highways
across the railroads where they intersect, gates
are even in many cases dispensed with, and a
notice of "Look out for the locomotive when the
bell rings," is considered a sufficient warning,
and wayfarers are left to take care of themselves.
Sharp curves and steep inclines are frequently
submitted to for the sake of economy.
66. Railroad Inclines.--The railroad that
connects the eastern and western parts of Penn-
sylvania, bringing the towns on Lake Erie and
the great western rivers into direct communica-
tion with Philadelphia and the Atlantic, consists
at present of a single line of rails carried over
the lofty ridges of the Alleghany Mountains by
a series of inclined planes.
These are five in number, and the summit of
the highest is 2,600 feet above the level of the
The trains are dragged up each incline by
sea.
154 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
a rope attached to a drum worked by a stationary
engine.
They are drawn across the plateaux which
intervene between the inclines, in some cases by
horses, in others by small locomotives. A new
road is, however, being constructed which will
cross the mountains by one long winding incline.
The ascent will be so gradual in its circuitous
course, that a locomotive will be able to ascend
and descend with its train of carriages.
It is calculated that four hours will be saved
by the substitution of this new route, and the
dispensing with the stationary engines.
It is doubtful whether the delay would not
have been very considerable, had the construc-
tion of the railroad, been postponed until means
had been found for executing these great works
in the first instance.
67. Street Railroads.—It is a common prac-
tice to detach the carriages from the engine at
the outskirts of towns, and draw them by horses
along rails laid down in the streets.
Many objections may be made to this system,
and it seems, on the whole, disadvantageous; a
circuit of rails carried round the town would be
more preferable.
68. Railroad Cars.-The construction of the
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
155
railroad cars or carriages commonly used in the
United States has been frequently described.
They are very long, and are supported at
each end on four-wheeled trucks, on which they
swivel when turning the sharp curves, which are
of ordinary occurrence.
A car constructed for sixty passengers mea-
sured 40 feet long, 84 feet wide, and 6 feet high,
inside measure; small benches with reversible
backs, having each two seats, are ranged parallel
to each other down both sides of the carriage,
leaving a passage clear from the door at one end
to that of the other. The car afforded upwards
of 2,200 cubic feet of space, or 37 feet per
passenger. Its weight was 11 tons, giving a dead
weight of about 3 cwt. per passenger.
The cost of a 60-passenger car is about
$2,000 (4007.).
A contrivance has been lately tried for ex-
cluding the dust by connecting the different
carriages together by indiarubber curtains at
the ends, the air being admitted through the roof
of the first carriage.
The object sought to be obtained is, a current
of air running through the entire train, and
always setting outwards from the interior of
the carriages. The results did not appear to
answer fully the expectation which had been
formed
156
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
69. A Four-masted Clipper Ship.-A large
clipper ship of 4,000 tons was being built at
Boston; the length of keel was 287 feet, length
on deck 320 feet, extreme breadth of beam
52 feet, and depth of hold 30 feet. Her keel is
of rock maple in two thicknesses, the frame is of
seasoned white oak, dowelled, and bolted to-
gether through the dowelling with 14 inch iron.
The frame inside is diagonally crossbraced with
iron, the braces being 4 inches wide, and 2 inch
thick, bolted through every timber: these braces
extend from the floor-heads to the top timbers,
and form a perfect network of iron over all her
frames fore and aft.
·
She has five depths of midship keelsons, each
16 inches square, three tier of sister keelsons,
15 inches square, bolted vertically and hori-
zontally. There are four tiers of bilge keelsons
on each side, 15 inches square. Ceiling, from
bilge to lower deck 15 inches, scarped and
bolted edgewise.
She has three full decks, securely fastened
with fore and aft knees; the hanging knees are
extra fastened, having in the lower hanging
knees 18 bolts, 1 inch iron; middle deck,
20 bolts; also upper deck hanging knees, 20
bolts, and all of oak. Beams in lower deck, 14
by 16; in middle deck, 15 by 17; in upper
deck, 12 by 16, and some 12 by 20 inches.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
157
Lower deck main hatch is 14 by 20; middle
deck, 14 by 16; and main deck 14 by 11.
She has a hurricane deck over all, merely for
working the ship, thereby obviating the difficulty
in obstructions from houses, spare spars, water
casks, &c.
Her mainmast is 126 feet long, 98 above
deck, diameter 44 inches; masts made of hard
pine, to carry two stationary yards with trusses,
the same as used on lower yards; fore and main
deck alike, and those on the mizenmast the
same as those on the other masts above the
lower yards, so that, except the courses, all her
sails will have duplicates on every yard fore and
aft. Her main yard is 110 feet long, the others
in proportion; she will have a fourth mast, prin-
cipally to lead the mizen braces, to prevent the
difficulty arising from mizen braces leading for-
ward, and hauling the mast out of place.
The model of the ship was said to promise a
combination of swiftness, buoyancy, and beauty
that has never been excelled. Notwithstanding
her vast size, such is her length and buoyancy
that, when loaded ready for sea, her draught of
water will not exceed 23 feet, a common draught
for ships half her size.
70. Fire Companies.-The fire companies are
formed in many towns of volunteers, who do
158
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
not receive pay, but enjoy certain immunities
from taxes and militia service.
The parade day of the fire companies of a
town is considered as a fête, the companies of
other towns are invited to attend, and test the
qualities of their respective engines in a trial as
to which can throw the highest stream of water.
At a meeting of firemen, held in Newhaven,
thirty-six companies attended, each dressed in a
distinctive uniform, and averaging about fifty
strong.
A prize was given to the company whose
engine succeeded in throwing the highest stream
of water.
The engines played against a pole 150 feet
high, through hose 450 feet long. Two en-
gines, one having a 10-inch, the other an 8-inch
cylinder, threw a stream 143 feet high, and
carried off each a prize. These engines, how-
ever, were surpassed the following day by another
engine with a 10-inch cylinder, which threw a
stream over the pole.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 159
CHAPTER X.
GOVERNMENT WORKS.
NEW YORK, BOSTON, WASHINGTON, SPRINGFIELD.
71. Navy Yard, New York.-This navy yard
is situated on Long Island, opposite the city. It
covers a considerable extent of ground, and has
many large storehouses and workshops, and gives
employment to between 400 and 500 men.
It contains the most capacious dry dock in
the United States, constructed to admit vessels
of the largest size.
They may be completely docked, and the
water pumped out in four hours and a quarter.
The quantity of water to be removed is about
610,000 cubic feet. It is pumped out by a con-
densing engine, with a 50-inch cylinder, 12 feet
stroke, and 32 feet beam.
The cut-off motion is self-adjusting, so that
more steam is admitted into the cylinder as the
height to which it has to pump the water
increases.
160
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
The framing of the engine is in the form of
Gothic columns, supporting arches, all painted
and bronzed. All the work not painted is highly
polished.
The whole is surrounded by a bronzed rail,
and a cast-iron flooring, ornamented with stars
in relief, covers the floor.
The engine house is about 60 feet square,
and 50 feet high. The boilers are placed in a
fire-proof room adjoining; they are three in
number, 26 feet long, 7 feet in diameter, and
are ordinarily used at a pressure of 50 lbs.
The engine works two draining pumps, each
63 inches in diameter, having 8 feet stroke, one
being connected to each arm of the beam.
The whole cost of the dock and its append-
ages is estimated at $2,000,000 (about 400,0001.).
72. Navy Yard, Washington.-In this yard
there are from 500 to 600 men in the various
departments, employed in the manufacture of
ordnance, marine engines, chain cables, anchors,
&c.
Experiments were being made with a large
gun, carrying 240 lb. shot, and also with a pen-
dulum mortar.
The quality of the metal of which each gun
is composed is tested and registered, and a sample
piece preserved.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION,
161
73. Boston Navy Yard.-The Boston Navy
Yard is of great extent, and contains three large
sheds for ship-building, one of which is now used
as a store for timber; another is occupied by the
ship "Virginia," which has been on the stocks
for more than twenty years; the third is empty.
The manufacture of rope is carried on on a very
extensive scale. A building 1,360 feet long,
contains a rope walk where a length of upwards
of 1,200 feet of rope may be made. There are
also the means of making 24-inch cables.
Machinery is used for making sheaves for
ship blocks. An ingenious machine is em-
ployed for boring the sheaf, and recessing it
on both sides for receiving the bush. Two
lathe headstocks are mounted on a frame, and
carry the small revolving cutters for making the
recesses. An universal concentric chuck, with
three "jaws," having a large hole in its centre, is
mounted between the headstocks. This carries
the work, and has a vertical adjustment.
74. Springfield Armoury. - Springfield Ar-
moury is beautifully situated on an eminence
overlooking the town. The various buildings
together form a quadrangle; the grounds, which
are tastefully laid out, occupy an extent of about
40 acres.
I was conducted over the establishment by
M
162
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
the Commanding Officer, Colonel Ripley, and the
master machinist, Mr. Buckland, who is the
inventor of the principal machines employed in
the manufacture of firearms.
The front building, which has a handsome
centre tower, is used as an arsenal for muskets.
It contains 100,000 muskets, stacked with beau-
tiful uniformity.
The barrels are made in mills, situated on
the banks of a small river at some distance. The
lighter parts of the musket, as the stock, the
lock, guards, &c., are manufactured in the work-
shops attached to the Armoury.
The machines employed in the manufacture
of the musket stocks are worthy of particular
notice. By the kind courtesy of Colonel Ripley,
facilities were afforded me for observing the
time occupied in each operation.
The stocks are purchased rough from the
saw for twenty-eight cents (or 1s. 2d.) each.
1. They are roughly turned in Blanchard's machine,
which has been in operation nearly thirty years
2. While one stock is being turned, the attendant is
able to face and slab another by a circular saw..
3. The stock is next taken to what. is called a
spotting" machine, where the sides are cut flat
in different parts, to serve as bearings, or points
to work from in future processes; this is done by
two pairs of horizontal cutters, one pair at each
end, and three single cutters in the centre ..
Time
occupied.
Min. Sec.
4 11
3 30
0 7
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
163
4. Next to a (6
barrel-bedding" machine, where a
groove is cut for the barrel; this is done by four
bits set with their guides in a row, in a sliding
frame combined with a horizontal cutter, with a
vibratory motion given by hand for shaping the
groove conically, and a vertical bit for recessing
The next operation, that of finishing the groove by
chisel, performed by hand in 1 min. 42 sec.
5. The stock is then sawn to the required length
6. A "bed" is next recessed for the side plate, the
sides of the stock are flattened by two vertical
cutters, and the bed is recessed by a horizontal
bit
..
7. The edges of the stock are then faced by a hori-
zontal cutter
8. The stock is next taken to a butt-plate machine,
where a bed is recessed and screw holes made for
the butt plate by a horizontal bit and screw, and
also a vertical bit and screw
9. Next to a "band-fitting" machine, where three
horizontal cutters cut three straight bands, and a
fourth bevils the upper or bayonet band
10. Next to a 66
band-finishing" machine, where
four horizontal cutters round off the parts inter-
vening between the bands
11. The stock is then turned a second time, in order
to smooth its surface, 1st from the butt to the
breech tang
12. 2nd, from the breech tang to the end of the
stock
13. It is next taken to the "lock bedding" machine,
where the bed for the lock is recessed and shaped
by five vertical bits set with their guides in a
circular frame, at equal distances from each
other. The driving-strap is made to run on a
loose pulley fixed above the circular frame, and
as each bit is brought into operation, the band
drops from the loose pulley on the driving pulley
of the bit which is brought underneath it, and is
raised, when the operation is finished, to its
former position, ready to descend on the pulley
of the next bit. The cuttings are blown away
by two fan-pipes
Time
Joccupied.
Min. Sec.
1 7/1/
0 11/
1 11
0 14
0 21
0 223
0 28/1/
8 35
5 28
0 463/
M 2
164
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION,
14. Next to the " guard-bedding" machine. It was
similar in its construction to the former, but it
carried four bits instead of five, and recessed and
shaped the bed for the guard
Time
occupied.
Min. Sec.
0 51
0 15
•
0 83
15. The holes for the side screws were then bored
then for the tang screw
16. The stock was lastly taken to the “band, spring,
and ramrod-fitting" machine. A vertical revolv-
ing cutter grooved recesses for the band-springs,
a horizontal cutter recessed the groove for the
barrel
A hand operation then finished off the whole.
Time, 35 seconds
Total time of machine operations
Ditto
hand
ditto
0 551
35 sec.
28 451
2 17
31 24
858
Allowance for double simultaneous operations during
turning
Man's time given to the whole operations of making
a complete musket-stock
22 4
The complete musket is put together in
three minutes. All parts are so exactly alike
that any single part will, in its place, fit any
musket.
The general principle adopted in the con-
struction of these machines is that of guiding
the cutter in its course, by a shaper or "former,"
that is, a pattern made exactly of the form
in which it is required that the work should be
shaped.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
165
The number of muskets made in the year
1852 amounted to 19,800.
75. Coast Survey Office, Washington.—Work-
shops are attached to the Coast Survey Office,
where copies of the standard weights and mea-
sures of the United States are made. The office
supplies the capital of every State in the union,
in addition to the standard weights and measures,
with three very accurate balances.
No. 1 is constructed to weigh from 50 lbs.
down to 10 lbs.
No. 2 to weigh from 10 lbs. to 1 lb.
No. 3 to weigh from 1 lb. to 10000 oz.
The latter balance
was tested,
In weighing
1
200
grain was
The estimated cost of the three is $4,600
about 9001.
and deflected by the 10000 oz.
1 lb. the effect of the addition of
instantly visible.
When the balance is not in use, the beam is
made to descend by means of a screw, so that
two external cones, placed on its under side, rest
in two internal cones fixed on the supporting
frame. Two steel discs attached to the chains
of the scales are, by the same screw, made to
descend, and rest upon the frame. Thus the
whole balance is supported, and there is no con-
tinued strain on the knife edges.
A lever worked by hand acts upon the two
166
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
short vertical rods placed under the scales, and
adjusts them evenly, before commencing the
operation of weighing.
The balance stands on four feet, each adjust-
able by screws.
The full set of standard weights and mea-
sures supplied by the office consists of —
1. A set of standard weights from 1 lb. to
50 lbs. avoirdupois; and 1 lb. troy.
2. From 1 oz. down to 10000 oz. troy.
3. A yard measure.
4. Liquid measures. The gallon and its
parts down to half-pint inclusive.
5. A half-bushel measure.
Twenty-one States have been supplied, and
other sets are being prepared for the remaining
States. There are thirteen workmen employed.
The United States standard yard has been
obtained from a 7-feet standard procured from
England.
It is made of gun-metal, about 2 inches
broad and 3 inch thick, and has a thin strip of
silver,inch broad, let into it through its entire
length. It is divided into small divisions, each
being an aliquot part of an inch. The standard
was obtained by taking the mean of a great
number of measurements made from different
points in the 7 feet scale.
A set of standards has been presented to
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
167
France, and a set of French standards was pre-
sented to the United States in return.
It is a matter of surprise that while the
people of the United States have long felt and
appreciated the benefits of their decimal monetary
system, the old English system of weights and
measures has not yet been abolished by the
Legislature. Its inconveniences are much com-
plained of, and custom has tried to remedy its
evident defects to a great extent by adopting
the plan of reckoning by 100 lbs. (instead of the
cwt. or 112 lbs.) and by 1000 lbs.
Monetary accounts are kept, and calculations
are made with the greatest facility in dollars
and cents, the dollar (4s. 2d.) being divided into
100 cents (a cent d.). Convenient coins called
"dimes" are in circulation, 10 cents being equal
to one dime, and 10 dimes making a dollar.
Quarter dollar and half dollar pieces are also
commonly used; there appears to be no reason
why a decimal system would not afford equal
advantages, if applied, as it doubtless will
be eventually, to the scales of weights and
measures.
The Coast Survey Office has custody of two
instruments used in measuring by means of end
measurements. A base line 7 miles long, was
measured on an island near Charleston in about
168
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
six weeks. The measuring instruments were
supported on two adjustable stands.
They were made on the compensating prin-
ciple, and inclosed in a double case of tin,
to prevent, as much as possible, their being
affected by changes of temperature. The ends
of the instruments were of agate, one flat, the
other having a knife edge. The latter was made
to slide, and was connected by a bell-crank lever
to a spirit level, which indicated when the end
measures were in contact, according to the
method employed by Bessel, in making standard
measures in Prussia.
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 169
CONCLUSIONS.
THE parts of the United States which I
visited form, geographically, a small portion of
their extended territory, but they are the prin-
cipal seats of manufactures, and afford ample
opportunities for arriving at general conclusions.
I could not fail to be impressed, from all
that I saw there, with the extraordinary energy
of the people, and their peculiar aptitude in
availing themselves to the utmost of the immense
natural resources of the country.
The details which I have collected in this
report show, by numerous examples, that they
leave no means untried to effect what they think
it is possible to accomplish, and they have been
signally successful in combining large practical
results with great economy in the methods by
which these results are secured.
The labouring classes are comparatively few
in number, but this is counterbalanced by, and
indeed may be regarded as one of the chief
causes of, the eagerness with which they call in
the aid of machinery in almost every department
of industry. Wherever it can be introduced as
170 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
a substitute for manual labour, it is universally
and willingly resorted to; of this the facts stated
in my report contain many conclusive proofs,
but I may here specially refer, as examples, to
plough making, where eight men are able to
finish thirty per day; to door making, where
twenty men make 100 panelled doors per day;
to last making, the process of which is com-
pleted in 1 minutes; to sewing by machinery,
where one woman does the work of twenty; to
net making, where one woman does the work of
100. It is this condition of the labour market,
and this eager resort to machinery wherever it
can be applied, to which, under the guidance of
superior education and intelligence, the remark-
able prosperity of the United States is mainly
due. That prosperity is frequently attributed to
the possession of a soil of great natural fertility,
and it is doubtless true that in certain districts
the alluvial deposits are rich, and the land
fruitful to an extraordinary degree; but while
traversing many hundred miles of country in the
Northern States, I was impressed with the con-
viction that the general character of the soil
there was the reverse of fertile.
It is not for a moment denied that the natural
resources of the United States are immense,
that the products of the soil seem capable of
being multiplied and varied to almost any extent,
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. 171
and that the supplies of minerals appear to be
nearly unlimited.
The material welfare of the country, however,
is largely dependent upon the means adopted for
turning its resources to the best account, at the
same time that the calls made upon human labour
are reduced as far as practicable.
The attention paid to the working of wood,
some details connected with which I have
included in the report, is a striking illustration
of this. The early settlers found in the forests
which they had to clear, an unlimited supply of
material, which necessity compelled them to
employ in every possible way, in the construction-
of their houses, their furniture, and domestic
utensils, in their implements of labour, and in
their log-paved roads.
Wood thus became with them a universal
material, and work-people being scarce, ma-
chinery was introduced as far as possible to
supply the want of hands. The character thus
given to one branch of manufactures has gradu-
ally extended to others. Applied to stone-
dressing, for example, one man is enabled, as I
have shown, to perform as much work as twenty
masons by hand. So great again are the im-
provements effected in spinning machinery, that
one man can attend to a mule containing 1,088
spindles, each spinning three hanks, or 3,264
172
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
hanks in the aggregate per day. In Hindoostan,
where they still spin by hand, it would be
extravagant to expect a spinner to accomplish
one hank per day; so that we find the same
amount of man's labour, by the aid of im-
proved machinery, doing more than 3,000
times the work. But a still more striking com-
parison between hand and machine labour may
be made in the case of lace making in England.
Lace of an ordinary figured pattern used to be
made "on the cushion" by hand, at the rate of
about three meshes per minute. At Nottingham,
a machine attended by one person will now
produce lace of a similar kind at the rate of
about 24,000 meshes per minute; so that one
person can, by the employment of a machine,
produce 8,000 times as much work as one lace
maker by hand.
The results which have been obtained in the
United States, by the application of machinery
wherever it has been practicable to manufactures,
are rendered still more remarkable by the fact,
that combinations to resist its introduction there
are unheard of. The workmen hail with satis-
faction all mechanical improvements, the impor-
tance and value of which, as releasing them from
the drudgery of unskilled labour, they are
enabled by education to understand and appre-
ciate. With the comparatively superabundant
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
173
supply of hands in this country, and therefore a
proportional difficulty in obtaining remunera-
tive employment, the working classes have less
sympathy with the progress of invention. Their
condition is a less favourable one than that of
their American brethren for forming a just and
unprejudiced estimate of the influence which the
introduction of machinery is calculated to exer-
cise on their state and prospects. I cannot
resist the conclusion, however, that the different
views taken by our operatives and those of the
United States upon this subject are determined
by other and powerful causes, besides those de-
pendent on the supply of labour in the two-
countries. The principles which ought to regu-
late the relations between the employer and the
employed seem to be thoroughly understood and
appreciated in the United States, and while the
law of limited liability affords the most ample
facilities for the investment of capital in business,
the intelligent and educated artizan is left
equally free to earn all that he can, by making
the best use of his hands, without let or hindrance
by his fellows.
It may be that the working classes exhibit
an unusual independence of manner, but the
same feeling insures the due performance of
what they consider to be their duty with less
174 NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
supervision than is required where dependence is
to be placed upon uneducated hands.
It rarely happens that a workman who pos-
sesses peculiar skill in his craft is disqualified to
take the responsible position of superintendent,
by the want of education and general knowledge,
as is frequently the case in this country. In
every State in the Union, and particularly in the
north, education is, by means of the common
schools, placed within the reach of each indivi-
dual, and all classes avail themselves of the
opportunities afforded. The desire of knowledge
so early implanted is greatly increased, while the
facilities for diffusing it are amply provided
through the instrumentality of an almost uni-
versal press. No taxation of any kind has been
suffered to interfere with the free development
of this powerful agent for promoting the intelli-
gence of the people, and the consequence is,
that where the humblest labourer can indulge in
the luxury of his daily paper, everybody reads,
and thought and intelligence penetrate through
the lowest grades of society. The benefits which
thus result from a liberal system of education
and a cheap press to the working classes of the
United States can hardly be over-estimated in a
national point of view; but it is to the co-
operation of both that they must undoubtedly
NEW YORK INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION.
175
be ascribed. For if, selecting a proof from
among the European States, the condition of
Prussia be considered, it will be found that the
people of that country, as a body, have not made
that progress which, from the great attention
paid to the education of all classes, might have
been anticipated; and this must certainly be
ascribed to the restrictions laid upon the press,
which have so materially impeded the general
advancement of the people. Wherever educa-
tion and an unrestricted press are allowed full
scope to exercise their united influence, progress
and improvement are the certain results, and
among the many benefits which arise from their
joint co-operation may be ranked most prominently
the value which they teach men to place upon
intelligent contrivance; the readiness with which
they cause new improvements to be received
and the impulse which they thus unavoidably
give to that inventive spirit which is gradually
emancipating man from the rude forms of labour,
and making what were regarded as the luxuries
of one age to be looked upon in the next as the
ordinary and necessary conditions of existence.
(Signed)
JOSEPH WHITWORTH.
176
INDEX TO APPENDIX.
NEW YORK
INDUSTRIAL
EXHIBITION.
Page
Page
Agricultural implements
Annealing railway wheels
126
Furniture making
125
•
101
Gin for cotton
151
•
Armoury at Springfield
161
Government works
159
•
• •
Ash timber.
127
Grinding-stones
130
•
•
Beam engines
96
Guns..
116
Brick making from dry clay 132
Holyoke manufacturing com-
Boot-tree making
124
panies
148
Button making
109
Hook-and-eye making
110
Caloric engines
98
Hosiery, machines not exhi-
Cams faced with bell-metal
104
bited
150
Carriage making
129
"Inclines" on railroads
153
"Cars" for railroads
154
Indiarubber, new manufac-
Castings, process of cooling
99
ture of
136
•
•
Castings, process of "pick-
Indiarubber shoes
136
ling"
100
Iron, experiments on tensile,
Cast-iron railway wheels
102
strength of
103
Cast-steel works
105
Cold-blast iron
100
Churns, thermometer
.. 128
Iron, price of in Pittsburg.. 100
Iron, price of in Baltimore.. 127
Knives
112
· •
Clipper of 4,000 tons
156
Clock-making
113
Labour-saving-machines for
working in wood ..
117
Coast Survey Office, Washing-
Last making
124
ton
165
Laths, sawing of
119
Conclusions ..
169
Lathes, slide
106
Cotton mills..
145
Lathes, self-acting, for wood-
Cotton gin
151
work
113
Cranes
106
Lawrence
144
Crossings of railroads
Cutlery,
153
··
Lawrence manufacturing
112
companies..
142
Elevators
Daguerreotype frames
Dies, restoring of
Dry dock, New York
Drilling machines
Engine tools
· •
Establishments, number
109
Limited liability of partners
108
105
Lock making
113
159
•
Lowell manufacturing com-
106
+
panies
142
141
• •
Machine shop
147
105
how formed
visited
94
Manufacturing companies,
Manufacturing settlements.. 107
108
Felt making
147
Marine engine works
95
•
Fire companies, fire engines.
157
Match and spill making 123
Fishing-net machines
138
Mowing machines
127
•
Flat-bottomed steamers
98
Muskets
162
•
•
Flour-mills
139
Nail making..
104
•
•
Foundries
106
•
·
Navy yards of the State
159
Furnaces for annealing
102
Oak timber
127
•
INDEX TO APPENDIX.
177
Padlocks
Pig iron
Pine timber
Pin making
Page
113
Page
•
127
•
•
127
<<
•
·
Sidings" for houses
110
• •
Shingles, sawing of..
Shirt-making by machinery..
Spike making
118
62
119
103
•
Pistols
Ploughs
Propellers
116
•
•
Spill making
123
•
120
Springfield armoury
161
98
•
Planing machines for iron
Planing machines for wood
106
121
•
Railroads
152
Street railroads
Railroad"
Railroad spikes
Revolvers-rifles
cars
155
Textile fabrics
•
103
•
Steamboats
Stone-planing machines
Stone-polishing machines
Timber, how floated by river
97
•
130
132
..
154
•
142
•
118
116
Timber yard..
118
•
Rivet making
104
Timber, price of, Baltimore
127
Sailcloth, cotton
139
• •
Waggons, light
129
Saw mills
119
Waterbury manufacturing
Sawing machines, portable.. 120
companies
107
Screw propellers
98
Water-power for mills
145
•
Sewing machines
62
Shaping machines
125
Woollen factories
Wood-working, machines for 117
147
•
N
INDEX TO MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
Address to the mechanical engineers, Glasgow
Agricultural machinery
Allowances in fit
Bolts, screw, utility of
accuracy of fit essential to
Cannon, rifled ..
: :
Page
39
47-52
62-63
25-26
35.
cannon
practice of, compared with smooth bore
Capital, large, invested in machinery, compared with
small, required for hand-tools.
Carriages, lightness essential to
tax on, mischievous
Casting iron guns
Decimalizing weights and measures..
Depth of threads of screws
::
. 81-84
82-83
49
41
51
83
46, 57-69
27-33
Deterioration of tem plates or patterns, how remedied 63–64
14
Disturbing causes, effect of, on truth of surface
Duties on carriages and industry should be repealed 51-53
Economy of system of scraping surfaces
18
of uniform system of screw threads
of lightness of carriages
23
41
180
INDEX TO MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
Page
Economy of proper gradations of size
44-45
of self-acting machinery
of using good oil
of good fit ..
Emery, use of, in grinding
End measure, advantage of..
Enfield rifle and bullet described
Error in surfaces, increased by grinding
eliminated by scraping
Experiments with surface plates, Note
standard gauges of size
47-48
60-63
62
6-7
43-58
74
:
::
:
5-7
11
3
60
Files, when worn out, used for scraping instruments
Fit, definition of a good fit
13
62
Flat-fronted projectiles
80
Fouling of gun-barrels, how prevented
75
Friction, effects of, in rifled barrels ..
::
78
Glasgow, address delivered at
Gradations of size, advantage of proper
"Gravity piece" of measuring machines
Grinding, disadvantage of
•
39
44-45
45
4-8
75
Gunpowder, necessity of using suitable, for rifles.
Hard-metal projectiles
Hexagonal projectiles ..
rifle described
system of rifling, suited for various pur-
poses
75-81
75-81
74
81
Inch, standard ..
46-47
Inventions now well received
47
Iron rifled cannon, necessity of strength for
83
Iron, manufacture of, improved
good quality of, essential
40
::
40
INDEX TO MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
181
Page
Land, increased value of
52
Labour saving machines now well received
47
•
economy of
47-49
Length, effect of, on rifled barrels
78-84
Lightness, requisite for carriages, and moving parts
of machinery
41
Long rifled projectiles, may be used with quick
turn
•
use of, increases strain
Lubrication, importance of proper, for fitting parts
for rifled barrels
77–79, 84
82-84
60-63
75
Machine labour, economy of ..
applied to agriculture
Measurement, power of
sight..
48
52
41
43, 58-59
42-43
59
by touch superior to measurement by
Measuring machine, description of
practical advantage of
Mechanical fit, advantage of using, for rifled projectiles 75-82
Mutual dependence of pitch, depth, and form of screw
threads
fit of screw-bolt and nut for fastening
27-28
35
Notation, importance of decimal, for expressing small
sizes..
58-61, 69
Ochre and oil, use of, in preparing surfaces..
Oil, importance of using good.
Old system of measurement, disadvantage of
Original true surfaces, method of preparing..
Pitches of screws
table of, now adopted
Pitch or turns of rifled arms
•
::
:
11-13
60-63
59
11-17
.. 27-35
31
76, 79-81
182
INDEX TO MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
Page
Plane, metallic surfaces
Definition of
Planing machine, saving effected by
•
·
iii
58
48-49
Powder, see Gunpowder.
Power of screw, regulated by pitch
Preface ..
Production, dependent on power of consumption
Projectiles. See Hexagonal, Enfield
Proving guns by system of measurement.
Reasons for taking an interest in rifled arms
Reproducing machines, importance of truth in
Relay system, advantageous for machine labour
Rifled fire-arms
Rifling, systems of, compared
proper turns for
Rotation, importance of quick, for rifles
Scraping instrument
process of using
economy of ..
Screw threads, system of
three essential characters of
::
:::
.. 27-32
iv
50
.. 64-65
vii
10
^
49
73-84
74-77
76-79, 82
76-79
12
11-18
18
23
27
78
44-45
for
75
Standard gauges
36
external and internal
60-61
decimal measures
57
Standards of length
46-47
of sizes, importance of, correct
64
Steel projectiles
80
Straight edge, Note
3
78-82
Shortening rifle barrels, effect of
Size, proper gradations of
Soft metal projectiles, necessity of proper expansion
Strain on rifled guns
•
"Stripping" of rifled projectiles
Supports for surface plates
::
:
::
76
5, 14-16
INDEX TO MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS.
183
Page
Surface plates, adherence of, Note
mode of using
3
::
11
mode of preparing original
14-18
Table of sizes, screw threads
31
new decimal standards of size, and new wire
gauge
68-69
Taps and dies, new decimal table for sizes
68-69
Tax on carriages and other industrial projects, mis-
chief of
51-53
Threads of screws varying with diameter
27
different forms of
28-29
table of
Trajectory, low, obtained by increasing length and
31
reducing diameter of projectiles
Tripod, form of support
True planes
79
5, 15, 18, 42
iii-18, 41
Truth of surface essential for engine tools, and all
sliding surfaces
10
Tubular projectiles
81
Two great elements in mechanics, a true plane and
the power of measurement
41-43
Uniform system of screw threads
economy of
introduction of, difficult
:
::
23
24
25
Vis inertiæ of projectiles, causes
"strain'
78
Wages in America, accompanied with long hours
improved, earned by machine labour
50
50
Windage, how provided for in hexagonal rifled cannon 81-82
Wire gauge, disadvantage of old
47
66-69
·
new, introduced
Yard, standard, supplied by Government
46
LONDON:
PRINTED BY HARRISON AND SONS,
ST. MARTIN'S LANE, W.C.
LIST of WORKS in GENERAL LITERATURE
FUBLISHED BY
Messrs. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, LONGMANS, and ROBERTS,
Agriculture and Rural
Affairs.
Bayldon on Valuing Rents, &c.
39 PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON.
CLASSIFIED INDEX..
Maunder's Scientific Treasury
"C
"L
Treasury of History
Natural History
Piesse's Art of Perfumery
17
-
11
14
Normanby's Year of Revolution
Perry's Franks
-
17
14
Raikes's Journal
--
18
17
Ranke's Ferdinand & Maximilian
22
Cecil's Stud Farm
6
Pocket and the Stud
8
Riddle's Latin Lexicon
-
19
Hoskyns's Talpa
10
Pycroft's English Reading
18
Low's Elements of Agriculture
"
Loudon's Agriculture
Morton on Landed Property
Arts, Manufactures, and
Architecture.
Bourne on the Screw Propeller
Brande's Dictionary of Science,&c.
Organic Chemistry-
Chevreul on Colour
Cresy's Civil Engineering
-
Fairbairn's Informa. for Engineers
Gwilt's Encyclo. of Architecture -
Harford's Plates from M. Angelo
Humphreys's Parables Illuminated
Jameson's Sacred & Legendary Art
Commonplace-Book
"
König's Pictorial Life of Luther
Loudon's Rural Architecture
12
Reece's Medical Guide -
18
Rogers's Essays from Edinb. Review19
Roget's English Thesaurus
-
19
-
13
Rich's Comp. to Latin Dictionary
18
Schmitz's History of Greece .
19
16
Richardson's Art of Horsemanship 18
Southey's Doctor -
21
Riddle's Latin Dictionaries
18
Roget's English Thesaurus
19
Rowton's Debater -
19
Sydney Smith's Works -
Short Whist
20
-
Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 21
Lectures on French History 21
Select Works
20
22
Thomson's Interest Tables
23
Lectures
21
4
Webster's Domestic Economy
24
Memoirs
20
West on Children's Diseases
21
Taylor's Loyola
21
Willich's Popular Tables
24
Wesley
-
21
Wilmot's Blackstone
24
Thirlwall's History of Greece
23
Thomas's Historical Notes
5
7
8
Botany and Gardening.
Townsend's State Trials
23
Turkey and Christendom
22
8
10
11
Hassall's British Freshwater Alge
Hooker's British Flora
9
Turner's Anglo-Saxons
23
9
<< Middle Ages
23
11
Guide to Kew Gardens
9
(C Sacred Hist. of the World 23
8
(C
(6
""
Kew Museum
9
Uwins's Memoirs
23
13
MacDougall's Campaigns of Han-
""
nibal
13
Lindley's Introduction to Botany
Theory of Horticulture
Lou lon's Hortus Britannicus
12
Vehse's Austrian Court –
23
12
Wade's England's Greatness
2 L
-
13
Young's Christ of History
24
(C
Theory of War
13
Amateur Gardener
18
Moseley's Engineering
-
16
rr
Trees and Shrubs
-
-
12
Piesse's Art of Perfumery
17
<<
Gardening
12
Geography and Atlases.
Brewer's Historical Atlas
Richardson's Art of Horsemanship 18
Scoffern on Projectiles, &c. -
Scrivenor on the Iron Trade
८८
Plants
13
19
Pereira's Materia Medica
17
Butler's Geography and Atlases
Cabinet Gazetteer -
CHLO LO
-
19
Rivers's Rose-Amateur's Guide
19
Stark's Printing
-
22
Wilson's British Mosses
24
Cornwall: Its Mines, &c.
22
Durrieu's Morocco
Crosse's (Andrew) Memorials
Steam-Engine, by the Artisan Club
Ure's Dictionary of Arts, &c.
Biography.
Arago's Autobiography
Lives of Scientific Men
Bodenstedt and Wagner's Schamyl
Brialmont's Wellington
Bunsen's Hippolytus
Capgrave's Henries
Cockayne's Marshal Turenne
4
Hughes's Australian Colonies
22
23
Chronology.
Johnston's General Gazetteer
11
Blair's Chronological Tables
4
Brewer's Historical Atlas
M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary 14
Russia and Turkey
22
Bunsen's Ancient Egypt
Maunder's Treasury of Geography 15
22
Calendars of English State Papers
Mayne's Arctic Discoveries -
-
22
-
Haydn's Beatson's Index
9
Murray's Encyclo. of Geography
-
Jaquemet's Chronology
11
Sharp's British Gazetteer
16
20
Abridged Chronology
11
DO
Nicolas's Chronology of History -
12
Juvenile Books.
Amy Herbert -
Commerce and Mercantile
Forster's De Foe and Churchill
22
Affairs.
Green's Princesses of England
8
Harford's Life of Michael Angelo -
Gilbart's Treatise on Banking
8
Gertrude
Hayward's Chesterfield and Selwyn 22
Holcroft's Memoirs
22
Lorimer's Young Master Mariner 12
Macleod's Banking
-
14
Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia
12
M'Culloch's Commerce & Navigation 14
Ivors
Maunder's Biographical Treasury-
14
Murray on French Finance
16
Cleve Hall
Earl's Daughter (The)
Experience of Life
Howitt's Boy's Country Book
(<
(Mary) Children's Year
Katharine Ashton
Memoir of the Duke of Wellington
Mountain's (Col.) Memoirs
22
Scrivenor on Iron Trade
19
Laneton Parsonage
-
16
Thomson's Interest. Tables
23
Margaret Percival
Parry's (Admiral) Memoirs
17
Tooke's History of Prices
23
Ursula
Rogers's Life and Genius of Fuller 22
Russell's Memoirs of Moore -
15
(c
(Dr.) Mezzofanti -
Criticism,
History,
and
19
Schimmel Penninck's (Mrs.) Life -
Memoirs.
19
Southey's Life of Wesley
21
Blair's Chiron. and Histor. Tables
4
Life and Correspondence 21
Brewer's Historical Atlas
Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 21
Bunsen's Ancient Egypt
Strickland's Queens of England
-
21
(6
Sydney Smith's Memoirs
Hippolytus
20
Symond's (Admiral) Memoirs
Calendars of English State Papers
21
Holland's Mental Physiology
Chapman's Gustavus Adolphus
Taylor's Loyola
-
21
Chronicles & Memorials of England
6
"C Wesley
-
Pycroft's Collegian's Guide
Medicine, Surgery, &c.
Brodie's Psychological Inquiries
Bull's Hints to Mothers
-
Management of Children
Copland's Dictionary of Medicine -
Cust's Invalid's Own Book
-
" Medical Notes and Reflect. 9
How to Nurse Sick Children -
20
20
20
20
-
10
10
20
20
20
20
18
20
2222222222&R
20
9
21
Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul
10
6
Uwins's Memoirs
-
Waterton's Autobiography & Essays 24
Books of General Utility.
Acton's Bread-Book
"( Cookery
Black's Treatise on Brewing
Cabinet Gazetteer ·
-
23
Kesteven's Domestic Medicine
11
Connolly's Sappers and Miners
6.
Pereira's Materia Medica
17
Crowe's History of France
Reece's Medical Guide -
18
Gleig's Essays
Richardson's Cold-Water Cure
18
Leipsic Campaiga
22
Gurney's Historical Sketches
8
Spencer's Psychology
21
West on Diseases of Infancy-
21
Hayward's. Essays -
9
Herschel's Essays and Addresses
9
Jeffrey's (Lord) Contributions
11
Miscellaneous and General
Kemble's Anglo-Saxons
11
Literature.
CC Lawyer
Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia
12
Cust's Invalid's Own Book
Macaulay's Crit. and Hist. Essays
13
Bacon's (Lord) Works
=
((
Gilbart's Logic for the Million
8
History of England
13
Carlisle's Lectures and Addresses
22
"C
Hints on Etiquette
9
Speeches
13
Defence of Eclipse of Faith
7
How to Nurse Sick Children
10
((
Hudson's Executor's Guide
10
CC on Making Wills
10
Kesteven's Domestic Medicine
11
Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works
M'Culloch'sGeographical Dictionary 15
Maunder's Treasury of History
14
Eclipse of Faith
-
History of England
-
14
Fischer's Bacon and Realistic Phi-
losophy
-
7
14
Greathed's Letters from Delhi
8
Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia
12
Loudon's Lady's Country Compa-
nion
Memoir of the Duke of Wellington 22
Merivale's History of Rome
Greyson's Select Correspondence
15
-
Gurney's Evening Recreations
8
13
Roman Republic -
15
Hassall's Adulterations Detected, &c.
9
Maunder's Treasury of Knowledge
14
Milner's Church History
-
15
Haydn's Book of Dignities
9
(6
Biographical Treasury
Geographical Treasury
14
15
Moore's (Thomas) Memoirs, &c.
Mure's Greek Literature
15
Holland's Mental Physiology
16
Hooker's Kew Guides
-
2
CLASSIFIED INDEX.
Jameson's Commonplace-Book
Howitt's Rural Life of England
"
-
10
Visits to Remarkable Places 10
Last of the Old Squires
11
17
Letters of a Betrothed
11
"C
-
Martineau's Studies of Christianity 14
Merivale's Christian Records
Milner's Church of Christ
Moore on the Use of the Body
Soul and Body
15
15
15
15
Macaulay's Speeches
·
13
""
's Man and his Motives
15
66
Mackintosh's Miscellaneous Works 14
Mormonism
22
Memoirs of a Maître-d'Armes
22
Morning Clouds
16
Martineau's Miscellanies
14
Neale's Closing Scene
17
Printing: Its Origin, &c.
22
Pattison's Earth and Word
17
Pycroft's English Reading
18
Powell's Christianity without Ju-
Raikes on Indian Revolt
18
daism
-
18
Rees's Siege of Lucknow
18
Ranke's Ferdinand & Maximilian
22
Rural Sports.
Baker's Rifle and Hound in Ceylon
Blaine's Dictionary of Sports
Cecil's Stable Practice
Stud Farm
Davy's Fishing Excursions, 2 Series
Ephemera on Angling -
's Book of the Salmon
Hawker's Young Sportsman
The Hunting-Field
Idle's Hints on Shooting
Pocket and the Stud
346677708
11
8
Rich's Comp. to Latin Dictionary 18
Riddle's Latin Dictionaries
-
18
Readings for Lent
20
Practical Horsemanship
8
Confirmation
20
Pycroft's Cricket-Field
18
Rowton's Debater
19
Riddle's Household Prayers -
18
Rarey's Horse-Taming
18
Seaward's Narrative of his Shipwreck19
Robinson's Lexicon to the Greek
Richardson's Horsemanship
18
Sir Roger De Coverley -
20
Testament -
19
Ronalds' Fly-Fisher's Entomology
19
Southey's Doctor, &c.
21
Saints our Example
19
Stable Talk and Table Talk
8
Souvestre's Attic Philosopher
22
Sermon in the Mount
19
Stonehenge on the Dog -
21
"Confessions of a Working Man 22
20
Spencer's Essays
21
-
Stow's Training System
21
Thomson's Laws of Thought
23
(6
Tighe and Davis's Windsor
23
Townsend's State Trials
Willich's Popular Tables
Yonge's English-Greek Lexicon
Latin Gradus
Zumpt's Latin Grammar
Natural History in general.
Catlow's Popular Conchology
Ephemera's Book of the Salmon
Garratt's Marvels of Instinct
Gosse's Natural History of Jamaica 8
Kemp's Natural History of Creation 22
Kirby and Spence's Entomology
Lee's Elements of Natural History 11
Maunder's Natural History -
Quatrefages' Naturalist's Rambles
Stonehenge on the Dog
23
20
24
24
Taylor's Loyola
21
•
24
Wesley
21
Sinclair's Journey of Life
Smith's (Sydney) Moral Philosophy 21
(G.V.)Assyrian Prophecies 20
(G.) Wesleyan Methodism 20
(J.) St. Paul's Shipwreck - 20
Southey's Life of Wesley
Stephen's Ecclesiastical Biography 21
(( on the Greyhound
Thacker's Courser's Guide
The Stud, for Practical Purposes
Veterinary Medicine, &c.
Cecil's Stable Practice
21
-
21
8
"
24
Theologia Germanica
5
Stud Farm
Thumb Bible (The)
21
Hunting-Field (The)
Turner's Sacred History -
Ursula
23
Miles's Horse-Shoeing
on the Horse's Foot
20
6788
Young's Christ of History
Pocket and the Stud
24
"
Mystery
24
Practical Horsemanship
Rarey's Horse-Taming -
Richardson's Horsemanship
Poetry and the Drama.
11
Aikin's (Dr.) British Poets
Arnold's Merope
Poems
P
Baillie's (Joanna) Poetical Works
Goldsmith's Poems, illustrated
L. E. L.'s Poetical Works
Linwood's Anthologia Oxoniensis - 12
Lyra Germanica
Stable Talk and Table Talk
Stonehenge on the Dog -
Stud (The)
Youatt's The Dog
-
-
(6 The Horse
8
15
15
8
8
18
18
-
8
21
8
22
21
24
660110000
Auldjo's Ascent of Mont Blanc
Baines's Vaudois of Piedmont
Baker's Wanderings in Ceylon
Barrow's Continental Tour
Barth's African Travels
Burton's East Africa
Medina and Mecca
Davies's Algiers
14
18
3
21
-
8
Turton's Shells ofthe British Islands
Van der Hoeven's Zoology -
23
11
23
Voyages and Travels.
Von Tschudi's Sketches in the Alps
Waterton's Essays on Natural Hist. 24
22
-
-
5
Youatt's The Dog -
24
"" The Horse
24
"C
Macaulay's Lays of Ancient Rome
Mac Donald's Within and Without
Poems
13
13
13
1-Volume Encyclopædias
Montgomery's Poetical Works
Moore's Poetical Works
15
15
and Dictionaries.
Selections (illustrated)
-
15
" Lalla Rookh
16
Blaine's Rural Sports
4
Irish Melodies
16
Brande's Science, Literature, and Art 4
Copland's Dictionary of Medicine 6
National Melodies
16
De Custine's Russia
-
Cresy's Civil Engineering
6
Sacred Songs (with Music)
16
Gwilt's Architecture
8
Songs and Ballads
15
Reade's Poetical Works
18
Johnston's Geographical Dictionary 11
Loudon's Agriculture
12
Shakspeare, by Bowdler
19
""
Rural Architecture
13
Southey's Poetical Works
"
21
66
Gardening
Thomson's Seasons, illustrated
23
13
""
Plants
-
13
""
13
Political Economy and
Statistics.
22
16
Sharp's British Gazetteer
20
Ure's Dictionary of Arts, &c. -
23
Webster's Domestic Economy
24
·
14
"
Trees and Shrubs
M'Culloch's Geographical Dictionary 14
Dictionary of Commerce 14
Murray's Encyclo. of Geography
Amy Herbert
Religious & Moral Works.
Bloomfield's Greek Testament
Calvert's Wife's Manual
Conybeare and Howson's St. Paul
Cleve Hall
-
-
Experience (The) of Life
Gertrude
Harrison's Light of the Forge
Horne's Introduction to Scriptures
Abridgment of ditto
Huc's Christianity in China -
Humphreys's Parables Illuminated
Ivors; or, the Two Cousins
-22°
Laing's Notes of a Traveller-
Macleod's Political Economy
M'Culloch's Geog. Statist. &c. Dict. 14
Dictionary of Commerce 14
London
"6
Willich's Popular Tables
22
24
The Sciences in general
and Mathematics.
Arago's Meteorological Essays
Popular Astronomy
-
's Catechism of Steam-Engine 4
Boyd's Naval Cadet's Manual
Brande's Dictionary of Science, &c.
"Lectures on Organic Chemistry
Domenech's Texas
Eothen
Ferguson's Swiss Travels
Forester's Rambles in Norway
Sardinia and Corsica
Gironière's Philippines
Gregorovius's Corsica
Hinchliff's Travels in the Alps
Hope's Brittany and the Bible
Chase in Brittany
Howitt's Art-Student in Munich -
(W.) Victoria
Huc's Chinese Empire
2232
4-2-222-22-222002 02
10
Huc and Gabet's Tartary & Thibet 22
Hudson and Kennedy's Mont
Blanc
-
10
22
10
22
Hughes's Australian Colonies
Humboldt's Aspects of Nature
Hurlbut's Pictures from Cuba
Hutchinson's African Exploration 22
Jerrmann's St. Petersburg
"6
M'Clure's North-West Passage
10
22
22
22
22
17
MacDougall's Voyage of the Resolutė 13
Mason's Zulus of Natal
-
-
22
22
17
Pfeiffer's Voyage round the World 22
Scherzer's Central America
20
6
""
20
3
Western Africa
Jameson's Canada -
6
-
3
Cotton's Instructions in Christianity 6
Bourne on the Screw Propeller
4
Dale's Domestic Liturgy
7
Laing's Norway
Defence of Eclipse of Faith
Notes of a Traveller
7
Earl's Daughter (The)
20
Eclipse of Faith
7
Englishman's Greek Concordance
7
Cresy's Civil Engineering
"
Heb.&Chald.Concord.
7
20
Dela Beche'sGeology ofCornwall,&c. 7
De la Rive's Electricity
Miles's Rambles in Iceland
Osborn's Quedah
7
20
Grove's Correla. of Physical Forces
8
8
Herschel's Outlines of Astronomy
Seaward's Narrative
9
Holland's Mental Physiology
-
9
-
10
Humboldt's Aspects of Nature
10
Snow's Tierra del Fuego
10
CC
Cosmos
10
Von Tempsky's Mexico
10
Hunt on Light
10
Wanderings in Land of Ham
Weld's Vacations in Ireland -
19
19
21
24
24
24
20
Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopædia
12
"6
Jameson's Sacred Legends
11
Marcet's (Mrs.) Conversations
-
14
""
Monastic Legends
-
11
Morell's Elements of Psychology
G
16
United States and Canada - 24
Werne's African Wanderings
22
"
Legends of the Madonna
11
Lectures on Female Em-
ployment
11
Jeremy Taylor's Works -
11
Katharine Ashton
20
König's Pictorial Life of Luther
8
Laneton Parsonage
20
Ogilvie's Master- Builder's Plan
Our Coal-Fields and our Coal-Pits
Owen's Lectures on Comp. Anatomy
Pereira on Polarised Light -
Peschel's Elements of Physics
Phillips's Fossils of Cornwall, &c.
Moseley'sEngineering&Architecture 16
Wilberforce's Brazil & Slave-Trade 22
17
22
17
Works of Fiction.
17
-
17
Cruikshank's Falstaff
-
17
Heirs of Cheveleigh
6
9
Letters to my Unknown Friends
11
"
on Happiness
11
"
Lyra Germanica
5
Mineralogy
Portlock's Geology of Londonderry
-
-
17
Howitt's Tallangetta
10
Guide to Geology
17
Moore's Epicurean
15
Sir Roger De Coverley
20
Maguire's Rome
14
Powell's Unity of Worlds
18
Margaret Percival
20
Smee's Electro-Metallurgy
20
Sketches (The), Three Tales
Southey's The Doctor &c.
20
21
Martineau's Christian Life
14
Steam-Engine (The)
4
Trollope's Barchester Towers
23
"C
Hymns
-
14
Wilson's Electric Telegraph -
"
22
Warden
-
23
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NEW EDITION OF SCHIMMELPENNINCK'S MEMOIRS of port ROYAL.
Now ready, in 3 vols. post 8vo. price 21s. cloth,
SELECT MEMOIRS OF PORT ROYAL:
TO WHICH ARE ADDED
TOUR TO ALET; VISIT TO PORT ROYAL; GIFT OF AN ABBESS; BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICES, &c.
THE
TAKEN FROM AUTHENTIC DOCUMENTS.
By MARY ANNE SCHIMMELPENNINCK.
Fifth Edition, carefully revised.
celebrated monastery of Port
Royal, situated in the heart of Paris, was
founded at the beginning of the thirteenth
century by Matthieu De Merli on the eve of
his departure for the Holy Land; and though
originally limited in its means and objects, it
gradually acquired such importance as to have
secured for it a prominent place in the history
of Europe. In the seventeenth century its
reputation was at its height. Some of the
most distinguished men in France were either
members of this convent, or educated within
its walls. Some of the finest verses of Racine
were meditated whilst a boy at school in Port
Royal: and the controversial and theological
works of Arnauld, the Thoughts and Letters
of Pascal, the grammars which at one time
had a universal reputation, had a similar
origin. Its members distinctly taught the
doctrine of justification by faith, and not only
translated the Scriptures into French, but
were assiduously bent on their universal dis-
semination. Port Royal was abolished by
Louis XIV. as a nest of Jansenists and
heretics.
TO introduce to the British public the
venerable body of martyrs and confessors
whose names are associated with this cele-
brated convent was Mrs. SchimmelPenninck's
object in writing this work. It was well re-
ceived both by the press and the public, and
went through several editions. In fact, it may
be almost said to have been out of print for
some years, and a high price has been de-
manded for second-hand copies; for although
an abridgment s published two or three
years ago, it co. t supply the place of the
work itself, conta….
t does inuch valu-
able and interesting
which is not to be
found in the abridg., and of which it is
important that the English reader should
have the fullest benefit at a time when the
necessity for evangelising agencies is so uni-
versally and deeply felt. The work has been
thoroughly and carefully revised, and the pre-
sent may be considered a standard edition of
the most interesting publication of its pious
and accomplished author.
THE First Volume of Port Royal
contains a biographical sketch of the
Abbé de St. Cyran, and of Jansenius, bishop
of Ypres, the former of whom may be re-
garded as the originator of the great evan-*
gelical movement in the Roman Catholic
church, in various parts of France, during the
seventeenth century; and of which the cele-
brated monastery of Port Royal was the living
and influential centre. The conversion of the
youthful abbess, the Mère Angélique,
which was soon followed by the conversion of
the several members of her noble, wealthy, and
gifted family, of many of the nobility, of per-
sons in every rank of life, and especially of
numbers of literary men of the highest cele-
brity, such as Pascal, Lancelot, Arnauld,
Tillemont, Saci, Nicole Racine, &c. &c.,-the
reformation of the monastery of Port Royal,
and of that of Maubisson, one of the most
richly endowed in all France,—the recluses of
Les Granges,-the conversion of Madame de
Longueville,—the holy life, singular endow-
ments, exalted character, generosity, fortitude,
untiring energy and devotedness in the ser-
vice of God for the good of others, and the
edifying and triumphant death, of the Mère
Angélique,-and the history of the cruel and
protracted persecutions of the Port Royalists
by the Jesuits, and by the court party at their
instigation,-all these topics, which give a
vivid conception of the great religious move-
ment in operation throughout France, are dis-
tinctly placed before the reader.
THE Second Volume briefly records
the imprisonment of the nuns in their
own and in different convents, the im-
prisonment and banishment of the recluses,
and the Christ-like spirit they manifested
under their persecutions,-the pacification of
Clement IX.,-the flourishing state of Port
Royal after the pacification, the renewed per-
secutions after the death of Madame de Lon-
gueville, the deeply affecting, instructive,
and triumphant deaths of M. de Saci, the
Mère Angélique de St. Jean, and M. de
Luzanci, the final dispersion of the nuns,—
and the destruction of the monastery.
THE Third Volume contains short
biographical sketches of the servants
of Port Royal, and a very interesting one of
M. de St. Claude, a visit to the ruins of Port
Royal, the gift of an abbess, and the tour to
Alet, which is not the least interesting and
useful part of the work, as the Bishop of Alet
may truly be regarded as a pattern bishop,
and as the most valuable information is therein
given for the successful evangelisation and
effective management, either of a diocese or a
populous parish.
THE work, though complete in itself,
constitutes an important part of the late
Mrs. Schimmel Penninck's works which are
now in course of publication; the life of the
author by her relation, C. C. Hankin, a second
edition of which has just been published, being
the first of the series.
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